Al

li
in A n
co tel ny Th form

for B1 certification
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

DIGITAL
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d Module 05

EASA Part-66 Basic Module

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in

TECHNIQUES
rit , pu oth nts py g d
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
e x w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r To f
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
 without
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form

the
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta

prior
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in written
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
permission

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
of

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
the

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
publisher.
Copyright © 2017 by Next Airworthiness Technics (Next-AT Sagl)

photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,

distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Rev.00| Pag.2
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine

SYSTEMS
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
SUB MODULE-01 em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT

ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.3
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
SUB-MODULE 01

a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
Instruments that aid the pilot in controlling the altitude, attitude, airspeed

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
and heading of the aircraft are known as flight instruments. Since the early

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
days of flight there have been four basic flight instruments that have formed

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
the well-known "T" arrangement located in the center of the instrument

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
panel.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
These four basic instruments are:

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
1) the airspeed indicator, that measures the aircraft's speed in nautical

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

miles per hour;

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

2) the attitude indicator, that shows the aircraft's attitude relative to the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

earth's horizon;
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

3) the altimeter, that displays the barometric altitude as measured in feet;

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

4) the gyro-slaved heading indicator, which shows which direction the

n
pi lec un e

aircraft is flying.
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.4
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr

rate of ascent or descent in feet per minute.

ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
bank in the yaw axis, and a vertical speed indicator that displays the
bank indicator that displays the rate of turn in the roll axis and amount of
These four basic flight instruments are typically augmented with a turn-and-

Rev.00| Pag.5
SUB-MODULE 01
SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
SUB-MODULE 01

a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
These early flight instruments were analog meaning that they contained

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
either mechanical or electro-mechanical rotating mechanisms to drive the

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
pointer dials on the instruments.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
With the advent of digital electronic, Electronic Instrument Systems, also
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

known as "glass cockpits", evolved that were more much more reliable than
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

mechanical or electro-mechanical analog instruments, and had the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

advantage of combining several flight and navigation functions into one

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

display
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.6
 Al
li
in A n

right picture.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Display (HSI) in the left picture, and a later model B737 instrument panel
analog Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) and analog Horizontal Situation

with electronic ADI (EADI) and electronic HSI (EHSI) displays shown in the

Rev.00| Pag.7
SUB-MODULE 01
SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
Navigation Display (ND) located inboard.

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Systems (EFIS) and Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
EFIS, consisting of a Primary Flight Display (PFD) located outboard and a
The new EIS consists of a dual-redundant Electronic Flight Instrument

Rev.00| Pag.8
SUB-MODULE 01
SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
SUB-MODULE 01

a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
ENGINE INDICATION AND CREW ALERTING SYSTEM

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The Boeing Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS), also

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
called an Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) on Airbus aircraft,

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
performs the monitoring of aircraft systems that was previously performed

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
by the Flight Engineer in three crew member cockpits. The two EICAS

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
displays are usually located in the center instrument panel.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
The upper EICAS display shows engine performance data. The lower

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

EICAS display is called a Multi-Function Display because it provides

do gh o ote in

auxiliary information to the flight crew and maintenance crew

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.9
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
SUB-MODULE 01

a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITOR

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The Airbus ECAM system provides the crew with the engine information

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
and also with the following levels of warning along with detailed messages

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
as to the nature of the problem and suggested courses of action.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
• Level 3: An overspeed, fire, or stall condition will cause a repetitive chime

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
aural warning with a bright red flashing light.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
• Level 2. A system failure, but not a safety of flight issue, will result in a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

single chime aural warning and a steady amber light.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

• Level 1: Failure leading to system degradation results only in an amber

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

light.
, d al uth nt on

• Mode or System Status. If everything is normal, a green light will

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

illuminate.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.10
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.11
PRIMARY ENGINE DISPLAY (LEFT) AND MULTIFUCTION DISPLAY (RIGHT)
SUB-MODULE 01
SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-02
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.12
 Al
DECIMAL
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
system is a written system for expressing numbers as symbols. All

ith be
ou
t
The most common numbering system that used in everyday life is the
Numbers are used to describe the quantity of something. A numbering

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) and is referred to as a base-10 numbering system.

numbering systems have bases to understand how the numbering system.

decimal system. The decimal system uses ten different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3,

Rev.00| Pag.13
SUB-MODULE 02
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ NUMBERING SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 02

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
BINARY

T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
The binary number system has only two symbols: 0 and 1, it is referred to

ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
as a base-2 numbering system. The use of the binary numbering

h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
system is based on the fact that switches or valves have two states: OPEN

Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
or CLOSED (ON or OFF).

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
Primary uses of the binary number system include computer architecture

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
and digital electronics. In fact strings of binary numbers are known as

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
machine language.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Binary numbers are formed by placing a 1 or a 0 in the binary place value
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

positions.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

The Least Significant Bit (LSB) is the bit with the smallest weight.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

The Most Significant Bit (MSB) is the bit with the largest weight.
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.14
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.15
SUB-MODULE 02
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
 OCTAL
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Octal has 8 symbols available as place value holders

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The binary numbering system requires many bits to represent relatively

as octal, were developed. It is referred to as a base-8 numbering system.

small numbers, for this reason a place-weighted numbering systems, such

Rev.00| Pag.16
SUB-MODULE 02
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
HEXADECIMAL
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co

A, B, C, D, E, and F.
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
eight bits in each byte. Hexadecimal symbols include normal decimal

t
Another place-weighted numbering system is hexadecimal with a base of

symbols of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, plus six alphabetical characters of

16. Each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (bits) and there are

Rev.00| Pag.17
SUB-MODULE 02
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
BINARY-CODED DECIMALS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
represented by Binary-Coded Decimals (BCD).

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
BCD coding and binary numbers are not the same.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
A series of four binary digits will form a 4-bit word. These 4-bit words are
Computers instructions are formed by groupings binary digits to form words.

Rev.00| Pag.18
SUB-MODULE 02
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.19
NUMBERING SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 02
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-03
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
DATA CONVERSION N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.20
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ANALOG DATA
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
time and value from high to low.
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
equivalent functional quantity of voltage or current.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
quantity, such as time, temperature, pressure, etc., by outputting an

ou
t
fact many cockpit instruments display both analog and digital formats.
Analog and digital signals can both contain the same useful information, in

Analog circuits do not have two set values but will vary continuously in both

Analog signals have the advantage in that they can represent any functional

Rev.00| Pag.21
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
DIGITAL DATA
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
"ON" and low for "OFF".
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
numbers to describe the value being transmitted.

ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
Digital data are discrete and discontinuous representations of

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
These two different voltage levels are put into a sequence of digital

ith be
ou
t
information. Digital signals are only two (binary) levels of voltage: high for

Rev.00| Pag.22
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA CONVERSION
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 03

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is a device that converts a continuous

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
input voltage to a digital data stream that represents the amplitude of

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
the input analog signal.

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The ADC performs conversions periodically by sampling and quantizing the

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
input signal over a very short period of time. The result is a sequence of
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
digital numbers that have been converted from continuous time and

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

amplitude analog signals to discrete time and amplitude digital signals.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.23
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
basic similarity of the two can be discerned.

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Clearly, the digital representation of the analog waveform shown in the
figure below is a distorted version of the original analog signal, although the

Rev.00| Pag.24
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on

smallest step size.

is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
sample, with each bit occupying less of the overall voltage range.

w y
ith be
ou
t
values. Quantization error can be reduced by generating more bits per
Errors are produced by dividing the voltage range into bins that implies
conversion back to the original analog signal will produce the exact same

Dynamic range is the ratio of the largest input that can be converted to the

Rev.00| Pag.25
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n

can sample.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
and when the associated digital code appears at the output.

in en T S
pa ts a
most important operational parameters used in selecting ADCs.

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Resolution and the speed of conversion (also called latency) are the two

Latency is the interval of time between when an analog signal is sampled

Resolution refers to the number of quantization levels or bands that an ADC

Rev.00| Pag.26
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 (figure below)
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

where by each reference

bu e ed a ta

is assigned a digital value.

te rty u re ine
direct comparison converter

d, ri se pr d
The fastest type of ADC is the

do gh o ote in voltage used in the comparison

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.27
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs) are found in everyday use. For

ou
t
digital data streams to analog music and video signals. Digital-to-analog is
example, digital information stored on DVDs and CDs use DACs to convert

converted back into nominal levels by reconstructing the original waveform.

the reverse of the ADC conversion process such that each binary number is

Rev.00| Pag.28
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
numbers, and changes them into corresponding voltages,

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
DAC is a device that reconstructs finite-precision time series data in to a
continuously varying signal, which theoretically can have an infinite number
of states. In simple terms, it takes binary numbers, or combination of binary

Rev.00| Pag.29
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA CONVERSION
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 03

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
A typical DAC converts a sequence of binary digits (bits) into "impulses"

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
that are then processed by a reconstruction filter to smooth out the step

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
response into continuous curves. These impulses are created by updating

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
the analog voltage output at uniform sampling intervals, controlled by a

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
clock timing signal, which are then interpolated by a low-pass

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
reconstruction filter to fill in the gaps between the impulses creating a
io de es on y in
continuously varied output. pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.30
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
resistor ladder, and 8 high-speed current switches.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
output that can be converted to a voltage type using a current-to-voltage
The most commonly used 8-bit DAC is the MC1408, which has a current

converter op-amp. The MC1408 consists of a reference current amplifier, a

Rev.00| Pag.31
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA CONVERSION
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 03

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
LIMITATIONS OF CONVERSION

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
As previously discussed, analog signals are converted into digital signals so

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
that the information is manipulated by instructions executed within a

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
computer and then converted back to analog signals to drive analog display

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
formats (such as hands on a clock) that are easily recognized by the crew.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
However, reconstructing a signal from digital-to-analog or from analog-to-
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
digital can degrade the signal by introducing errors, also known as noise.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

Reconstruction noise, as well as sampling noise from quantization, not only

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

combine in the final signal, but also compound over multiple stages of
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

conversion resulting in a loss of quality, or fidelity, of the original signal.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.32
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

at the top of the figure.

the waveform shown at
All though not apparent,

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
the bottom of the figure in
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n
this slide is a distorted version
e s
of the original waveform shown
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
LIMITATIONS OF CONVERSION

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.33
SUB-MODULE 03
DATA CONVERSION
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in

DATA BUSES
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-04
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.34
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
DIGITAL DATA BUSES

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
An integrated avionics system consists of various subsystems and

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
components that need to communicate with each other in order to share

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
information.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
Up until the early 1970's, many avionic systems were largely analog

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

implementations using syncho and potentiometer outputs and inputs with

do gh o ote in

required point to- point wiring between various sensors and their dedicated
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

cockpit instruments. As such, there were many large and heavy wiring
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

bundles with point-to point wiring, in addition to reliability problems due to

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

intermittent connector pin failures. In order to reduce aircraft weight and

co tel ny Th form

increase reliability, it became necessary to decrease the amount of aircraft

n
pi lec un e
li

wiring and connectors.

Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.35
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
DIGITAL DATA BUSES

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Therefore, avionics system designers began using Analog-to-Digital

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
Converters (ADCs) and Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs) with serial

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
point-to-point digital data buses requiring only two twisted pairs of wires

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
connecting single data transmitters (sources) and single data receivers

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
(sinks). These data buses evolved into single-source with multiple-sink
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
buses, such as ARINC 429, and multiple source with multiple sinks buses,
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

such as ARINC 629 and its military equivalent, MIL-STD-1553B.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.36
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
DIGITAL DATA BUSES

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
receiving end would decode and distribute the individual signals.

w y
ith be
to sample input data sequentially and then stagger the different data

ou
clock time and address of the various signals, a de-multiplexer at the

t
samples in time to form a composite digital pulse train. By knowing the
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) enabled different forms of information to
be transmitted through one communication system. A multiplexer was used

Rev.00| Pag.37
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e MIL-STD-1553B
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
MIL-STD-1553B became a military standard.

ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
multiple data sinks residing on a single multiplex bus.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
In 1975, the U.S. Air Force F-15 and F-16 tactical fighters were the first

from single data source and single data sink to multiple data sources and
military aircraft to employ a digital data bus. The TDM concept had evolved

Rev.00| Pag.38
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e MIL-STD-1553B
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
is full duplex permits one to talk and listen simultaneously.

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
would mean that data can move in both directions at the same time.

ou
t
MIL-STD-1553B is an asynchronous half-duplex bus, meaning that data

one to speak while another person is talking. However, a cell phone which
can move in both directions, but only in one direction at a time. Full-duplex

An example of half-duplex operation is a speakerphone that does not allow

Rev.00| Pag.39
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
MIL-STD-1553B

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
the 1553B bus consists of a Bus Controller (BC) and up to 31 Remote

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
Terminals (RT) which interface with the various subsystems. The Bus

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Controller (BC) initiates all data transfers by sending a command to a

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
specified RT. Only the Remote Terminal receiving the command will

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
respond. The command may include data or requests for data, and a status
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
request from the RT. The RTs receive and decode the signals, reports
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

errors and corrects them. As the term implies, the Bus Monitor (BM)
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

monitors the status of each transfer to determine that the data was
bu e ed a ta

successful transmitted and received error free.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.40
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e MIL-STD-1553B
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Mission Computer. The Mission Computer hosts the entire avionics

ou
t
Typically the Bus Monitor and the Bus Controller are physically located
within the same "black box" or Line Replaceable Unit (LRU), often called a

software operating system, known as an Operational Flight Program (OFP).

Rev.00| Pag.41
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
MIL-STD-1553B

ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
so data from one bus can be transferred on to another bus.

or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Multiple level topologies are formed by interconnecting single-level buses

Rev.00| Pag.42
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
 bus fails.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e MIL-STD-1553B
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
have command-response authority over the buses at any one time.

ou
Each level will have two or more separate redundant buses, so that a

t
resend its command signal over a secondary backup bus. Also, it is not
uncommon to have a back-up BC/BM as well, although only one BC will
For example, if the BM receives an error message, the BC may attempt to
secondary bus can take over communications in the event that the primary

Rev.00| Pag.43
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
 Al
li
ARINC 429
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s

However, it has its limitations.

pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
environmental operational specifications.

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
standards for equipment form, fit and function compatibility and

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
A429 digital data bus, used in the Boeing and Airbus, as a commercial
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) was formed in 1929 as a non-

aircraft standard. It is less complex and less costly than MIL-STD-1553B.

profit organization with airline and aircraft industry representation to develop

Rev.00| Pag.44
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
ARINC 429

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
A429 is not as robust as 1553B as it can only accept up to 20 receiver

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
terminals, and its data rate is limited to 100 000 bits per second (100 Kbps).

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
It has a selfclocking, self-synchronizing data bus protocol similar to 1553B,

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
and it uses shielded twisted-pair wires for a physical connection. The major

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
limitation of A429 is that it has a simplex architecture, meaning that digital
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
data can travel only in one direction from the transmitter source to the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

receiver sink at any one time; data can't travel in the opposite direction on
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

the same bus.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.45
 Al

directional.
li
ARINC 429

in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
those sinks needs to transmit back to the source and/or the other sinks, it
will need a separate twisted-pair wire to do so since data transfer is not bi-
What this means is that if there are multiple sinks for one source and one of

Rev.00| Pag.46
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
ARINC 429

T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
A429 uses a return-to-zero modulation technique to form each bit meaning

ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
that logic state "1" is achieved by voltage moving from high (e.g., +10 volts)

h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
to null (zero volts) and logic state "0" is obtained by going from null to low

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
(e.g., -10 volts). Figure below illustrates how an ARINC 429 data word is

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
formed. The first bit is the parity bit (used for error detection), followed by

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
three sign and status matrix bits, 18 data bits, 2 bits for the source

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
destination identifier and an 8 bit data word label.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.47
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ARINC 629

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
The newer A629 data bus has a data rate of 2 Mbps, which is 20 times

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
faster than A429, and can handle 131 terminals instead of only 20.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
A629 has a multiple-source and multiple-sync bus topology that is very

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
similar to MIL-STD-1553B, except that it does not have a Bus

r w d s te co in
Controller/Monitor, and separate channels must be used to transmit and
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
receive. A629 uses a time-based, collision-avoidance protocol that allocates
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

an assigned time slot to each terminal in which it is allowed to transmit on to

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

the data bus. Each terminal decides when an appropriate time slot is
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

available for transmission. Terminals are connected to the bus via a Serial
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

Interface Module to provide isolation so that a shorted terminal can't bring

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

down the entire bus. A629 data words consist of 3 sync bits, 16 data bits,
co tel ny Th form

and 1 parity bit.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.48
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
ARINC 429 - ARINC 629 - MIL-STD-1553B

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.49
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
AIRCRAFT NETWORKS/ETHERNET

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
Ethernet is a commercial computer networking technology for local area

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
and larger networks. It became standardized by the Institute of Electrical

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
and Electronic Engineers as IEEE 802.3. The original concept used coaxial

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
cables as a shared medium. It has since evolved to using either twisted-pair

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
wires (for low-speed data transfer) or fiber-optic cables (for higher speeds)
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
in conjunction with the use of hubs or switches. The data transfer speed has

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

also since increased from 2 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Each data frame contains
do gh o ote in

of a source address and destination address, in addition to error checking

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

so that damaged data can be detected and the data frame retransmitted if
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

required.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.50
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ARINC 664 AFDX

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The Avionics Full-Duplex Switched (AFDX) network, currently being used in

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
the Airbus A380 and the Boeing 787, is specified as ARINC Standard 664.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
AFDX is the equivalent of the Ethernet 100 Mbps network, except that it has

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
been adapted with deterministic timing and redundancy required for

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
avionics applications.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

AFDX works more like a telephone exchange network than a typical aircraft
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

digital data bus with data being switched from subscriber to subscriber,
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

except that the subscribers are Line Replaceable Units (LRU).

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.51
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ARINC 664 AFDX

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The AFDX network topology consists of switches for traffic policing and LRU

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
terminals (end systems) for traffic shaping and integrity checking. The

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
switches and the terminals communicate with each other simultaneously

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
(full-duplex) to prevent data collisions. Data transfer is accomplished via

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
'virtual links", which are unidirectional connections from one source terminal
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
to one or more destination terminals.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Virtual links are determined by fixed commutation tables that are resident in
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

each switch. Configuration tables within each LRU terminal dictate the
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

formatting of the data that is transmitted. AFDX data words will contain
ed tu a co ati

destination and source addresses and the frame size can be anywhere
co tel ny Th form

from 64 to 1518 bytes.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.52
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ARINC 664 AFDX

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.53
SUB-MODULE 04
DATA BUSES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ DATA BUSES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 04

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
IEEE 1394 FIREWIRE

h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Another commercial network that is making its way onboard aircraft is IEEE

Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
1394, also known as Firewire.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
It has since become popular for aircraft in-flight entertainment systems for

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
streaming high-speed video signals due to its high data rate of up to 800

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
Mbps.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
The Firewire serial bus is also used in the Lockheed Martin F-35 Joint
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

Strike Fighter Vehicle Management System for flight control, engine control
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

and utility systems control, due to its large bandwidth and fault-tolerant
bu e ed a ta

topology where no single point failure can bring down the entire bus.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.54
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-05
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en

LOGIC CIRCUITS
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.55
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form LOGIC GATES
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

digital logic gates.

, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
signals through the logic gates.
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
signals corresponding to binary 1's and 0's.

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The purpose and task of the device is achieved by manipulating electric
Transistors are used in digital electronics to construct circuits that act as
A gate is a special type of circuit designed to accept and generate voltage

Rev.00| Pag.56
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
LOGIC GATES

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
Digital logic is based on the binary number system.

