Computer Assisted Language Learning

ISSN: 0958-8221 (Print) 1744-3210 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ncal20

Types, purposes, and effectiveness of state-of-the-

art technologies for second and foreign language
learning

Ruofei Zhang & Di Zou

To cite this article: Ruofei Zhang & Di Zou (2020): Types, purposes, and effectiveness of state-
of-the-art technologies for second and foreign language learning, Computer Assisted Language
Learning, DOI: 10.1080/09588221.2020.1744666

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1744666

Published online: 06 Apr 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ncal20
COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1744666

REVIEW

Types, purposes, and effectiveness of state-of-the-art

technologies for second and foreign
language learning
Ruofei Zhang and Di Zou
Department of English Language Education, The Education University of Hong Kong,
New Territories, Hong Kong SAR

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Digital technologies have been widely used to enhance lan- Computer-assisted language
guage learning, the effectiveness of which has been learning; mobile-assisted
acknowledged in the literature. With the rapid develop- language learning;
mobile learning;
ment of digital devices and technologies, increasing tech- multimedia learning;
nologies have been used in the most recent several years, technology-enhanced
leading to more diversified approaches to language educa- language learning
tion. This exceptional advance over the past few years calls
for a summary of state-of-the-art technologies that have
been used to enhance language learning and promote
effective learning. The present study was conducted to fill
this gap by reviewing all the relevant publications in 10
widely recognised journals in the field of technology-
enhanced language learning. An analysis of 57 articles
indicated five major types of technology for second and
foreign language learning (i.e. technologies for mobile
learning, multimedia learning and socialisation, speech-to-
text and text-to-speech recognition, and digital-game-based
learning). The results also showed four primary purposes
and benefits of the state-of-the-art technologies: promoting
practices, delivering instructional content, facilitating inter-
actions, and restructuring teaching approaches. Moreover,
these state-of-the-art technologies have been integrated
into various aspects of language teaching and learning, the
overall impact of which has been positive.

1. Introduction
Technologies have been widely applied to the teaching and learning of
various disciplines, including language education, and the quantity, qual-
ity, and diversity of the technologies that have been integrated into lan-
guage learning are significant (Chen, Zou, & Xie, 2020; Slavuj, Me
strovic,
& Kova
cic, 2017). At a time when the use of language learning apps is

CONTACT Di Zou [email protected] Department of English Language Education, The Education

University of Hong Kong, 10 Lo Ping Road, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR
ß 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

160

141
140 131

120
110

100
84
81
80 76
70
59
60 52
50
45
40 34

20 12 14
10 9 9 11 9 11
7 6 8
3 5
0

Figure 1. Numbers of SSCI journal articles in the field of TELL.

steadily increasing, with smartphones and tablets now viewed as essential

devices in language classrooms, and open-source language learning plat-
forms and programmes mushrooming at an unprecedented pace, an
increasing number of practices of technology-enhanced language learning
(hereinafter, TELL) (Chen, Zou, Cheng, & Xie, 2020; Godwin-Jones,
2011) are appearing. Such practices continue to update our understand-
ing of language education, with TELL, as a research field, becoming very
active in recent years (Marijuan & Sanz, 2017). With the rapid develop-
ment of digital devices and technologies, technologies are increasingly
being used (in the classroom), leading to more diversified approaches to
effective language education (Chen, Wang, Zou, Lin, & Xie, 2019).
For the present study, the researchers combed through Social Sciences
Citation Index (SSCI) journals that are recognised in the field of TELL and
‘dedicated to technology integration in education’ (Hung, Yang, Hwang,
Chu, & Wang, 2018, p. 93) for studies published on TELL. Figure 1 shows
the number of SSCI journals in all years (from 1995 until the end of June
2019), retrieved from the Web of Science database using the search entry as
‘language learning’ and ‘technology’ or ‘computer’ or ‘mobile.’ The dashed
line illustrates the overall ascending trend of journal articles on TELL pub-
lished since 1995 as well as the remarkable increase of the publications in
the most recent five years with almost half of the papers being published
from 2016 to June 2019 (i.e. 466 out of 988 publications in total).
Along with the increasing interest and number of publications, several
studies have been conducted reviewing the development of the field,
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 3

