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African History O Level Notes

This document provides an overview of the O Level History syllabus in Zimbabwe, focusing on the history of Zimbabwe. It covers several key topics: 1. The conceptualization of history, sources of history including archaeology, written evidence, and oral tradition. 2. The development of Zimbabwean societies from the Mapungubwe State to the Rozvi State and Ndebele State. 3. Early European contacts through missionaries and the Portuguese from the 1500s. 4. The colonization of Zimbabwe including the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, colonization period, Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893-1894, and First Chimurenga uprising of 1896-18

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

585 views109 pages

African History O Level Notes

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Cynthia Chikodzero

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THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 nobertmukomberanwa@gmail.

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SYLLABUS CODE 4044

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THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

O LEVEL HISTORY

SYLLABUS BREAKDOWN

PAPER ONE: THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE

1. CONCEPTUALISATION OF HISTORY

 Sources of History
 Archaeology
 Written Evidence
 Oral Tradition

2. DEVELOPMENT OF ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES

 Mapungubwe State
 Great Zimbabwe State
 Mutapa State
 Rozvi State
 Ndebele State

 NGUNI MIGRATIONS:

 Mfecane and States Formation

 Crisis in Nguniland
 The Zulu under Tshaka
 The Ndebele under Mzilikazi

3. EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS WITH ZIMBABWE:

 The Missionaries and the Portuguese

 Missionaries in Zimbabwe 1850-1900

 Portuguese Activities in Zimbabwe from 1500

5. COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

 The scramble and partition of Southern Africa

 The Berlin Conference (1884-85)
 The Colonisation of Zimbabwe
 Anglo-Ndebele War (1893-1894)
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 First chimurenga/Umvukela (1896-1897)

INTRODUCTION

 Lord Acton (1896) defined history as follows, “it is a unique opportunity of recording the
way most useful to the greatest number, the fullness of the knowledge which the 19th century
is about to bequeath”.
Is it very important for us to teach history in this fashion?
What are the dangers associated with this approach towards history?
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 Education is purposeful and it prepares learners for the future. It is an intentional activity
created either to allow learners attain certain critical thinking skills, practical skills or attitudes
to gain a receptivity to participate in the World.

Introduction

Sources are remains of articles used or made and left behind by people who lived in the past.
Sources are anything that can give us information about a person or an event.
Historians study sources to find evidence about the past.
These sources include the following:
(i) Archaeology
(ii) Written Evidence
(iii) Oral Tradition
(iv) Pictorial
(v) Anthropology
(vi) Ethnography
(vii) Linguistics
(viii) Rock Art
 The Sources of History can be divided into two sections which are primary and secondary
sources;
Primary Sources Secondary Sources

 Newspapers  Bibliographies
 Magazine Articles  History textbooks
 Court records  Textbooks
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 Autobiographies  Biographics
 Manuscripts  Reviews (literature or movie)
 Correspondence  Works of criticism and interpretation
 Private letters  Articles (from magazines or
 Speeches newspapers after the event
 Interviews
 Books
 Websites
 Data from a research study
 Journal Articles
 Translation/Excerpt of an original
document
 Diaries
 Memoirs
 Art
 Music

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SOURCES OF HISTORICAL EVIDENCE

A. ARCHAEOLOGY

 The scientific study of artifacts.

 These artifacts include tools, weapons, pottery, axes, hoes, and utensils used by long
ago people.
 They may also be in form of waste products, pottery, and grains e.t.c.
 Reference in on Gokomere, Ziwa, Leopard Kopje, Zhizo, Kutama, Harare, Sinoia
e.t.c. and other Iron Age cultures.

Iron Age cultures in Zimbabwe

 Gokomere  Pelindaba
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 Ziwa  Hwange Game Reserve

 Mabveni  Mapungubwe
 Leopard Kopje  Malipati
 Zhizo  Nkope Bay
 Kutama  Bambadyanalo (K2)
 Harare
 Sinoia
Advantages (Strengths) of Archaeology

1. Arguably the most dependable of all the sources.

2. Goes furthest in recovering the remotest past.
3. Does not suffer from memory loss.
4. Provides specific dates, e.g. Origins of states such as Great Zimbabwe.
5. It is a scientific method, hence is not susceptible to bias.
6. Can recover the economic activities of a society through inference e.g. Great
Zimbabwe, Mutapa, and Rozvi e.t.c.
7. Works in conjunction with other sources.
8. Way of life can be determined by evidence of artifacts.
9. It gives precise details, dates of settlement, architecture and material culture through
Carbon 14.
10. Far from bias.
11. Depicts reality about lifestyle of inhabitants through artifacts e.g. Art, trade, funeral
practices – burial sites.

Disadvantages (Weaknesses) of Archaeology

1. Can yield distorted and inaccurate results if used by amateur archaeologists.

2. It is elitist – can only be used by those with specialist knowledge.
3. It is expensive to use.
4. Can be dangerous to undertake.
5. Artefacts may be adversely affected by weather conditions such as rain, floods and
humidity.
6. Cannot provide information like names of people.
7. Artefacts can be destroyed by termites.
8. Cannot provide language spoken by people.
9. Artefacts can be destroyed when excavating.

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B. WRITTEN EVIDENCE
 Documentary or reported evidence.
 This is stored in form of diaries, letters, books e.t.c. produced by Arabs (Muslims),
Portuguese, traders, missionaries and hunters.
 Other examples of written sources are memoirs, magazines, certificates and
newspaper articles.
List of Written Records

 Letters  National Identity card

 Diaries  Birth Record
 Treaties  School Reports
 Registers  Court Records
 Newspapers  Police Dockets
 Magazines  Minutes of meetings
 Textbooks  Posters
 Birth certificate  Fliers
 Medical prescriptions  Journals

Advantages (Strengths) of Written Evidence

1. Such documents are original and authentic since they are unedited.
2. Information produced can be tested and verified
3. Documentary information can survive dangers of alteration and distortion hence is
reliable and useful (can stay intact for a long time).
4. They are usually precise (accurate) as it provides dates (detailed information is
provided in chronological order).
5. They provide names of people and places.
6. Information can be passed from one generation to another.
7. It fills the gap left by archaeology and oral tradition (can be used with other sources).
8. They can be primary sources written by doers or eyewitness.
9. Give information on all aspects of history, Social, Political and economic.
10. Illustrations and pictures can be used for better understanding.
11. Can be referred to again.

Disadvantages (Weaknesses) of Written Evidence

1. The writer selects what he wants (only tell what the writer is willing to provide).
2. Suffers from bias and distortion (Writers can be biased).
3. They are fragile
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4. They are very expensive (books can be expensive).

5. They may be burnt (can be destroyed by fire).
6. They are affected by weather conditions (can be destroyed by weather elements, rain,
and high temperatures e.t.c.
7. Can be destroyed by termites.
8. Some sources can be deliberately destroyed to hide incriminating evidence.
9. Some were written in foreign languages, Arabic, Portuguese.
10. There is no one to ask further questions.

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C. ORAL TRADITION
 These are verbal testimonies of people.
 They are recollection of past events that supposedly occurred before the existence of
the informant.
 These are historical accounts that are transmitted from one generation to the next
generation through word of mouth.
 May refer to King Lists, succession, migration of people and wars.

Advantages (Strengths) of Oral Tradition

1. Information about the Origins, growth and downfall of the states can be gathered.
2. It is useful in that it is repetitive as historians can carry out interviews.
3. Questions can be asked and elaborations can be made for clarification.
4. It fills the gap created by both Written and Archaeological Evidence.
5. Songs and poems make oral traditions a reliable source of information.
6. They cannot be destroyed by fire or rain as in Oral Tradition information is kept in
the memory.
7. They are useful in the reconstruction of the history of pre-literate societies.

Disadvantages (weaknesses) of Oral Tradition

1. It can be greatly hampered by tendency to forget and exaggerate.
2. High risks of memory loss.
3. Poor selectivity and reliability.
4. The interviewer may be influenced by race, class, gender or ethnicity of the
Historian.
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5. It fails to give accurate dates.

6. Death of the informant results in the loss of information.

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(a) List any five types of written evidence [5]

(b) Outline any six disadvantages of using written evidence as a source of history [12]
(c) How important are the written evidence as a source of history [8]

(a) List any five sources of history [5]

(b) Outline any six weaknesses of Archaeology in the recovery of the history of Zimbabwe [12]
(c) How reliable is archaeology as a source of history [8]

(a) Identify any five advantages of archaeology [5]

(b) Describe any six disadvantages of Oral tradition as a source of historical evidence [12]
(c) How useful are the Oral tradition as a source of history? Explain your answer [8]

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A. : GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE (AD 1270–1550)

Background and Sources of Information

 One of the early Iron Age states of Africa.

 It was believed to be the largest in colonial Africa, outside Egypt.
 Between AD 1350–1400 it became the largest, most influential and wealthy city in southern
Africa.
 Great Zimbabwe was the central of a very large state.
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 Historical formation of Great Zimbabwe is found in Portuguese sources and oral tradition.
 Archaeology also provides relevant information.
 Great Zimbabwe only became important after the demise of Mapungubwe taking over the
control of long-distance trade.
 The Save River and its tributaries became important inland routes from the Indian Ocean
coast.
 Great Zimbabwe, like Mapungubwe, derived some of its wealth from taxing traders and
rewarding gold miners with cattle.
 The coastal entrepots serving Mapungubwe waned into insignificance with the rise of Great
Zimbabwe during the late 13th Century.
 The traders from Kilwa were certainly in contact with Mapungubwe and subsequently Great
Zimbabwe.

Image: Great Zimbabwe Walls

Origins and Rise of Great Zimbabwe State

 It was the cultural and political successor to Mapungubwe (AD 1220–90), based in the
middle Shashe-Limpopo valley.
 The state was founded between 1200AD and 1300AD by the Karanga people.
 The state was founded by the Shona speaking people who belonged to the Bantu speaking
languages.
 It was built along the great Mutirikwi River using granite rocks without any mortar.
 Shona spread over a large part of Zimbabwe plateau.
 Oral tradition showed mass movement of Shona families.
 Resulted in some sort of state system.
 A small group of chiefly immigrants successfully established their rule over Iron Age people.
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 Small societies came together amicable and ruled by chief families.

 Shona culture co-existed with earlier culture and never completely replaced them.
 Possession of organizational skills helped Shona build Great Zimbabwe.
 Religious and mystical abilities commanded by the Shona played a pivotal role in building the
state.
 They were connected with rain making, with Mwari.
 The Shona chiefs‟ connection with Mwari and spirit medium was the key to the political and
social integration of the state.

Factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

Cattle grazing

There are several reasons for the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state and these include:

Economic factors Political factors Social factors

Availability of salt. Control of surplus production by Cattle loaning system
leaders.
Good rainfall supplies. Charging of tribute Polygamy
Fertile soils for growing crops Development of armies (Presence Religious activities
of a strong army).
Development of iron technology Fall of Mapungubwe Hill regarded as a sacred
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for religious purposes.

Abundant water supplies from nearby Control of religion
rivers e.g. Mutirikwi river.
Plenty of fauna for meat and ivory. Emergence of influential and
ambitious leaders keen on ruling a
larger political unit and levying
tribute.
Favourable climate-free from Tsetse-
fly to promote cattle rearing
Rich mineral wealth in the
neighbourhood, e.g. gold, copper and
iron.
Absence of Tsetse-fly
Central location made area accessible
to local and international trade
There were good pastures around the
area and a lot of gold deposits as well
as other environmental factors that
favoured the establishment of a
settlement in the area

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REASONS FOR THE BUILDING OF GREAT ZIMBABWE WALLS /FUNCTIONS OF

GREAT ZIMBABWE WALLS
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Image showing Great Zimbabwe Walls

1. It was built as a trading centre.

2. It was a Religious centre.
3. It was a dwelling place for the royal family.
4. It was a symbol of power (prestige).
5. It was an administrative centre.
6. It was the mambo’s court/acted as king‟s Headquarters (Muzindawamambo).
7. It acted as a fortress in times of war (for defence).
8. An enclosure for animals.
9. Storage centre for grain and minerals.
10. For receiving visitors
11. To give more privacy to the rulers.
12. To display the unity of the state.
13. They were just an expression of art.

Construction of Great Zimbabwe as a State (City)

 It was constructed around 1200AD.

 Built by the Local Shona people.
 Granite rocks heated, cooled and split and shaped into blocks.
 No mortar used (free standing walls).
 Walls thick at base and narrower at top.
 Slave labour possibly used.
 Masons hammered blocks in the required shapes.
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 Drains for rain water were made.

 Blocks were laid in courses.
 Supervised by the king.
 Chevron pattern used.
 The conical tower symbolised male fertility.
 The site consists of the western entrance and the eastern entrance.
 Soapstone birds were carved for religious purposes.
 Site consist of three areas
(i) The Acropolis for the King and the Royal family.
(ii) The Great Enclosure/Conical Tower for the King‟s wives and,
(iii) The valley structures.

Social Groups found within the Great Zimbabwe State

 fisherman
 slaves
 spirit mediums
 The ruling class
 miners
 gatherers
 sculptors (responsible for building the wall and other work)
 farmers
 traders
 Hunters etc.

Crafts practised by the people of the Great Zimbabwe state

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Pottery was practised extensively at Great Zimbabwe.

 masons
 sculptors
 coppersmiths who produced copper ornaments and jewellery for the royal family
 Blacksmiths who produced iron tools.
 Cotton weavers who wove cloth.
 Goldsmiths.
 Potters.
 Sculptures
 Basketry.

Other Madzimbabwe

 Ruanga.
 Tsindi
 Nhunguza
 Naletale
 Chipadze
 Dhlodhlo/ Danangombe
 Khami
 Zaka
 Charumbira
 Buhwo
 Mhondoro Ngezi
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 Musimbira
 Chimuruvati.
 Majiri
 Nyanga

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SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

 The society was patrilineal.

 Social classes emerged due to specialization.
 Social classes included traders, blacksmiths, miners, farmers, hunters as well as the ruling
class.
 Practised polygamy.
 They paid bride price (lobola).
 They built pole and dagga huts.
 Royal class huts were built with very thick walls of clay.
 The rich loaned their cattle to the poor.
 Great Zimbabwe was a religious centre.
 The people believed in Mwari.
 They believed in the national spirits (Mhondoros) and in ancestral spirits (vadzimu).
 The Mhondoros and Mwari were consulted in times of wars, droughts etc.
 Spirit mediums (svikiros) were important in the installation of new chiefs.
 Sexual division of labour continued.
 Women cultivated crops, gathered wild fruits, rearing children, basketry and weaving.
 Men did crude tasks e.g. hunting game meat, ivory, building shelters as well as mining.
 Rulers lived a luxurious life.
 Their totem was Hungwe.

Political Organization of Great Zimbabwe

 It was under a central ruler who belonged to the royal lineage.

 The king was the head of the state.
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 His duties involved; religious leader, head of state, chief judge, chief army commander,
distributing land, installing chiefs, declaring war and receiving foreigners.
 His position was hereditary.
 The king was assisted by provincial chiefs, district chiefs, and kraal heads.
 The ruling class lived inside stone walls.
 Tribute was paid to the king by the vassal chiefs and traders.
 Tribute was paid in form of gold, ivory, clothes, animal skins, iron tools and labour.
 The king had control over grazing lands and mineral production.
 The army was also important in maintaining order.