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
There are two conditions than may exist, 1 or 0.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
In a digital circuit, these are equivalent to voltage

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
or no voltage. Within the binary system,

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
these two conditions are called Logic 1 and Logic 0.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
Using just these two conditions,
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

gates can be constructed to manipulate information.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

There are a handful of common logic gates

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

that are used.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

By combining any number of these tiny

co tel ny Th form

n
n

solid-state gates, significant memorization,

pi lec un e
li
Al

manipulation, and calculation of information can be performed.

in A

Rev.00| Pag.57
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
NOT GATE

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
The NOT gate, also known as an 'inverter", is the simplest of all gates. If the

em o ta co s, t a

w
input to the gate is Logic 1, then the output is NOT Logic 1. T

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
his means that it is Logic 0, since there are only two conditions in the binary

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
world. In an electronic circuit, a NOT gate would invert the input signal.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

The gate can be constructed with transistors and resistors to yield this
do gh o ote in

electrical logic every time. In other words, a circuit can be built such that if
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

voltage arrives at the gate, no voltage is output or vice-versa.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.58
 Al

NOT GATE
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
containing a characteristic logic function.

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
To understand logic gates, truth tables are often used.

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
A truth table gives all of the possibilities in binary terms for each gate

ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.59
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al

NOT GATE
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
conducting) or fully ON (saturated).
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
circuit design of a gate is usually not presented

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
In this manner, reliable logic functions can be performed.

ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
When using transistors to build logic gates, the primary concern is to

ou
operate them within the circuits so the transistors are either OFF (not

t
When examining and discussing digital electronic circuits, the electronic

Rev.00| Pag.60
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 output.
Al
NOT GATE
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
performs the logic NOT gate function.

ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
Figure below illustrates an electronic circuit schematic diagram that

ith be
ou
Any input, either a no voltage or voltage condition, yields the opposite

t
Rev.00| Pag.61
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
BUFFER GATE

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Another logic gate with only one input and one output is the buffer. It is a

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
gate with the same output as the input. While this may seem redundant or

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
useless, an amplifier may be considered a buffer in a digital circuit because

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
if there is voltage present at the input, there is an output voltage. If there is

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
no voltage at the input, there is no output voltage. When used as an

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Operational Amplifier, the buffer can change the values of a signal. This is
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
often done to stabilize a weak or varying signal.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.62
 its input.
amplifier.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e BUFFER GATE
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
processing circuits, control circuits and instrumentation.

gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
An Operational Amplifier (OpAmp) is a high-gain differential voltage

ith be
ou
t
The output is also linear with the difference between the input potential.
They are widely used in a wide variety of electronic circuits including signal
The output can be hundreds or thousands times greater than the voltage of

Rev.00| Pag.63
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
AND GATE
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
Most common logic gates have two or more inputs.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
For an AND gate to have a Logic 1 output, both inputs have to be Logic 1.

the output, the AND gate circuit has to receive voltage at both of its inputs.
In an actual electronic circuit, this means that for a voltage to be present at

Rev.00| Pag.64
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 autopilot.
Al

AND GATE

operational.
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
certain conditions are first met.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
Only when these conditions are met will the autopilot be engaged.

ith be
AND all autopilot control knobs are in depths AND servo circuits are

ou
An example of AND logic could possibly be engage logic, found in an

In this case, the autopilot would not be allowed to be engaged unless

t
Such conditions could be: Vertical gyro is valid AND directional gyro is valid

Rev.00| Pag.65
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 OR GATE
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
inputs must be Logic 1.
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Another useful and common logic gate is the OR gate.

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
it still meets the condition of one of the inputs being Logic 1.

or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
In an OR gate, to have an output of Logic 1 (voltage present), one of the

1. When both inputs are Logic 1, the OR gate has a Logic 1 output because
Only one of the inputs needs to be Logic 1 for there to be an output of Logic

Rev.00| Pag.66
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
Figure below is a simplified circuit that illustrates the OR logic. The example

ex w o io n o
used is a "DOOR UNSAFE“ annunciator. In order for the annunciator light

N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
on the master warning panel to extinguish, both doors must be closed and

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
locked. If any one of the doors is not secured properly, the baggage door

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
OR the cabin door, then the "DOOR UNSAFE“ annunciator will illuminate.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
In this case, two switches are in parallel with each other. If neither on of the

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
two switches is closed, the light bulb will light up. The lamp will be off only

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
when both switches are open.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.67
 Al
li
in A n NAND GATE
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

gates are also useful.

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
NAND gate is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
The NAND gate is a combination of an AND gate and a NOT gate.

ith be
They can be derived from combining the AND, OR, and NOT gates.

ou
This means that AND gate conditions must be met and then inverted.

t
The AND, OR, and NOT gates are the basic logic gates. A few other logic

Rev.00| Pag.68
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 voltage.
Al
li
in A n NAND GATE
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
both be Logic 1.
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
Or, if a NAND gate has both inputs Logic 1, the output is Logic 0.

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
If a Logic 1 output is to exist from a NAND gate, inputs A and B must not

cannot both have voltage or, if both inputs have voltage, there is no output
Stated in electronic terms, if there is to be an output voltage, then the inputs

Rev.00| Pag.69
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
NOR GATE
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e soutput through a NOT gate.
Logic 1 or have input voltage.

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
A NOR gate is similarly arranged except that it is an inverted OR gate.

This is the same as satisfying the OR gate conditions and then putting the
If there is to be a Logic 1 output, or output voltage, then neither input can be

Rev.00| Pag.70
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
EXCLUSIVE OR GATE

te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
1 output is excluded and results in Logic 0.

en r us ted nsi tra re

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
This is not allowed in an EXCLUSIVE OR gate.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
When either of the inputs is Logic 1, the output is Logic 1.

ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
In an OR gate, there would be a Logic 1 when both inputs are Logic 1.
Another common logic gate is the EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) gate. It is the
same as an OR gate except for the condition where both inputs are Logic 1.

However, with an EXCLUSIVE OR gate, if both inputs are Logic 1, the Logic

Rev.00| Pag.71
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
with an inverted output.
te rty u re ine
EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e sthe time interval of the pulse.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
It produces a 1 output when all inputs are 1s and also when all inputs

t
The EXCLUSIVE NOR (X-NOR) gate is nothing more than an XOR gate

are 0s. The standard symbol and truth table is shown in figure below "T" is

Rev.00| Pag.72
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 isolated.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
inverting the output.
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
NEGATIVE LOGIC GATES

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
output of a negative OR gate is the same as a NAND gate.

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
There are also negative input logic gates. The negative OR and the

ith be
ou
Negative logic gates are used when the inputs need to be buffered or

t
The output of a negative AND gate is the same as a NOR gate, and the
negative AND gates are gates wherein the inputs are inverted rather than

Rev.00| Pag.73
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
NEGATIVE LOGIC GATES

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.74
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
LOGIC GATE

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.75
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
INTERPRETATION OF LOGIC DIAGRAMS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
Electronic circuits use transistors to construct logic gates that produce

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
outputs related to the inputs shown in the truth tables for each kind of gate.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
The gates are then assembled with other components to manipulate data

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
in digital circuits.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The electronic digital signals used are voltage or no-voltage representations
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
of Logic 1 or Logic 0 conditions.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

By using a series of voltage and/or no voltage outputs, a logic circuit

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

manipulates, computes,and stores data.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.76
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ADDER LOGIC CIRCUITS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
An example of this is the half-adder logic circuit, shown in Figure 1,

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
consisting of an EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) gate and an AND gate.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
As seen from the truth table, voltage applied to either input A or B will cause

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
the sum (S) to be 1.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Voltage applied to both A and B will cause S to be 0 and the carry (C) to be
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
1 forming the binary number 10, which is the decimal number 2.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

Half-adders can only add two digits.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

A full-adder becomes necessary when a carry input (Cin) must be added to

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

the two binary digits to obtain a decimal sum of 3.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

In this case, a full-adder logic circuit can be constructed from two half-
co tel ny Th form

adders and an OR gate, shown in Figure 2

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.77
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
HALF-ADDER

te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
ADDER LOGIC CIRCUITS

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
FULL-ADDER

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.78
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e

semiconductor).
TTL AND CMOS

ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
and logic circuits to perform a task.
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
connected together to produce a consistent output.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide
There are several different kinds of logic circuits, the most popular being

This output may be combined with the output of other TTL logic elements
TTL logic circuit elements are primarily bipolar semiconductor components

Rev.00| Pag.79
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n

requirements.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
TTL AND CMOS
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
There are different types of TTL circuits that have different power

w y
transistors rather than the bipolar junction transistors used in TTL.

ith be
CMOS logic circuits are constructed with metal oxide semiconductor

ou
TTL circuits operate with +5-volts power source. It uses positive logic,

t
meaning Logic 1 occurs with +5 volts and Logic 0 is ground or 0 volts.

Rev.00| Pag.80
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e

aircraft systems.
TTL AND CMOS
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
components use fewer elements.

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
current flow through the base emitter junction.

ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
CMOS logic circuits use less power because of the construction of the

CMOS technology is predominant in modern integrated circuits used in

logic gates and, therefore, the digital circuits that are comprised of CMOS

CMOS transistor output is triggered by lower voltage and does not rely on

Rev.00| Pag.81
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e sthe segment "ON" and "OFF"
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
AIRCRAFT LOGIC CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS

m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
illuminating display segments of numbers on a radio control head.

ith be
ou
One example of logic circuits applied to aircraft applications would be

t
The circuit shown in figure below uses a NOT gate and three OR gates.
Feeding patterns of binary numbers into the four inputs on the left will turn

Rev.00| Pag.82
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ LOGIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 05

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
AIRCRAFT LOGIC CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
Another aircraft logic circuit application is the Landing Gear Warning

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
Indicator.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
It consists of a 3-input NOR gate and a 3-Input AND gate, as shown in

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
figure in the next slide.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
As can be seen from the truth tables, when all 3 landing gear are extended
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
and locked they each activate a limit switch which provides a voltage (1) to
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

the 3 inputs of both gates thereby turning "OFF" (0) the red LED(light-
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

emitting diode) and turning "ON" (1) the green LED.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

The opposite occurs when all three landing gear are retracted turning "ON"
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

(1) the red LED and turning "OFF" (0) the green LED indicator.
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.83
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Landing Gear Warning Indicator

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.84
SUB-MODULE 05
LOGIC CIRCUITS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

STRUCTURE
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-06
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
BASIC COMPUTER
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.85
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
instructions, and provides the results.

n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
caution and warning; and other essential functions.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
A computer accepts digital information, processes it per a set of

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Computers found on board aircraft are used to provide vehicle and utility
control; flight management; navigation, communication and identification;

Rev.00| Pag.86
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
and Output (I/O) system.
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The basic structure or architecture of a computer is shown in figure below.
It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main Memory, and an Input

Rev.00| Pag.87
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The Address and Data Buses provide a pathway for information to f low

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
between the CPU, Main Memory, and the I/O system.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
They are referred to as parallel busses because they consist of multiple

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
lines that send related parts of information simultaneously.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
Information, either data or instructions, contained on each parallel line is
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

sent from multiple ports on the CPU to arrive at multiple ports at either the
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Main Memory or the I/O system, or vice versa.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.88
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
Memory, and the I/O system, is a serial bus.