among which, seven appear most notable. The first systematic review
was conducted by Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson, and Freynik
(2014) who reviewed 350 studies comparing the use of newer technolo-
gies with more traditional language learning methods or materials. They
concluded that, generally, there was limited evidence for the efficacy of
using technology in language learning. However, automatic speech recog-
nition systems were viewed as effective in improving learners’ pronunci-
ation, and chat was conducive to an increased amount and complexity of
learners’ language production.
Slavuj et al. (2017) examined 42 TELL studies published in four jour-
nals (i.e. CALICO Journal, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Journal
of Educational Technology and Society, and ReCALL) between 2005 and
2015, with a focus on adaptive and intelligent instructional systems and
personalisation. They found that a variety of languages had been exam-
ined with English being the most frequently investigated. The results also
showed that the intelligent tutoring system was the most common
approach to adaptivity in language instruction. Specifically, there were
three types of personalisation systems. The process-steering type adjusted
the learning style and pace to learners’ ability and preference; the
content-adapting type delivered language knowledge based on learners’
interests and proficiency levels; and the feedback-giving type providing
in-time responses according to learners’ learning behaviours.
Shadiev, Hwang, and Huang (2017) reviewed 37 journal articles pub-
lished from 2007 to March 2016 on mobile language learning in authen-
tic environments from four perspectives: publication trend, research
focus, technology type, and research methodology. The results showed
the dominance of English in mobile language learning research and
revealed a rising academic interest in this topic. Smartphones and per-
sonal digital assistants were the most frequently used technologies and
learners’ language proficiencies and perceptions of mobile learning were
the most popular topics. More importantly, Shadiev et al.’s findings indi-
cated the potential of research on mobile technology-enhanced practical
use of language knowledge in real-life situations.
Hwang and Fu (2018) conducted a systematic review of 90 articles on
collaborative mobile learning in various disciplines. In a search of articles
from the Web of Science, they selected the most relevant ones published
between 2007 and 2016 and divided them into two periods to analyse
research trends in mobile technology-supported collaborative learning.
The review showed that most investigations of collaborative mobile lan-
guage learning focused on learning English as a second language, while
other languages received very limited academic coverage. The researchers
also observed that most studies in this field focused on secondary and
4 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

university students as the target language learners, while adult, preschool,

and kindergarten learners were largely ignored.
This three-step method of searching, selecting and dividing was also
applied by Hung et al. (2018) in their review of 50 publications on
game-based language learning that were published from 2007 to 2016.
Surveying the designs and effectiveness of digital instructional games, the
coding scheme of this research focused on research methods, types of
digital games, participants and their target languages, and learning out-
comes. The results, consistent with Slavuj et al. (2017) and Shadiev,
Hwang, et al. (2017), showed that English was the most frequently inves-
tigated target language. The most popular game genres, which were nor-
mally integrated into learning tasks, were immersion games and
multiplayer online role-playing games. It was also found that the partici-
pants of most studies were university students with mixed levels of lan-
guage proficiency, and among various research issues, the impact of
digital games on learners’ psychological states was the most frequently
examined. Most of the reviewed studies reported positive learning out-
comes and affective states of students when learning with digital games.
Lee (2019) focused on the context-aware technology use in foreign lan-
guage learning and reviewed 88 studies published between 2000 and
2018. The results showed that the academic attention on this topic kept
fluctuating over the decade, and that most empirical studies in this field
were either of one-session or short-term. Most researches employed
quantitative methods and reported overall positive effects of the context-
aware technology on learners’ affective, linguistic, socio-cultural, and
cognitive states, while learners’ actual learning outcomes were seldom
investigated. Lee therefore called for more pedagogy-informed long-term
research on students’ language learning achievements in context-aware
technology-enhanced learning environments.
Shadiev and Yang (2020) conducted a comprehensive review of 398
TELL studies published between 2014 and 2019 from three aspects: the
number of articles published by journals and by year, languages and skills,
and technology used. The results showed that the number of publications
was biggest in 2017 and in the Computer Assisted Language Learning jour-
nal. English and Chinese were the most frequently investigated target lan-
guages in TELL studies. Vocabulary knowledge and writing and speaking
skills were the most frequently investigated aspects of language knowledge.
The researchers also identify 23 types of technology that had been applied
in language teaching and learning, among which digital games, corpus,
and automated feedback were used most frequently.
These seven articles, similar to most review studies (e.g. Marijuan &
Sanz, 2017), reviewed publications over a period of one decade.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 5

However, studies that have been published after 2016 have yet to be
reviewed in most review papers. Further, because of the recent rapid
technical advances and innovations in modern technology, most reviews
already appear dated in terms of the technologies reviewed within. For
instance, the iPod, which is now close to obsolete as a learning tool, was
regarded as an innovative device for language learning by Golonka et al.
(2014). Thus, to provide researchers in the fields of CALL and TELL
with an updated picture of the latest TELL developments and strategies,
a review of the studies that were published after 2016 appears timely.
Moreover, most previous TELL reviews have focused on one technology
only: Hwang and Fu (2018) and Shadiev, Hwang, et al. (2017) on mobile
technologies, Hung et al. (2018) on digital games, and Lee (2019) on
context-aware technology, thus failing to provide a comprehensive
understanding of a wide range of technologies for language learning in
general. Additionally, many reviews on TELL focused mainly on the
research methodologies of the previous studies (e.g. Hwang & Fu, 2018;
Lee, 2019; Shadiev, Hwang, et al., 2017; Shadiev & Yang, 2020). They
summarised the status of the field in terms of the publication years and
journals, the target languages, the methods of experiments and data col-
lection, thereby limiting the analyses of the types and purposes of the
technology applied to enhance language learning and how such applica-
tions were conducted. As a result, there have been few, if any, in-depth
reviews summarising the state-of-the-art technologies used to enhance
second or foreign language learning, and analysing how such technolo-
gies have been used to promote effective learning.
To fill in these gaps, the present study reviews the publications in
TELL in some widely recognised SSCI journals in the field over the
period from 2016 to the first half of 2019, focusing on the types of the
state-of-the-art technologies investigated and what roles they have played
in language learning. Three research questions were proposed:

