RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

UNIT IV - THE DERIVATIVE

Introduction
In this unit, we will introduce a very well-known term in calculus called “derivative”. This term is
almost synonymous with differential calculus because, as you will learn later, the derivative is what
built up differential calculus. The derivative puts all concepts of differential calculus to work. Finding
the slope of a curve at any point, rate of change, instantaneous acceleration, optimization problems
are some of the applications of derivative. Many professional subjects in engineering make use of
derivative to derive formulas. Derivative is based on limit. So, the previous topics on limit will be
exhaustively use in this unit.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the geometric significance of derivative and its relation to limit.
2. Define derivative mathematically.
3. Write derivative notations correctly.
4. Find the derivative of a function using limits.
5. Find the slope of the curve at a given point.

Test Your Skills 4.1

1 2 𝑓(𝑥+2)
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 1, find lim 𝑥 .
𝑥→∞ 𝑓(2)

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥, find the value of lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0
1 3 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
3. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + 5, find the value of lim ∆𝑥
at x = 2.
∆𝑥→0

Check your answers using the key to correction at the last page of this unit. If you answered correctly
2 or 3 of the questions in only one attempt, then this lesson is for you. Your skills in finding the
derivative will be sharpened further with this module. If you answer nothing or only 1 question
correctly, I advise you to review our previous lessons on functions and evaluating limits.

4.1 The Symbol 

The symbol  (read “delta”) is used to denote a change or increment in a variable. If we regard x as
the variable, then the symbol x (read “delta x”) denotes the increment of x. Note that while  is not
a number or a variable, the symbol x is a variable. Note also that x may be either positive or
negative, but not zero.

Suppose y = f (x). A change x in x produces a corresponding y in y.

y + y = f (x + x)
y = f (x + x) – y
y = f (x + x) – f (x)

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

4.2 The Derivative

The meaning of x and y can be clearly understood by means of the graph below. Consider a
continuous curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). We may be interested in a random point P with coordinates at (x, y). Let
us imagine that point P moves along the curve in a very short distance (so short that we can consider
the movement as infinitesimal), terminating at the new point P’. Two significant changes will take
place as P moves to P’. First the x-coordinate will move by a very short distance ∆𝑥 and the y-
coordinate will move by ∆𝑦. Consider the secant line PP’ (a secant line is a line that passes a curve in
2 points) together with the vertical line dropped from P’ and the horizontal line extended to the right
∆𝑦
from P. A triangle PP’Q is formed. Remember slope? The slope of triangle PP’Q is the ratio .
∆𝑥

Let us insert the concept of limit in our discussion. In triangle PP’Q, as ∆𝑥 becomes smaller and
smaller or as it approaches zero, or simply as ∆𝑥 → 0, the secant line rotates clockwise approaching
the tangent line PT (a tangent line is a line that passes a curve in only one point). The slope of the
tangent line PT is the slope of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) at point P. You will learn later that the slope of the
curve at any point is the same as the derivative of y with respect to x.

y = f(x)

P’• (x + x, y + y)

y T
P(x,y)
x • •
Q
y x
x

Figure 4.1. The graph of the derivative

y
= slope of the secant line PP’.
x

y
lim = slope of the tangent line PT.
x →0 x

4.3 Definition of the Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function f is that function, denoted by f ’, such that its value at a number x in the
domain of f is given by

y f(x+ x)− f(x)

f ’(x) = lim = lim
x →0 x x→0 x

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

if this limit exists.

y
Note that from the graph lim is the slope of the line tangent to point P (the line PT).
x →0 x

The derivative of y with respect to x is identical to the slope of y = f(x) at (x, y).

4.4 Other Symbols of Derivative

y’ = “y prime”

𝑑𝑦
= “derivative of y with respect to x”
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
f (x) = “derivative of f of x with respect to x”.
𝑑𝑥

NOTE: The command “differentiate 𝑓(𝑥)” means “to find the derivative of y with respect to x.