Duties of the Army

 Raiding
 Collecting tribute
 Punishing rebels (culprits)
 Hunting for the king.
 Protecting trade routes.
 Sowing
 Weeding
 Harvesting

Economic Organization of Great Zimbabwe State

 The people at Great Zimbabwe engaged in a variety of economic activities including:

 Hunting (elephants and rhinos were hunted for ivory, and they also hunted for meat and
skins)
 Gathering (practised by women).
 Mining (mining of copper, gold and iron).
 The paying and receiving of tribute.
 Pottery making.
 blacksmithing (ironworks)
 Trade (both domestic trade and with other tribes and early Europeans).
 Pastoralism (mainly cattle and goats)
 Crop cultivation (cultivated cereals such as finger millet, bulrush millet, beans, Rapoko,
squashes and sorghum).

Items imported Items

exported
glass beads Gold
Chinaware Copper
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Cloth Ivory
brass wire Livestock
Sea shells Grain
jewellery Animal skins
porcelain Ostrich
feathers
ceramics Iron tools

Groups that traded with Great Zimbabwe

 Swahili
 Arabs
 Persians
 Indians
 Chinese

Artefacts discovered at Great Zimbabwe

 shells
 chinaware
 iron gongs
 bangles
 anklets
 porcelain dishes
 pottery

Uses of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe state

 Payment of lobola (bride price).

 Form of wealth (status symbol).
 Loaning – mafisa-cattle for political influence.
 For trade.
 Payment of tribute.
 For ritual ceremonies – appeasing spirits, rainmaking ceremonies.
 For food – milk and meat.
 Forms of transport.
 Cattle skins – mats, „clothes‟ and blankets, making shields, drums and sandals.
 Paying fines.
 Providing manure, fuel from manure, in blast furnaces.
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 Dung for polishing floors.

 Fat to make dye.
 For making ropes

Uses of grain

 Cooking sadza
 Brewing beer
 Feeding army
 Feeding visitors.
 Trade.
 Tribute payment.
 Lobola.

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REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

There are several reasons why the Great Zimbabwe State/Kingdom fell;

Economic factors Political factors Social factors

Shortage of salt Failed government(corrupt leaders) Diseases such as cholera and
smallpox that ravaged the
closely populated people
Shortage of land People were disunited Overpopulation which led to
shortages of resources such as
pastures and arable land for
farming.
Exhaustion of land Rise of ambitious leaders who Droughts which caused death
moved out to start their own states of many people and livestock
The decline in trade with Succession disputes which often The spread of deadly
Muslim and Swahili traders led to civil wars and factionalism epidemics.
at Great Zimbabwe as the
trade routes had shifted to
the Zambezi valley.
Shortage of grazing pastures Refusal to pay tribute by vassal
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chiefs
Mines become deeper and Attacks and raids from neighbours
that reduced gold supply. e.g. the Sotho-Tswana groups
Exhaustion of game Weak rulers like Mudadi
animals. Hunting Munembiri
expeditions led by Mutota
went as far as Dande-
Chidima region in the
Zambezi valley.
Pull factors in Dande area Rise of new states like Torwa and
such as availability of game, Mutapa
minerals e.t.c.
Persistent droughts.
Exhaustion of minerals

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QUESTIONS

(a) Identify any five artefacts that were discovered at Great Zimbabwe [5]
(b) Describe any six methods used to construct Great Zimbabwe as a city. [12]
(c) How important was the king in the construction of the walls? Explain your answer. [8]

a) State any five social groups within the Great Zimbabwe state [5]
b) Describe any six social systems of the Great Zimbabwe state [12]
c) How important was tribute in the Great Zimbabwe political systems? [8]

(a) Mention any five economic activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe [5]
(b) Describe any six economic activities of Great Zimbabwe [12]
(c) How important was the social organisation of Great Zimbabwe [8]

a) State any five uses of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe state [5]
b) Describe any six factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe state [12]
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c) How important were the political factors in the rise of Great Zimbabwe state [8]

(a) List any five crops that were grown by the people of Great Zimbabwe [5]
(b) Describe any six factors which influenced the decline of the Great Zimbabwe state [12]
(c) How important was the role played by the ruling class in the decline of Great Zimbabwe [8]

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B. : MUTAPA STATE

A stamp showing a Portuguese impression of the Mutapa Gatsi Rusere

The Origin and Rise of the Mutapa State

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 It was formed between 1350 and 1450 AD.

 Information on the state was found in Portuguese documents and oral tradition.
 No one really knows how the state came about.
 Oral traditions argue that the state was founded by Nyatsimba Mutota
 According to archaeological evidence the Great Zimbabwe state had declined around
1450AD.
 Some disgruntled princes like Mutota began to move out and subsequently this led to the
emergence and rise of the Mutapa state.
 For this reason, Mutapa was an offshoot of Great Zimbabwe.
 It is believed that Nyatsimba Mutota migrated from Great Zimbabwe in search of salt, better
land and trade routes.
 He took with him soldiers, women and children and headed north.
 He conquered some weaker lineages and groups to increase his subjects.
 He arrived in Dande and settled at Chitako Changonya hill surrounded by the Tavara and
Tonga people.
 He began to expand his state by conquering neighbouring groups.
 At its height Mutapa was bound by Limpopo in south, Save in east, and Manyame in west.
 It is believed that Mutapa covered most parts of Zimbabwe and of Mozambique.

Reasons for the Rise of the Mutapa State

 The following reasons can be used to account for the rise and expansion of the Mutapa
state:

1. Scarcity of resources such as salt, pastures etc. at Great Zimbabwe

2. The Rise of militaristic and ambitious leaders such as Mutota.
3. The Abundance of salt in the Dande-Chidima area.
4. The leadership disputes at Great Zimbabwe.
5. Population pressure at Great Zimbabwe.
6. The need to control the trade with the East Coast.
7. Availability of hunting grounds in the Mutapa state.
8. The eventual fall of the Great Zimbabwe State.

A List of the rulers of Mutapa State

These are the rulers of the Mutapa State as told by the early Portuguese records as well as according
to Oral Tradition:

1. Nyatsimba Mutota
2. Nyanhewe Matope
3. Chikuyo Chisamarengu
4. Chivere Nyasoro
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5. Mavhuramhande
6. Gatsi Rusere
7. Nyamhita Nehanda
8. Nyambo Kapararidze
9. Mukombwe
10. Kapuratsine
11. Nyakunembire
12. Nyahuma Mukomberanwa
13. Siti Kazurukamusapa
14. Neshangwe Mutapa
15. Negomo Mapunzagutu

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EXPANSION OF THE STATE

A map of the Mutapa Kingdom/ State made by the Early Portuguese

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 Under Mutota political control extended to the South and North to include the Mbire
province.
 Total control was achieved through conquests, intermarriages and economic intercourse.
 Mutota ruled between 1420 and 1450.
 Matope his successor continued with the expansionist policies and his territory included
roughly all the area between the Limpopo (south) and Zambezi Rivers (to the north) i.e. the
entire country of modern day Zimbabwe.
 The area also included the fringes of the Kalahari to the West and the Mozambican channel
to the East.
 Knowledge of iron making also gave rise in terms of weapons and helped the leading group
to establish authority and even expand its influence over large areas.
 Resulting exhibition of power also enhanced growth and expansion when some smaller
ethnic groups voluntarily joined the Mutapa kingdom.
 The king‟s alleged religious powers were also a factor in the growth of the state as it
generated loyalty of subjects.
 The political system where all subordinate people were controlled through the chief‟s
representative also enhanced growth.
 The military prowess of the nucleus group of Mutota helped them to conquer other areas
and bring them under centralised authority.

Did the people of the Mutapa state benefit from the expansion of the state?

Benefits

 The expansion of the Mutapa state brought with it some benefits including:
 Trade items from the conquered lands.
 The people and chiefdoms of the conquered state paid tribute to the king who redistributed
this wealth to the people during times of drought.
 The state obtained new land for cultivation.
 New mining concerns were found within the conquered lands.
 These minerals were traded with the Portuguese who came into contact with the Mutapa
because of the size of the state.
 Gained more pastureland for their animals.
 Gained more hunting grounds which mean more ivory and meat.

However the expansion also had some non-benefits including;

 The vast size of the state and paired with poor communication systems led to failure of the
state as breakaway factions emerged.
 Some vassal chiefs rebelled against the Mutapa and refused to pay tribute.
 During succession disputes factions fought in civil wars as chiefs and sub-rulers chose sides.
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Military achievements of Nyatsimba Mutota

 He formed the Mutapa State

 In 1420, Mutota left Great Zimbabwe at the head of an army.
 He conquered the Tonga, Tavara, and Korekore of the Dande-Chidima area of the Zambezi
valley.
 His title, Mutapa meant that he controlled conquered lands.
 He used the army to establish a large state.
 He established his capital at Chitako Changonya Hill near Mt Fura.

Political system developed by Mutota in the Mutapa State

 Alliance with the Tavara high priest, Dzivaguru.

 Mutapa was the overall leader with political, religious and administrative power.
 He appointed vassal chiefs to govern provinces
 Vassal chiefs paid tribute as a sign of loyalty.
 Vassal chiefs were also required to relight their court fires annually from the royal fire.
 The Mutapa also kept an army to enforce law and order in the state.
 There was also a large of court officials such as the court chamberlain, head doorkeeper,
army commander, spirit mediums etc.
 Kingship was hereditary.

Did Mutota’s military achievements contribute to the rise of the Mutapa state?

Contribution of Mutota

 Conquest of the Zambezi valley.

 Shifting of the capital to the north.
 Use of a large army to create a large state.
 Earning the title Monomotapa-was a military achiever.
 He created a large state.

However other factors were responsible for the rise of the state;

 Control of long distance trade

 Control of gold mining
 Search for salt.
 Fertile land for cultivation.
 Wealth in form of cattle
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 Good rainfall
 Good pastures

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 Mutapa state very large by 1450.

 Bounded by the Zambezi River in the north, Limpopo in the south, and the Indian Ocean in
East and the Kalahari Desert in west.
 Hence there was need for efficient system of government.
 The ruler was called Munhumutapa.
 The Mutapa himself was the centre of government – based at his headquarters – Muzinda
(court).
 The king was the head of state, chief commander of the army, religious leader, chief judge,
and chief administrator, distributor of land and controller of foreign trade.
 Other important state officials included – the court chancellor, the court chamberlain, the
army commander, the head drummer, the cook.
 The Queen mother, King‟s sister as well as the king‟s nine principal wives, nobles and pages
sent by vassals.
 Chief priests of the Mwari cult.
 In the important provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Dande, Barwe, Manyika and Uteve the
Mutapa put his trusted relatives or friends to rule as vassal chiefs.
 Chiefs were chosen/appointed in consultation with the spirit mediums or Mhondoros.
 Each vassal chief collected tribute on behalf of the Mutapa in the form of ivory, gold, grain,
cattle etc.
 Sent own son with tribute to Mutapa as a sign of Loyalty.
 Vassal chiefs also required to light their own fire from Mutapa‟s royal fire annually, as a sign
of loyalty.
 Rebellious vassals were attacked by the king‟s army which also helped to hold entire state
together.
 Mutapa maintained a strong army for defence.
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An early Portuguese map showing the Mutapa state

The Officials found at Mutapa Court

The following officials were found at the Mutapa court in the Mutapa kingdom:

 The Mutapa himself.

 The Governor of Provinces (Nengomasha) who was in fact the king‟s deputy.
 The Captain-General of the armies (Mukomohasha)
 Treasurer
 The Chief Confidant (Mbokorume) who also acted as the king‟s fool.
 Priests
 Diviners/Spirit mediums
 The king‟s wives
 The chief Musician/Drummer
 The head cook
 The Doorkeeper

Military Organisation of the Mutapa State

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 Headed by the king as commander of the soldiers.

 King helped by an appointed commander in-chief Nengomasha, the second most powerful
official in the Mutapa state.
 Existence of Dare reHondo (council of war). Council ratified war decisions and conscripted
soldiers.
 Had a large army which assembled only when need arose
 However, the Mutapa maintained a small regular force of 200 to 500 soldiers to guard the
state and maintain peace and order at the king‟s court.
 Drums were beaten and Hwamanda was sounded to assemble Mutapa soldiers.
 N‟angas (spiritual healers) were consulted by the army before it went to war.

Social Organization of the Mutapa state

 A patrilineal society i.e. relations traced through the masculine gender.

 Division of labour based on gender and skills.
 Polygamy
 Paid lobola
 Cattle symbolized wealth and status.
 Believed in high God
 Believed in witchcraft
 Shona priests an important link in society.
 Believed spirit lived in Mountains, big pools of water, thick forests.
 Mafisa (Cattle loaning) system practised – a system of Kuronzera. People who did not have
cattle looked after other people‟s cattle and would be given some eventually.
 Ethnic dances on important occasions and as leisure e.g. religious ceremonies.
 Believed in Mwari and the importance of ancestors and spiritual beings.
 Intermarriages practised.

Religious Organisation of the Mutapa State

 Believed in supreme God called Mwari or Musikavanhu.

 God was the creator of all people and things.
 Believed in ancestral, regional and national spirits.
 Worshipped through ancestral spirits.
 Believed that the deceased Mutapas went to heaven and became Midzimu.
 Ancestral spirits believed to sanction appointment of Mutapa kings.
 King had an alliance with the spirit mediums.
 King was the link between God and ancestral spirits on one side and ordinary people on the
other side.
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 Mutapa consulted spirit mediums and Mhondoros during crises.

 Practice of the royal fire lighting annually by sub-chiefs

Economic Organisation of the Mutapa State

Basket weaving is a craft that goes back to the Mutapa state and possibly beyond

 Tribute – The King received tribute from the chiefs in the region. These included cloth,
beads, hoes, axes, gold, ivory, cattle, skins, grain, tobacco and salt.
 Crop cultivation – finger millet, bulrush millet, sorghum, cowpeas
 Pastoralism – cattle were a form of wealth – important for wealth and in times of drought.
 Mining – gold, iron, copper. Practised open cast mining.
 Hunting – to get meat, enjoyed as a sport by men; ivory; skins.
 Trade – local and external trade with Portuguese. Use of Vashambadzi. Ivory and gold
important trade items to obtain cloth, beads, sea shells etc.
 Blacksmithing – an industry to produce tools and weapons such as knives and razors.
 Weaving – cloth.
 Pottery by women and basketry by men.
 Division of labour according to age, sex and skill.

Nyanhewe Matope  Continued with the work of his father

 Conquered many territories e.g. Barwe, Manyika, Madanda and
Uteve.

Nyahuma  Matope‟s Son

 He was weak and inexperienced
 Failed to maintain the big state.
 Mbire and Guruuswa broke away.
 Killed by rebels Togwa and Changa

Chikuyo  Failed to recover full control of the whole empire

Chisamarengu  Changa‟s son claimed most of the Guruuswa, Mbire, Uteve,
and Madanda.
 Munhumutapa was left with Dande.

Negomo  Accepted Christianity

Mapunzagutu  His royal court officials were baptised by Father Gonzalo Da
Silveira.
 A friend of Portuguese

Gatsi Rusere  He was a Portuguese puppet

 Attacked by Maravi kingdom.

Nyambo  Hostile to the Portuguese

Kapararidze  He wanted to reduce Portuguese influence in the internal
affairs
 Attacked Portuguese garrisons
 He was killed by the Portuguese

Mavhuramhande  Portuguese puppet.

 Educated by the missionaries
 Christened Philip by the Portuguese
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 Extended free trade to the Portuguese

 Banned curva
 Gave large area of land to Portuguese
 Allowed missionaries to operate freely.
 Allowed the Portuguese to set up feiras in the interior
(Dambarare, Rimuka, Bukuto, Luanze, Masekesa)
 Killed in a civil war.

