Unit – 1

Computer Installation and Servicing

1.1. PC SYSTEM:
1.1.1 FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS
Several functions parts are connected configured together to constitute a PERSONAL
COMPUTER SYSTEM. A system configuration consist consists
 System unit
 Input device
 Output device
 Other peripherals such as,
 Modems
 Scanners

1.1.2 System unit

Case that contains electronic components of the computer used to process data
 Motherboard
 SMPS
 Floppy Disk Drive
 Hard Disk Drive
 CD-ROM drive
 Cables and Connectors
 Expansion Slots
Mother board
 The main circuit board of a microcomputer.
 The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards.
 The motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass
storage interfaces, serial and parallel, expansion slots, and all the controllers required
to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk
drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the
motherboard's chipset.
SMPS
 A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS,
or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator
to convert electrical power efficiently.
 An SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power, to a load, such as
a personal computer, while converting voltage provide a regulated output voltage,
typically at a level different from the input voltage.
Floppy disk, or Diskette
 A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and
flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with
fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk
drive (FDD).
 Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch (200 mm) media and later in 5.25-inch (133 mm) and
3.5-inch (89 mm) sizes, of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s well into
the first decade of the 21st century.
Hard disk drive
 A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and
retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating discs (platters) coated with
magnetic material.
 An HDD retains its data even when powered off. Data is read in a random-
access manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any
order rather than just sequentially.
CD-ROM drive
 A CD-ROM - compact disc that contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a
computer for data storage and music playback.
 The 1985 “Yellow Book” standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format
to hold any form of binary.
 CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including video
games and multimedia applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity
limit of a disc). Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with a CD player.
Cables and Connectors
 The smps power supply is given power through a 3-wire standard power input cable.
 The cable is detachable.
 The output of the smps has 6 connectors.
Expansion slots
 The expansion card (also expansion board, adapter card or accessory card)
in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an electrical
connector, or expansion slot on a computer motherboard, backplane or riser card to
add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus.
1.1.3 Display Unit
 The display unit is a VGA based color or monochrome monitor.
 The monitor has its own power supply which provides high voltage for the CRT.
 It has a maximum 80 characters horizontal frequency of 85 KHz.
 It has a 25 lines vertical of 60 KHz.
 Monitor resolution ranges from 640 X 480 to 1600 X 1200 dots.
 Each character box is 14 dots high and 9 dots wide.
1.2 Inside PC
To find out what's inside PC.

Motherboard Processor Cooling Fan Memory

Hard Disk CD Drive Expansion Card Power Supply Unit

1.2.1 Motherboard
What is a Motherboard?
 The motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer. Connect all of the parts
of a computer together. The CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card,
sound card and other ports and expansion cards all connect to the motherboard
directly or via cables.
 The motherboard can be thought of as the "back bone" of the computer.
 The Motherboard is also known as Mainboard, mobo, MB, system board, logic
board
Processor
 The processor (also known as a "Central Processing Unit" or "CPU") is a microchip
that acts as the computer's "brain".
 The instructions are stored in a program that must be loaded into memory before
execution.
 Processor speed is usually measured in gigahertz, i.e. billions of instructions per
second.
 The most common processors are manufactured by Intel (e.g. Pentium) and AMD
(e.g. Athlon, Duron, Sempron).

Cooling Fan
 A cooling fan is usually necessary to prevent the processor from overheating.
 The temperature of a processor increases when it has to perform a lot of complex
calculations (e.g. whilst playing an audio or video file).
 The cooling fan is mounted on a heat-sink attached to the processor. The heat-sink has
a series of conductive metal plates which help to dissipate heat quickly as the fan
blows air over them.
Memory
 Memory is the part of a computer that stores programs and data during processing.
 The most common type of memory is Random Access Memory (RAM). When you
create a document using a word-processor or similar program, the document is stored
in RAM.
 Data that exists in RAM is lost when the power is switched off.
 To preserve the document, it must be saved onto a permanent storage medium such as
the hard disk.
Hard Disk
 The hard disk (also known as a "hard drive" or "fixed disk") is a data storage device
containing a rigid magnetic disk in a sealed metal housing inside the computer.
 Hard disks are extremely fast and can store much more data than removable media
such as CDs and floppy disks.
CD Drive
 The CD drive reads data from a removable disk using a laser.
 There are several different kinds: CD-ROM drives can read data but cannot modify it.
 CD-Rewriters can read data, erase disks, and write new data onto them.
 DVD drives are compatible with DVDs (which can store more data than CDs).
 Modern CD drives support most CD and DVD formats including read-only,
recordable and rewritable.