Examples
Differentiate the following functions.
1. y = 4x2 – 3x – 2
Solution:
y + y = 4(x + x)2 – 3(x + x) – 2
= 4(x2 + 2xx + x2) – 3x - 3x – 2
= 4x2 + 8xx + 4x2 – 3x - 3x – 2
y = (4x2 – 3x – 2) + 8xx + 4x2 - 3x - y
y = (4x2 – 3x – 2) + 8xx + 4x2 - 3x – (4x2 – 3x – 2)
y = 8xx +4x2 - 3x

𝑦 8xx +4x2 − 3x

𝑥
= 𝑥

= 8x + 4x -3
𝑦
f ’(x) = lim = 8x + 4(0) – 3
𝑥 →0 𝑥

f ’(x) = 8x – 3 (ans)

1
2. y = 4−𝑥

Solution:
1
y + y = 4−(𝑥+ 𝑥)

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

1 1
y = 4−(𝑥+ 𝑥) - 4−𝑥

4−𝑥−[4−(𝑥+𝑥)]
y = [4−(𝑥+ 𝑥)](4−𝑥)

4−𝑥−4+𝑥+ 𝑥
= [4−(𝑥+𝑥)](4−𝑥)

𝑥
y = [4−(𝑥+𝑥)](4−𝑥)

y 1
= [4−(𝑥+𝑥)](4−𝑥)
x

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 1 1
= lim = [4−(𝑥+0)](4−𝑥) = (4−𝑥)(4−𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 →0 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= (4−𝑥)2 (ans)
𝑑𝑥

3. y = cos x

Solution:

y + y = cos(x + x)
from addition formula of cosine:
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

y + y = cos x cos x – sin x sin y

y = cos x cos x – sin x sin x – cos x
= -sin x sin x – cos x + cos x cos x
= -sin x sin x – cos x(1 – cos x)

from half-angle formula:

𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
sin2 2 = 2

y = -sin x sin x – cos x(2sin2 x/2)

𝑥
𝑦 sin 𝑥 sin
2
= -sin x - cos x 𝑥 sin (x/2)
𝑥 𝑥
2
From Theorem #13 (of Theorems of limits)
sin 𝛼
lim =1
𝛼→0 𝛼
sin 𝑥 sin ∆𝑥/2
This implies that lim = 1 and lim =1
∆𝑥→0 𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥/2

Therefore,

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

𝑦
y’ = lim = -sinx(1) – cos x(1) (0)
𝑥 →0 𝑥

y’ = -sin x (ans)

2𝑥+5
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−7
Solution:

2(𝑥+∆𝑥)+5 2𝑥+2∆𝑥+5
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = (𝑥+∆𝑥)−7
= 𝑥+∆𝑥−7
2𝑥+2∆𝑥+5 2𝑥+5 (2𝑥+2∆𝑥+5)(𝑥−7)−(2𝑥+5)(𝑥+∆𝑥−7)
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = − =
𝑥+∆𝑥−7 𝑥−7 (𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)
(2𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥−9𝑥−14∆𝑥−35)−(2𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥−9𝑥+5∆𝑥−35)
= (𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)
2𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥−9𝑥−14∆𝑥−35−2𝑥 2 −2𝑥∆𝑥+9𝑥−5∆𝑥+35
= (𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)
−19∆𝑥
= (𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) −19∆𝑥 −19
= =(𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)
∆𝑥 (𝑥+∆𝑥−7)(𝑥−7)∆𝑥
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) −19 −19 −19
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = (𝑥+0−7)(𝑥−7) = (𝑥−7)(𝑥−7) = (𝑥−7)2 (ans)
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

5. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1

Solution:
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 1

∆𝑦 = √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 1 − 𝑦
= √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 1 - √𝑥 2 + 1
∆𝑦 √(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1 − √𝑥 2 +1
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

Our goal here is to cancel the ∆𝑥 in the denominator with the ∆𝑥 in the numerator. This can
be done if we remove the radical signs in the numerator by multiplying the numerator and the
denominator by the conjugate of the numerator which is √(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 1 + √𝑥 2 + 1.