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
such as displays and storage, are also serial buses.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The Control Bus, which provides control signals between the CPU, Main

Buses that connect the I/O system with external input and output devices,

Rev.00| Pag.89
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on

with a parallel bus.

is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
serial buses are used externally throughout the aircraft

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Serial buses differ from parallel buses in that one bit of information is

ou
t
Parallel buses tend to be short and are internal to the computer, where
transmitted or received one bit at a time on a single line in a serial fashion,
rather than information being sent all at once over multiple lines, as is done

Rev.00| Pag.90
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The CPU is the "brain" of the computer. It retrieves and executes

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
instructions (i.e., sequence of steps) stored in memory and coordinates the

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
flow of data throughout the computer in a synchronous manner controlled

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
by the clock timing signals.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
The clock generates a periodic square-wave pulse train used as timing
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
signals.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

Following a HIGH pulse from the clock, the CPU retrieves data and
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

instructions from Main Memory or the I/O system on the parallel data bus,
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

processes the data, and writes the result back on to the data bus to send to
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

the Main Memory or to the I/O system if, for example, the result is to be
ed tu a co ati

displayed or put in to external storage.

co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.91
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
facilitate communication with other onboard computers and to their

ith be
ou
t
Input and Output (I/O) system converts the information to other forms to

serial data buses, such as MIL-STD-1553B, ARINC 429, ARINC 629, etc.
The Main Memory stores the information for later access by the CPU. The

operators (e.g., flight crew, technicians, etc.) through external bi-directional

Rev.00| Pag.92
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
binary digits, known as "bits".
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
A byte can hold 2⁸ or 256 values.
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
A bit can hold 21 values, "0" and "1".

n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
Eight bits are grouped to form a "byte".

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Computers process information using digital data that is coded in single

Rev.00| Pag.93
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr
One thousand bytes, known as a Kilobyte (KB), is equivalent to the amount

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
of information contained on a page in a book.

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
One million bytes, or a Megabyte (MB), is equivalent to the amount of

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
information contained in a large book.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
A Gigabyte (GB), or one thousand megabytes, is equivalent to the
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
information contained in a two-hour standard-definition movie.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

A computer's main memory typically stores several GB of information.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

1 KB = 1 000 bytes
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

1 MB = 1 000 KB = 1 000 000 bytes

n
pi lec un e
li
Al

1 GB = 1 000 MB = 1 000 000 000 bytes

in A

Rev.00| Pag.94
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

treated as a unit by a computer.

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
same width as the word size or a multiple of the word size.

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
a
Thus, a 32-bit computer would typically have 32 data bus lines.

pa ts
All modern computers use a multiple of a byte as their word size.

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The parallel data bus between the CPU and Main Memory is normally the
Bits are grouped together to form "words". A word is a basic group of digits

Rev.00| Pag.95
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
There are two types of words: instructions and data.

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
Instructions retrieved from Main Memory tell the CPU what operation to

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
perform on the data.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
The instructions are a series of steps, such as "branch" to a new instruction,

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
perform a mathematical operation on the data, write the data back into Main
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Memory, read from the I/O system, or write to the I/O system.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

Branch is an instruction that may cause the computer to begin execution of

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

a different instruction sequence.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.96
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co

the immediate value.

tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).

en r us ted nsi tra re

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
The first 6 bits are reserved for the operations code.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The remaining bits designate the destination register, source register and
Figure below illustrates how a 32-bit instruction word could be formed in a

Rev.00| Pag.97
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
Registers (R) in the CPU provide a temporary storage area to manipulate

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
the data as per the instruction. An immediate value is stored as part of the

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
instruction which employs it, usually to load into, add to, or subtract

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
from, a number stored in a register.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
In addition to instruction words, there are data words. The numbers in the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

data are called operands because they are operated on by the instruction
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

set. Operands are defined as objects of a mathematical operation.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.98
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
BITS, BYTES, AND WORDS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
There are two basic types of data words: fixed-point and floating point.

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
Fixed-point data words are most common.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Fixed-point is further divided into signed and unsigned data.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
Unsigned data is the simplest since all the bits in the data word signify the

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
magnitude of the number. pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

Floating-point data words are used for numbers that need to be expressed
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

in scientific notation.
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

After the sign bit, the 8 bits that follow are used to express the exponent
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

with the remaining 23 bits reserved for the multiplier

co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.99
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form SOFTWARE
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
can reside in either programs or in algorithms.

ro in t re m op
m h d a e
sequence of steps that implement an algorithm.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
Instead, software specifies the operations to be performed on data.

ith be
Data is used as operands by the computer instructions. Instructions

Think of programs as arithmetic and logic operations described as a

ou
t
Software, unlike hardware, is not a physical entity that can be touched.

Rev.00| Pag.100
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
SOFTWARE

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
There or two basic types of software, system software and application

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
software.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
The system software is designed to directly operate the computer

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
hardware. The system software includes the operating system and the I/O
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
device drivers.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

The operating system instructs the overall computer operation, including

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

start-up, file management, initiating the device drivers, and providing data
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

input and output.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

It manages resources and provides common services for application

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

software programs that runs on top of the operating system, as shown in

n
pi lec un e

the next figure.

li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.101
 Al
li
in A n

SOFTWARE
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

operating system.
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
to the user under the supervision of the

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m
(e.g., Microsoft Word on a Personal Computer)

h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
The application programs provide specific functions

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.102
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 language.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form SOFTWARE
pi lec un e

or an interpreter.
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
Software programs are usually written in a high-level programming

ith be
ou
t
much easier and more efficient for a programmer to write than machine

object code (machine language) via a software program called a compiler

The high-level model-based source code is then translated into executable
language, such as C++, which is closer to natural language, and as such, is

Rev.00| Pag.103
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n SOFTWARE

development.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on

the next instruction.

is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
for this reason, are the only programs used for avionics software

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The difference is that a compiler reads the entire source code before it

Compiled programs execute much faster than interpreted programs, and

generates the object code, while the interpreter reads one instruction at a
time, produces the object code, and executes the instruction before reading

Rev.00| Pag.104
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n HARDWARE
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
stored program computers.

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
Figure below, illustrates what is known as the John von Neumann

w y
ith be
ou
t
architecture after its discoverer who was the first to present the idea of

Rev.00| Pag.105
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form HARDWARE
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on

display, printer, etc.

is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which contains the

ith be
and output devices (called peripherals), such as a keyboard, mouse,

ou
t
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and Main Memory Unit.
It typically interfaces to external secondary memory storage and to input

Rev.00| Pag.106
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 computer.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
processes instructions and coordinates the flow of data throughout the
A CPU microprocessor, such as the Intel Pentium 4 (Figure), retrieves and

Rev.00| Pag.107
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Unit (CU).
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
from memory and other storage devices.

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The CPU contains registers, an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and a Control
It performs math and logic calculations and sends data to and retrieves data

Rev.00| Pag.108
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The registers provide a temporary storage area to manipulate data during

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
computations.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
The ALU combines values from the registers, such as adding numbers from

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
different registers, and enters new values in to the registers.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
Most computer operations are executed in the ALU.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

The Control Unit (CU), supervises overall CPU operations, controls the
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

ALU, initiates I/O functions, and decodes instructions to determine whether

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

to add, subtract, multiply, divide, compare, or some other operation.

co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.109
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta

operation is completed.
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

r w d s te co in
ALU to execute a given instruction.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
The CU ensures that an operation is not initiated until the preceding

ou
t
a sequence of operations, such as moving an integer from a register to the
The CU directs the data path between the registers and the ALU to perform

Rev.00| Pag.110
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
To execute an instruction, the CPU divides the action to be performed into a

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
sequence of basic steps such that each step will be completed in one clock

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
cycle.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
The higher the clock speed, the more instructions the computer can

r w d s te co in
execute in any given amount of time.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
CPU speeds are measured in cycles per second, known as Hertz or Hz.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

One cycle represents a single task executed, such as adding together two
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

numbers.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

Computer clock speeds are measured in Gigahertz (GHz), or one billion

, d al uth nt on

(10⁹) cycles per second.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.111
 (bits).
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

io de es on y in
Random-Access Memory (RAM)
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
There are two basic types of main memory:

en r us ted nsi tra re

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Computer programs and data are stored in memory as coded binary digits

Rev.00| Pag.112
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine

programs is also in RAM.

d, ri se pr d
typically faster than ROM.

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Because of the increased speed of RAM, the instruction portion of most
The data portion of programs must reside in RAM during their execution.
The CPU can "randomly“ add or remove data from RAM. As such, RAM is

Rev.00| Pag.113
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
This is different from Read-Only Memory (ROM), which permanently stores

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
data that can't be changed via "random" writes by the CPU.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
ROM keeps the data stored even after the power has been removed, thus it

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
is termed non-volatile memory.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
In addition, the CPU has contained within its chip a small RAM cache
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
storage area for frequently used data.
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

The CPU will always access its internal cache memory before retrieving
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

additional data from the main memory or secondary (external storage)

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

memory
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.114
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

is known as firmware.
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
programmer where setting of each bit is locked.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
that are manufactured blank with no instruction sets.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
A variation of ROM are Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) chips

PROMs are programmed after manufacture by plugging them into a PROM

True ROM chips are manufactured with object code stored on the chip. This

Rev.00| Pag.115
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 running.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
An ordinary PROM can't be changed once programmed.

gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
the field using ultraviolet light, and an Electrically Erasable PROM

ith be
ou
t
(EEPROM) can be block erased and byte-written while the computer is
However, an Erasable PROM (EPROM) devices, can be re-programmed in

Rev.00| Pag.116
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
avionic systems operation.
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
MEMORY (RAM, ROM, PROM)

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
erased and reprogrammed in to blocks of memory.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
as rotating hard-disk drives and solid-state Flash hard drives.