Expansion Card
 An expansion card is a circuit board that can be plugged into a computer's
motherboard to provide additional functions.
 For example, to connect a computer to a wireless network it may be necessary to
install a wireless network card.
Power Supply Unit
 The power supply unit (also known as a "PSU") supplies low-voltage current to the
motherboard and contains special circuitry that allows the computer to be switched off
by Windows when you choose Turn off Computer.
 The unit's low output voltage means it is safe to open a computer case even when it is
switched on. However the power supply unit itself should not be opened under any
circumstances.
1.2.2 BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
What is the BIOS?:
The Basic Input Output System, usually referred to as BIOS, is software stored on a small
memory chip on the motherboard. BIOS is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the Basic
Integrated Operating System.
What is the BIOS Used For?
 BIOS instruct the computer on how to perform a number of basic functions such as
booting and keyboard control.
 BIOS is also used to identify and configure the hardware in a computer such as the
hard drive, floppy drive, optical drive, CPU, memory, etc.
How to Access BIOS:
 The BIOS is accessed and configured through the BIOS Setup Utility.
 The BIOS Setup Utility is, for all reasonable purposes, the BIOS itself. All available
options in BIOS are configurable via the BIOS Setup Utility.
 The BIOS Setup Utility is accessed in various ways depending on your computer or
motherboard make and model.

How to Use BIOS:

 BIOS contain a number of hardware configuration options that can be changed
through the setup utility.
 Saving these changes and restarting the computer applies the changes to the BIOS and
alters the way BIOS instructs the hardware to function.
Configuring and Controlling the BIOS

 PC users can make certain adjustments to the system through a configuration screen
on the computer.
  The setup screen is typically accessed with a special key sequence during the first
moments of startup, often "Delete" or a Function key.
 This setup screen allows users to change the order in which drives are accessed during
startup, monitor computer component temperatures, and control the functionality of a
number of devices.
 Most computer users never need to access these systems on their computer, though
many fixes to simple errors can require adjustments.
In most PCs, the BIOS have 4 main functions as mentioned below.
1. POST - Test the computer hardware and make no errors exist before loading the
operating system. Additional information on the POST can be found on our POST and
Beep Codes page.

2. Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is

located, the BIOS will pass control to it.

3. BIOS drivers - Low level drivers that give the computer basic operational control
over your computer's hardware.

4. BIOS or CMOS Setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure

hardware settings including system settings such as computer passwords, time, and
date.

1.2.3 CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

 CMOS, short for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, is a low-power, low-

heat semiconductor technology used in contemporary microchips, especially useful
for battery-powered devices.
  Most commonly, though, the term CMOS is used to refer to small battery-powered
configuration chips on system boards of personal computers, where the BIOS stores
the date, the time, and system configuration details.

1.2.4 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is the best known form of Computer memory.
 The Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM.
 The User can write information to it and read information from it.
 With Ram any location can be reached in a fixed (and short) amount of time after
specifying its address.
 The RAM is a volatile memory.
 It means information written to it can be accessed as long as power is on. As soon as
the power is off, it cannot be accessed. So this means RAM computer memory
essentially empty.
 RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it.
 RAM is made in electronic chips made of so called semiconductor material, just like
processors and many other types of chips.

There are two basic types of RAM:

(i) Dynamic Ram

(ii) Static RAM

Dynamic RAM:
 Loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when power
supply is on.
 D-RAM’s are cheaper & lower. Similar to a microprocessor chip is an Integrated
Circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors.
 Dynamic Memory Cell represents a single bit of data.
 The capacitor holds the bit of information – a 0 or a 1.
 Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is
holding.
 The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the
memory.
Static RAM:
 S-RAM retains stored information only as long as the power supply is on.
 Static RAM’s are costlier and consume more power.
 They have higher speed than D-RAMs. They store information in Hip-Hope.
 In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory.
 A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but
never has to be refreshed.
 This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM.
  A static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell.
Therefore, get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more
expensive.
 Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower.
 Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speed sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM
forms the larger system RAM space.