Mukombwe  Intensified resistance against the Portuguese

Nyakunembiri  Closed down all the mines in his territory as a protest against
the Portuguese harassment.
 Sought changamire‟s assistance in fighting the Portuguese and
managed to drive them out.

The Provinces of the Mutapa State

1. Manyika/ Manica
2. Uteve
3. Chikova
4. Dande
5. Chidima
6. Guruhuswa
7. Mbire
8. Maungwe
9. Matuzvianye
10. Sango
11. Barwe
12. Chiraramuro

Chiefdoms which Mutapa Nyanhewe conquered

 Manyika
 Barwe
 Madanda
 Teve/Uteve
 Sena
 Guruuswa
 Mbire
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Items imported Items

exported
glass beads Gold
Guns Copper
Cloth Ivory
Alcohol Livestock
Maize seeds Grain
Fruit trees Animal skins
bracelets Ostrich
feathers
Bangles Iron tools

Ivory was an important trade item

The importance of cattle in the Mutapa state

Cattle were at the centre of every family‟s wealth in the Mutapa kingdom.

 They had various uses including:

 Being a symbol of wealth and power.
 They were used to bay the bride‟s price (lobola/roora)
 They were used as draught power.
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 They were used to make sacrifices during religious ceremonies

 They were used in trade as exchange items.
 They acted as an insurance against droughts.

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DECLINE OF THE MUTAPA STATE

The following reasons can be given to account for the fall of the Mutapa state:

Economic factors Political factors Social factors

Disruption of trade The succession to the throne by weak Diseases
leaders such as the Mukombwes and
Negomo
Portuguese demanded tax from Succession disputes which often led to Civil Death of many
Africans wars people
The Portuguese plundered The vast size of the state made
Mutapa wealth communication and control difficult.
The exhaustion of minerals like Rebellious by vassal chiefs.
gold.
Persistent droughts Refusal to pay tribute by vassal chiefs.
further weakened the state.
Attacks by Mfecane groups for example the
Mutapa Kandeya and Mutapa Dzeka were
attacked by the Ngoni.
Ndebele raids further weakened the state
The coming of imperial European powers
who competed to control the state.
Portuguese interference for example the
installation of puppet rulers like Mavhura
Mhande.
The rise of Changamire Dombo and the
Rozvi kingdom.
The Swahili influence was also detrimental
to the unity of the state.
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QUESTIONS

(a) State any five provinces of the Mutapa state at the peak of its power [6]
(b) Describe any six factors that led to the rise and expansion of the Mutapa state up to 1480
[12]
(c) Did the people benefit from the expansion of the state? Explain your answer [8]

(a) Name any five provinces of the Mutapa state [5]

(b) Outline six military achievements of Mutota and the political system that he developed in the
Mutapa state [12]
(c) To what extent did Mutota‟s military achievements contribute to the rise of the Mutapa
state? [8]

a) List any five duties of the captain of the gates in the Mutapa State [5]
b) Outline any six methods used by the Portuguese to gain control of the Mutapa state [12]
c) How far did these methods contribute to the fall of the Mutapa state [8]

(a) List any five aims of the Portuguese in the Zambezi valley [5]
(b) Describe any six reasons for the Portuguese penetration into the Zambezi valley
[12]
(c) To what extent did the Portuguese penetration into the Zambezi valley contribute to the
decline of Mutapa state? [8]

a) List any five trade goods brought by the Portuguese to the Mutapa kingdom [6]
b) Describe any six characteristics the Portuguese-Mutapa relations up to 1700
[12]
c) How far did the Mutapa kingdom benefit from these relations? Explain your answer [8]
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TOPIC 3: EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS WITH ZIMBABWE

(a) : PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY

Swahili background

Swahili slave traders

 The first merchants (traders) to engage in trade within the African coast were the Arabs.
 These traders exchanged cloths, glass, shells, mirrors, guns and gunpowder for ivory, copper,
leopard and lion skins.
 The Arabs traded with Mutapa people from their trading centre at Sofala.
 Intermarriages between Arabs and Africans produced a race of Africans known as Swahili.
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 The coming of the Portuguese ended the Swahili domination of trade along the Zambezi
valley.

Aims of the Portuguese/Reasons for the spread of Portuguese in the Zambezi valley

 To spread Christianity
 Check the spread of Islam which was the official language of the Swahili traders.
 To mine gold.
 To establish trading feiras.
 To replace the Swahili as trading partners of the Shona people.
 To control trade routes in the interior.
 To find a route to India.
 To acquire African ivory for use in the Indian trade.
 To avenge the death of Gonzalo da Silveira who had been killed by the Shona.
 To obtain land to farm in the form of prazos.
 To advance the imperial yearnings of Portugal.
 To search the legendary Prester John.

Portuguese penetration into the Zambezi Valley/Portuguese involvement in the Mutapa

State

 From 1500-1600 Portuguese citizens began to come to central and southern Africa.
 Vasco da Gama arrived at the Cape of Good Hope in 1497 and was the first to sail the
Indian Ocean.
 He was on his way to India.
 He stopped at the Swahili trading centres gathering information about the interior.
 He returned to Portugal after gathering information on African trading centres especially
Sofala which he said had “infinite gold”.
 After da Gama‟s visit Portuguese began to replace Swahili traders who were controlling
commerce on the west coast of the Indian Ocean.
 Portuguese took Sofala in 1505 and Mozambique Islands in 1507.
 They built military Fortresses at Sofala and Kilwa.
 Commanders at these posts were tasked to locate origins of gold and ivory.
 1n 1513 Antonio Fernandez visited the Mutapa State, visited Chegutu and saw gold mines.
 In the 1530s many Portuguese spies, most of them went into the interior.
 Portuguese established feiras (trading posts) at Sena and Tete in the 1530s.
 They aimed to push Swahili traders out of the interior.
 In 1560 Silveira came to spread Christianity in the Mutapa state.
 He converted Mutapa Negomo and his royal family.
 In 1561 Silveira was murdered.
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 After murder of Silveira Portuguese pressurized Mutapas to drive out Swahili traders.
 Mutapa gave land to Portuguese and allowed them to build feiras, Bukuto, Luanze and
Massapa.
 Antonio Caiade was appointed Captain of the gates with judiciary powers.
 In 1569 Francisco Barreto was sent with 1000 soldiers to avenge the death of Silveira and
drive out Swahili traders. This expedition was wiped out by fever.
 In 1574 another expedition helped a puppet, Rusere to the throne in 1596.
 Thereafter the Portuguese helped Rusere to put down any rebellion against his rule.

A drawing depicting the death of Da Silveira

The Portuguese nationals who visited the Mutapa Kingdom/State

These are the early European/Portuguese explorers that came to the Mutapa Kingdom:

1. Father Gonçalo Da Silveira

2. Antonio Fernandes
3. Francisco Barreto
4. Vasco Homen
5. Dona Katarina
6. Antonio Caiade
7. Gasper Bocarro
8. Sinsado dias Bayao
9. Antonio Lobo Da Silva
10. Femao De Proemça
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Portuguese attempts to colonise the Mutapa State

 Due to a decline in trade the Portuguese decided to send an emissary to the Mutapa State
 He was tasked with tracing the trade route and work on ways to control and monopolise this
route.
 He was also tasked with getting to know the ruling class, the Mutapa himself, his sub-chiefs
and try and enter into mutual and friendly treaties.
 The primary aim was to improve the mining and trade in gold.
 Antonio Fernandes was the emissary who was sent to Mutapa state by the Portuguese in
1513.
 He was versed in the coastal and interior languages and customs.
 He visited a lot of places including Manyika, Barwe, Tavara, Tete, Mbire, Fura and Harava
and talked of the abundance of gold in the area.
 He urged the Portuguese to enter the hinterland and establish trading ports and develop
mining and trade in gold and copper.
 The Portuguese sent other emissaries who reached the same conclusions.
 The Mutapa later asked for a permanent representative of the Portuguese to be stationed in
his kingdom who was given the title “Captain of the Gates” who was in charge of relations
between Portuguese traders and the Mutapa King.
 Fermao de Proemca was the first Captain of the gates, he was appointed by the Portuguese
but had to be approved by the Mutapa.
 He resided at Masapa.
 He also had the title “Great Wife” bestowed on him and his appointment was permanent.
 The Portuguese also brought with them a Jesuit Priest, Father Gonzalo da Silveira.
 The priest converted and baptized the Mutapa who was given the name Don Sebastian.
 Muslim traders and some people in the Mutapa court were alarmed by this and worked to
have da Silveira executed.
 On March 15 1651, Silveira and about 50 Christian converts were strangled and thrown into
the Musengezi River at the order of Mutapa Negomo.
 This marked a turning point in the relations between the Portuguese and the Mutapa.
 King Sebastian of Portugal used the death of da Silveira as an excuse to try and colonise the
Zambezi valley.
 He sent an expedition of 1 000 men under Francisco Barreto to expel the Swahili from the
Mutapa and take control of the gold trade in the Mutapa state in 1569.
 Barreto‟s expedition was a complete failure because:
 They arrived during the rainy season of 1571 and many men died from fever and lost their
horses to sleeping sickness.
 There was little food at Sena for the Portuguese.
 Negotiations with the Mutapa were very slow and Barreto himself died from fever before
they were completed.
 Only 200 men managed to return to the coast alive.
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 Vasco Homen another Portuguese tried to reach the gold mines in Manyika and the silver
mines at Chikoa but all his efforts were in vain.
 In the end the Portuguese decided to concentrate on trade and making alliances.
 A land concession by the Mutapa Negomo gave the Portuguese an opportunity to interfere
more into the politics of the Mutapa.
 In the 17th century the Portuguese established a warehouse and a church at Sena with a
population of 50 Portuguese, 750 Indians and Africans of mixed races.
 Some were also stationed at Tete.
 The Portuguese paid tribute to the chiefs of the areas.
 Another Portuguese expedition under Pereira was repelled by the Mutapa.
 An expedition led by Bocarro was more successful in Kilwa north of the Zambezi.
 The Portuguese helped Nyambo Kapararidze to power but he refused their demands for
influence and attacked the garrisons and trade towns.
 They responded by using private armies under the command of Meneses to defeat the
Mutapa.
 They replaced him with a more westernised Mutapa called Mavhura Mhande who went on to
grant concessions to them.
 The Portuguese moved and traded freely in the kingdom/state and missionaries built
churches and schools and taught Africans their culture.
 Settlers gained land through bribery and threats.
 The Portuguese replaced African chiefs and ruled over everyone.
 After Mavhura Mhande‟s death the Portuguese enjoyed economic prosperity in their
plantations (prazos) by using underpaid and unpaid labour.
 African miners began to produce less and less gold as the Portuguese did not pay a fair price.
 The Portuguese opened up the country to free trade.
 Slave labour was acquired and some of it was exported to Brazil.
 Most Shona people fled to Changamire‟s area due to the constant conflicts.
 Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese at Dambarare, Massapa and Manyika and
killed all the Portuguese.
 He died before he could follow through with his successes on Tete and Sena.
 The Portuguese never gained any political influence in the Rozvi kingdom.
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Early Portuguese Soldiers.

Problems faced by Francisco Barreto’s Army

 Tropical diseases killed soldiers.

 Unfamiliar with the area.
 Resistance by other Africans e.g. Tonga of Samungazi.
 Wore heavy armour.
 Problem of supplies.
 Movement unclaimed by rains.
 Horses killed by nagana.
 Death of Francisco Barretto.

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THE PRAZO SYSTEM

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African workers working on a Prazo

 Prazos were large land grants given to the Portuguese settlers in the Zambezi valley by the
Mutapas whose power was beginning to decline.
 The Mutapas got military assistance and support in return.
 Other Prazeros used dubious means to acquire the lands they used as prazeros however.
 The Prazo system was deeply rooted in the feudal system practised in Europe (Portugal) and
was transported to parts of Africa and Brazil by the Portuguese.
 The term prazo has seen it translated into the Shona word purazi.
 The Prazo owners were known as Prazeros/Prazeiros or Senhors.
 Senhor is Portuguese for Mr and is related and pronounced like the English word Senior.
 The prazo system was a system of slavery that saw men and women being forcibly attached
to the farms.
 Women were forced to till the land and to become concubines to the prazeros
 Men were forcibly conscripted into the armies of the prazeros.
 These armies were known as the chikunda forces.
 These armies took part in slave raids and the slaves were then transported to the East and
West coasts to be sold.
 These prazos became powerful and independent.
 Most prazeros were found between Sofala, Chikoa (also spelt Chicoa/Chikwa) and
Qualimane.
 Madeira became chief of Inhambazo after concessions were given by Chief Negomo and
Rusere.
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 Sinsado Dias Bayao controlled Cheringoma after the concessions were given to him by
Quiteve in return for Military assistance.
 Antonio Lobo da Silva also acquired large tracts of land.
 The Portuguese got land titles from the Portuguese government to become Portuguese
agents of civilisation.
 The Prazo system undermined and destroyed the structures and traditions of African society.
 The land concessions also robbed Africans of their land resulting in land shortages and
hunger amongst the Africans.
 This forced Africans to seek work in the prazos as labourers.
 African chiefs lost their power and authority to the Senhors who now had jurisdiction over
all the people who resided in their prazos.
 The prazeros now assumed powers hitherto reserved for chiefs for example demanding
tribute and recruiting men for wars against other chiefs.
 They also claimed other ritualistic powers that were due to African chiefs such as before
planting and harvesting
 They surrounded themselves with religious leaders for cultural events like rain making
ceremonies.
 The prazeros also supervised elections of chiefs and headmen in their areas.
 The chikunda forces attacked Shona chiefs and took their cattle.
 They controlled mines and recklessly exploited the minerals and wealth of the Mutapa state.
 When Mavhura died in 1653 he was replaced by Siti Kazurukamusapa who was on the
Portuguese payroll.
 He allied with the Dominicans and was given the name Domingos after he had been
baptized.
 He faced a rebellion in 1654 which was put down with the help of the Portuguese.
 However by 1663 the state was ungovernable.
 The prazeros rose against the Mutapa and killed him with the help of his followers.
 Scores of people died in the Portuguese mines as mining was dangerous work and the
Portuguese employed unsafe methods.
 Large areas were left unpopulated as people were taken away as slaves to either work as
labourers, to be conscripted into the chikundas or to be sold as slaves.
 Civil wars amongst the prazeros led to social strife and unrest among the Shona.
 Normal trade amongst the Shona which had hitherto thrived was seriously harmed.
 From 1663-1704 the Mukombwe dynasty tried to rebuilt the Mutapa State with little success.
 This dynasty was opposed by the Portuguese who saw them (the Mukombwes) as being
against their activities.
 The Portuguese were their worst enemies and the ruin they caused saw many prazeros leave
the state.
 The prazo system later crumbled and fell away.
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A map showing early Portuguese settlements in Zimbabwe

Describe the Prazo System introduced by the Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley?

