Lectures

on
MATH 123
Vectors and Geometry

Module 1
(Vector Algebra)
Dr. Thomas Katsekpor

January 18, 2021

Department of Mathematics, University of Ghana, Legon
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 1 / 25
The Ratio Theorem
(The Position Vector of a Point that Divides a Given Straight Line in a Given Ratio)

Theorem
Let A(a) and B(b ) be two given distinct points and let C (c ) be a point on
the linee AB suchethat e
−→ −→
|AC | : |CB| = µ : λ.
Then

λa + µb
c= e e
e λ+µ
if the point C divides AB internally in the ratio µ : λ and

λa − µb
c= e e
e λ−µ
if the point C divides AB externally in the ratio µ : λ.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 2 / 25
The Ratio Theorem
(The Position Vector of a Point that Divides a Given Straight Line in a Given
Ratio) (Cont.)

Proof
Internal Division
A

B
O

Figure: Internal division of a line in a given ratio

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 3 / 25
The Ratio Theorem
(The Position Vector of a Point that Divides a Given Straight Line in a Given
Ratio) (Cont.)

Suppose the point C divides the line segment AB internally such that
−→ −→
|AC | : |CB| = µ : λ. Then
−→
−→ −→ |AC | µ
|AC | : |CB| = µ : λ ⇒ −→ = .
|CB| λ
Therefore
−→ −→ −→ −→
λ|AC | = µ|CB| ⇒ λAC = µCB,
−→ −→ −→ −→
since AC and CB are in the same direction or AC k CB.
Thus
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
λ(OC − OA) = µ(OB − OC ) ⇒ λOC + µOC = µOB + λOA
Hence
−→ −→ −→ −→
−→ µOB + λOA λOA + µOB λa + µb
OC = = ⇒c= e e.
µ+λ λ+µ e λ+µ
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 4 / 25
The Ratio Theorem
(The Position Vector of a Point that Divides a Given Straight Line in a Given
Ratio) (Cont.)

External Division

C
O

Figure: External division of a line in a given ratio

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 5 / 25
The Ratio Theorem
(The Position Vector of a Point that Divides a Given Straight Line in a Given
Ratio) (Cont.)

Suppose the point C divides the line segment AB externally such that
−→ −→
|AC | : |CB| = µ : λ. Then
−→
−→ −→ |AC | µ
|AC | : |CB| = µ : λ ⇒ −→ = .
|CB| λ
Therefore
−→ −→ −→ −→
λ|AC | = µ|BC | ⇒ λAC = µBC ,
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
since |CB| = |BC |, AC and BC are in the same direction or AC k BC .
Thus
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
λ(OC − OA) = µ(OC − OB) ⇒ λOC − µOC = µOA − λOB.
Hence −→ −→
−→ λOA − µOB λa − µb
OC = ⇒c= e e.
λ−µ e λ−µ
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 6 / 25
Internal and External Division—Remark

Remark

(a) The result for external division can be obtained from that for internal
division by changing the sign of either λ or µ.
−→ −→
We do this by adopting the convention that if |AC | : |CB| = µ : λ is
positive then C divides AB internally.
negative then C divides AB externally.

(b) For external division of the line segment AB by C in the ratio µ : λ,

C is to right of B if |µ/λ| > 1 and to the left of A if |µ/λ| < 1.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 7 / 25
Internal and External Division—Remark (Cont.)

C
A

C
Figure: External division of a line in a given ratio

(c)
λa − µb
c= e e ⇒ (λ − µ)c = λa − µb .
e λ−µ e e e
Therefore a = b if λ = µ = 1. In fact, the points are the same and
e e are equal if C divides AB externally in the ratio 1 : 1.
the three vectors
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 8 / 25
Internal and External Division—Deductions

(a)
λa + µb
c= e e
e λ+µ
and if λ = µ = 1 then c = (a + b )/2. (Therefore if C divides AB
e e e
internally in the ratio 1 : 1 then C is the mid-point of AB and
vice versa)

(b) Point of trisection: If C is the point of trisection of AB closer to B

than to A then
a + 2b
c=e e
e 3
and if C is closer to A than to B then
2a + b
c = e e.
e 3

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 9 / 25
Internal and External Division—Deductions (Cont.)
If λ + µ = β + α then λa + µb = βc + αd implies
e e e e
λa + µb βc + αd
e e= e e =e
λ+µ β+α e
if and only if E (e ) is a common point of the lines AB and CD and E (e )
divides the lines eAB and CD internally in the ratios µ : λ and α : β e
respectively.
D

E
A B

Figure: Internal division of two line segments by a common point

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 10 / 25
Internal and External Division—Deductions (Cont.)
If λ + µ = β − α then λa + µb = βc − αd implies
e e e e
λa + µb βc − αd
e e= e e =e
λ+µ β−α e
if and only if E (e ) is a common point of the lines AB and CD produced
and E (e ) dividesethe line AB internally in the ratio µ : λ and the line CD
e in the ratio α : β.
externally
A E B

Figure: Internal and external division of two line segments by a common point

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 11 / 25
Internal and External Division—Deductions (Cont.)
If λ − µ = β − α then λa − µb = βc − αd implies
e e e e
λa − µb βc − αd
e e= e e =e
λ−µ β−α e
if and only if E (e ) is a common point of the lines AB produced and CD
produced and E (e e ) divides the lines AB and CD externally in the ratios
e
µ : λ and α : β respectively.