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
such as Operational Flight Programs (OFPs), which control the overall
Flash memory, which is faster than EEPROM, also allows memory to be

Other types of non-volatile memory include secondary data storage, such

EEPROM and Flash are used for applications that require periodic updates,

Rev.00| Pag.117
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al

circuit (IC).
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
constructed in the same basic location.

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ICs are nothing more than many complete, digital electronic circuits

ith be
ou
t
The CPU is essentially a microprocessor contained within an integrated

The location is known as a chip or processor, microchip or microprocessor.

Rev.00| Pag.118
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
silicon semiconductor wafers.

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
with increasingly computational power are achieved.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
Assemblies with billions of transistors can fit on a chip the size

pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
TTL or CMOS circuits are miniaturized and manufactured on tiny, thin,

of a fingernail. With so many transistors and logic gates, computer systems

Rev.00| Pag.119
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 memory.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in core of the processing unit.

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
manufacture and cannot be removed or separated.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
It responds to inputs in accordance with instructions contained in its own
The microscopic circuits are constructed directly on the silicon chip during

A microprocessor contains one (or more) integrated circuit microchips at the

Rev.00| Pag.120
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
of more than one chip in an architecture.

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
integrated circuits to each on the tiny chip assemblies.

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
These enable extremely fast processing due to the proximity of the

ith be
ou
t
electronic developers have created microprocessors that combine the use
Due to the physical limitations of placing integrated circuits on a single chip,

Rev.00| Pag.121
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in

each edge of the IC housing

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
standards have been developed.

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
components onto printed circuit boards.

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The Dual In-line Package (DIP) standard allows the installation of micro-

It basically calls for two rows of connecting terminals, equal-spaced along

To facilitate the use of integrated circuits and other electronic components,

Rev.00| Pag.122
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
complete integrated circuits and microprocessors.

ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Inside a DIP element there can be transistor circuits, logic circuits and even

Rev.00| Pag.123
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
INSTRUCTION WORDS

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
commonly used set of instruction words, as illustrated in the figure below
Instruction words tell the computer what operation to perform on the data.
Each word has a distinct memory address location assigned to it. The most

Rev.00| Pag.124
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
INSTRUCTION WORDS

ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
Instruction words are as follows:

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
• Data Transfer – used for reading or writing data, setting a register to a

re ed e s e aw en

.
fixed constant value, and loading and storing data to a memory location

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
from a register or vice versa.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
• ALU Operations – used for adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing the
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

values of two registers, comparing two values in a register, or complicated

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

integer and Floating-Point (FP) arithmetic (e.g.,sine, cosine, etc.)

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

• Control Transfer – used for controlling operations, such as branching to

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

another register location in the program and executing instructions in the

n
pi lec un e
li

new location; or perhaps for manipulating multiple bytes of data in order to

Al

save data contained on many registers on the stack at once.

in A

Rev.00| Pag.125
 Al

I/O system.
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
AIRCRAFT COMPUTER SYSTEMS

n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
for control and display of the computer systems.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
is designed to operate, the type of external serial data bus system that it
flight and navigational computers lies in the environment that the computer
The only difference between business and personal computers and aircraft

interfaces to, and the external hardware devices (peripherals) that are used
Regardless of the application, all computers have a CPU, a memory and an

Rev.00| Pag.126
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta

safety-of-flight incident.
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
AIRCRAFT COMPUTER SYSTEMS

n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
not be encountered in a controlled office setting.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
Aircraft computer systems must be designed to operate in extreme

ith be
ou
t
safe, such that hardware or software errors can't cause a catastrophic
Also, flight-critical aircraft computer systems must be certified to be fail-
temperate, acceleration, vibration, shock and EMI environments that would

Rev.00| Pag.127
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 06

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
AIRCRAFT COMPUTER SYSTEMS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Typical peripherals for a Flight Management Computer (FMC) are cockpit

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
displays, an external secondary data storage device, and a Control and

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
Display Unit (CDU).

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
The external secondary data storage device is known as a Data Transfer

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
System (DTS). pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

It is used for uploading navigation flight plans to the FMC and for
do gh o ote in

downloading maintenance data.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

The FMC usually has four printed circuit boards: CPU motherboard, DRAM
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

mass memory board, I/O board, and an EMI-shielded

n
n

power supply board.

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.128
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
o
FLIGHT CONTROL COMPUTER

Sa n nt
w , ig t-A
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.129
SUB-MODULE 06
BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-10
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

FIBER OPTICS
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.130
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
FIBER OPTICS

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Digital data buses, such as MIL-STD-1553B and ARINC 629, which use

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
shielded twisted-pair copper wires for transmitting information at data rates

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
of one to two millions bits per second (Mbps).

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
From 2 Mbps to 50 Mbps, coaxial cable is the preferred transmission

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
medium.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
Coaxial cable, also known as coax, consists of a center wire conductor

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

surrounded by a semi-rigid insulator. Surrounding the wire and the insulator

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

material is a conductive, braided cover that runs the length of the cable.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

Finally, a waterproof covering is set around the braided shield to protect the
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

entire assembly from the elements. Shield to protect the entire assembly
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

from the elements.

co tel ny Th form

The braided cover in the coax shields the inner conductor from any external
n
pi lec un e
li
Al

electro-magnetic fields.
in A

Rev.00| Pag.131
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
FIBER OPTICS

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Aircraft networks, such as AFDX and Firewire, with data rates running as

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
high as 1000 Mbps, or one gigabit per second (Gbps), require the use of

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
fiber optic cables to reliably transmit large bandwidths of information.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

A fiber optic cable consists of the core, which is a thin glass or plastic center
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

where the light travels, surrounded by an outer optical material, called a

n
pi lec un e

cladding, which reflects the light back into the core, and a black
li
Al

polyurethane outer jacket over the cladding to protect the cable from
damage and moisture.
in A

Rev.00| Pag.132
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati FIBER OPTICS
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d

compared to copper wire.

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
optical cables exhibit such low loss is because there is very little

rt, ma gl
w y
attenuation, or reduction in signal strength, over long distances as

ith be
ou
t
since there is no line capacitance or mutual coupling. The reason why
Besides having a high data-rate capability and a wide bandwidth to carry
more information, optical buses exhibit extremely low loss and low crosstalk

Rev.00| Pag.133
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
FIBER OPTICS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
The chief advantage of optical cables are that they are immune from

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
electro-magnetic interference (EMI). Copper conductors will act like

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
antennas, either transmitting or receiving energy.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Copper wires connecting avionics equipment can be one of the main
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
sources of EMI, which can cause errors to occur during digital data
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

transmissions.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Optical cables can also withstand nuclear radiation in that the fibers will not
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

short out if their jackets melt.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

All though optical cables are lighter than copper cables, they are generally
co tel ny Th form

more expensive and require the use of optical transmitters and receivers.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.134
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
FIBER OPTIC DATA BUS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
cable, and receiver to provide information to the user.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
source to the data sink (user) using a light source, transmitter, fiber optic
except that the fiber carries light instead of electricity. As shown in Figure
below, a basic fiber optic link connects two electrical circuits from the data
A fiber optic data bus operates basically the same as an electrical data bus

The light source can be either a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or a laser diode.

Rev.00| Pag.135
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
FIBER OPTIC DATA BUS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
The transmitter converts electrical signals into light pulses and sends the

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
pulses over the fiber optic cable to the receiver.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The purpose of the receiver is to rebuild the signals back to their original

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
state as they were presented to the transmitter.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
The two basic parts of the receiver are the photocell, also called a
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

photodiode detector, which converts the light back into an electrical signal;
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

and the output circuit, which amplifies and reshapes the signal back into its
bu e ed a ta

original digital data stream.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.136
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

digital pulse train.

, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
FIBER OPTIC DATA BUS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
transmitter and receiver circuits.
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Clock information is either contained in the transmitted signal or the

ou
t
The following paragraphs will compare and contrast various fiber optic
receiver may provide its own timing information to decode and reshape the

Rev.00| Pag.137
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
TRANSMITTERS

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
To reiterate, fiber optic transmitters consist of a driver and a source.

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
The input to the driver is the binary code used to turn the current on and off

re ed e s e aw en

.
to the light source, whether it be an LED or a laser diode.

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
The op-amp driver accepts either TTL or CMOS logic levels and provides

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
the output current to drive the source.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
For example, the drive circuit would convert 0.5v (bit "0") and 5v (bit "1") of
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

TTL binary logic into 0 ma and 50 ma respectively to modulate the light

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

source off and on.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

A modulation code is used as a method of encoding digital data such that

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

turning the source on and off forms Pulse-Coded Modulation (PCM)

n

waveforms that correspond to binary number equivalents.

pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.138
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

transmitter clock.
TRANSMITTERS
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
contained within the modulation code.

ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Some codes are self-clocking, meaning that the clock information is
The clock provides a steady string of pulses for basic system timing.

ou
However, a receiver may provide its own timing, and not rely on clock

t
Each bit of data must occur within its bit period, which is defined by the

signals from the transmitter, if it designed to receive non-self-clocking code.

Rev.00| Pag.139
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
RECEIVERS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
A fiber optic receiver consists of a detector, amplifier, and output circuit.

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
The output circuit is used to separate the clock signals from the data,

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
reshape the data pulses back into their original format, and provide gain

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
control to maintain constant output levels once the signal from the photo-

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
diode detector is amplified. pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

Light striking the photodiode causes current to flow in the circuit whereas
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

the diode would have otherwise blocked it.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

The result is that the data pulse is allowed to pass through the receiver to
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

be amplified and filtered.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.140
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
RELATED TERMS

N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
There are two types of fiber-optic cable that are available, single mode and

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
multimode.