Some other RAMS are:

(a) EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM: In an EDO RAMs, any memory location can
be accessed. Stores 256 bytes of data information into latches. The latches hold next
256 bytes of information so that in most programs, which are sequentially executed,
the data are available without wait states

(b) SDRAM (Synchronous DRAMS), SGRAMs (Synchronous Graphic RAMs)

These RAM chips use the same clock rate as CPU uses. They transfer data when the
CPU expects them to be ready.

(c) DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate – SDRAM): This RAM transfers data on both
edges of the clock. Therefore the transfer rate of the data becomes doubles.

ROM:
 Read only memory, its non volatile memory, i.e., the information stored in it, is not
lost even if the power supply goes off. It’s used for the permanent storage of
information.
 Information cannot be written into a ROM by the users/programmers.

The following types of ROMs a listed below:

(i) PROM: It’s programmable ROM. Its contents are decided by the user. The user
can store permanent programs, data etc in a PROM. The data is fed into it using a
PROM programs.

(ii) EPROM: An EPROM is an erasable PROM. The stored data in EPROM’s can be
erased by exposing it to UV light for about 20 min. It’s not easy to erase it
because the EPROM IC has to be removed from the computer and exposed to UV
light. The entire data is erased and not selected portions by the user. EPROM’s are
cheap and reliable

(iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): The chip can be erased &
reprogrammed on the board easily byte by byte. It can be erased within a few
milliseconds. There is a limit on the number of times the EEPROM’s can be
reprogrammed, i.e.; usually around 10,000 times.
Flash Memory:
 It’s an electrically erasable & programmable permanent type memory.
 It uses one transistor memory all resulting in high packing density, low power
consumption, lower cost & higher reliability.
 It’s used in all power, digital cameras, MP3 players etc.
 1.2.5 MOTHER BOARD TYPES

Computer Motherboard and its constituent components:

There are primarily two types of motherboards: AT motherboard, and ATX motherboard.
AT motherboard
 AT motherboards are older and not commonly used now a day.
 The AT and ATX motherboards differ in the form factor.
 Full AT is 12" wide x 13.8" deep, and Baby AT is 8.57" wide x 13.04" deep.
 AT has 5-pin large keyboard connector.
 AT has single row two connectors +/-5V, and +/-12V.
ATX motherboard
 Full-ATX is 12" wide x 9.6" deep and Mini-ATX is 11.2" wide x 8.2" deep.
 Other major differences include power supply connector, and keyboard connector.
 ATX has 6-pin mini connector. Similarly,
 ATX motherboard has double row single connector providing +/-5V, +/-12V, and
+3.3V.

The important constituent components of an ATX Motherboard are given below:

1. Mouse & keyboard
 2. USB
3. Parallel port
4. CPU Chip
5. RAM slots
6. Floppy controller
7. IDE controller
8. PCI slot
9. ISA slot
10. CMOS Battery
11. AGP slot
12. CPU slot
13. Power supply plug in
1. Mouse & keyboard:
 Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board port
connected directly to the motherboard.
 The oldest, but still quite common type, is a special DIN, and most PCs until
recently retained this style connector.
 The AT-style keyboard connector is quickly disappearing, being replaced by the
smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard connector.
 An AT-style keyboard with a PS/2-style socket (or the other way around) by using a
converter.
 Although the AT connector is unique in PCs, the PS/2-style mini-DIN is also used in
more modern PCs for the mouse.
 Some keyboards have a USB connection, but these are fairly rare compared to the
PS/2 connection keyboards.

2. USB (Universal serial bus):

 USB is the General-purpose connection for PC.
 You can find USB versions of many different devices, such as mice, keyboards,
scanners, cameras, and even printers.
 A USB connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable.
 USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular on PCs.
 USB devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting
your system.
3. Parallel port:
 Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel ports carry
data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one
wire.
 Parallel ports use a 25-pin female DB connector.
 Parallel ports are directly supported by the motherboard through a direct
connection or through a dangle.
4. CPU Chip:
 The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the
calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and
sizes.
 Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink.
The cooling device (such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU
manufactures sell the CPU with a fan permanently attached.
5. RAM slots:
 Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being used
by the CPU.
  RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in many
different ways.
 The most current package is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory
module).
6. Floppy controller:
 The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in
turn connects to the motherboard.
 A floppy controller is one that is used to control the floppy drive.
7. IDE controller:
 Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and SCSI.
Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives.
 SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as network servers or graphical
workstations.
 The EIDE drive connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard.
 IDE controller is responsible for controlling the hard drive.
8. PCI slot:
 Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol.
 The PCI bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to
the main logic of the computer.
 PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.
9. ISA slot:
 (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion
bus.
 Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards.