 Portuguese were given land through treaties with African chiefs and for helping them during
political upheavals.
 Obtained through force and deceit e.g. Negomo Mapunzagutu, Gatsi Rusere in 1607.
 Portuguese land owners were called prazeros and their estates were called prazos.
 Prazeros given title deeds to the land.
 Practised shifting cultivation.
 Portuguese farmers later resorted to crop rotation.
 Prazeros ruled like African kings.
 Became in charge of all people in their prazos.
 Reared livestock
 Cultivated a variety of crops such as tobacco, rice, dagga, sorghum, millet, maize, cassava
and fruit trees like bananas, mangoes and guavas.
 Used slave labour and forced labour.
 Practised mining – gold, copper, iron which they exported.
 Used slave armies (chikundas)
 Traded with Africans.
 Raped African women.
 Some married African women resulting in the birth of mulatoes.
 Refused to pay curva.
 Forced Africans to pay tribute.
 Cohabitated with African women adopted African social practises

Methods used by the Portuguese to get Prazos

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 Force
 Threats
 Bribery
 Purchases
 Treaties/concessions
 Deceit
 Assistance by Mutapa rulers e.g. Gatsi Rusere and Mavhuramhande.

Some Portuguese Prazo holders (Prazeros)

 De Jesus Xavier
 Jose De Araujo Lobo
 Vicente Jose Ribeiro
 Jose Do Rosario Andrade
 Sebastiao Moraes Almeida
 Joao Lobo
 Vicente Ribeiro Da Fonseca
 Dona Katarina
 Rodrigo Lobo
 Mannuel Dessussa (Kouveya)
 Diogo Sommes
 Madeira

Methods used by the Portuguese to control the Mutapa State

The Portuguese used a variety of methods to try and exert control on the Mutapa State and these
included:

 Taking control of the trade in the Mutapa State for themselves.

 Controlling the mining activities in the state using forced labour.
 Converting some of the leaders and their subjects into Christianity e.g. Negomo (Sebastian)
 Encouraged and intervened in civil wars.
 Carried out slave trade.
 Forced the Mutapa and his chiefs to pay tribute to them.
 Signed treaties and concessions.
 Created chikunda forces.
 Established private prisons to incarcerate, intimidate, flog and punish Africans.
 Took large swathes of land from the Africans.
 Married Mutapa women.
 Refused to pay their taxes.
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 Adopted the Mutapa traditional religion and customs.

 Introduced the credit system.
 Forced the Mutapa to expel the Swahili traders.
 Established feiras in the Mutapa state.

The Mutapas who cooperated with the Portuguese

The following Mutapas cooperated with the Portuguese in one way or another during their reign:

 Mavhura Mhande
 Gatsi Rusere
 Chikuyo Chisamarengu
 Negomo Mapunzagutu
 Siti Kazurukamusapa

The Mutapas who resisted the Portuguese

The following Mutapas actively resisted Portuguese influence within their territories during their
reign.

 Nyambo Kapararidze
 Mukombwe
 Kapuratsine
 Nyakunembiri
 Negomo Mapunzagutu
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The Portuguese introduced maize to Zimbabwe.

Crops grown by the Portuguese in their Prazos

The Portuguese grew the following crops in their Prazos:

 Rice
 Maize
 Groundnuts
 Cotton
 Coffee
 Tea
 Burley
 Millet
 Watermelons
 Tobacco
 Citrus fruits
 Pumpkins
 Beans
 Sorghum
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TRADE BETWEEN THE PORTUGUESE AND MUTAPA STATE

 Portuguese traders made contact with Mutapa state in 1505 when they built fort Sofala.
 At first trade was through the Swahili or their agents, the Vashambadzi.
 Gold was main export from Mutapa Kingdom.
 Portuguese developed interest to enter the interior to control the sources of the gold trade.
 Portuguese brought cloth, beads, and ceramics, which were desired in the interior.
 Portuguese traded with the Mutapa king and controlled trade.
 Portuguese then went into the interior to establish their own trade centres like Sena, and
Tete in the 1830s.
 Later trade goods were expanded to include salt, copper, and iron, maize seed.
 Trade bazaars were established were sometimes private trade took place behind the Mutapa
back.
 Later Portuguese began to offer guns to some sub – chiefs who later turned against the
Mutapa.
 In the 17th Century the Mutapas were beginning to be reluctant with their goods especially
gold, and the Portuguese had to resort to use force.

Captain of the gates

His duties include;

 Handing over gifts from the Portuguese to the Mutapa king.

 Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa King by making sure that the Portuguese
paid tribute.
 Made sure that the Portuguese paid tribute.
 Supervised paying of taxes on Portuguese goods.
 Advised the Mutapa king on matters concerning the Portuguese
 Informed the Portuguese government on activities in the Mutapa state.
 Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa.
 Served as an interpreter.
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 Represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa.

 Settled disputes between the Portuguese and the Africans.

Alliances (treaties) between the Portuguese and the Mutapas

a) Gatsi Rusere and the Portuguese

 Gatsi Rusere was helped by the Portuguese to come to power
 They also helped him against attacks with Maravi kingdom and rebellions within his state.
 In return Rusere did the following;
 Gave the Portuguese the right to mine.
 Gave them land.
 Allowed the Portuguese to trade freely.
 Banned Muslims in the Mutapa state.
 Allowed the Portuguese to hunt freely.
 Gave his children to the Portuguese

b) Mavhuramhande and the Portuguese

 Mavhura was also helped by the Portuguese to become king
 In return Mavhura;
 Gave large land grants to the Portuguese
 Allowed the Portuguese to trade freely in Mutapa state.
 Allowed the Portuguese missionaries to build churches and preach in
Mutapa.
 Gave captain of Massapa authority over everyone in the area.
 Agreed to pay tribute to the Portuguese king.

Chikunda Armies (chikunda wars)

 The Portuguese private army wars called Chikunda

 The chikundas were slaves
 Prazeros introduced chikunda wars.
 They raised very strong army of mercenaries.
 Chikunda had the following duties;
 Defending prazeros
 Collecting tribute.
 Capturing slaves.
 Forcing Africans to war.
 Helping African Chiefs.
 Chikunda armies also fought money wars which cause death, destruction of property
and displacement of people.
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 The chikundas also worked as Vashambadzi.

A painting depicting a typical Portuguese army in the 16th century

Trading Posts/Feiras in the Mutapa State

The following were the Trading Posts or Feiras (Portuguese word for market) that were established
by the Portuguese in Mutapa State:

 Tete
 Luanze (Ruhanje)
 Bukuto
 Sena
 Massapa
 Zumbo
 Sofala
 Dambarare
 Beira
 Qualimane

Portuguese Feiras in the Interior

 Bukuto
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 Massapa
 Manyika
 Luanze (Ruhanje)
 Sena
 Dambarare

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THE BENEFITS & NON-BENEFITS OF THE PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN THE

MUTAPA STATE

The activities of the Portuguese in the Zambezi valley had their benefits and harms to the Mutapa
State:

The Benefits

 They introduced new farming methods which helped with the state‟s food security.
 They introduced new crops which they grew in the prazos. Africans became skilful at
growing these crops as they provided the labour.
 They introduced new mining methods.
 They also brought goods such as goods and cloth.
 In addition they brought weapons such as guns for defence.
 Warm clothes introduced.
 Health improved
 Christianity challenged evil practises like killing of twins (practice of twin murder).
 Foreign trade created wealth for African rulers.

The Non-benefits

 They routinely abused African women.

 They used forced labour which they relied on in the prazos
 They had private armies called chikundas that wreaked havoc in the state and upset the
Mutapa‟s balance of power.
 They interfered in the political affairs of the state by supporting succession disputes,
attempting to influence who became chief and encouraged civil war. This eventually led to
the collapse of the Mutapa State.
 They diluted African culture.
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 They exploited Africans during trade by not paying fair prices.

 They depleted the resources of the Mutapa State especially gold.
 They operated private prisons where they tortured and murdered Africans on trumped up
charges

Economic Organization of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State/ Portuguese Interference in

Economic activities

 Established feiras / trading markets.

 Creation of prazos.
 Keeping livestock.
 Grew crops e.g. maize and practised crop rotation.
 Collected tribute from the Mutapa and his people.
 Mining, especially gold.
 Practised forced labour.
 Hunting Elephants for ivory.
 Trade with the locals through the Vashambadzi agents.
 Practised slavery and slave trade.
 Fishing
 Credit system.
 Raided the local people using the Chikunda forces.

Social Organization of the Portuguese in the Mutapa state /Portuguese Interference in

social activities

 Spread Christianity (preaching).

 Abuse of African Women resulting in the birth of Mulatos (Portuguese coloureds)
 Acculturation of locals. Disruption of African culture, Portuguese performed African rituals
e.g. rain making ceremonies.
 Adoption of local cultures, prazeros influenced by local beliefs and customs e.g. witchcraft
and diviners.
 Lived in plastered and thatched huts.
 Prazeros enjoyed comfortable standards of living with homes furnished in latest styles, eating
exotic meat and smoking best cigars and drinking finest wine.
 Married African women e.g. Antonio Fernandez.
 Polygamy e.g. Madeira.
 Opened small schools for children of the royal family.
 Offered medical services.
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Political Organization of the Portuguese in the Mutapa state /Portuguese Interference in

political activities

 Intervened in succession disputes

 Supervised selection of headman, chiefs.
 Recruited private armies/ raised chikunda private armies.
 Demanded tribute from local people.
 Installed vassal chiefs.
 Some Mutapa kings became puppets.
 Encouraged civil wars.
 Supplied weapons to rival chiefs.

Portuguese activities in the Mutapa kingdom were characterised by:

1. Interference in traditional politics leading to the erosion of the power of kings and chiefs.
2. Divisions between the common people and the traditional leaders.
3. Loss of independence of traditional chiefs and their subjects.
4. Expropriation and externalisation of African resources.
5. Enslavement of Africans
6. Environmental degradation
7. Loss of human life especially in conflicts.
8. Cultural decay.
9. Unequal trade

Were the Portuguese to blame for the decline of the Mutapa State?

Portuguese to blame

 Took over large areas of land.

 Introduced slavery.
 Controlled mining activities.
 Exploited Mutapa wealth.
 Refused to pay tribute.
 Controlled hunting especially of Elephants for ivory.

Other factors

 Lack of unity – succession disputes.

 Civil wars.
 Droughts.
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 Decline in trade.
 Weak leaders
 Exhaustion of gold.

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REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE PRAZO SYSTEM AND THE DECLINE OF
THE PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE IN THE INTERIOR

Galley slaves

 The lack of industry, commerce, education and religious work in prazo areas led to their
eventual decline and the crumbling of the prazo system.
 Most of the prazeros were not really from Portugal and most of them were of mixed blood
being of Portuguese, Goan and African descent.
 The prazos became centres of corruption and degeneration instead of centres of civilization,
religious learning and good living.
 The prazeros surrounded themselves with slaves, chikundas and were notorious for abusing
African women.
 Prazeros had private prisons where Africans were flogged, tortured and sometimes killed
even for minor offences.
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 Prazos became sources of slave labour which was exported to Brazil and Cuba even though
slave trade was banned in Portuguese colonies.
 Finally Portugal took action which ended slavery and the slave trade resulting in the end of
the prazo system.
 In addition natural disasters like locusts and droughts made life very difficult for the
prazeros.
 Civil wars caused by the interference of the prazeros and even amongst themselves greatly
impacted on the prazo system and contributed to its eventual fall.
 Africans were also no longer keen to keep producing gold and other minerals for the
Portuguese who did not pay fair prices thus leading to the weakening of the mining
economy.
 By 1678 there were only a few Portuguese at Tete and Dambarare.
 The rise of Changamire Dombo saw the defeat of the Portuguese.
 Nyakunembire, Mukombwe‟s successor sought help from the Rozvi ruler Changamire
Dombo.
 Changamire Dombo helped Nyakunembire and in 1693 killed all the Portuguese at the feira
at Dambarare.
 The Massapa feira which was also at the centre of the Mutapa state was also attacked.
 The alliance between the Mutapa and Rozvi was short lived as the Changamire abandoned
the Mutapa and withdrew his army.
 Attacks by Africans on the Portuguese in the interior and the defeats by the Changamire
marked a change of fortunes for the Portuguese.
 There a lot of sporadic attacks by the disgruntled Africans.
 The rise of the Rozvi was a decisive factor in the decline of Portuguese influence in the
interior.
 Many forts such as Tete and Sena were destroyed.
 The Portuguese retreated to the Zambezi valley.
 Competitions from other European powers especially the British and the Dutch saw
Portuguese influence in the Zambezi Valley decline.
 By 1855 Portuguese influence was now limited to the lower Zambezi Valley.
 Portugal had also lost its position as one of the pole powers of Europe and with it the will to
protect her colonial interests.
 Portuguese settlements were also ridden by tropical diseases such as malaria.
 Slave trade to the Americas also destroyed the prazo system which was based on slave labour
since few Africans remained, too few to sustain the prazo economy.

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QUESTIONS

(a) List any five trade goods brought by the Portuguese to the Mutapa kingdom [5]
(b) Describe the characteristics of the Portuguese – Mutapa relations up to 1700. [12]
(c) How far did the people of the Mutapa kingdom benefit from the relations? Explain your
answer? [8]

a) Identify any five items exported to the Mutapa state by the Portuguese from the 15th to the
18th Centuries. [5]
b) Describe any six characteristics of the prazo system introduced by the Portuguese in the
Zambezi Valley [12]
c) To what extent did the prazo system affect the people in the Mutapa state? [8]

(a) Identify any five rulers of the Mutapa State who resisted Portuguese control. [5]
(b) Describe any six Portuguese interference in the economic organisation of the state. [12]
(c) Were the Portuguese to blame for the decline if Mutapa state? Explain your answer. [8]

a) Name any five rulers of the Mutapa state who had contact with the Portuguese [5]
b) Describe any six attempts made by the Portuguese to gain control of the gold trade with the
Mutapa state during the 16th and 17th centuries [12]
c) To what extent did the rulers of the Mutapa state able to resist these attempts in the period?
[8]

(a) Name any five Portuguese nationals who penetrated the Zimbabwean plateau between the
16th and 17th centuries. [5]
(b) Outline any six of the political activities of the Portuguese in the Zimbabwean plateau during
the 16th and 17th centuries [12]
(c) Did the political activities of the Portuguese contribute to the decline of their influence in
the region? Explain your answer. [8]

a) Identify five trade centres established by the Portuguese on the Mozambican coast and in
the interior of the Mutapa state. [5]
b) Describe any six characteristics of the trade between the Portuguese and the Zimbabwean
societies in the 16th and 17th Centuries [12]
c) To what extent was the political stability of the Zimbabwean societies affected by this trade?
[8]
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C. : THE ROZVI STATE

Sources of information

 Information on the Rozvi is found in oral tradition, archaeology and written records.
 It must be noted that there is little written information on the Rozvi because they did not
allow the Portuguese into the interior.
 Hence, most of the information was provided through oral tradition

Origins and rise of the Rozvi State

 It is believed that the state grew out of several Shona dynasties that were united under the
Changamire dynasty.
 They all shared the Moyo totem which they believe was given to them by their ancestors.
 Some historians believed that these people originated from an area between Mutapa state
and Torwa state.
 These people were once paying tribute to the Mutapa kings.
 The founder of the Rozvi state was Changamire Dombo who rose to power between 1648
and 1695.
 Oral tradition has it that he was once a cattle herder of the Mutapa kings.
 He became rich because of the cattle given to him as appreciation to his local services to the
Mutapa kings.
 He took over the eastern plateau in the 17th Century after he rebelled against Mutapa kings
who were weakened by civil wars and wars with the Portuguese.
 As a result, the Rozvi conquered the Torwa state, Manyika and Uteve and also drove the
Portuguese out of Manyika.
 The conquered people named them the „Rozvi‟ meaning the destroyers; hence this praise
name became their dynastic title.
 The state extended as far as Bocha, Buhera, and the South Eastern highlands.
 Other historians believed that the state was a continuation of the Torwa state probably
under a new ruling lineage.
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Changamire Dombo 1

 Changamire Dombo I, the leader of the Rozvi was a man of considerable military talent
and an administrative genius.
 With this military ability Dombo was able to defeat the Portuguese at the battle of
Maungwe.
 Changamire‟s first capital was at Tsindi ruins near Marondera and Macheke.
 He moved over to Butwa (sometimes spelled Butua) and established his capital at Manyanga.
 The Rozvi eventually became too powerful for everyone hence their name which means
“the robbers”/”raiders”/”marauders.”
 Changamire Dombo was a descendant of the Mutapa and he initially established his
kingdom in the interior with his capital at Tsindi near Marondera.
 He defeated the Portuguese who tried to grab more land and power further inland to Mbire
and Guruuswa near Butwa between 1684 and 1695
 The rise of Dombo was a result of civil war in the Torwa state of which he was a citizen.
 It is possible that he came from a family with special religious or military duties.
 He may have grown rich and powerful through keeping cattle.
 He is said to have had special powers like, he could make rain or make soldiers brave or
change the colour of cattle showing that he was a charismatic leader.
 The Portuguese thought he was a magician or wizard because of the many tricks he
showed in battle.
 His soldiers formed a half circle around their enemies.
 They used many kinds of weapons including bows, arrows, assegais, spears, wooden clubs
and shields.
 The Rozvi received guns as tribute from the Portuguese thus highest officials had guns and
knew how to use them.