1. What state-of-the-art technologies have been used to enhance second

or foreign language learning?
2. What were the purposes of integrating the state-of-the-art technolo-
gies into second or foreign language learning?
3. Were the state-of-the-art technologies effective in promoting second
or foreign language learning?

2. Research method
We identified and analysed relevant articles using a three-step process,
article search and selection, and data analysis, following Hwang and Fu
6 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

(2018) and Zou, Huang, and Xie (2019). The search was conducted in
Web of Science Core Collection, with ‘2016–2019’ as the time-span,
‘English’ as the language, and ‘article’ as the required document type.
Three keywords were used: ‘technology,’ ‘language,’ and ‘learning,’ with
the AND operators between.

2.1. Journal selection

For quality assurance, we selected articles that were published in 10 SSCI
journals that are widely recognised in the field of TELL, as reliable
review results are conditional upon reliable data sources. At an earlier
stage of our review study, we had included book chapters, conference
papers, and non-SSCI journal articles in the review list. However, after
reading these papers, we found that the quality of many studies was
unsatisfactory due to a lack of important details such as descriptions and
explanations of what technology was used, as well as how and why such
technology was applied in the research. Moreover, some studies did not
implement a purposeful use of technologies for language learning, but
rather investigated technology for its own sake. For instance, a confer-
ence paper reported that it used hyperlinks to facilitate reading but did
not include details concerning how hyperlinks were integrated in reading
materials, what content the hyperlinks provided, and why such content
may assist reading. Another non-SSCI journal article claimed that it
investigated the effects of computer-assisted and mobile-assisted reading
but did not collect or analyse any data concerning the participants’ read-
ing performance. These studies are anonymised for respect for the
researchers. Since the aim of the present study is to review the types,
purposes, and effectiveness of the technologies used in various TELL
studies, prerequisites for the selected research articles include not only
purposeful use of technologies for language learning but also detailed
information concerning the types and effectiveness of these technologies;
otherwise, the research questions can hardly be well addressed.
Therefore, we decided to limit our selections to publications of
high quality.
We selected 10 journals according to the SCImago Journal Rank (SJR)
which ranks journals based on scientific indicators developed from the
ScopusV database. First, we identified four journals that publish research
R

on educational technology out of the top 35 journals in Quartile 1 in

Language and Linguistics, according to the SJR 2018. They are Computer
Assisted Language Learning, Language Learning & Technology, System,
and ReCALL. Second, we identified five journals that publish research on
language education out of the top 12 journals in Quartile 1 in E-learning,
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 7

namely, British Journal of Educational Technology, Computers & Education,

Educational Technology & Society, Interactive Learning Environments, and
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. In this way, we selected nine jour-
nals. Then, we compared our journal list to the lists of other review studies,
finding that Hung et al. (2018) and Hwang and Fu (2018) selected the
same nine journals, but they also included a tenth journal, Educational
Technology Research & Development. Considering that this is an influential
journal in the field of educational technology and language education, we
decided to include it in our list as well. Thus, we finalised 10 journals for
the selection of articles for review.

2.2. Article selection

The present search was conducted at the end of June 2019 generating
220 articles, which were further examined based on the following inclu-
sion criteria. First, the publications had to be original research articles
that investigated technology-enhanced second or foreign language learn-
ing. Second, the research had to be empirical; and third, quantitative
data on the effectiveness of technologies in promoting language learning
had to be analysed. Two researchers independently reviewed all 220
articles based on the criteria. Differences were resolved between the two
raters via discussion, and the inter-rater reliability was higher than .94.
One hundred and sixty-three articles were excluded at this stage, exam-
ples of which included Li and Chu (2018) for centring on first language
learning, Slavuj et al. (2017) for being a pure review paper and Balaman
(2018) for focusing on learners’ psychological states rather than language
learning outcomes. The 57 articles that were finalised for the review are
listed in Appendix A.