10. CMOS Battery:

 To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all
motherboards comes with a battery.
 These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways: the obsolete
external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
11. AGP slot:
 If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single
connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown.
 You also probably have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced
Graphics Port (AGP) slot
12. CPU slot:
 To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot.
 Special notches in the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly.
 So remember if it does not go easily, it is probably not correct.
 Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.

13. Power supply plug in:

 The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary electrical power to
make the pc operate.
 The power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-
5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.
The power supply connector has 20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.
Types of Motherboards
 Motherboard is the most important component of a system.
 It is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) where all the components of a system are
connected.
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU), hard drives, memory and every other part of a
system is connected to the motherboard by means of slots, connectors and sockets.
 The motherboard chipset is a series of chips that are a part of the motherboard.
 Types of Motherboards and the capacity and efficiency of motherboards differ
according to the type of system you use.
 Motherboards are classified as integrated and Non-integrated devices depending on
the devices they support.
 Motherboards which have all the ports for connecting various devices on board are
known as integrated motherboards.
 All the latest desktop, server and laptop boards are of the integrated type.
Motherboards which do not support connecting devices are known as Non-Integrated
motherboards. Older boards were of non integrated types.

Classification of Motherboards:

Integrated Motherboards
 Integrated motherboards have all the peripheral device slots, input output ports, serial
and parallel ports are mounted on the board.
 The connectors for the various devices such as the hard drive connector and floppy
disk drive connector are installed directly on to the motherboard.
 This arrangement saves a lot of space inside the system.
 Integrated boards are cheaper in cost as compared to non-integrated motherboards.
 The major disadvantage of these types of motherboards are that if an individual
component of the motherboard fails, the whole board may need to be replaced and
that can be a costly affair at times.

Non-integrated Motherboards
 Non-Integrated motherboards have RAM slots integrated on the board.
 All the input-output ports for devices such as the serial and parallel port connectors,
other controllers such as connectors for hard drive and floppy disk drives are attached
to the system using expansion boards.
 Expansion boards use more space of the cabinet.
 If any one of the expansion boards fate, only those particular expansions board needs
to be replaced and not the whole board.
 This type of board is more costly as compared to integrated board as all the devices
and ports, and other connectors for the devices need to be installed individually.
 The Non-integrated Motherboards are almost extinct because these types of
motherboards are costly and not very space efficient.
 Desktop Motherboards Desktop Motherboards is used in personal computers and
desktops.
  As it is used for applications at home and in office, this type of motherboard is the
most basic type.

1.2.6 CHIPSET
 To reduce number of chips on the motherboard
 Microprocessor is communication & processing are integrated into 2 or 3 chips
 These chips integrated with microprocessor
 Chip contain more than one logic like
 DMA logic
 Timer Logic
 Interrupt logic
 Peripheral interfaces logic
 These chips are called as chipset
Chip manufactures are
 Intel
 VIA technologies (cyrix)
 Acer labs(ALI)
 Silicion integrated systems(SIS)
 OPT1
 Chipset connected with processor
 On board memory
 System bus
 Audio & video
 Input/output ports

INTEL PROCESSOR
Advantages:
 Reduce chip count in a computer
 Reduce power requirement
 They shorten the signal paths and allow the circuits to operate at higher
speeds
 Improvement reliability
 Reduce construction cost

EXAMPLE CIRCUIT FOR INTEL CHIP

1) Intel 440GX chipset
 Processor support – Pentium II/III xenon processor multi processor
support 2 processor
 Functional blocks – host bridge controller
 DMA interrupt controller time
 Memory support – SDRAM memory (2GB)
 Bus support – 100 MHZ system bus, PCI bus at 33MHZ
 Video and audio support – AGP devices
 Input/Output support – 2 USB ports
2) Intel 440BX chipset
 Processor support – Pentium II/III xenon processor multi processor
support 2 processor
 Functional blocks: – AGA host bridge controller
 Memory support – 1GB of SDRAM/DIMM memory
 Bus support – 100 MHZ system bus, PCI bus at 33MHZ
 Video and audio support – AGP devices
 Input/Output support – 2 USB ports