Names of kings who ruled the Rozvi

 Changamire Dombo
 Mambo Chirisamhuru
 Changamire Rupanda Mananga
 Changamire Nechasike.
 Changamire Chiundumuro
 Changamire Tohwechipi
 Nyamazana
 Mambo Gomboremvura.

Towns (Capitals) established by the Rozvi state in the Zimbabwean plateau

 Khami
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 Naletale
 Danangombe
 Manyanga (Ntabazikamambo)
 Mbire
 Guruuswa
 Uteve
 Madanda
 Chipadze
 Dhlodhlo

Trading stations of the Rozvi

 Sofala
 Zumbo
 Tete
 Sena
 Massapa
 Khami
 Nhunguza
 Ingombe illede

Duties carried out in the Rozvi State

Male duties Female duties

Hunting crop cultivation
Herding gathering
cattle
Mining household chores
Thatching looking after
huts children
Cultivation
Smelting

Items traded in the Rozvi state

Exports Imports
Gold cloth
Ivory glass beads
Cattle guns
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Sheep liquor
Goats maize
Pigs fruits
Ostrich feathers tobacco
Animal skins mirrors
Pottery ceramics
Iron tools gun powder
Sorghum ammunition
Finger millet
Bulrush millet

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ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION OF THE ROZVI

Social Organization of the Rozvi

 Shona priests an important link in society.

 Believed spirit lived in Mountains, big pools of water, thick forests.
 Mafisa system practised – a system of Kuronzera. People who did not have cattle looked after
other people‟s cattle and would be given some eventually.
 A patrilineal society i.e. relations traced through the masculine gender.
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 Ethnic dances on important occasions and as leisure e.g. religious ceremonies.

 Believed in Mwari and the importance of ancestors and spiritual beings.
 Division of labour according to age, sex and skill.

Political Organisation of the Rozvi State

 It began with the hut, then the family head, the neighbourhood head (headman), village,
region, sub-chief and chiefdom.
 At the top is the chief and then the king and his court.
 The King ruled with the help of a council called Dare.
 Members of the council included priests, military leaders and provincial governors.
 Some of the King‟s wives played a role at the court and some of the son in laws had special
duties.
 The King was a figure of great respect and loyalty.
 He was the distributor of land and the holder of other properties in trust of the state:
prisoners of war, cattle taken from people accused of various crimes are examples of said
property.
 The king was the head of the legal system.
 He had the power to call up the army and declare war.
 He could also summon communal labour.
 The king had claims to game, elephant taxes and other taxes from the state.

Religious organisation of the Rozvi

 The mambo’s rituals surrounded relations with ancestors.

 The king was the religious leader as well in addition to being the political and legal leader.
 He communicated with God through the ancestors.
 The priests of Mwari served at a shrine (Mabweaziva) and they were very powerful.
 They carried messages telling the people to obey the king as instructed by the ancestors.
 The priests had agents called Vanyai who spread the word of Mwari throughout the
provinces.
 They acted as an intelligence network, bringing information from the provinces.
 The power of the priests of Mwari strengthened the role of the mambo and also limited his
powers.

Duties of the Rozvi mambos

 Control of trade.
 Commander in chief of the Rozvi army.
 Mambo was the head of state.
 Distributed land.
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 Was the chief judge.

 Selected provincial chiefs and district sub – chiefs and sub – chiefs.
 Received and handled reports from various parts of the kingdom.
 Appointed the council of advisors.
 Sanctioned ritual ceremonies.
 Mambo was the religious leader.
 Sent the army for raiding expeditions.
 Received tribute from the chiefs.
 Worked hand in hand with religious leaders.
 Appointed army generals.
 Had powers to relieve his appointees of their duties.
 Duty to defend the state from external attacks.
 Had custody over captives.
 Distributed food in times of drought.
 He could declare war.
 Signing of treaties.

The importance of cattle in the Rozvi state

Cattle were at the centre of every family‟s wealth in the Rozvi kingdom. They had various uses
including:

 Being a symbol of wealth and power.

 They were used to bay the bride‟s price (lobola/roora)
 They were used as draught power.
 They were used to make sacrifices during religious ceremonies
 They were used in trade as exchange items.
 They acted as an insurance against droughts.

Rozvi Government Officials

The following officials were found in the Rozvi kingdom/state.

 The mambo who was the King

 The provincial chiefs
 The District chiefs
 Headmen
 Village heads
 The Queen mother
 Tumbare
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 Spirit mediums
 The King‟s son in law

Ethnic groups that fought the Rozvi

Group Leader
Ndebele Mzilikazi
Jere – Zwangendaba
Ngoni
Ngoni Nyamazana
Shangane Soshangane
Msene – Nxaba
Ngoni

Chiefdoms conquered (controlled) by Changamire Dombo

 Torwa
 Manyika
 Uteve
 Madanda
 Mutema
 Chikanga – Mutasa
 Makoni
 Marange
 Nyashanu
 Bocha
 Zvimba
 Chiweshe

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REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE ROZVI STATE

Internal Factors External Factors

The refusal to pay tribute by some vassal chiefs as a Attacks by the Hiya of Dondo area
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way of challenging the authority of the mambo over

them.
Regional chiefs like Barwe and Chikanga rebelled Attacks by the Portuguese
against Mambo Gomoremvura.
Failure by the Tumbare to maintain law and order Nguni incursions such as attacks from
in the kingdom. Zwangendaba, Nyamazana, Nxaba, Mzilikazi,
Soshangane, Maseko.
Succession disputes that were often accompanied Zwangendaba destroyed Changamire‟s army.
by factionalism and civil wars Nxaba‟s Ngoni followed and battered the
Rozvi. The Ngoni woman General Nyamazana
finished off the Rozvi. She killed Changamire
Chirisamhuru at Manyanga. Finally the
Ndebele found the Rozvi state broken and
divided. Mzilikazi conquered the Rozvi and
married Nyamazana.
The rise of weak and uncharismatic leaders
The death of the Changamire Dombo who had
founded the empire because of his charisma and
military prowess.
The vast size of the state which made control and
communication difficult.
The decline of the gold trade.
The persistent droughts that afflicted the kingdom.

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QUESTIONS

(a) Name any five chiefdoms controlled by the Rozvi during the reign of Changamire Dombo 1
[5]
(b) Describe any six of the social organization of the Rozvi state [12]
(c) How important was the social organization in the stability of the Rozvi state [8]

(a) List any five government officials of the Rozvi state [6]
(b) Outline any six the social activities of the Rozvi state [12]
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(a) Name any five Rozvi rulers up to the 19th Century [5]
(b) Describe any six political activities of the Rozvi state [12]
(c) How important was religion in Rozvi politics [8]

(a) Name any three ethnic groups and their respective leaders who fought the Rozvi between
1800-1890 [5]
(b) Describe any six duties of the Rozvi mambos [12]
(c) Was the mambos leadership to blame for the decline of the Rozvi kingdom? Explain your
answer[8]

(a) List any three exports from and any two imports into the Rozvi state [6]
(b) Outline any six factors that led to the decline of the Rozvi state up to 1840 [11]
(c) How far was the decline of the Rozvi state caused by political factors [8]

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DEVELOPMENT OF ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES

THE NGUNI MIGRATIONS

MFECANE AND STATES FORMATION

D. : NGUNI STATES (Crisis in Nguniland)

Background

 Nguni refers to a group of Bantu languages spoken in South Africa.

 These languages include Xhosa, Zulu, Tembu, Ndwandwe, Mpondo, Khumalo, Swazi,
Mthethwa, Ngwane, Hlubi, and Pedi.
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 Nguniland had fertile soils, good grazing pastures and received good rainfall.
 Moreover the area is rich in game and offered lucrative trade routes.
 There was pressure on resources (shortage of land and grazing pastures) due to
overpopulation.
 Wars were fought among the Nguni groups in order to control land and other resources.
 The Nguni called these wars Mfecane – meaning time of trouble.
 Mfecane was a by-product of civil wars.
 It led to the rise of three powerful states namely: Ngwane under Sobhuza, Ndwandwe under
Zwide and Mthethwa under Dingiswayo.
 Circumcision was banned so as to allow young men enough time to fight in the frequent
wars.

Chiefdoms in Northern Nguniland and their respective leaders

Chiefdoms Leaders
Ndwandwe Zwide
Ngwane Sobhuza/ Matiwane
Mthethwa Dingiswayo
Maseko- Maseko
Ngoni
Zulu Senzangakhona/Sigujana/Tshaka
Khumalo Mzilikazi/Matshobane
Shangani Soshangane

Ethnic groups that existed in Northern Nguniland before the Mfecane

 Zulu
 Khumalo
 Qwabe
 Ndwandwe
 Mthethwa
 Swazi
 Hlubi
 Ngwane

Ethnic groups of Northern Nguniland at the beginning of the 19th C

 Zulu
 Ndwandwe
 Ngwane
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 Swazi/Dlamini
 Qwabe
 Bhaca
 Bhele
 Khumalo
 Langeni
 Mthethwa

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CAUSES OF THE MFECANE IN NGUNILAND/PROBLEMS FACED BY CHIEFS IN

NORTHERN NGUNILAND

 Drought of Madhlatule (Madhlatule famine)

 Population explosion
 Strain of resources
 Boer Great Trek
 Land for grazing
 Control of the Delagoa Bay Trade route.
 Ambitious leaders e.g. Tshaka, Sobhuza, Zwide.
 Dingiswayo‟s role as Tshaka‟s mentor.
 Trade in ivory necessitated the creation of standing armies to hunt elephants and guard the
trade route.
 Importance of cattle
 Military reforms by Tshaka.
 Need for slave labour by whites
 Competition for farming land.

Development of the Mfecane: Wars that marked the beginning of the Mfecane

Fighting that took place between the ethnic groups in Nguniland during the Mfecane (1818-
1823)

 In 1816 rivalry of the Ndwandwe and Ngwane began over land and the latter were defeated
and pushed away north.
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 In 1818 Ndwandwe under Zwide attacked Mthethwa of Dingiswayo.

 Dingiswayo was captured and killed and the Mthethwa were defeated and scattered.
 Ndwandwe attacked the other groups in the area east of the Drakensberg.
 Some remnants of the Mthethwa fled giving Zwide free reign in the area of Nguniland.
 Zwide then decided to fight the small Zulu tribe now under Tshaka.
 The military tactics that he developed in the early stages of the Mfecane gave Tshaka a
decisive advantage over the Ndwandwe.
 Tshaka then reassembled the Mthethwa and the Zulus into a powerful military machine.
 Weaker tribes who could not flee decided to seek refuge under Tshaka and became part of
the empire.
 Threat of the whites from the south also helped the people to rally behind the most
powerful leader, thus becoming part of an enlarged state.
 Tshaka adopted new fighting methods, like the cow-horn formation and began to attack his
neighbours. His small Zulu kingdom began to expand and be a challenge to the Ndwandwe.
 In 1818 Zwide decided to crush the emerging Zulu kingdom. In the first battle the
Ndwandwe were defeated and driven off.
 End of 1818 he sent a full army across the Mfolozi River. Tshaka at first withdrew his whole
population and wealth. Zwide followed across deserted country with no food. Ndwandwe
army became weakened and began to retreat. Tshaka then attacked and drove the
Ndwandwe back to their capital which he sacked. Ndwandwe were defeated.
 Tshaka drove the Ndwandwe generals- Zwangendaba and Soshangana away. They move
northwards after Zwide was defeated.
 Zwide fled to the region of the upper Nkomati River.
 Soshangana left in 1821 attacking the tribes to the north and ended up in Gazaland, modern-
day Chipinge/Chirinda.
 Other smaller tribes fled to the west into the Sotho and Tswana area in terror and in turn
spread the terror on their way.
 Tshaka proceeded to attack tribes between 1819 and 1922 and subdue them and
incorporated to form a large Zulu kingdom.

Groups that fled from Tshaka during the Mfecane

Group leader
Ndebele Mzilikazi
Zwangendaba Jere – Ngoni
Shangane Soshangane
Nxaba Msene –
Ngoni

Groups in Nguniland which Tshaka fought during Mfecane

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Group leader
Ndwandwe Zwide
Ngoni Soshangane
Khumalo Mzilikazi

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RESULTS/EFFECTS OF THE MFECANE SOUTH OF THE LIMPOPO

Effects of Mfecane

Positive Negative
Empire building – ethnic groups which fled Mass migration
the Mfecane built new empires e.g. Sobhuza.
Emergence of defensive kingdoms such Depopulation in Nguniland – large areas of
Swazi, Bapedi and Basuto Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal were
left depopulated as people sought security
elsewhere.
Spread of Nguni languages and culture Destruction of property – most of the
affected groups lost their valuable properties
including livestock as raiding took its toll.
Spread of Nguni war tactics such as cow horn Uninhabited lands attracted the Boer trekkers
formation and use of assegai from the Cape Colony.
Use of youths both sexes in regiments for Many people lost their lives in frequent wars.
hunting, working and fighting
The Nguni united people of different cultures Hunger and starvation – farming was
who developed a common sense of common disrupted and people resorted to survival
identity techniques such as feeding on game meat and
wild fruits.
Created a balance between population and People resorted to game meat and wild fruits
resources
Appointment of leaders become based on Dispersion of generals (Zwangendaba,
merit or ability and not hereditary Soshangana, Nxaba, Nyamazana and
Mzilikazi
Conquering chiefdoms benefited the loot Destruction of the Rozvi Empire
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taken from defeated groups

Emergence of defensive kingdoms such as Destruction of states – new and old states
Swazi, Bapedi, and Basotho were destroyed
Nguni languages and culture were swallowed
up and lost in local cultures
Many people were forced to join the Nguni
Disruption of Delagoa trade with the
Portuguese.
Cannibalism – cases of cannibalism increased
due to shortage of food

Mfecane Groups and their destinations

Group Leader Destination

Ngwane Sobhuza Swaziland
Gaza Soshangane Mozambique/Zimbabwe
Ngoni Zwangendaba Tanzania
Ndebele Mzilikazi Zimbabwe
Maseko- Maseko Malawi
Ngoni
Kololo Sebetwane Zambia

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QUESTIONS

(a) Identify any five crops grown by the people of northern Nguniland in the late 18th century
[5]
(b) Describe the problems faced by the chiefs in the northern Nguniland in the late 18th century
[12]
(c) How far did these problems contribute to the rise of Tshaka [8]

(a) Identify any five ethnic groups that existed in northern Nguniland before the Mfecane [5]
(b) Describe any six effects of the Mfecane south of the Limpopo [12]
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(a) Name any six ethnic groups of northern Nguniland at the beginning of the 19th century [5]
(b) Outline any six causes of Mfecane in Nguniland [12]
(c) To what extent was the Mfecane caused by the ambitions of leaders in Nguniland [8]

(a) State any five causes of the Mfecane in Nguniland [6]

(b) Describe the fighting that took place in northern Nguniland during the Mfecane [12]
(c) To what extent did the Mfecane affect the lives of people in southern Africa [8]

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DEVELOPMENT OF ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES

NGUNI MIGRATIONS

E. : THE ZULU UNDER TSHAKA

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Tshaka the Zulu King (c1787-1828)

Rise of Tshaka to the Zulu Kingship

 Tshaka was the son of Senzangakhona a Zulu clan chief.