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
Many beams of light travel through the multimode cable bouncing off of the

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
cable walls.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
Attenuation is caused by the scattering and absorption of light as it travels

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
down the fiber core.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

Light is reflected off the cladding, which acts like a mirror so that light can
do gh o ote in

bend along its length.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

Scattering re-directs light out of the core to the cladding and absorption
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

occurs when the light is not reflected back into the core, but instead is
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

absorbed by the coating due to imperfections in the optical material.

co tel ny Th form

Single-mode fiber uses a single direct beam of light, thus allowing for
n
pi lec un e
li

greater distances and increased transfer speeds.

Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.141
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
single mode and multimode.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.142
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ FIBER OPTICS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 10

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
TERMINATIONS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Unlike copper wire, fiber optic cables can't be soldered or crimped to make

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
a low resistance connection; however, it is equally important that fiber optic

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
terminations couple light from one component to another with as little loss

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
of optical power as possible.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The key to low loss is precise alignment of the mated fiber cores so that
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
nearly all the light is coupled from one fiber across the junction to the other
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

fiber.
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Fibers must be checked for precise perpendicularity and end finish prior to
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

termination.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.143
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
COUPLERS AND TERMINALS

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
entering port 1 will be split and will exit ports 3 and 4.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
Figure below shows a four-port directional coupler. Such a device is

ou
t
fabricated by fusing together two single mode fibers so that their cores
come close together, allowing light to leak from one core to the other. Light
A coupler is a device that has multiple input or output ports for light to travel.

Rev.00| Pag.144
FIBER OPTICS
SUB-MODULE 10
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-11
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS

or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.145
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

(CRT) technology.
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
instruments, and had the advantage of combining several flight and

ith be
navigation functions into one display to provide the crew with greater

ou
t
situational awareness. Initially, glass cockpits used Cathode Ray Tube
more much more reliable than mechanical or electro-mechanical analog
As previously stated, "glass cockpits" that evolved in the early 1970's were

Rev.00| Pag.146
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 11

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex
CATHODE RAY TUBES

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
As shown in Figure below, a CRT is a vacuum tube with an electron gun

N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
that sends a beam of electrons to a fluorescent screen.

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
The electrons are accelerated through a hole in the anode by the voltage

en r us ted nsi tra re

em o ta co s, t a

w
difference between the cathode and the anode.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The electron beam is steered by horizontal and vertical defection plates on

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
to any position on the screen.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
The electron beam striking the phosphor on the screen causes this point on
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
the screen to emit light. The light intensity is controlled by changing the
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

anode voltage, which can be as high as 20 000 volts.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.147
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

(picture element).
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
CATHODE RAY TUBES

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
to emit three primary colors:

w ts. f th ct thi
n

dot triad, which forms a pixel

e s
Red, Green, and Blue (RGB).

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
converge on a thin foil shadow mask

n lis rw il h cu
with a pattern of phosphor dots doped
In a color display, the screen is coated

With holes aligned to a RGB phosphor

ag h is l b t l m

and hues depending on the intensity of

The combination of these three primary
Three electron guns, one for each color,

re ed e s e aw en
colors can produce any number of colors
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr

each electron beam on their respective pixels.

ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.148
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 11

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
CATHODE RAY TUBES

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Therefore, CRTs typically have a 60 Hz refresh rate meaning that the

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
screen is updated every 1/60 of a second or 16.7 milliseconds.

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Cockpit displays use a technique called stroke or vector graphics to

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
precisely draw symbology overlaid on the raster background.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
With stroke graphics, the display is sent voltage point pairs and a beam
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

draws a line in one stroke from the last point to the current point.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

The display processor generates the points that define the shape to send to
bu e ed a ta

the display and a Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) converts these digital

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

signal points to voltages for the CRT.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.149
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 11

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Due to their large volume, weight, and power requirements, vacuum tube

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
CRT displays have largely been displaced by solid-state displays, such as

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
Light Emitting Diodes and Liquid Crystal Displays.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) operate on the principle of
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
electroluminescence, which is a term used to describe a phenomenon

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

whereby light emission is caused by the application of an electric current.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

Light contains electromagnetic energy that is carried by photons.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

This energy can be very useful in the operation of electronic devices since
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

all semiconductors are affected by light energy.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.150
 material.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
the frequency range of visible light.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
hole, energy is given off. This is true in all semiconductor materials.

ith be
ou
LEDs are simple and reliable. They are constructed of semiconductor

t
When a free electron from a semiconductor drops into a semiconductor

However, the energy released when this happens in certain materials is in

Rev.00| Pag.151
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m
converts the light back into an electrical signal.

h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
above what is needed to hold its electrons in orbit.

ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
The vacated position of the electron becomes a hole.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
The extra energy frees an electron enabling it to flow as current.

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
source and a fiber optic receiver contains a photodiode detector, which

When a photon strikes a semiconductor atom, it raises the energy level

As stated in the previous Sub-Module, a fiber optic transmitter has an LED

Rev.00| Pag.152
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 flow.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
Figure below illustrates a photodiode in a coil circuit.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
(positive-negative) junction turning on the device and allowing current to
In photodiodes, this occurs in the depletion area of the reversed biased PN

Rev.00| Pag.153
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.154
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 light.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
require an external light source to operate.

en r us ted nsi tra re

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
Liquid crystals consist of molecules that are elongated or rod-shaped.

t
However, Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) are non-emissive in that they

When the crystals are placed on a surface that has a pattern of parallel
grooves, the elongated molecules will align themselves with the grooves.
CRTs and LEDs are emissive displays in that they both generate their own

Rev.00| Pag.155
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
perpendicular to the bottom plate.

rit , pu oth nts py g d

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
glass plates where the grooves on the top plate are aligned 90 degrees

This causes the liquid crystals to twist as they move from top to bottom.
An LCD cell is constructed by placing the crystals between two grooved

Rev.00| Pag.156
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 through.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
the light as it passes through the cell.
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
fluorescent light source behind one of the plates.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
The LCD cells are sandwiched between two glass polarizer plates with a

light would be blocked from passing, if not for the liquid crystals that twist
If the two polarizers were oriented in the same direction, light would pass

However, if the two polarizer plates are placed orthogonal to each other, the

Rev.00| Pag.157
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 11

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
As shown in the next slide, when light is applied to the left polarizer with the

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
light projected parallel to its grooves, the polarization rotates by 90 degrees

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
through the twisted liquid crystals, thereby allowing light to pass through the

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
right polarizer that is aligned orthogonal to the left polarizer.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
However, when an electric force field is applied to the liquid crystal cell in a

m
e s
direction normal to the cell's grooved surfaces, the molecules will align with
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

the field and the twisting effect will be destroyed. The result is that there will
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

be no polarization, and therefore, the light will be blocked from passing

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

through the right polarizer - the cell will appear black.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.158
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.159
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on

levels of brightness.
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n
sandwiched on either side of

e s
As shown, the electric field is
Applied by electrodes that are

Various amount of light can be

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS

the voltage applied across the

pr loa Unl e c d b tra
the liquid crystal. By controlling

liquid crystal layer in each pixel,

io de es on y in

allowed to pass thus constituting

r w d s te co in

different shades of gray or various

rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
o ig t-A
crystal and the outside polarizer to form color displays.
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r T f
. ol S
In addition, RGB filters can be inserted between the liquid

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.160
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li

information.
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ACTIVE MATRIX LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
Crystal Display (AMLCD) technology is more commonly used.

pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
This technology is suitable for low quality displays, but for Electronic
off at the intersection of each row and column in the matrix to display

ou
t
Instrument Systems that require higher resolution, Active-Matrix Liquid
A liquid crystal display made of a matrix of cells as described above is what
is known as passive-matrix LCD technology whereby a pixel is turned on or

Rev.00| Pag.161
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 11

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
ACTIVE MATRIX LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
AMLCDs are considerably more sophisticated, and thus more expensive,

Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
because a Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) switch is integrated on the electrode

re ed e s e aw en

.
panel for each and every pixel.

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
Since the transistors are individually controlled, the switching speed and

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
response time is much greater, thus the contrast ratio is greatly improved.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

One side of the liquid crystal has a transparent indium tin oxide (ITO)
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

electrode that is common for all pixels.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

The TFTs connect the pixels to power from the data line when they are
, d al uth nt on

turned on. Just as in passive-matrix LCDs, the image information is sent

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

one line at a time.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.162
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
ACTIVE MATRIX LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.163
SUB-MODULE 11
ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta

DEVICES
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-12
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE

t
Rev.00| Pag.164
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 12

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
Static electricity is a simple fact of nature. It is around us all the time and is

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
caused by friction.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
Most work environments have non-conductive floors and no means of

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
controlling the humidity.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
As the humidity drops below 20%, a static charge builds up on a person's
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
body.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

The faster the person walks, the higher the charge.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

However, when the person touches the component, an electrostatic

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

discharge or spark occurs, and zap, the component is most certainly

co tel ny Th form

destroyed.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.165
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 12

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
RISKS AND POSSIBLE DAMAGE

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Electro-Static Discharge (ESD) is defined in U.S. military handbook DOD-

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
HKBK-263 as "transfer of electrostatic charges between bodies at different

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
potentials caused by direct contact or induced by an electrostatic field".

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
In other words, an electrostatic charge on one body can be imparted to
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
another body through induction from an electromagnetic field, or through

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

conduction via physical contact.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

If an electronic component that is charged is then suddenly grounded, the

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

charge will dissipate to ground, but in the process, the component will be
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

damaged due to excessive heat from breakdown of the dielectric material

co tel ny Th form

within the component.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.166
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 12

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
RISKS AND POSSIBLE DAMAGE

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
Electrostatic induction occurs when a charged object induces the

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
redistribution of charges in another object.

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
MIL-STD-1686C is the U.S. military standard for "ESD control programs for

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
the protection of electrical and electronic parts, assemblies, and
io de es on y in
equipment". pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

It recognizes two classes of ESD-sensitive items: Class I

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

for 100 to 1 000 volts and Class II for 1 001 to 4 000 volts sensitivity.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

Most electronic components are in Class I. For example, bi-polar

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

transistors, CMOS devices and EPROMs

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.167
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 12

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty
RISKS AND POSSIBLE DAMAGE

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
The ESD issue is not going away. In fact, the problem is getting much

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
worse.