3) Intel 440 ZX chipset

 Processor support – Pentium II/III processor
 Functional blocks – AGA host bridge controller
 Memory support – 256 MB memory

4) Intel 440 FX chipset

 Processor support – Pentium II and Pentium preprocessor
 Functional blocks – Data bus accelerator
 Memory support – 1GB of EDORAM with ECC memory
 Bus support – 100 MHZ system bus, PCI bus at 33MHZ
 Video and audio support – Improved MPEG and audio performance
 Input/Output support – 2 USB ports

5) Intel 440 LX chipset

 Processor support – Pentium II
 Functional blocks: – Interrupt controller
 Timer
 Enhanced DMA
 Memory support – 1GB of SDRAM with ECC memory
 Bus support – Graphics bus, PCI bus at 33MHZ
 Video and audio support – AGP 1x/2x
 Input/Output support –USB ports PCI-ISA-IDE

6) Intel 450 series chipset

 Processor support – Pentium II /Pentium preprocessor
 Functional blocks – AGA host bridge controller
 Interrupt controller
 Timer
 Enhanced DMA
 Memory support – 450 GX- 8 GB with ECC
 Bus support – 2 PCI bus
 Video and audio support – AGP devices
  Input/Output support –USB ports

7) Intel 810 series chipset

 Processor support – Pentium II /Pentium preprocessor
 Functional blocks– Memory controller hub & controller hub & firmware
 Memory support – 512 MB memory
 Bus support – PCI bus
 Video and audio support – AGP2.0 devices
 Input/Output support –dual USB ports
8) Intel 815 series chipset
 Processor support – Pentium III
 Functional blocks – Memory controller hub
 Memory support – 512 MB memory
 Bus support – PCI bus
 Input/Output support –2 USB ports
9) Intel 820 series chipset
 Processor support – Pentium II /Pentium preprocessor
 Functional blocks – controller hub
 Memory suppor – 1GB system memory
 Bus support – 133 MHZ system bus
 Video and audio support – AGP 4X
 Input/Output support –dual USB ports
10) Intel 850 series chipset
 Processor support – Pentium IV
 Functional blocks – Memory controller hub
 Memory support – 2GB of RDRAM
 Bus support – four 100 MHZ system bus
 Video and audio support – AGP 4X
 Input/Output support –four USB ports

1.2.7 SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLIES(SMPS)

SMPS Block Diagram

1) Power supplies
 Commonly power supplies are classified as ac/dc linear power supplies, dc/ac
convertors and dc/ac inverters.
 Power supplies are classified as linear and switched mode power supplies
2) Linear power supplies
 Ac/dc linear power supply comprises a transformer, rectifier, filter and a
regulator
 Any change in the output voltage due to change in input voltage or load
current will result in a change in voltage drop across the regulator transistor
  A change in the current through the regulator transistor so as to maintain a
constant voltage across the load
3) Switched mode power supplies
 Primary power received from the ac mains is rectified and filtered as high
voltage dc
 It is the chopped at a high frequency (10 to 100 KMZ) using a bipolar
transistor
 Transformer operating at a very high frequency, its size and weight are very
small compared to a transformer operating at 50/60 HZ
 Transformed chopped wave form is rectified and filtered at the secondary side
 Power supplies regulates their output using a method called pulse width
modulation
 Output voltage tends to fall
 Maximum amount of energy will be passes through the transformer and the
output voltage will be maintained

4) Switched mode power supply vs linear power supply

 Linear power supplies are good at line regulation, loud regulation, low output
voltage ripples
 SMPS are high efficiency as well as small weight & size
 High efficiency is obtained because of less wastage of power when supply is
regulated
 Operations at high frequencies reduce the size of the transformer
5) SMPS for computer
 Pc needs at two different voltage level & both positive & negative polarities:
 +5 v dc, +1 v dc
 -5 v dc,-2v dc
 Power supply has to provide at all these 4 voltage levels
 Fair amount of power is also required at 12 dc to operate the disk drive motors
 -5v dc level is designed fro dynamic memory ?BIOS voltage

SMPS

1.3 ON BOARD MEMORY

 Computers store data and instructions in their memory &process it.