2.3. Data analysis

To address the research questions, the selected articles were analysed
from three aspects: the types, purposes, and effectiveness of the state-of-
the-art technologies. The two researchers examined five articles together
first in order to generate initial codes. In case of any differences, the two
researchers re-read the papers and discussed the coding until agreement
was achieved. Differences were resolved via discussion for four of them,
and an informed third rater was consulted for one paper where the ini-
tial two raters could not reach agreement. The types, purposes, and
effectiveness of the technologies were then coded literally as reported by
the research articles. After finalising the coding scheme which was used
to systematically review the 57 selected articles, the two raters
8 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Mobile-assisted language learning 28

Mulmedia language learning 20

Socialised language learning 12

STR- and TSR-assisted language learning 10

Gamified language learning 6

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Numbers of publicaons

Figure 2. Five types of state-of-the-art technologies for language learning.

independently coded the remaining articles, after which they compared

their coding results. At the end of the independent coding, a satisfactory
agreement was achieved (Pearson’s r ¼ 0.90) with differences resolved
via discussion.

3. Results
Our coding exercise generated five main types and four major purposes
of the state-of-the-art technologies for second or foreign learning, and
these are aligned with the sub-sections of this section; generally, positive
findings concerning the effectiveness of these were noted.

3.1. Types of the state-of-the-art technologies for L2 learning

As illustrated in Figure 2, 28 out of 57 publications investigated mobile-
assisted language learning; 20 investigated multimedia language learning;
12 investigated socialised language learning; 10 investigated speech-to-
text recognition (STR) and text-to-speech recognition (TSR) assisted lan-
guage learning; six investigated gamified language learning. The total
number was bigger than the sum, 57 because some studies investigated
more than one type of the state-of-the-art technologies. For example,
Yukselturk, Altıok, and Başer (2018) examined both Kinect camera and
game-based learning technologies. Tseng, Lin, and Chen (2018) devel-
oped an immersive online language course involving mobile apps (i.e.
Padlet and Flipgrid), online platforms (i.e. Zaption and Quizlet), and
multimedia technologies (i.e. videos and audio clips).
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 9

3.1.1. Technologies for mobile learning

Mobile learning refers to learning with mobile devices, such as smartphones,
tablets, digital pens, and wearable devices like smartwatches, AR and VR
glasses (Huang, Yang, Chiang, & Su, 2016). In our review, the integration of
mobile technologies into language learning was the most frequently investi-
gated in TELL. The advantages of mobile technologies included their high
accessibility, supporting various learning styles (self-paced, collaborative,
team-oriented, etc.) [and] enriching the static content with narratives, game-
playing, hands-on activities, etc.’ (Subramanya, 2014, p. 39).
Our review found that the use of mobile applications was the principal
approach to mobile learning. Researchers normally chose commercial apps
or self-developed ones and asked participants to download them for language
learning. For example, Chen, Carger, and Smith (2017) developed an English
narrative writing course with Penultimate, an iPad-based commercial app
that supports digital handwriting to facilitate the development of students’
writing skills. Their results showed that this app was effective in improving
students’ narrative writing abilities and learning attitude. Lan and Lin (2016)
developed an application, MObile SEeamless (MOSE), to create real-world
contexts and facilitate pragmatic speaking. The results indicated that MOSE
users had significantly fewer errors when executing language tasks and far
more interactions with their peers than traditional learners. Some studies
examined the use of mobile devices’ basic functions. For example, Liu (2016)
examined the use of the Instant Message function (IM) of mobile phones in
learner-constructed concept-mapping for word learning.
In addition to the above examples, mobile technology has been widely
applied in blended use with other technologies. Chang, Warden, Liang,
and Chou (2018), for example, blended ubiquitous learning outdoors with
computer-assisted learning indoors by integrating GPS into mobile devices
and found the proposed system effective in enhancing listening compre-
hension and reducing learners’ cognitive load. Another example was a
study by Liu, Huang, and Xu (2018), who integrated emotion recognition
technology into mobile language learning. They developed a mobile-based
application, Story and Painting House, which supported a free-space digital
storytelling approach to enhance learners’ accuracy and creativity of speak-
ing. In the storytelling activity, FaceReader, an emotion recognition soft-
ware, was used to capture students’ facial expressions, analyse their anxiety
levels, and keep teachers and researchers updated with information about
their students’ emotions. Positive results were reported in this research.

3.1.2. Technologies for multimedia learning

Multimedia-assisted language learning refers to presenting language
knowledge (e.g. grammar knowledge and word concept) or conducting
10 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

learning activities (e.g. exercises and instructional games) using multi-

media, such as videos, audios, and images (Aldera & Mohsen, 2013). In
one study, appropriate use of multimedia was conducive to learning by
deepening knowledge processing, facilitating retention, and promoting
motivation (Hwang, Shadiev, Hsu, Huang, Hsu, & Lin, 2016). Okuno
and Hardison (2016) compared the effectiveness of auditory-visual and
auditory-only systems in L2 pronunciation training and found that the
combination of audio and video was the optimal media for vowel train-
ing. Both Chen, Tan, and Lo (2016) and Liakin, Cardoso, and Liakina
(2017) reported positive learning outcomes when using Moodle, an inter-
active multimedia learning software.
Some studies have also investigated the integrated use of technologies
for multimedia learning and other types of technology. For instance, Liu,
Chen, and Hwang (2018) developed a collaborative e-learning system
using video-based materials and tools for context-aware ubiquitous learn-
ing. The participants learned in a fitness centre, and their listening and
speaking proficiency level improved significantly. Park and Warschauer
(2016) developed a laptop-based textbook that could visualise texts and
syntactic structures using multimedia technology and visual-syntactic
text formatting technology. The results showed that this digital textbook
was effective in enhancing students’ grammar knowledge development,
especially for low-proficiency learners who had weaker syntactic process-
ing skills.