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
As component technology continues to advance to achieve higher speeds

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
and greater functionality, their physical geometries are shrinking, which is
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
causing components to become even more susceptible to lower discharge

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

voltages.
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

The following section will discuss special handling of ESD sensitive

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

components and anti-static protection devices which must be used to

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

protect these sensitive electronic components from the dangers of

co tel ny Th form

electrostatic discharge.
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.168
 Al
li
in A n

environment.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d controlled environment.
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
ANTI-STATIC PROTECTION

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
Static electricity can't be eliminated. It can only be controlled.

in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
that special precautions must be taken before entering the controlled

ou
t
Signage must be placed outside any ESD controlled areas to warn people
Therefore, it is essential to only handle ESD sensitive devices in static-safe

Rev.00| Pag.169
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d

or anti-static vinyl flooring.

do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
STATIC-SAFE WORKSTATION

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
or coatings, anti-static floor finishes,
rit , pu oth nts py g d
must be grounded. The floor surface
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
should be covered with conductive paints

em o ta co s, t a
Conductive materials, including personnel,

en r us ted nsi tra re

t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.170
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

items placed on it.

, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine

becomes electrically live.

d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
STATIC-SAFE WORKSTATION

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
ohm resistor connected to a common ground point.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
The resistor is required to protect personnel in the event the ground

ith be
ou
t
Both the floor and table-top mats should be connected through a 1 mega-
on which to work, but must also remove the static charge from conductive
The conductive mat not only provides a surface that is free of static charge

Rev.00| Pag.171
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

common ground point.

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s

The wrist strap must be secure

ANTI-STATIC WRIST STRAPS

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

true for the antistatic wrist strap

io de es on y in

sensitive electronic components.

around the wrist at all times while
or clipped into a receptacle with a
r w d s te co in
1 megaohm resistor connected to a
The same safety requirement holds

rit , pu oth nts py g d

in that the coil cord must be plugged
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
the skin to dissipate any electrical charge to ground before touching

ith be
ou
t
seated at the work station so that it makes good electrical connection with

Rev.00| Pag.172
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s

straps, and coil cords as well.

pr loa Unl e c d b tra
GROUNDING TEST STATIONS

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
whether the anti-static devices are working properly.

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
All anti-static devices should be tested before entering the static-safe

ou
t
A green indicator light means that the wrist strap is worn properly and is
controlled environment. A typical grounding test station used to determine

working as intended. The test station can also be used to test footwear, heal

Rev.00| Pag.173
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 12

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

f
IONIZERS

o
h d a e
ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
Since it is not practical to raise the relative humidity to high levels due to

re ed e s e aw en

.
operator discomfort and the fact that it would cause metals to rust, the

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
controlled environment should be equipped with ionizers to neutralize any

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
charged insulators commonly found in the work environment.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

Because positively or negatively charged surfaces will attract ions of the

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

opposite charge, an air stream containing both positive and negative ions is
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

used to neutralize the charged surface.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

Once the surface is neutralized, it remains so as long as the ion stream is

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

present.
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.174
 IONIZERS
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
down over the area to be protected against an ESD event.

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
localized cleaning, and low-pressure, high-volume wall-mounted units

t
Ionizers are available in high-pressure, low-volume air guns for periodic

designed to be suspended over the work station with the ionized air blowing

Rev.00| Pag.175
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

SPECIAL HANDLING

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
container (e.g., LRU or a tote box).

rit , pu oth nts py g d

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
container containing the ESD sensitive component.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
a
work station, it must make contact with the grounded table mat.

pa ts
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
All ESD sensitive components should transported in a closed conductive

wearing the grounded anti-static wrist strap, before opening the protective
The container must be stored on a grounded rack, and when moved to the

Any accumulated charge on the human body should first be discharged, by

Rev.00| Pag.176
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form

Antistatic layer.
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

SPECIAL HANDLING

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in

insulation layer, and an inner

w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
conductive bag. These laminated

r w d s te co in
bags are made from an outer layer
of transparent metallic sheeting or
an aluminum foil material, a middle
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
All ESD sensitive components should

n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
be packaged is an electrostatic shielded

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.177
SUB-MODULE 12
ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d

CONTROL
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-13
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT

ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.178
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 13

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
RESTRICTIONS AND CATASTROPHIC EFFECTS

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
As a result of advances in digital electronics, modern aircraft have become

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
very sophisticated with many millions of lines of code running

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
simultaneously in dozens of airborne computers.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
As such, it has become imperative that software management control
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

includes a thorough definition and documentation of the aircraft software

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

development process in order to avoid catastrophic effects of unapproved

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

software changes being uploaded onboard aircraft computers that could

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

cause aircraft loss and multiple fatalities.

ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.179
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 13

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
"Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification"

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
is a standards document dealing with the safety of software used in aircraft

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
systems.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
It was jointly published in 1992 by the Radio Technical Commission for

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Aeronautics (RTCA) as DO-178B, and by the European Organization for
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE) as ED-12B.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Aviation Safety

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Agency (EASA) have used DO-178B/ ED-12B as certification guidance to

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

determine if the software will perform reliably in aircraft systems.

is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.180
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 13

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
There are five criticality levels defined in terms of the potential consequence

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
of an undetected error in the software as certified at each of the following

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
levels:

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
• Level A: Catastrophic: Prevents continued safe flight or landing. Failure

r w d s te co in
may cause multiple fatalities and loss of aircraft.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

• Level B: Hazardous/Severe: Failure has large negative impact on safety or

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

performance. May cause serious or fatal injuries to a smaller number of

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

passengers.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.181
 operation.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

flight plan change.

, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS

ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
efficiency, discomfort or possible injuries to passengers.

gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
• Level E: No Effect: Failure has no impact on the safety or aircraft

ith be
ou
t
• Level C: Major: Failure significantly reduces safety margin, impairs crew

crew capabilities. May include passenger inconvenience such as a routine

• Level D: Minor: Failure reduces the aircraft safety margins, but well within

Rev.00| Pag.182
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
SUB-MODULE 13
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 13

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
Flight control and navigation systems are f light critical and thus require

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
Level A certification. Cabin entertainment systems fall at the other end of

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
the criticality spectrum and would be considered as Level E systems.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Hence, a new standard, DO-178C was developed in 2011 to replace DO-
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
178B.
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

In July of 2013, the FAA released an Advisory Circular (AC 20-115C)

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

making DO-178C as recognized "compliance with applicable airworthiness

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

regulations for the software aspects of airborne systems".

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.183
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
between software artifacts
DO-178C required traceability
Rev.00| Pag.184
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL
SUB-MODULE 13
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-14
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu

ENVIRONMENT
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
ELECTROMAGNETIC
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.185
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati

as an electric field.
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
magnetic component.
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
system operation. Electromagnetic waves have both an electric and

ith be
ou
t
Electromagnetic waves have both an electric and magnetic component.
Unintended electromagnetic waves can cause severe disruption to aircraft

Static electric charges set up an influence around them, which is described

Rev.00| Pag.186
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 Al
li
in A n

magnetic field.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
attraction of opposite charges.

pr loa Unl e c d b tra

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
Electrostatic induction occurs when a charged object induces the

rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
electric current, an additional influence occurs, which is described as a
up pieces of paper using a comb that was rubbed against fur due to the

However, when electrons are moving through a conductor producing an

redistribution of charges in another object, such as the example of picking

Rev.00| Pag.187
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e sif flowing towards the viewer.
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT

re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
current traveling through the conductor. The direction of the magnetic

ou
t
Magnetic field strength is measured in amperes per meter. As shown in

lines of force (called also flux) will travel counter-clockwise if the current
Figure below, the magnetic field radiates at a right angle to the electrical

Rev.00| Pag.188
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 effects.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
electromagnetic energy and the victim that suffers from its unwanted

ou
can be coupled between the source of the unintentional generation of

t
As shown in Figure below, there are four ways that electromagnetic fields

Rev.00| Pag.189
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
These four EMI coupling methods can work together or independently,

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
providing either continuous or transient (electromagnetic pulse)

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
interference.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
Electromagnetic fields, in the frequency range from DC to light, constantly

r w d s te co in
radiate in to space.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Radiative coupling occurs when the source emits or radiates an
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

electromagnetic field that propagates across an open space and is received

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

by the unintended victim. Inductive coupling and capacitive coupling occur

bu e ed a ta

over much shorter distances than radiative coupling.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.190
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e

metal enclosure.
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
through a dielectric, such as air.

io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Finally, conductive coupling occurs when the coupling path between the
adjacent conductors inducing a voltage change between the conductors

source and the victim is formed by direct contact through perhaps a wire or
Capacitive coupling occurs when a varying electric field exists between two

Rev.00| Pag.191
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
HIGH-INTENSITY RADIATED FIELD (HIRF)

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
Of particular concern to aviation safety authorities is the presence of High-

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) whereby the power density of the

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
electromagnetic field is sufficient to adversely affect living organisms or

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
degrade equipment performance. A common HIRF device found in aircraft

rit , pu oth nts py g d

r w d s te co in
galleys is a microwave oven.
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

HIRF interference can also be caused by high power radio and microware
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

towers, including ATC primary surveillance radars.

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.192
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
HIGH-INTENSITY RADIATED FIELD (HIRF)

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Aircraft communications, surveillance and radar equipment radiate RF

em o ta co s, t a

w
waves from 10 MHz to tens of GHz.

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
Care must be taken to prevent mutual HIRF interference between

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
transmitters of one system and receivers of another system. Also,
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
accidental radiation can occur when equipment is malfunctioning or wiring
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

is incorrectly installed without proper grounding.

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

Such radiation can cause corruption of bus data by inducing bit errors in the
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

digital data stream.

co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.193
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
LIGHTNING/LIGHTNING PROTECTION

ro in t re m op
t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
Lightning is one of the most energetic of all electromagnetic phenomena.

ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
em o ta co s, t a

w
Significant damage can occur to sensitive electronic equipment due to a

re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
high electromagnetic pulse (EMP) caused by a lightning strike.

n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
Most aircraft are designed to operate in all weather conditions, and since it
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
e s
may not be possible to divert a flight to avoid a thunderstorm, aircraft are
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in

typically designed with both lightning detection and lightening protection

d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

capabilities.
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.194
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
LIGHTNING/LIGHTNING PROTECTION

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Since lightning emits a unique electromagnetic signal, it is a reliable means

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
for identifying potentially dangerous weather for the flight crew to avoid.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
The azimuth of a lightning discharge can be calculated by an ADF receiver

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
using a loop antenna.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
The field strength intensity (power density) of the lightning strike can reveal

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

the distance from the thunderstorm.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

This information is typically displayed as symbology that is overlaid on the

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

Weather Radar page on the Multifunction Display.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.195
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
Lightning detection overlaid on a MFD weather radar page

t
Rev.00| Pag.196
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
LIGHTNING/LIGHTNING PROTECTION

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
on the surface of the skin back into the atmosphere.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
of the horizontal and vertical surfaces to dissipate electromagnetic energy
For lighting protection, aircraft have static wicks installed at the trailing edge

Rev.00| Pag.197
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 structure.
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
All components must be
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
LIGHTNING/LIGHTNING PROTECTION

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
the electrical conductivity designed into the part.

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
ensure conductivity across the entire aircraft structure.

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
with an ohmmeter to verify minimum electrical resistance across the

ou
electrically bonded to one other with a metal-braided bonding strap to

t
In addition to a normal structural repair, the technician must also recreate

These types of repair generally require a conductivity test to be performed

Rev.00| Pag.198
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
The goal of Electromagnetic Compatibility is to eliminate or reduce the

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
harmful effects of unintended Electromagnetic Interference. EMC is

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
achieved by addressing both emission and susceptibility issues.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
In terms of emission, EMC is concerned with keeping electrical equipment

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

that generates EMI operating within specified limits using filtering and
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

shielding.
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

In terms of susceptibility, EMC addresses the design and operation of

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

equipment that makes it immune to small levels of EMI that can't be entirely
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati

eliminated.
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.199
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e

wire segregation.
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co

sealing of equipment.
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

on or near the aircraft.

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
involves the separation of wiring bundles and equipment including signal

It also requires proper screening and bonding of equipment racks and RF

These steps will help obviate the effects of EMI, HIRF, and lightning strikes
As such, requirements are placed on equipment and wiring installation that

Rev.00| Pag.200
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
EMC has become ever more important since the introduction of digital

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
electronics, which operate on very low-level voltages compared to older

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
analog systems that operate at 115 volts AC.

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
As a result, digital electronics are much more susceptible to EMI.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
In addition, faster processing and data transfer speeds require higher clock
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

rates of several tens of megahertz and much shorter pulse rise and fall
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

transition times of only a few nanoseconds.

te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

EMI should be identified and eliminated, or at least reduced as much as

ed tu a co ati

possible at the source by eliminating coupling paths through proper

co tel ny Th form

equipment layout, shielding, filtering, and grounding techniques.

n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.201
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
SUB-MODULE 14

e co ext ight ag

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
In accordance with MIL-STD-461, LRUs should be designed with EMI

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
sensitive electronics located on one side of the enclosure, forming a

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
'Faraday cage‘ that is shielded from EMI effects so that sensitive

te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
microelectronic devices can be operated in a protected environment.

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
All signals entering the EMI 'clean‘ area should be filtered to remove voltage

m
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

spikes and surges.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

The EMI 'dirty' components, such as the power supply unit, that radiate EMI
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

and can withstand to operate in this environment, should be isolated on the

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

other side of the enclosure away from the shielded 'clean' compartment.
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.202
 Al
li
in A n

back in place.
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC)

N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
When an LRU is opened for maintenance, it is imperative that it is

w y
ith be
ou
t
reassembled correctly with all shielding and grounding mechanisms put

Rev.00| Pag.203
SUB-MODULE 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d

SUB MODULE-15
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTSYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. S
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/
ol
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Rev.00| Pag.204
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta

direction and airspeed.

te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
information to be displayed on the EIS.

ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
Modular Avionics Information Systems used to control onboard

pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
communications, navigation and surveillance systems and to provide

ou
Flight Control System to fly the aircraft at the desired altitude, attitude,

t
It will also discuss how the crew uses this information to command the
This final Sub-Module will expand on that discussion to include Integrated

Rev.00| Pag.205
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e

from the bottom.

ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
on the bottom two shelves of the E1 and E2 racks.

ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
under the cockpit floor and above the nose gear wheel well.

or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Most of the electronics reside in the main equipment center racks located

The cabin electronics are situated immediately above that in the third shelf
The flight control electronics and air data/ inertial reference unit are located

Rev.00| Pag.206
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
• Surveillance - Air Traffic Control (ATC) and TCAS.

t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w , of
ig t-A
• Navigation – ADF, ILS, VOR, DME and Marker Beacon.

gl h no N n r T
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
• Communications – VHF Communications and the SELCAL unit.

rt, ma gl
w y
The second and third shelves from the top are where the following

ith be
ou
t
Communication, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) LRUs are located:

Rev.00| Pag.207
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
main equipment center racks

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.208
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
main equipment center racks

T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.209
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
SUB-MODULE 15

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
COMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION AND SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION ADDRESSING AND REPORTING

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
SYSTEM (ACARS)

ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
r w d s te co in
Airlines pay their flight and cabin crews based on the times reported for
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Out-of-the-gate, Off-the-ground, On-the-ground, and In-the-gate (OOOI).
e s
w ts. f th ct thi
do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

Prior to the introduction of data link to aircraft for sending textbased

bu e ed a ta
tri op iz ts n

messages, the flight crew would verbally report their OOOI times to the
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on

Dispatch radio operators using their VHF or HF communication

ed tu a co ati

transceivers.
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.210
 (ACARS)
Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
transmit the OOOI reports over existing VHF or HF radios.

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
COMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION AND SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS

inputs from the landing gear doors, parking brake and weight-on-wheels

messages. ACARS also has a Medium Shift Keying modem that is used to
sensors to automatically determine the OOOI times and send these as text
The operation of the ACARS Management Unit, which uses discrete (on/off)

Rev.00| Pag.211
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Typical ACARS display format.

Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t
Rev.00| Pag.212
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
SUB-MODULE 15

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
COMMUNICATIONS, NAVIGATION AND SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
(ACARS)

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
As the plane comes out of cruise altitude, ACARS begins updating the

rit , pu oth nts py g d

Dispatch office with a new estimated time of arrival and other changing

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
details so that appropriate preparations, such as gate assignment and
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

barrage handling, can be made.

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d
te rty u re ine

On touchdown, the ACARS report is automatically sent to Dispatch and the

bu e ed a ta

next crew heads for the gate. When the airplane comes to a final stop, the
tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co

entire report is sent to a printer.

, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.213
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

or nt -A s. l.
e co ext ight ag
SUB-MODULE 15

ith be
S

rt, ma gl
a
gl h no N n r T

t
ou
w y
in en T S
ig t-A
T y, i me tion des ex

pa ts
t-A a cu la d f N
ex w o io n o
N any is d a v rk a rty

of
h d a e
ro in t re m op
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

t f ed in de de pr

,
Sa n nt
ol
en r us ted nsi tra re
Traditional radio navigational aids, such as VOR and DME, require external

em o ta co s, t a

w
re ed e s e aw en
ground-based references to provide a navigation solution.

.
ag h is l b t l m
n lis rw il h cu
te b e w rig o
rit , pu oth nts py g d
However, Inertial Navigation Systems, also known as Inertial Reference

r w d s te co in
io de es on y in
pr loa Unl e c d b tra

m
Systems (IRS), are self-contained navigation aids that use rotation sensors,
e s
w ts. f th ct thi

motion sensors and a computer to continuously calculate (via dead

do gh o ote in
d, ri se pr d

reckoning) the position, orientation, and velocity of the aircraft without the
te rty u re ine
bu e ed a ta

need for external references.

tri op iz ts n
is pr or en co
, d al uth nt on
ed tu a co ati
co tel ny Th form

n
n
pi lec un e
li
Al
in A

Rev.00| Pag.214
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
acceleration meters to measure linear acceleration. Gyros and

pa ts a
rt, ma gl
a gimbal assembly, commonly referred to as a stabilized platform.

w y
ith be
Inertial navigation uses gyroscopes to measure angular velocity, and

ou
t
accelerometers are placed on each of the three axis (pitch, roll and yaw) on

Rev.00| Pag.215
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/

bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS)

em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
. ol S
e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
process to provide the flight crew with a total navigation solution.

rt, ma gl
w y
(IMU) detects a change in geographic position, velocity (speed and

ith be
direction), and orientation (attitude and body rates) for a computer to

ou
t
The flight crew enters an initial geographic position (latitude and longitude)
on the ground prior to takeoff, and while in flight, the Inertial Measuring Unit

Rev.00| Pag.216
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
SUB-MODULE 15
TYPICAL ELECTRONIC/ DIGITAL
 Al
li
in A n
co tel ny Th form
pi lec un e
ed tu a co ati
, d al uth nt on
is pr or en co
tri op iz ts n
bu e ed a ta
te rty u re ine
d, ri se pr d
do gh o ote in
w ts. f th ct thi
n e s
pr loa Unl e c d b tra
io de es on y in
r w d s te co in
rit , pu oth nts py g d
te b e w rig o
n lis rw il h cu
ag h is l b t l m
re ed e s e aw en
em o ta co s, t a
en r us ted nsi tra re
t f ed in de de pr
ro in t re m op
m h d a e
N any is d a v rk a rty
ex w o io n o
t-A a cu la d f N
T y, i me tion des ex
Sa n nt
w ,
gl h no N n r Tof
ig t-A
.
THANK YOU FOR

ol S
YOUR ATTENTION

e co ext ight ag
or nt -A s. l.
in en T S
pa ts a
rt, ma gl
w y
ith be
ou
t