 Result -stored in memory.
 Memory on the motherboard called main memory.
 System board contains RAM chips &ROM chips.
 Main memory is called RAM(random access memory)
 Arranged link two dimensional matrix with rows &columns
 Program &data are stored.
  Process can access the program &data in memory, in order.
 This is called RAM.
 Volatile
 Location of memory-identified by a row &column no-called address
 Single line –Two memory location can be address.
[ie row & column] these are as called as address line
 Data to be stored or to be read-transferred on lines called data lines.
 16 bit processors have 16 data lines
 32 bit processors have 32 data lines.
 Memory access take a minimum of 2 lock cycles is
 1st clock cycles-identify the memory location
 2nd clock cycles-transfer data[is similar for both read &write]

1GB RAM

1) DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)

 One of memory type
 Contains field effect transistor (FET)to store electrical changes
 Single capacitive elements stores 1 bit of data with
 Charged elements as ’on’ state
 Discharged elements as ’off’ state
 Insulators used in the capacitive not perfect so charge is discharged within few
milliseconds.
 Capacitive element-have to be refreshed
 Refresh cycle recharged element partially while ignoring discharged ones
 Refreshing cycle goes independent of microprocessor
 DMA(Direct Memory Access)channel o refreshes the dynamic RAM
 Access time of DMA is between 50&70nanoseconds
 New mp/ runs at speed above 250MHZ
 One clock -4nano seconds
 Fastest DRAM chips have a access time of 50ns
 Processor has to wait for the data to come alone situation is called a ‘wait’
state
 DRAM

2) SYNCHORONOUS DRAM
 Conventional DRAM called as asynchronous
 That is memory is not synchronized to the system clock
 That is memory access is began memory value appear later period of time
 Signals are not co-ordinate with system clock
 Asynchronous memory work in lower speed memory
 New type of DRAM: Synchronous DRAM
Synchronous DRAM
 SDRAM synchronized to the system clock
 Much faster than asynchronous DRAM
 Improve performance
 Speed rated into two different ways
 Nanosecond-12 ns or 10ns
 MHZ-83MHZ or 100MHZ

3)FAST PAGE MODE(FPM) DRAM

 Faster than conventional DRAM

 It requires row and column address for access
 FPM slowest memory technology used in PC’s
4) EXTENDED DATA OUT (EDO)DRAM
 Asynchronous DRAM used in extended data out or EDO memory
 Also called as hyper page mode DRAM
 Slightly faster than FDM memory
 It contains timing circuits that is access to the memory can begin before the
last one has finished
 It required support from system chipset
 Latest Pentiums and 486 mother boards can support
5) DOUBLE DATA RATE SDRAM (DDRSDRAM)
 Similar to regular SDRAM
 Data can be twice per cycle on both the rising and falling edges of the clock
Signal
 Clock signal transition from ‘0’ to ‘1’
 Back to 0 at each cycle
 First signal is called rising edge
 Second is called falling edges

Different types of RAM

6) DIRECT RAMBUS DRAM (DR DRAM)
 Called as ‘Rambus DRAM’ or ‘RDRAM’
 Work like an internal bus
 High speed 16-bit bus running at a clock rate of 400 MHz

7) CACHE MEMORY (LEVEL 1 & LEVEL 2)

 It is cost effective
 This technique which stores small amount of recently accessed data
 Microprocessor works on a block of data or within an area of memory
 Memory controller copies a whole block of recently accessed memory to
cache
 Data is already in the cache is accessed very fast
 It is possible to achieve a cache hit rate of 0%
 This is called Level1 Cache
 Faster data access a larger cache Level2 memory is used
8) EXTENDED / EXPANDED/VIRTUAL MEMORY
 8088 processor with 20 address lines can map a memory space of 1MB
 First 640 MB memory is called as low memory
 Remaining between 640 kb & 1024 kb called high memory
 Real mode of operation could access only 640KB memory
 Memory beyond 640KB called extended memory
 BIOS provides a service to transfer blocks of data back & forth in the
extended memory
 Memory available on the expansion adapter card is called the expanded
memory
 That can be accessed only in block of 64KB
 Memory management of the expanded memory is done by the software
program called as EMM(Extended Memory Management)
 Secondary memory used as a main memory is called virtual memory
 Software transfer data between the main memory & the virtual memory
 User can specify the size of the virtual memory area