3.1.3. Technologies for socialised learning

Socialised learning refers to learning with socialisation tools such as
online platforms or communities and social networks (Çetinkaya &
S€utç€
u, 2018). Online platforms can support learning activities (e.g. dis-
cussion forums for information exchange) and provide instructional con-
tent (e.g. Edpuzzle and Quizlet for language input), and social networks
create online communities for communication (e.g. WhatsApp, LINE,
and Facebook) (Çetinkaya & S€ utç€
u, 2018). Both online platforms and
social networks have become an integral part of modern life and were
widely applied in many of the reviewed papers to facilitate blended and
flipped learning (Liu, Tai, & Liu, 2018). Lin and Hwang (2018) investi-
gated the use of Facebook in an online language classroom and found it
very effective in improving learners’ oral skills and increasing their peer-
to-peer interactive behaviours both inside and outside the classroom.
Yang (2016) developed an online learning platform, ESP Cafe, in which
the discussion forum was one of the primary components. Language stu-
dents were encouraged to discuss the knowledge points with their peers
and tutors.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 11

3.1.4. Technologies for speech-to-text recognition and text-to-speech

recognition
STR and TSR refer to the technologies that automatically generate the
textual or audio counterparts of learners’ speech (or writing). The litera-
ture indicates that they are effective in deepening learners’ knowledge
processing and memorisation by strengthening the connections between
audio and textual forms of language knowledge (Mayer & Moreno, 2003;
Shadiev, Hwang, & Liu, 2018). For example, Shadiev, Hwang, and Liu
(2018) integrated both STR and TSR into a smart-watch-based learning
system. During speaking training, STR was used to recognise learners’
errors and generate text for their correction; and in writing exercises,
TSR was applied to help learners avoid grammar and spelling mistakes
by speaking out the suggested versions. The results showed that the par-
ticipants who experienced the STR- and TSR-enhanced training had very
effective learning outcomes and positive perceptions of the learning sys-
tem. Bodnar, Cucchiarini, Penning de Vries, Strik, and van Hout (2017)
developed a corrective feedback (CF) system that assisted oral grammar
learning by automatically recognising and pointing out errors in learners’
speech. Although the results showed no significant effect of the CF sys-
tem, the great potential of automatic speech recognition technology in
promoting oral grammar practice was observed and reported.
Nguyen, Hwang, Pham and Ma (2018) integrated STR technology with
cloud translation technology and developed a mobile application called
ezTranslate to automatically recognise and translate learners’ speech,
utter the translation, and permit learners to repeat after the utterance.
The results showed that learners’ overall speaking proficiency was
enhanced after using ezTranslate.

3.1.5. Technologies for digital-game-based learning

Game-based learning refers to the integration of game elements (e.g.
rules and goals, challenge, mystery/storyline, rewards, etc.) in delivering
instructional content and conducting learning activities (Yukselturk
et al., 2018). Language courses using game environments promoted
learners’ engagement, triggered their interactions, and enhanced their
knowledge comprehension (Hung et al., 2018). Notable among the
reviewed studies in this area, Rachels and Rockinson-Szapkiw (2018)
designed a game-based Spanish course to enhance primary students’ gen-
eral language skills. The games were based on DuolingoV, a free applica-
R

tion which can personalise learning experiences by providing learners

with appropriate scaffolding and adapting the instructions according to
their language proficiency levels. Similarly, Hung (2017) gamified in-class
learning activities using Kahoot!, another free application that can be
12 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Promong pracses 31

Delivering instruconal content 28

Facilitang interacons 22

Restructuring teaching approaches 13

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Numbers of publicaons

Figure 3. Four major purposes of the state-of-the-art technologies.

used to create instructional games. With Kahoot!, the class was turned
into ‘a game show in which the teacher becomes the host and the stu-
dents the contestants,’ and learner motivation, engagement, and interac-
tions among teachers and peers were increased (p. 986).
Some studies on game-based language learning integrated other tech-
nologies such as Kinect technology and augmented reality (AR). For
example, Yukselturk et al. (2018) developed three games that immersed
learners in game environments where they took active roles in learning
while interacting with others. Kinect technology was applied to enhance
learners’ game experiences. A motion sensing input device consisting of
an RGB camera, three-dimensional depth sensors, a multi-array micro-
phone, and built-in processing cores were used to give synchronous
commands based on learners’ responses. It was found that the game
players achieved significant development in speaking, listening, reading
and writing. Hsu (2017) also developed a task-based, AR-enhanced game
system to promote situated vocabulary learning. Enhanced by AR, the
game created a three-dimensional space where learners received and
applied language knowledge in virtual and real worlds. The results
showed that the students who learned with AR achieved better learning
outcomes than those who did not.