∆𝑦 √(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1 − √𝑥 2 +1 √(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1

= ∙
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 √(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1

2
(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1)2 −(√𝑥 2 +1)
=
∆𝑥(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1)

(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1−(𝑥 2 +1)

=
∆𝑥(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1)

𝑥 2 +2𝑥∆𝑥+(∆𝑥)2 +1−𝑥 2 −1
=
∆𝑥(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1)

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

2𝑥∆𝑥+(∆𝑥)2 ∆𝑥(2𝑥+∆𝑥)
= =
∆𝑥(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1) ∆𝑥(√(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+ √𝑥 2 +1)

∆𝑦 2𝑥+∆𝑥
=
∆𝑥 √(𝑥+∆𝑥)2 +1+√𝑥 2 +1

𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 2𝑥+0 2𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥
= lim = = √𝑥 2 = = √𝑥 2 (ans)
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 √(𝑥+0)2 +1+√𝑥 2 +1 +1+√𝑥 2 +1 2√𝑥 2 +1 +1

Test Your Skills 4.2

1. If 𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 , find 𝑦′.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 , find 𝑓′(𝑥).
3. If f (x) = x3 – 5x + 2, find 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
4. If y = x4 – 2x3 , find 𝑑𝑥.
1 𝑑𝑦
5. Given 𝑦 = 𝑥+3. What is 𝑑𝑥?

4.5 Slope and Derivative

𝑑𝑦
In Section 4.2, we illustrated that the derivative 𝑑𝑥 is identical to the slope of 𝑓(𝑥) at any point. If the
coordinates (x, y) of point P is known, we can exactly determine the slope of 𝑓(𝑥) at point P. All we
need to do is simply plug in the value of x-coordinate (or the abscissa) to the derivative function 𝑓′(𝑥).

To illustrate, let us consider the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where m and b are constants. We know from
Analytic Geometry that m is the slope and b is the y-intercept of the line. Let us get the derivative of
the line.

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) + 𝑏
∆𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚∆𝑥 + 𝑏 − 𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚∆𝑥 + 𝑏 − 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑏
∆𝑦 = 𝑚∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑚∆𝑥
= =𝑚
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
= lim =𝑚
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

which is the slope of the line y = mx +b

4.6 Notation of Slope in Derivative Form

There are many ways to express the slope of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) at any coordinates (a, b) using the
derivative notation. Either of these three notations below is correct.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

𝑑𝑦
a. slope = 𝑑𝑥
x=a
b. slope = 𝑦′(𝑎)

c. slope = 𝑓′(𝑎)

Examples
Find the slope of the curve at the given point. See the solution for finding the derivative of each
function in the previous examples.

1. y = 4x2 – 3x – 2 at (-2, 20)

Solution:
f ’(x) = 8x – 3 [see example 1, Section 4.4]

Slope @ (-2, 20)

slope = f ’(-2) = 8(-2) – 3
= -16 – 3
= - 19 (ans)
1
2. y = 4−𝑥 at (1, 1/3)

Solution:
𝑑𝑦 1
= (4−𝑥)2 [see example 2, Section 4.4]
𝑑𝑥

Slope @ (1, 1/3)

𝑑𝑦 1
slope = 𝑑𝑥 = (4−1)2
x=1
1
= 32
= 1/9 (ans)

√3
3. y = cos x at ( π/6, )
2

Solution:

y ’ = -sin x [see example 3, Section 4.4]

√3
Slope @ ( π/6, )
2

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

𝜋
slope = 𝑦′( 6 ) = - sin π/6
= -1/2 (ans)
2𝑥+5
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = at 𝑥 = 5.
𝑥−7