 Drafted into Dingiswayo’s army.
 Distinguished himself as an able fighter.
 Appointed commander of a regiment.
 Advised Dingiswayo on military matters.
 Senzangakhona Tshaka‟s father died.
 Tshaka was helped by Dingiswayo to overthrow Sigujana and assumed Zulu clan
chieftainship.
 He was as well as military commander of the Zulu.
 Death of Dingiswayo created an opportunity to create the Zulu state.
 Tshaka conquered the Mthethwa then combined the Mthethwa and the Zulu kingdom.
 Tshaka introduced military reforms.

Methods used by Tshaka to control the Zulu state

 Use of spies.
 Idea of total warfare.
 Standing army.
 Set up military settlements all over Zululand.
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 Fasimba army always at the king‟s court.

 Practice of autocracy.
 Tshaka appointed chiefs and headman who were loyal to him.
 Encouraged rivalries amongst his subjects so as to exploit such conflicts.
 Full absorption of lineage closer to the centre of the Zulu state.
 Exploitation of lineages in the periphery.
 Holding of national ceremonies.
 Use of national symbols like the Inkhatha.
 Speaking Zulu language was made compulsory.
 Tshaka personified the kingdom.
 King led all religious ceremonies.
 Subjugation of independent rain makers.
 Maintenance of a tight discipline of „amabutho‟.
 Control of religion
 Punishment by death

Economic organisation of the Zulu state

 Raid other states for grain, labour, livestock, ivory, conquests, and military glory and for
women.
 Mined gold, copper and iron.
 Grew different crops e.g. watermelons, calabash, maize, pumpkins, and beans.
 The king opened the farming seasons.
 No one was allowed to plant or reap before the king.
 Special ceremonies were performed by the king before planting and during harvesting.
 Hunted for meat, skins, ivory, honour and leisure.
 Kept livestock. Cattle were the most important livestock because they symbolised status,
used for paying lobola, paying tribute, slaughtered during ceremonies, provided meat, milk,
and hides.
 Traded locally among themselves and externally with foreigners like the Portuguese.
 Iron smelting provided tools and weapons.
 Weaving was also important.

Social organization of the Zulu state

 Patrilineal society
 Division of labour on gender bases.
 Practised polygamy
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 Payment of lobola or bride price in marriages

 Zulu was made the nation language.
 Held Inxwala festivals for celebrating first fruits or harvest time.
 Attendance to these ceremonies was compulsory.
 Initiation ceremonies marked transition from childhood into adulthood. Circumcision was
held during these ceremonies.
 However these ceremonies were suspended owing to the frequent fighting (Mfecane) in
Nguniland.
 Worshiped a supreme being through their ancestors.
 Spirit mediums acted as mediators between the living and the dead.
 Traditional healers known as “Sangoma” treated the sick and were consulted in times of
crisis.

Political Organisation of the Zulu state

 Tshaka created a centralised state.

 Defeated chiefs were often deposed and replaced by Tshaka‟s appointees.
 Power was centralised on the king.
 Kingdom was organised on military lines.
 Age – regiments accommodated in regimental towns.
 Regimental towns administered by an Induna helped by a female member of the royal
family.
 Regimental towns allocated royal cattle to look after.
 Council of advisors rendered irrelevant as Tshaka become autocratic.
 Traditional chiefs reduced to administrators of local affairs.
 Marriage was only allowed to men after retiring from the army.
 Females also organised into regiments.
 Regiments of women – used to cultivate land for ceremonial dances and displays.
 The king officiated at the Inxwala ceremony – King‟s spiritual power was renewed through
traditional medicines.

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TSHAKA’S MILITARY REFORMS

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 Tshaka gained control of the Zulu clan on the death of Senzangakhona in 1816.
 Adopted and perfected military innovations by Dingiswayo such as banning of circumcision
and drafting boys into age – set regiments.
 Use of long shields – cowardice punished by death.
 Use of a short stabbing spear (assegai).
 Banned marriage of all men before the age of 40 or before military service.
 Going to war barefooted.
 Young boys to carry baggage for soldiers.
 Creation of a standing army.
 Total destruction of enemies.
 Improvement of the cow – horn formation.
 Use of female regiments.
 Banned circumcision ceremonies.
 Use of spies, n‟angas/sangomas – to treat soldiers.
 Use mock battles as training.
 Made use of smoke signal for communication.
 Adapted surprise attack on enemy as a strategy.

To what extent was Tshaka a military innovator?

Tshaka as a military innovator

 Use of traditional healers – Tshaka‟s idea.

 Going to war barefooted – Tshaka‟s idea.
 Short stabbing spear – Tshaka‟s idea.
 Long shields – Tshaka‟s idea.
 Total destruction – Tshaka‟s idea.
 Creation of Fasimba army – Tshaka‟s idea.

Tshaka as not a military innovator ( not original) as had been believed

 Standing army copied from Dingiswayo.

 Banning of circumcision schools copied from Dingiswayo.
 Age regiments copied from Dingiswayo.
 Strict discipline copied from dingiswayo.
 Cow-horn formation previously used by Changamire Dombo, might have been popular in
Southern Africa.
 Military drills for soldiers done by Dingiswayo.
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Tshaka’s military settlements

 Gibixhegu
 Mbelebele
 Nobomba
 Bulawayo
 Isikhebhe
 Dukuza

Military organization of the Zulu state

 Tshaka was chief commander of the army.

 He appointed army commanders and Indunas.
 All young adults (18-35) were conscripted into the female and male regiments.
 Each regiment had its own regimental songs and war – cry besides the national war – cry.
 Regiments wore different head dress and use different shields.
 Ufasimba, Izimpolo, and Umbelebele were some of the regiments.
 Tshaka‟s military towns were Gibixhegu, Nobamba, Mbelebele, Bulawayo, Isikhebhe and
Dukuza.
 An Induna or military commander led military towns.
 The Induna was handpicked from common families by the king so that they owed their
position to the king.
 Female regiments took part in ceremonial dances and cultivation of crops.
 When a male regiment was ready for marriage Tshaka took girls from a female regiment and
gave them to warriors as wives.

Duties of Tshaka’s regiments include;

 Fighting in wars
 Herding cattle
 Hunting for the king.
 Guarding camps
 Taking part in cultural ceremonies
 Defending the state.
 Raiding
 Constructing kraals
 Repairing kraals and fences
 Cultivating crops
 Sowing
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 Weeding
 Harvesting

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PROBLEMS FACED BY TSHAKA AS KING OF THE ZULU STATE

 Expansionist policy characterized by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states.
Thus creating hatreds.
 The death of Nandi, his mother created problems for him as he killed many people.
 Even his sister suspected that Tshaka was responsible for Nandi‟s death. Tshaka‟s mother
was his advisor.
 Jealous relatives who ultimately assassinated him.
 High rate of executions created enemies for Tshaka among the army.
 Mzilikazi‟s rebellion in 1822.
 Threats from the expansionist Boers and British.
 Battled to control the Delagoa Bay trade route.
 Shortage of resources – e.g. land.
 Lack of trust by commanders.
 Despotic rule and frequent wars disunited people.
 Opposition from Nguni states.
 Madhlatule famine (drought).
 Attempted assassination in 1824.
 Motivating tiring soldiers who wanted to settle down to family life.

Names of Tshaka’s generals (Military Indunas)

 Dingane
 Mhlangana
 Mgobozi
 Mdlaka
 Mzilikazi

Names of Zulu leaders

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 Tshaka
 Dingane
 Mpande
 Bhekizulu
 Cetswayo
 Nkayisani
 Dingizulu

Benefits of Tshaka’s rule

 People gained protection from the mighty Zulu army.

 His rule delayed the occupation of Zululand by the Boers.
 The groups that fled from him benefited from his military reforms and this enabled them to
survive in different areas which they settled.
 Raiding increased food supply, notwithstanding the role played by female regiments in the
fields which contributed to enough food supply.
 Land supply increased because Tshaka destroyed other ethnic groups and some even ran
away leaving vacant land which the Zulus eventually occupied.

Non – benefits of Tshaka’s rule

 Unnecessary killings of those opposed to him.

 Soldiers were tired of constant wars
 Harsh punishment.
 Was a dictator – all powers in his hands
 Rather cruel, e.g. is said to have killed many people when his mother died especially those
not showing enough signs of grief.
 Violation of human rights for example the right to life.
 Men resented or hated military conscription
 Conquered groups lost their wealth.
 Defeated chiefs were killed or dethroned.
 Long soldiers wanted to settle down to family life.

Explain why Tshaka was assassinated in 1828? / Is it true that Tshaka was responsible for
his own downfall?

Tshaka’s responsibility for his own downfall.

 Was a dictator – all powers in his hands

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 Ignored traditional chiefs.

 Failed to work with his brothers and sisters who should have assisted him.
 Frequent raids exposed him – not enough protection.
 Rather cruel, e.g. is said to have killed many people when his mother died especially those
not showing enough signs of grief.
 Maintained a cruel system when it was no longer justified.
 Allowed Khumalo to remain autonomous
 Tshaka also kept his soldiers his soldiers on ceaseless military campaigns.

Other factors

 Jealous brothers and sisters such as Dingane and Mhlangana, aunt Mkabayi – envied
Tshaka‟s success.
 Ambitious leaders who also wanted to rule.
 Soldiers tired of continuous raids/Army become exhausted.
 Tshaka was an illegitimate child.
 Usurped power from brother Sigujana.
 Threats of whites.
 Mkabayi suspected Tshaka of having killed his own mother.

The Reasons for the Downfall of the Zulu State

 Tshaka‟s death in 1828

 White encroachment (The coming of the Boers and the British).
 Division among the Zulu.
 Civil wars
 Succession disputes
 Cetshwayo and Mbulazi fought over Mpande‟s throne (Succession disputes).
 The coming of the British finally marked the downfall of the Zulu state.

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QUESTIONS

(a) List any five reasons for the rise of the Zulu state [5]
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(b) Outline any six of the military reforms introduced by Tshaka [12]
(c) How effective was Tshaka in his use of these reforms [8]

(a) Identify three early chiefdoms in the northern Nguniland in the early 19th century and their
respective leaders [5]
(b) Describe the rise of Tshaka to the Zulu kingship [12]
(c) How important was Tshaka‟s military ability in his rise to the Zulu kingship [8]

(a) Identify any three leaders and their groups who ran away from Tshaka [5]
(b) Describe any six of Tshaka‟s political organization [12]
(c) How important was politics in the survival of the Zulu state [8]

(a) List any five military settlements of Tshaka [5]

(b) Describe six duties of Tshaka‟s regiments [12]
(c) How important were military duties in the Zulu army [8]

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DEVELOPMENT OF ZIMBABWEAN SOCIETIES

THE NGUNI MIGRATIONS

F. : THE NDEBELE UNDER MZILIKAZI

Late Iron Age State Formation, lineage and tributary states up to the late 19th Century
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A watercolour showing Mzilikazi Khumalo King of the Ndebele

Origins of the State

 The state was a by – product of the Mfecane.

 Mzilikazi was the founder of the state.
 Mzilikazi was the leader of the Khumalo who were originally part of Zwide‟s Ndwandwe
state but had joined the Zulu state.
 Mzilikazi broke away from the Zulu in 1822 after a conflict he had with Tshaka.
 Mzilikazi was one of Tshaka‟s trusted Generals and had been tasked to raid a certain group.
 Mzilikazi, however, did not surrender the loot from this raid which angered Tshaka who
demanded an explanation.
 Tshaka sent out a regiment to punish Mzilikazi but the regiment was defeated and Mzilikazi
managed to escape across the Drakensburg Mountains.
 He led a group of about 300 young warriors, men, women and children across the
Drakensburg and first settled at Ekupumuleni (Ndebele for Place of rest).

The Ndebele Migration from Zululand

 The Ndebele migration was precipitated by Mzilikazi‟s refusal to surrender captured booty to
Tshaka.
 Tshaka sent a regiment to punish Mzilikazi but only defeated him in the second battle at
Nthumbane.
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 This forced Mzilikazi to retreat northwards across the Drakensberg mountains and marked
the genesis (beginning) of a long journey which resulted in the Ndebele crossing Limpopo
River into Zimbabwe.
 They established a number of settlements before they crossed the Limpopo River and some
of these settlements were;

(i) Ekupumeleni – incorporated and raided local people. Moved from this place around
1826 because of attacks by Pedi, nearness to Zulu and droughts.
(ii) Mhlahlandela – in the Kwena land raided the Sotho for people and domestic animals.
Also raided the Tswana. Met R. Moffat of the London Missionary society and the
two become friends.
(iii) Left Mhlahlandela because of external threats from Dingane, Kora, Khoisan,
Rolong and Griquas who had guns and horses and settled around the Marico River
in about 1832.
(iv) In 1837 Mzilikazi capital Mosega was attacked by many groups such as the Griquas,
Kora, and Boers. This forced the Ndebele to move northwards across the Limpopo,
after dividing up the two frightened groups.
(v) After the defeat the Ndebele split into two groups and crossed the Limpopo River.

The first group to move was led by Gundwane Ndiweni and consisted of the elderly, women,
children and the sons Nkulumane and Lobengula. It took a direct route and settled at Gibixhegu.
The second group was led by Mzilikazi. It took a direct westerly direction via Botswana and moved
as far as the Zambezi River. In 1840 Mzilikazi came to join the other group when he learnt that the
Indunas of the main group wanted to install his son Nkulumane as chief. Mzilikazi regarded this as
an act of treason and killed those involved. Mzilikazi (Mzila wegazi: the path of blood) was a no
nonsense bloody leader. He then moved his capital to Inyathi.

Was the Ndebele migration influenced by the Mfecane?

Influenced by Mfecane

 Mzilikazi left Zululand after the defeat by Tshaka.

 He abandoned settlements near Zululand.
 Forced to cross the Limpopo River due to attacks from Boers and other groups.

Other factors.

 The rise of ambitious leaders e.g. Mzilikazi, Zwangendaba, Nxaba.

 Mzilikazi‟s greediness.
 Drought and lack of pastures.
 Moffatt‟s advice.
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 Pull factors like fertile soils that attracted Mzilikazi.

Settlements established by the Ndebele during Migration and the circumstances that
occurred.