3.2. Purposes and benefits of the state-of-the-art technologies

As shown in Figure 3, 31 of the articles reported on the effectiveness of
the state-of-the-art technologies in promoting practices, 28 on delivering
instructional content, 22 on facilitating interactions, and 13 on restructur-
ing teaching approaches. The total number was bigger than the sum, 57
because most technologies were multi-purposeful. Tables in Appendix B
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 13

illustrate the effects of different types of the state-of-the-art technologies

on various aspects of language learning outcomes in language development
and psychological states. Appendix C shows detailed information about
the types and functions of technologies, and research results of the
57 papers.

3.2.1. Promoting practices

Technologies have been effective in promoting language practices and
learning behaviours that involved unsolicited uses and reuses of target
languages in context (Rampton, 2002). Table B1 in Appendix B illus-
trates the types of technology used among the 57 articles to enhance the
development of different language-knowledge aspects by promoting prac-
tices and the effects of these technologies.
Mobile technology was the most frequently investigated innovation for
promoting practices. With unprecedented affordability and accessibility,
mobile technology minimises hardware, as well as the conventional tem-
poral and spatial restrictions that sometimes impede instructional con-
tent and learning activities, and therefore maximises students’ exposure
to the learning environment (Darling-Aduana & Heinrich, 2018). For
example, Kurt and Bensen (2017) proposed a vocabulary knowledge
practising system based on Vine, a mobile application that allows learn-
ers to record and share 6-s-long video clips. Learners enhanced their
vocabulary knowledge by speaking and spelling via their mobile devices
and reviewed their knowledge by looping videos. The results of the pre-
and post-tests and interviews showed that the Vine-based practice was
effective in promoting participants’ motivation to learn as well as
improving their vocabulary and speaking. Based on the results, the
researchers predicted that there would soon be a broader adoption of
mobile and multimedia technologies into vocabulary classrooms. Liu
(2016) attempted to facilitate learners’ practising of vocabulary know-
ledge through the Instant Message function (IM) of smartphones. In this
study, the experimental participants practised their vocabulary knowledge
by creating multimedia content via IMs, while the control participants
learned words in the traditional way without any electronic support. The
pre- and post-test scores of the two groups showed that the former
group had significantly better learning outcomes, indicating that the IM-
based concept-mapping was conducive to vocabulary acquisition and
retention. However, the delayed post-test revealed that mobile-assisted
learning may be effective in the long term only when effective learning
strategies are employed.
For the purposes of encouraging practices, gamified learning was also
frequently investigated and applied to trigger learners’ motivation and
14 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

provide interesting contexts of knowledge use. For instance, Casta~ neda

and Cho (2016) established practising contexts on mobile-based gamified
language learning, by requiring their participants to assess and practice
their accuracy in conjugating Spanish verbs through games. The results
of pre- and post-tests showed that the game-based practices had positive
effects on the learners’ Spanish grammar knowledge. The participant
interviews and questionnaires also indicated their increased confidence
in the proposed language learning activity. The researchers claimed that
the mobile-based gamified learning helped the students acquire compli-
cated grammar knowledge by providing a competitive, but enjoyable
environment in which they could ‘intuitively apply’ the target knowledge
with immediate feedback through discussions with their peers (p. 1202).
Similarly, Hsu (2017) developed a digital game integrating Augmented
Reality technology through which learners could have a vivid application
of word knowledge within simulated contexts. Compared to those who
had practiced using traditional methods, the language learners using the
AR-enhanced game were found to have higher levels of learning anxiety
and mental effort but performed significantly better in the post-tests of
vocabulary knowledge. The researcher postulated that the proper amount
of learning anxiety and mental effort required in playing the AR-
enhanced instructional game may prompt their learning motivation and
thereby have resulted in the positive learning outcomes. However, not all
attempts to encourage practices through gamified learning ended with
success. Rachels and Rockinson-Szapkiw (2018) required one group of
participants to practice their vocabulary and grammar knowledge on a
Duolingo-based instructional game and compared their learning out-
comes to another group of participants who had practised in a trad-
itional way. The comparison revealed that the proposed gamified
learning increased motivation, but had little effect on enhancing vocabu-
lary and grammar learning. The reason for the limited effect was postu-
lated to be the similarity between the Duolingo-based learning and the
traditional face-to-face instruction in providing scaffolding to the learn-
ers. Because of the similarity, the researchers speculated that the
Duolingo-based learning could be used in schools to replace teachers.
Some other state-of-the-art technologies were also investigated for
enhancing language learning through promoting certain practices. Tan,
Chen, and Lee (2019) developed a multimedia computing platform,
Livescribe, which allowed learners to practice listening exercises by tap-
ping an interactive board with digital pens. The researchers analysed sev-
eral aspects including: the platform operating logs, a questionnaire about
the participants’ motivation, a metacognitive awareness questionnaire,
and two sets of pre- and post-listening comprehension tests. The results
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 15