1.3.1 MEMORY PACKING

 Memory : made from semiconductor chips
 Packaged into less fragile
1) SINGLE INLINE MEMORY MODULES (SIMM)
 Most common memory module
 Available in two types
 30 pin SIMM – older standards & were popular on third & forth generation
motherboard
 72 pin SIMM : used on fourth, fifth & sixth generation
 SIMM are placed into special sockets on the motherboard
 SIMM : held in place tightly
 30 pins SIMM: are available in size from 1 to 16MB
 Each one has 30 pins provides 1 bytes of data(8 bits)
 And one additional bit for parity
 72 pin SIMM provide 4 bytes of data at a time(32 bits)
 SIMM available in 2 styles
 Single sided or double sided
 Most mother board supports either 30 pin or 72 pins but not both
2) DUAL INLINE PACKAGES (DIP) and MEMORY MODULES
 Memory chips are packaged into small plastic or ceramic packages called as
dual inline packages or DIPs
 DIP – rectangular package with rows of pins with two edges
 Older computer system used DIP memory directly either by soldering it to the
motherboard or placing it in sockets
 DIP : in newer systems don’t use memory packing directly
 It soldered onto the small circuits board called as memory modules

DIP

DIP

1.3.2 INPUT/OUTPUT PORTS

 I/O devices are connected to the computer system through an interfacing
facility called I/O ports
 Communication between devices and system are established through these
ports
 Keyboard, mouse & speakers are connected through special ports
 I/O ports include serial ports, parallel ports, and game port
 Connections of Input/ Output ports

1) SERIAL PORTS
 Serial interfaces technique
 Data transmitted as 1bit at a time through a single wire
 Parallel data (byte) from the computer bus is converted into serial data (bits)
 Sent through the serial cables
 Data transfer is slow
 It enables data transfer over a distance
 RS232 is the serial communication standard
 Two serial ports
 Com1 : 9 pin DB 9 connector is used
 Com2 : 25 pin DB25 connector
 Serial port interface electronics is included in the motherboard chipset
 Serial ports can be enabled by BIOS set up.

SERIAL PORTS
2) PARALLEL PORT
 Parallel interface: entire byte is transferred to the devices at once
 Each bit is transmitted much faster
 Devices like printer’s scanners and plotters are connected to the system
through the female D25 pin connectors
  Recent PC’s support two new technologies
 External parallel ports(EPP)
 Extended capabilities port(ECP)
 Used to data transfer in both direction

PARALLEL PORT
3) GAME PORT
 Used to connect game controllers like joystick
 Game port adopter is available either in much input/output cards or in the
sound card
 It supports 2 game controllers at a time using a special split cable
 It is responsible for reporting the X & Y position of joystick to the system
 Available in 15Pin D shell connectors

GAME PORT

1.3.3 USB PORTS(UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS)

 Peripherals are connected to computer through Input/Output
 Parallel interfaces connected to parallel port
 Serial interfaces connected to serial port
 Computer comes with 1 parallel port and two serial ports
 It is a peripheral bus standard that allows a variety of peripheral devices to
connect
 USB- single, standardized
 Easy way to connect upto 127USB devices to a computer
 It can be plugged into computer
 Features of USB
 Computer acts as a host
 Upto 127 devices can be connected to host either directly or through USB
 Data transfer rate of 489 mega bits per second
  They are Hot swappable(connect & disconnect anytime)

USB PORTS
USB HUBS
 Supports up to 127 devices
 It is a part of standard
 Hub has 4 ports
 Hub is plugged to the computer & devices are plugged to the hub
 Hug: can be chained to connect more devices
 It may be powered or unpowered plug
 Powered hug: High power devices like printer or scanner will have their own
power supply
 Un powered hugs can serve these devices

USB CABLE CONNECTION

USB CABLE CONNECTION

 There are four wires for connection
 Red wire for +5v (power) & brown wire for ground (power)
 Twisted pair yellow & blue is used for data
 4 wires are perfectly shield
Difference data transfer types used in USB
3 Modes
1) Interrupt: to transfer little data-devices using this type[Example: keyboard or a
mouse]
2) Bulk: to transfer data in one big pocket-device [Example: a printer]
3) Isochronous: out streams between the devices & the host in real time [Example:
speakers]

USB CABLE