A B E

Figure: External division of two line segments by a common point

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 12 / 25
The Centroid

Definition
Let A1 (a1 ), A2 (a2 ), A3 (a3 ), . . . , An (an ) be a set of n points. Then the
centroideG (g ) ore the meane position ofe the n points is given by
e
n
a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + an 1X
g=e e e e = ai .
e n n e
i=1

It follows from the definition that

the centroid G (g ) of A(a) and B(b ) is
e e e
a+b
g = e e.
e 2
Thus the centroid of A and B is the mid-point of A and B.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 13 / 25
The Centroid (Cont.)

the centroid G (g ) of △ABC is

e
a+b+c
g = e e e,
e 3
where a, b and c are the position vectors of the points A, B and C
e e
respectively. e

the centroid G (g ) of a tetrahedron ABCD is

e
a+b+c +d
g = e e e e,
e 4
where a, b , c and d are the position vectors of the points A, B C and
e e e
D respectively. e

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 14 / 25
The Centroid (Cont.)

A A
A C

G
G
G
D

B C
B B C

Figure: The Centroid

a+b a+b+c a+b+c +d

g = e e, g = e e e, g = e e e e .
e 2 e 3 e 4

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 15 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
Theorem
Prove that the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half of it.

Proof
A

D E

B C

Figure: The Midpoint Theorem

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 16 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)
Suppose A(a), B(b ) and C (c ) are the vertices of the triangle, and D(d )
e the mid-points
and E (e ) are e eof the sides AB and AC respectively. Thene
e
1 1
d = (a + b ), e = (a + c ).
e 2 e e e 2 e e
Therefore
−→ 1 1 1 1 −→
DE = e − d = (a + c ) − (a + b ) = (c − b ) = BC .
e e 2 e e 2 e e 2 e e 2
−→ −→
Hence DE is parallel to BC and
−→ 1 −→
|DE | = |BC |
2
which proves the statement.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 17 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)
Theorem
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Proof Let ABCD be represent the parallelogram with its diagonals AC

and BD intersecting at E . Let a, b , c , d and e be the position vectors of
e e e e
the points A, B, C , D and E respectively. e
D C

A B

Figure: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 18 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)

Now, since ABCD is a parallelogram,

−→ −→
AB = DC ⇒ b − a = c − d .
e e e e
Therefore
a+c b+d
a+c =b+d ⇒ e e = e e =e
e e e e 2 2 e
since E (e ) is the only point common to AC and BD.
e
Hence the mid-point of AC is also the mid-point of BD. Therefore the
diagonals bisect each other at E .

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 19 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)
Theorem
Prove that a line drawn parallel to the base of a triangle divides the other
two sides in equal ratios.

Proof
A

D E

B C

Figure: A line drawn parallel to the base BC of △ABC divides AB and AC in

equal ratios.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 20 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)
Let ABC be the triangle and let D and E be points on AB and AC such
−→ −→
that DE is parallel to BC . Then there exists a scalar say λ such that
−→ −→
DE = λBC . Therefore

e − d = λ(c − b ) ⇒ e − λc = d − λb .
e e e e e e e e
Hence
e − λc d − λb
e e= e e =a
1−λ 1−λ e
since A(a) is the only point common to the lines BD and CE produced.
Thus e
(1 − λ)a + λb (1 − λ)a + λb
(1 − λ)a = d − λb ⇒ d = e = e
e e e 1 (1 − λ) + λ

and
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 21 / 25
Proofs of Some Geometric Results (Theorems)
(Cont.)

(1 − λ)a + λc (1 − λ)a + λc
(1 − λ)a = e − λc ⇒ e = e = e .
e e e 1 (1 − λ) + λ
Therefore the point D divides AB internally in the ratio λ : 1 − λ, and the
point E divides AC internally in the ratio λ : 1 − λ. Alternatively
−→ −→
(1 − λ)a = d − λb ⇒ d − a = λ(b − a) ⇒ AD = λAB
e e e e e e
and
−→ −→
(1 − λ)a = e − λc ⇒ e − a = λ(c − a) ⇒ AE = λAC .
e e e e e e
Therefore −→ −→
−→ −→ |AD| λ |AD| λ
AD = λAB ⇒ −→ = ⇒ −→ = ,
|AB| 1 |DB| 1−λ
−→ −→
−→ −→ |AE | λ |AE | λ
AE = λAC ⇒ −→ = ⇒ −→ = .
|AC | 1 |EC | 1−λ
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 22 / 25
Example 3
Example
ABCD is a parallelogram, M is the mid-point of AD and P is the
mid-point of CM. If BP meets CD at N, find
−→ −→
(i) |DN| : |NC |,
−→ −→
(ii) |BP| : |PN|.

Solution Let a, b , c , d , m, p and n be the position vectors of the points

e e e e e e e
A, B, C , D, M, P and N respectively.
D N C

P
M

A B

Figure: A parallelogram ABCD.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 23 / 25
Example 3 (Cont.)

Since ABCD is a parallelogram,

−→ −→
AD = BC ⇒ d − a = c − b ⇒ a = d + b − c . (1)
e e e e e e e e
Also, since M is the mid-point of AD and P is the mid-point of CM,
1 1
m = (a + d ), p = (c + m). (2)
e 2 e e e 2 e e
Therefore, eliminating m from the equations in (2), we have
e
 
1 1 1 1
p = (c + m) = c + (a + d ) = (2c + a + d ). (3)
e 2 e e 2 e 2 e e 4 e e e

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 24 / 25
Example 3 (Cont.)

Therefore, eliminating a from (1) and (3), we have

e
4p = b + c + 2d .
e e e e
So
4p − b c + 2d
4p − b = c + 2d ⇒ e e = e e =n
e e e e 4−1 1+2 e
since N is the only point common to both BP and CD. Therefore N
divides BP in a ratio 4 : −1 and CD internally in the ratio 2 : 1. Hence
−→ −→ −→ −→
|DN| : |NC | = 1 : 2 and |BP| : |PN| = 3 : 1..

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 25 / 25