showed that the proposed practising method significantly improved

learners’ listening comprehension and motivation. Based on an analysis
of the success of Liversrcibe, Tan et al. (2019) stated that the learners
could ‘show off’ their practising scores, share knowledge and have posi-
tive competition with their peers, eventually achieving better learning
outcomes if there was a public practising environment. The researchers
therefore suggested good potential existed for educators and researchers
to further explore in this direction. Ho, Hsieh, Sun, and Chen (2017)
developed a Ubiquitous Learning Instruction System with Augment
Reality features (UL-IAR), attempting to facilitate learners’ English listen-
ing and speaking practices with ‘the concurrence of digital information
and real environments’ (p. 177). In order to cater to the students’ differ-
ent cognitive styles of learning and practising, Ho et al. (2017) designed
the AR-featured system based on the theory of field dependence and
field independence. With this system, the students who preferred having
guidance during their learning processes could learn with the structured
learning materials and practice with ‘the stimulus of external information
and interactivity,’ and those who preferred independent thinking were
provided with internal references and encouraged to have ‘analytical and
active learning’ (p. 179). By comparing the performances of the control
and experimental groups, the researchers found positive effects on the
learners’ listening and speaking, and implied that the AR-featured ubi-
quitous learning system would lead to even better learning outcomes if it
were integrated with effective learning strategies.

3.2.2. Delivering instructional content

Content in language learning, which refers to knowledge about language,
plays an important role in educational programmes; and the approach to
content delivery is to some extent a determinant of how learners process
the content (Chen, Wang, & Lin, 2015). Table B2 in Appendix B illus-
trates the types of technology used to enhance the development of vari-
ous language knowledge aspects through delivering instructional content,
in addition to the effects of these technologies.
Multimedia was the most frequently used type of technology for con-
tent delivery. It was embedded in storytelling in several studies, with
Mayer’s cognitive theory as the theoretical foundation (e.g. Hwang et al.,
2016; Shadiev, Huang, & Hwang, 2017). According to Mayer and
Moreno (2003), when content is delivered via multimedia, learners have
both ‘auditory/verbal’ and ‘visual/pictorial’ channels activated and can
achieve better understanding and learning (p. 44). Liu, Huang, et al.
(2018), Hwang et al. (2016) and Liu, Wang, and Tai (2016), for instance,
applied the digital storytelling system to present instructional passages,
16 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

where multimedia was used either as presentation media or hypermedia.

In these investigations, the participants were divided into different groups
and learn languages based on different types of instructional media. The
performances in pre- and post-tests by the participants of different groups
were then collected and analysed. Most participants in these investigations
were able to process the target information in the two memorising chan-
nels simultaneously with the help of audio and video illustrations and clips
and achieved positive outcomes in speaking, listening and vocabulary
(Hwang et al., 2016; Liu, Huang, et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2016). Hwang
et al. (2016) also suggested that the animations embedded in the storytell-
ing system would be particularly effective in helping primary school stu-
dents to attain higher levels of learning motivation and longer retention of
the vocabulary knowledge. Connor et al. (2019) developed a tablet-based
multimedia e-book with comprehension monitoring technology that could
monitor learners’ progress and comprehension of the instructional con-
tents and provide personalised learning experiences. The results of experi-
ments among 603 primary students showed that the proposed e-book
largely assisted students’ development of word knowledge and learning
strategies. The researchers suggested that the proposed e-book could help
young learners not only in vocabulary acquisition, but also in the improve-
ment of judgements in reading and learning. However, not all the results
indicated that the use of multimedia in language instruction had positive
effects. For example, Lin (2017) required one group of participants to
learn the targeted language knowledge on tablet-based multimedia text-
books and the other to learn in a traditional way. No significant differen-
ces were found between the two groups of learners in the post-training
tests of reading comprehension. Based on the questionnaire results, Lin
postulated that the negligible effect might have resulted from the learners’
long-term learning habits of paper-based note-taking. The participants
were used to reading printed textbooks and relied heavily on hand-written
notes they took in class so they had difficulty adjusting to the new reading
medium. In addition to embedding multimedia in storytelling, some stud-
ies have integrated multimedia into language learning systems. For
example, Wang, Lin, Hwang, and Liu (2019) applied multimedia instruc-
tion in a contextualised learning environment by utilising sensing technol-
ogy with the mobile app, GBELA. Learners received different sets of
audio-visual language materials and learning tasks depending on their con-
texts as sensed by the app. The results showed the effectiveness of this sys-
tem in enhancing learners’ L2 listening and reading skills as well as their
self-efficacy. Based on the success of GBELA, the researchers suggested
that the learning materials and instructional activities in multimedia apps
should be developed according to the different goals of target learners.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 17