Solution:
−19
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥−7)2
[see example 4, Section 4.4]
Slope at 𝑥 = 5
−19 −19
slope = 𝑓′5) = (2−7)2 = (−5)2 = −19/25 (ans)

5. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1 at 𝑥 = −2.
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
= √𝑥 2 [see example 5, Section 4.4]
𝑑𝑥 +1

Slope at 𝑥 = −2
𝑑𝑦 −2 −2 −2 2
slope = 𝑑𝑥 = = = = − 5 √5 (ans)
√(−2)2 +1 √4+1 √5
x = -2

Test Your Skills 4.3

Find the slope of the curve at the given point.
1. y = 2 – x2 , (3, -7)
2. y = 3x2 – 2x , (2, 8)
3. y = 1/x2 , (2, ¼)
1
4. y = 𝑥+1 , (-2, -1)
𝑥+4
5. y = 2𝑥−1 , (3, 7/5)

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

Answers to Tests Your Skills

Test Your Skills 4.1
1 2 𝑓(𝑥+2)
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 1, find lim 𝑥 .
𝑥→∞ 𝑓(2)

Solution:
1 1
𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = 2 (𝑥 + 2)2 + 1 = 2 (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4) + 1
1
= 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 + 1
1 2
= 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3
𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥2
𝑓 (2) = 2 (2)2 + 1 = 8
+1
1 2
𝑓(𝑥+2) 𝑥 +2𝑥+3
2
lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥2
𝑥→∞ 𝑓(2) 𝑥→∞ +1
8
1 2 3
+ + 2
2 𝑥 𝑥
= lim 1 1
𝑥→∞ 8+ 2
𝑥
1
+0+0
2
= 1
+0
8
=4 (ans)
2 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 3𝑥, find the value of lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ

Solution:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 3(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 3(𝑥 + ℎ) = 3(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 3𝑥 − 3ℎ
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 3𝑥 − 3ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 3𝑥 − 3ℎ − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
= 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 3ℎ
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 6𝑥ℎ+3ℎ2 −3ℎ
lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
= lim (6𝑥 + 3ℎ − 3) = 6𝑥 + 0 − 3 = 6𝑥 − 3 (ans)
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0

1 3 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
3. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + 5, find the value of lim ∆𝑥
at x = 2.
∆𝑥→0

Solution:
1
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 3 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)3 + 4(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 5
1
= 3 (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 + 3𝑥(∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑥)3 ) + 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 ) + 5
1 1
= 3 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 + 𝑥(∆𝑥)2 + 3 (∆𝑥)3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4(∆𝑥)2 + 5
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 ∆𝑥 + 𝑥(∆𝑥)2 + 3 (∆𝑥)3 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4(∆𝑥)2 + 5 − 3 𝑥 3 −
4𝑥 2 − 5
2 2 1 3 2
= 𝑥 ∆𝑥 + 𝑥(∆𝑥) + (∆𝑥) + 8𝑥∆𝑥 + 4(∆𝑥)
3
1
𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 ∆𝑥+𝑥(∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑥)3 +8𝑥∆𝑥+4(∆𝑥)2
3
=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
2 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 + 8𝑥 + 4∆𝑥
3

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 The Derivative

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
lim ∆𝑥
= 𝑥 2 + 0 + 0 + 8𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥
∆𝑥→0

At 𝑥 = 2

𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
lim ∆𝑥
= 22 + 8(2) = 4 + 16 = 20 (ans)
∆𝑥→0
x=2

Test Your Skills 4.2

1. 𝑦 ′ = 3 − 10𝑥
2. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4 = 2(𝑥 − 2)
3. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 5
𝑑𝑦
4. 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 2 (2𝑥 − 3)
𝑑𝑦 −1
5. = (𝑥+3)2
𝑑𝑥

Test Your Skills 4.3

1. -6
2. 10
3. -1/4
4. -1
5. -9/25

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