At Ekupumuleni

 This settlement was too close to Zululand and the Zulu‟s attacked it on a fairly regular basis
and so did the surrounding ethnic groups like the Pedi.
 Groups such as the Sotho, Dhlodos, Pondo and Swazi joined the Ndebele so as to be
protected from the Zulu attacks. Mzilikazi also absorbed the Ndzundza into his group.
 The Sotho were good farmers while the Ndebele were good herders which formed the basis
of a strong state.
 Mzilikazi had good leadership skills which helped unite people of different origins and
cultures into a single nation.
 Women who were captured during the raids, which the Ndebele still took part in after
fleeing Zululand, were send to Ndebele homesteads to live with the Ndebele families.
 He encouraged intermarriages to ensure the growth of the state and the offspring of these
marriages were groomed into the leadership ranks of the Ndebele society.
 Mzilikazi promoted people on merit so they could become Indunas and chiefs.
 Mzilikazi also persuaded other ethnic groups to join the state as he allowed them to retain
their possessions and privileges in society.
 Cattle rearing and settled agriculture were difficult because of the constant attacks from the
Zulu, Pedi and Griquas.
 His tribe was also greatly affected by the drought of 1823 which destroyed grazing lands.
 Mzilikazi raided other groups to obtain food, cattle and captives to strengthen his state.
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 Other supplies came from tribute from the surrounding loyal tribes.
 Due to insecurity Mzilikazi decided to wait for the harvest and raided other groups of their
crops before leaving Ekupumuleni.
 Despite the hardships and people leaving his state grew in size.

Mhlahlandela

 This was Mzilikazi‟s second settlement, but it was still close to Zululand and faced many
attacks from Dingane who was now King of the Zulu
 He established other military towns such as Endinandeni and Enkugwini and raided as far as
Botswana, Lesotho and Zimbabwe.
 The state lost a lot of man and cattle leaving it depleted.
 Mzilikazi met with Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society in 1829 and the two
became friends.
 There were hostile groups of the Kora, Khoisan who would team up with the Kwena people
and attack the settlement.
 The state was almost destroyed by the gun carrying Griquas and Rolong warriors (part of the
Tswana) who captured a lot of the Ndebele cattle and almost destroyed the Ndebele state.
 Many people became disgruntled and deserted though a lot of people stayed behind.
 Realizing agriculture was impossible and cattle pastures scarce, Mzilikazi decided to move
on.
 His state had been further ravaged by disease which attacked the cattle thus spurring him to
move.
 People were also attacked by diseases such as malaria

Mosega

 The Ndebele moved further west closer to Moffat‟s mission in Mosega

 The land was good for cattle and at this point around Marico he drove out the Hurutshe
 He also became friends with Dr Andrew Smith of the Central African Expedition in 1835
 His friendship with the whites did deter or stop the Griquas and Kora from attacking.
 In 1831 a combined Tswana – Griquas (the Rolong warriors) force had attached while his
army was away on a raiding mission in Lesotho resulting in many casualties.
 This was followed in 1834 by another attack by the Griquas and Kora
 Attacks continued as hunting expeditions from these groups crossed the Vaal
 At Mosega he faced the real threat of the Boers under the leadership of Portgieter who were
keen to expand eastwards after they had been driven away from the south by the British.
 In 1837 the Ndebele were defeated by the Boers who had allied with the Griquas, Tlokwa
and Rolong warriors.
 During this time Dingane sent another expedition to attack the Ndebele. The expedition was
defeated by the Ndebele incurred heavy losses.
 This encouraged the local Hurutshe and Griquas to raid the Ndebele for cattle.
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 The mounting problems finally compelled the Ndebele to migrate further north into
Botswana absorbing the Tswana and proceeding across the Limpopo.

Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration

 Separation of families.
 Lack of grazing areas.
 Droughts.
 Wars with the Pedi, Zulu, Griquas, Boers, etc.
 Loss of livestock e.g. cattle.
 Loss of lives. Many killed during wars.
 Ndebele homes were burnt.
 Succession disputes.
 Diseases e.g. Malaria.
 Tsetsefly problem.
 Attacks from wild animals.
 Disruption of trade and farming activities.
 Crossing the Drakensberg Mountains.
 Lack of water when travelling in the desert.
 Living on constant fear e.g. Boer threats.
 Fatigue, tiredness/long torrid journeys.
 Loss of women due to attacks.
 Poor weapons e.g. Boer had guns.
 Communication breakdowns

Settlements established by the Ndebele and the groups they fought in each settlement

Settlement Groups Fought

Endinandeni Griquas, Boers, Hurutshe, Zulu
Enkugqini (Enkugwini) Boers, Hurutshe
Griquas,
Ekupumeleni Ndzundza, Pedi.
Mhlahlandela Sotho, Tswana, Kora, Kwena, Griqua,
Rolong, Zulu
Mosega Hurutshe, Boers, Griquas, Zulu, Khoisan.
Egabeni Kora, Sotho, Tswana.

To what extent did wars with other groups unite the Ndebele state?

Unity as a result of wars

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 Create a formidable defence

 Protect their property.
 Create a strong raiding army.
 Fear of attacks from the Zulu.
 Establish a strong nation.

Unity caused by other factors

 Intermarriages united them.

 Religion e.g. adopted Mlimo cult.
 Fear of Mzilikazi.
 Language.
 Able leadership of Mzilikazi.
 The Ndebele were fewer so this kept them united.
 Fear of other groups kept them together

Leaders of the groups fought by the Ndebele during their migration

Leader Group
Sebetwane Kololo
Hendrik Potgieter Boers
Tshaka Zulu
Dingane Zulu
Jan Bloem Korana
Chief Sikonyela
Moshoeshoe Sotho
(Moshweshwe)
Barend Barends Taung, Rolong, Kora and
Griquas

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ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE NDEBELE STATE

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 Crop cultivation practised especially by former Shona members of the society. Grew millet,
Rapoko and later maize. Each village had a common field for the king whose produce went
straight to the king royal granary.
 Rearing of cattle played a major role in the economy. A person‟s wealth was measured by the
number of cattle they possessed. Most cattle belonged to the king.
 Trade – ivory, gold, cattle and grain exchanged for cloth, beads and guns.
 Raids of neighbouring neighbours yielded wealth such as grain and cattle.
 Tribute paid by subjects and subdued states who paid to avoid being raided.
 Mining of gold and iron also important.

Social organisation of the Ndebele state

 Ndebele society had classes.

 Zansi – pure Nguni.
 Enhla – Sotho, Tswana, incorporated while in South Africa.
 Hole – Shona who were conquered and incorporated into the Ndebele society.
 Form of caste system practised – lower class men prohibited to marry upper class women.
 Zansi class provided the ruling class.
 Marriage between the Zansi and other classes not allowed, but in practice people married
across classes.
 People in the state encouraged to speak the Ndebele language.
 Intermarriage practised.
 Low class people were not allowed to rise in the military ranks.
 Ndebele lived in regimental towns.
 Ndebele society was patrilineal and polygamous. Cattle important for lobola payment.
 All people in the state expected to follow Ndebele customs and speak Ndebele language.
 Inxwala – a thanksgiving ceremony for good crops to be observed by everyone in the state.
 Believed in ancestral spirits (amadhlosi) which they believed looked after them and brought
rain.
 Believed in Great God, Mlimo or Mwari.
 Adopted Shona language.

Political Organisation of the Ndebele State

 The king was an absolute ruler

 He was the commander in chief of the army.
 The king was also the head of the Judiciary.
 He conducted all the religious ceremonies in the Ndebele kingdom like the Inxwala
 The king was also the chief administrator.
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 He had power over life and death.

 The king distributed land to all his subjects.
 The king also administered the state with the help of two advisory councils that is
Umphakhathi and Izikhulu.
 The state was divided into chiefdoms.
 The larger areas had sub – divisions.

Military Organisation of the Ndebele state

 King was the commander of the army.

 King raised amabutho.
 Age regiments.
 Regimental towns.
 Each regimental town was under an Induna.
 Regimental towns joins to form provinces under a senior Induna.
 Captives included in the army.
 Warriors could marry after being successful in battle.
 Women drafted into the army as prostitutes and cooks.
 Warriors provided with wives from captives.
 Amabutho could also marry women from the disbanded regiments.
 Use of spies.
 Surprise attacks on enemies.
 Raiding was practised.
 Adopted Tshaka‟s military reforms

Items used to pay tribute in the Ndebele state

 Grain
 Gold
 Skins
 Cattle
 Goats
 Iron tools
 Guns
 Cloth
 Ivory

Groups that fought with the Ndebele on their way to Western Zimbabwe
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The Ndebele fought with the following groups as they made their way to Western Zimbabwe:

 The Zulu
 The Kora
 The Rolong
 The Hurutshe
 The Tlokwa
 The Tsonga
 The Griquas
 Boers.
 Pedi
 Khoisan
 Hlapin
 Kwena
 Tswana
 Taung
 Ngwakwetsi

The tribes that formed (were part of) the Ndebele society

The following tribes made up the Ndebele Society:

 The Ndebele (the Khumalo originally from Zululand)

 The Swazi
 The Sotho
 The Virwa
 The Nyubi
 The Tswana
 The Nanzwa
 The Venda
 The Tonga
 The Kalanga and,
 The Shona

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METHODS USED BY MZILIKAZI TO ESTABLISH THE NDEBELE STATE

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Mzilikazi and the Ndebele used the following methods to co-opt other tribes and form the Ndebele
state north of the Limpopo River:

 They demanded tribute from the local tribes.

 They entered into trade relations with the local tribes.
 They Attacked, defeated and absorbed the Rozvi.
 They raided their cattle and crops.
 They forbade the Europeans from selling guns and ammunition to the Shona.
 They captured and killed Shona leaders.
 The people were forced to speak the Ndebele language.
 Young Shona men were conscripted into the Ndebele armies.
 Ndebele governors were sent to control the people living in tributary areas.

The Role of the King in the Ndebele State

The King had several roles that he played in the political organisation of the Ndebele state. These
roles included:

 Raising the amabutho (army)

 Acted as the supreme commander of the army.
 Acted as the chief judge in the state.
 Allocated land.
 Presided over religious ceremonies especially those of national importance.
 Distributed captives, cattle and other loot obtained from the raids.
 Appointed indunas.
 Acted as the custodian of all cattle, land and people in the state.
 He was a nation builder, statesman and military strategist.
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Mzilikazi Khumalo King of the Ndebele

The role of the amabutho in the Ndebele state

The amabutho (army) played a central role in the Ndebele state. These roles included:

 Protecting the trade routes

 Protecting the king
 Defended the state against incursions.
 Herded cattle during times of peace.
 They were raiders and raiding was an important part of the Ndebele economy.
 Helped during harvest times.
 Sometimes provided labour in the king‟s fields.
 Hunted elephants for ivory.
 Some were miners.
 Punished offenders and rebelling chiefs on the king‟s orders.
 Protect people and property.
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A drawing of the Zulu amabutho engaged in battle.

Settlements established by the Ndebele South of the Limpopo

 Ekupumuleni
 Mhlahlandela
 Endinandeni
 Marico river
 Enkugwini
 Mosega
 Gibixhegu
 Tshwenyane
 Egabeni

Why Mzilikazi was able to rule for so long?

 Superior military tactics.

 Military leadership of Mzilikazi
 A strong military set up that emphasized loyalty to Mzilikazi.
 Defeated groups were incorporated into Ndebele society.
 Had friendly relations with Robert Moffat.
 Had superior weapons.
 Trusted by his people whom he had led for many years and experienced hardships together.
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 A no nonsense strongman of unparalleled abilities.

Matopos the burial place of Mzilikazi Khumalo Chief of the Ndebele

The Downfall of the Ndebele state

 The downfall of the Ndebele state is understood within the context of the scramble for
Africa.
 In short, the British imperialists and capitalists identified the area between Zambezi and the
Limpopo as their sphere of influence.
 The main push factor was the bankruptcy of the British South Africa Company which
resulted in the search for the Second rand north of the Limpopo.
 Failure to find gold in Mashonaland in the early 1880s made it inevitable for the Ndebele
and the British to clash – only an excuse was needed.
 British technology made it obvious that the Ndebele using their traditional weapons were
going to be defeated.
 The Anglo-Ndebele war of 1896 made the colonisation of Matebeleland inevitable.
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QUESTIONS

(a) State any five problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration [6]
(b) Describe any six social activities in Ndebele society [12]
(c) How important was cattle in the Ndebele society [8]

(a) List any five groups the Ndebele fought during their migration to Zimbabwe [6]
(b) Describe any six difficulties the Ndebele faced at various settlements during their migration
[12]
(c) Were the Ndebele affected by their migration? Explain your answer [8]

(a) Name five settlements established by the Ndebele south of the Limpopo River [5]
(b) Outline the problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration from Nguniland to
Western Zimbabwe [12]
(c) To what extent did the wars with other groups unite the Ndebele [8]

(a) Name any five settlements established by the Ndebele south of the Limpopo on their way to
western Zimbabwe [5]
(b) Describe the Ndebele migration from Zululand to modern Zimbabwe between 1822 and
1840 [12]
(c) To what extent was the Ndebele migration to western Zimbabwe caused by the Mfecane? [8]

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TOPIC 3: EARLY EUROPEAN CONTACTS WITH ZIMBABWE

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(b) : CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN ZIMBABWE 1850 – 1900

Robert Moffat

The aims of missionaries in Zimbabwe

The missionaries who came to Zimbabwe had several aims, these include;

 To spread Christianity.
 To convert heathens.
 To promote legitimate trade between Europeans and Africans.
 To campaign against slave trade and slavery in general.
 To promote equality among all humankind and counter the racist attitudes exhibited by
some of the early European settlers and explorers.
 To confuse Africans.
 To pave way for European colonisation of African states and kingdoms.
 To develop an indigenous middle class that would maintain and staff their local churches.
 To teach people so that they could be literate (read and write).
 To open up mission schools and stations as well as health centres.
 To civilise Africans
 To end African vices like human sacrifices and pagan vices.
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Missionary Societies/Organisations which operated in Zimbabwe

 The London Missionary Society

 The Roman Catholic Church
 The Anglican Church
 The Dutch Reformed Church
 The Berlin Missionary Society
 The American Board of the Church of Christ
 The Lutheran Church
 The Scottish Presbyterian
 The Evangelical mission.

Missionary organisations and their mission stations

Missionary Organisation Mission Station

London Missionary Society Inyati, Hope Fountain

Berlin Missionary Society Matibe, Mposi, Gutu

Roman Catholic Church Empandeni, Chishawasha

Dutch Reformed Church Morgenster, Chibi (also spelt Chivi), Zimuto

Anglican Church St Augustine's, St Faith's

Church of Christ from America

Mt Selinda
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The Church at St Faith Secondary School, Rusape was built by the Anglican Church.

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MISSIONARIES WHO WORKED FOR THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY

 Robert Moffat
 John Smith Moffat
 Charles Helm
 William Sykes
 David Carnegie
 Thomas Morgan Thomas

Roman Catholic Missionaries who came to Zimbabwe

 Father Bartholomew Kroot

 Father Wehl
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 Father Law
 Father Depelchin
 Brother de Sadeleer
 Father Prestage

Missionaries who worked in Mashonaland between 1850 and 1900

 Simon Buys
 Asser Schahabane
 David Molea
 Knight Bruce
 Gabriel Buys
 Stephanus Hofmeyer
 Beuser Wedepohl
 Isaiah Khumalo
 Petrus Morudu
 A.A. Louw
 Francois Coillard
 Knothe
 Schellenus

Robert Moffat and Khama from a book by Bishop Knight Bruce

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Economic activities of missionaries in Zimbabwe

 Trade with Africans

 Inoculated cattle against lung sickness
 Grew crops – exotic and crops, fruits, vegetables
 Taught Africans new farming skills
 Exposed Africans to new equipment
 Taught Africans new practical skills like carpentry, dress making e.t.c.
 Worked as gunsmiths
 Were involved in hunting
 Were involved in some prospecting and mining
 Kept some animals
 Encouraged cross-breeding of animals.

Political activities of missionaries

 Signed treaties.
 Give shelter to European treaty-seekers.
 Gave advice to Africans on relations with Europeans.
 Condemned some practises of African rulers.
 Gave blessings to invasion of Matabeleland.
 Encouraged colonization.
 Cheated African rulers during treaty signing.
 Some became friends of African rulers.
 Accompanied pioneer column giving them medical help.
 Settled disputes among Africans.

Social activities of missionaries

 Spreading Christianity
 Opened small schools and mission stations.
 Offered medical services.
 Translated books to different languages
 Lived in European styles of houses
 Dressed in European style.
 Discouraged and undermined African religion and tradition
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MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE/WORK OF MISSIONARY

ORGANISATIONS 1850 – 1900

 The London Missionary Society (LMS) established Inyati mission in 1859 led by J.S Moffat.
 In 1870 LMS opened another mission at Hope Fountain.
 At these missions the missionaries taught and preached the gospel.
 Books in Ndebele were printed.
 Rev Thomas wrote the First-Lesson Book and a Ndebele Hymn book.
 They grew food crops.
 Missionaries involved besides J S Moffat were Thomas Sykes, Charles Helm and David
Carnegie.
 In 1882 the Roman Catholics came to Matabeleland when the Jesuits opened Emphandeni
under Father Batholomew Kroot.
 In 1879 a catholic mission was established by Fr. Law at Mzila but it later failed.
 In 1891 the Anglican Church led by Knight Bruce came to Mashonaland. Their first mission
was St. Augustines.
 Later the Jesuits establish a mission in Chishawasha.
 The American Board of Church of Christ came to Eastern Zimbabwe and opened a mission
at Mt Selinda (Chirinda).
 Other missionary groups who came were the Methodists, whose earliest Mission was Old
Mutare.
 African evangelists and catechists from Transvaal and Lesotho sent missionaries to
Mashonaland, e.g. the Dutch Reformed Church, the Berlin Missionary Society and the Paris
evangelical mission. Some permanent mission stations were established e.g. at Chivi, Matibe,
and Mposi. At Chivi it was short lived.
 Between 1860 and 1890 missionaries representing the DRC, Paris Evangelical mission and
the Berlin Missionary Society began to work, e.g. the DRC was well represented in Masvingo
area.

The work of the London Missionary Society (LMS) in Matabeleland 1850 – 1900

 London missionary society came to Matabeleland after some earlier contacts south of the
Limpopo.
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 In 1859 J. S Moffat established Inyathi Mission.

 LMS opened Hope Fountain in 1870.
 Other missionaries who operated in Matabeleland included men such as T. Sykes, Rev C D
Helm and D. Carnegie.
 At the missions the missionaries taught and preached.
 Grew their own food.
 J.S Moffat signed the treaty with Lobengula in February 1888.
 Rev C Helm persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession in October 1888.
 Missionaries in Matabeleland encouraged trade between Ndebele and whites.
 Established schools, hospitals and churches.
 Converted one Ndebele into Christianity.
 Repaired the king‟s guns, wrote king‟s letters, and treated the sick.
 Discouraged and undermined African religion and tradition.
 Taught Ndebele new skills such as carpentry, inoculation cattle etc.
 Acted as interpreters (translators).
 Promoted literacy (Ndebele were taught how to read and write).

The Catholic Church in Zimbabwe

An early Jesuit Mission school in Zimbabwe

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 The Catholic missionaries also showed a lot of interest in Zimbabwe.

 This interest culminated in the 1879 expedition which was undertaken by 11 missionaries.
 Some of these missionaries included Fathers Batholomew Kroot, Law, Peter Prestage, and
Andrew Hartman.
 On arrival in Matebeleland, they immediately asked King Lobengula to grant them
permission to open a mission station in the country.
 Being a polygamist, the King was disturbed by the presence of many groups of men sworn
to chastity residing in his kingdom.
 He was, however, impressed by their technical skills, especially their ability to repair guns
and wagons.
 He thought he needed these men in future hence he granted them permission to open a
mission station at Emphandeni in 1887.
 The mission was to be located just near the site of the Impande regiment perhaps for easy
monitoring of the missionary activities.
 The mission was however closed two years later in 1889.
 It was then re-opened by Father Prestage in 1895 after the country was colonised.
 Emphandeni became the “mother house” from which catholic missionary work was
extended into Mashonaland.
 At these stations, missionaries taught the gospels, skills in carpentry, agriculture and
gardening.

African Evangelists who operated in Zimbabwe in the 19th century

Bernard Mizeki
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 Bernard Mizeki
 Sehahabane
 Funzane
 Moshe
 Madzima
 Makgatho
 Jefta
 Deacon Jacob
 Jonathan
 Gabriel buys
 Michael Buys
 Shumba Chekai
 Johannes
 Petrus Morudu
 Joshua Morudu
 David Molea
 Petrus Khobe
 Samuel Madzima
 Isiah Khumalo
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Anglicans still gather at Bernard Mizeki in Marondera

The work of missionaries in Mashonaland (missionary evangelical work) 1850 – 1900

 Missionaries and Evangelists visited south eastern parts of Mashonaland between 1850 and
1890.
 Madzima and Samuel went to Matibe and started preaching. They were welcome because
they were African Evangelists.
 Sehahabane visited chief Chivi and convinced him on the need for a mission station in Chivi.
Also began to preach, treat people, inoculate and educate people.
 Michael Buys and companions visited the Govera chief, Zimuto. He impressed on him the
need for a mission station in Zimuto. Started a station there, where preaching was started.
 Makgatho visited Chief Mugabe and opened a mission station.
 Francois Coillard found a mission in Chivi in 1876 and 1877. Coillard was arrested and
expelled by Lobengula.
 Knothe and Schellnus established a mission station at Matibe and Mposi but they abandoned
it due to diseases and famine.
 Father Law opened a Mission at Mzila but he died and Mzila was abandoned.
 Knight Bruce visited Mashonaland in 1888 and discussed with many Shona chiefs. Three
years later, in 1891 Knight Bruce established the Diocese of Mashonaland.
 Again the Berlin Missionary Society established permanent mission stations (centres) in
Mwenezi and Mberengwa districts.
 At these stations, missionaries taught the gospels, skills in carpentry, agriculture and
gardening.

Were the missionaries successful in their work?

Success

 Hospitals and clinics were built.

 Some people were converted.
 Other people were educated.
 Mission stations were established.
 Schools were built.

Failures

 Many people were not converted.

 Few people attended schools.
 Some missionary activities were restricted.
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 Some missionaries were killed.

 Some converts were killed
 Africans refused to learn the new language.
 Expulsion of missionaries.
 Missionaries relocated to remote areas.

Skills taught by Early Missionaries in Zimbabwe

 Carpentry
 Building
 Farming
 Reading
 Writing
 Cattle inoculation
 Mining

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THE SPREAD OF MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES SOUTH OF THE LIMPOPO BEFORE

1900

 Van der Kemp and LMS arrived at Cape in 1799 and they worked with the Khoi Khoi and
Xhosa.
 Wesleyan Methodist Society joined LMS at Cape in 1816.
 Church missionary society began work in South Africa in 1821.
 Expansion into interior.
 Moravians set up mission stations in Western Cape at Mamre and Genandal.
 The LMS established missions among the Tswana and Griqua north of Cape colony and
among the Khoi Khoi of Eastern Cape.
 Due to labour shortages at Cape after abolition of slave trade, missionaries pressed to supply
recruits.
 In 1829 Mzilikazi visited two missionaries; James Archbell of the Wesleyan Missionary
Society and Robert Moffat from LMS at Kuruman.
 Moffat become Mzilikazi‟s friend and visited him many times later at his several locations.
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 In 1833 Casalis and Arbousset of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society arrived in
Lesotho.
 Moshweshwe had invited French missionaries to help him deal with Griquas and other
advancing whites.
 With his encouragement missionaries opened schools and introduced Sotho literacy western
education and Christianity before start of colonization.
 Missionaries also introduced new agricultural methods and crops to Sotho e.g. use of plough,
wheat and fruit cultivation.
 Missionaries acted as diplomatic advisors to Moshweshwe and helped him with writing
diplomatic letters.
 In 1835, Captain Allen Gardiner arrived in Natal to start missionary work.
 Persuaded Dingane to accept missionaries to Zulu kingdom and in 1836 three Americans
and three English missionary Francis Owen started to work there.
 French missionaries expelled by Boers helped Moshweshwe to plead for British protection.
 Robert Moffat‟s last visit to Mzilikazi in Zimbabwe in 1860 opened the way for treaty and
concession seekers as well as hunters.
 Missionary work was active among Tswana during Mfecane.
 Moffat active among Southern Tswana around Kuruman.
 Helped persuade Griquas to drive Kololo away from Dithakong northwards through
Botswana.
 Moffat and David Livingstone helped open up missionary road through territory outside
Transvaal Republic.
 Chiefs Setshele of Kwena, Khama of Ngwato etc. had been conditioned to accept British
rule.

Reasons why Africans resisted missionary influence 1850 – 1900/Reasons for the Africans
resistance to Christianity

 Natural disasters blamed on missionaries e.g. 1861-1862 drought, rinderpests, locusts, small
pox and fever that killed people in 1862.
 Africans expected to be paid for attending lessons.
 Learning to read and write considered too laborious and unnecessary by Africans.
 The process of being catechist was a heavy burden to some Africans.
 Africans did not see the value of missionary teachings in their life.
 Missionary works – meaningless to traditional life.
 Christianity was a threat to their traditional religion.
 The power of traditional leaders and the divine power of kings or rulers likely to disappear.
 Christianity was against polygamy and raiding.
 Suspicious towards the missionaries.
THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

 Thought that missionaries wanted to colonize them.

 They were afraid to lose control of their trade with outsiders.
 There was a language barrier.
 Influence of Islam made them to hate Christianity.

Methods used by Africans to resist missionary influence (Christianity) 1850-1900.

 Moved far away from missionary settlements.

 Continued to practise traditional religions.
 Raids continued.
 Refused to attend schools.
 Killed some missionaries.
 Refused to give food to some missionaries.
 Accused some missionaries of being spies.
 Punished or killed potential converts.
 Accused some missionaries of using forbidden routes.
 Expulsion of missionaries.
 Some Africans continued to practise Islam.
 Continued to trade with Moslems.
 Restricted the movement of missionaries.
 African leaders discouraged people from attending missionary congregations.
 Missionaries were relocated to remote areas.
 Refused to work for the missionaries.
 Refused to accept some gifts from missionaries

Problems faced by Missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850-1900

 Diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.

 Poor transport and communication as journeys had to be made by foot or cattle wagons.
 Language barrier: most natives only spoke their native tongues while most of the
missionaries who were of European origin could not speak these.
 Opposition from Muslims.
 Opposition from African Traditional Leaders.
 Poor Security.
 Resistance to education by the locals.
 Resistance to Christianity by the locals.
 Some of the missionaries were killed by wild animals especially as they made journeys across
untamed lands.
 They often viewed with suspicion and distrust by the local population.
THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

 They lacked access to proper medications

 Often faced starvation as food could be scarce.
 They often faced delays in being granted permission to operate.
 Their converts or potential converts were often threatened, killed or sent away e.g. Bernard
Mizeki.
 The African climate was hostile and unforgiving with plenty of sunshine compared to the
milder climates of Europe.
 They were exposed to cruel African customs such as killing of twins and albinos and raiding.
 Some of them were killed by wild animals.
 Exposed to cruel African customs e.g. raiding, killing of twins.

A murdered Missionary family in Nyanga

Benefits of missionaries

 Opening of schools
 Taught people how to read and write
 Inoculated cattle
 Treated sick people
 Repaired guns.
 Brought exotic crops, fruits and vegetables.
THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

 Brought modern agricultural implements.

 Brought trade goods like cloth, beads and guns.
 Wrote letters for rulers.
 Discouraged slave trade.

Non – benefits of missionaries

 Some converted were detribalized.

 Attacked social, political practises of local people.
 Encouraged colonization.
 Cheated Africans during treaty – signing.
 Practised unfair trade.
 Divided Africans.

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DID THE MISSIONARIES CONTRIBUTE TO THE COLONISATION OF

ZIMBABWE?

Missionary influence on colonisation

 Moffat and David Livingstone opened up the missionary road through territory outside
Transvaal Republic.
 J. S. Moffat signed the Moffat treaty
 J.S Moffat laid groundwork for signing of Rudd Concession.
 Rev. C. Helm persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
 Missionary role in signing treaties.
 Missionaries acted as interpreters.
 Colonialists used the missionary roads.
 Missionaries provided food to concession seekers.
 Missionaries provided shelter to concession seekers.
 Missionaries gave advice to concession seekers.
 Missionaries acted as witnesses during treaty signing.

Other factors
THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

 Rhode‟s Cape to Cairo dream (Rhode‟s dream of a Cape to Cairo British belt).
 Berlin conference had obliged Europeans to sign treaties.
 Lobengula‟s indunas
 Lobengula himself agreed to sign treaties
 Sir Sidney Shippard played a role
 Concession seekers themselves.
 Discovery of minerals.
 Humanitarian reasons
 Strategic reasons.
 Search for market.
 Space for growing population.
 Need for labour and raw materials etc.
 Africans politically divided.
 Africans militarily weak.
 Good climate of Africa.
 Industrialisation in Great Britain and its associated effects.

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………..>>
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QUESTIONS

(a) Name any five mission stations established in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900 [5]
(b) Outline any six activities of the London missionary society in the 19th Century [12]
(c) How important was the role played by the London missionary society in the colonization of
Zimbabwe [8]

(a) Identify any five items which Africans gave to the early Christian missionaries through trade
between 1850 and 1900 [5]
(b) Outline any six reasons for the African resistance to Christianity between 1850 and 1900
[12]
(c) Is it true that the missionaries were responsible for the colonization of Zimbabwe? Explain
your answer [8]
THE HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE 4044/1 [email protected] Ce//:0716456434\0773651554

(a) State any five reasons why local people resisted missionary influence in Zimbabwe between
1850 and 1900 [65
(b) Outline six ways used by local people to resist missionary influence in Zimbabwe between
1850 and 1900 [12]
(c) Were these people successful in resisting missionary influence at that time? Explain your
answer [8]

(a) Name any five skills taught by the early missionaries in Matabeleland [5]
(b) Describe any six activities of the missionary evangelists and catechists in Southern
Mashonaland up to 1900 [12]
(c) To what extent was missionary work successful during this period [8]

(a) Name any five missionaries who came to Zimbabwe in the 19th century up to 1900 [5]
(b) Outline any six aims of the missionaries and the problems they faced in Zimbabwe up to
1900 [12]
(c) To what extent had the missionary achieved their aims by 1900 [8]

(a) Name any five mission stations established by early European missionaries in Zimbabwe
before 1900 [5
(b) Outline any six activities of the catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe up to 1900 [12]
(c) How successful was the work of catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe in this period [8]

THANK YOU!!!!
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..>>
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>YOU DESERVE A REST<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

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