TSR and STR were also frequently applied to facilitate content deliv-
ery. Shadiev, Huang, et al. (2017) integrated lexical and audio forms of
language knowledge by employing an STR system upon language learn-
ing texts. The results of pre- and post-tests revealed that participants
who learnt with the proposed system outperformed those who did not
and showed more positive learning attitudes and higher levels of learning
attention indicating multimedia rendered the content to be ‘more com-
prehensible and easier to process’ (p. 1257). Based on the positive results,
the researchers suggested that educators and researchers be aware of the
potentially wide applications of the STR system to the language learning
classroom, especially for male students and students of low language pro-
ficiency who were found to have progressed most in the post-tests. In
another experimental study (Huang, Shadiev, & Hwang, 2016), partici-
pants in an experimental group were provided with a computer-based
STR system in L2 lectures, while a control group was not. The results
showed the experimental group had a significantly better improvement
in L2 speaking and had a lower cognitive load. However, the STR system
seemed more useful for the learners of low language proficiency than
those of high proficiency. Therefore, the researchers called for educators
and researchers to pursue further improvement of the STR system in
order to help learners of differing levels receive appropriate multimedia
lectures in accordance with their language levels. As for TSR modelling,
Liakin et al. (2017) combined a TSR system with Moodle for teaching
students French pronunciation. This long-term study indicated that
although little difference was found in the immediate learning perform-
ances of the experimental and control groups, only the former one
achieved progress over time. They suggested that the proposed TSR sys-
tem could increase the ‘quantity and quality’ of learners’ input and can
be a very productive tool for conducting repetitive pronunciation activ-
ities out of class (p. 336).

3.2.3. Facilitating interactions

Language learning is a social process in which learners acquire and apply
the target language knowledge in their interactive communications with
peers and tutors (Mitnik, Recabarren, Nussbaum, & Soto, 2009).
Through interactions, students reflect on what they have learnt, connect
new knowledge elements within an overall system, share their achieve-
ments and experiences ‘of various levels of expertise’ and eventually
obtain new models and perspectives for future learning (Shadiev, Hwang,
Huang, & Liu, 2018, p. 44). Table B3 in Appendix B illustrates the types
of technology used to enhance the development of different language
18 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

knowledge aspects through facilitating interactions, in addition to the

effects of these technologies.
The review found that technologies were mainly used to facilitate two
types of interactions: peer-to-peer and teacher–student communications
and peer-to-peer collaborations. Despite some overlap, the former
emphasised idea-exchanging, problem-solving and experience-sharing in
and out of class, while the latter focused on students’ face-to-face or
web-based teamwork upon instructional activities or learning tasks
(Mitnik et al., 2009).
In an attempt to facilitate the in-class peer-to-peer and teacher–student
communications, Hung (2017) proposed a game-like clicker application
with which students could raise questions and express opinions syn-
chronously using mobile devices. Based on the data collected through
post-tests, participant interviews and questionnaires, the results showed
that the proposed application helped learners improve their learning per-
formance and acquire positive learning attitudes. The researcher argued
that the positive outcomes may have resulted from the gamification in
the technology-enhanced learning activity and the scaffolding and inter-
action opportunities throughout the learning process, while advocating
the broader use of the clicker in the language classroom. Roussel and
Galan (2018) also used clickers to expedite learners’ self-reporting and
opinion-voicing in vocabulary classrooms. The results showed that learn-
ers who used clickers to learn had a better understanding of the lecture
content, higher efficiency of language learning and a lower cognitive
load, especially when the learners were of low language proficiency. To
maximise the effectiveness of the clickers, the researchers suggested that
course content should be closely connected with the target knowledge,
and they noted ‘a high level of interactivity between the elements that
compose it’ (p. 54). In another study aimed at facilitating in-class com-
munications, Tsai (2019) created interactive courseware which allowed
learners’ construction and integration of ‘verbal and visual cognitive rep-
resentations’ when learning to write in their L2 (p. 46). This courseware
was effective in improving learners’ writing skills and learning attitudes,
as demonstrated by the participants’ pre- and post-writing performance
and questionnaire. Tsai suggested the proposed learning courseware
would be particularly useful for shy students by helping them receive
face-to-face instructions from the teachers without asking questions in
public. Similarly, Song, Oh, and Glazewski (2017) developed a custom-
ised personal response system through which the instructor raised ques-
tions online for students to find the answers through in-class discussion.
Students could also easily generate and post their own questions through
the system for their peers to solve. The researchers found that the
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 19

proposed system could facilitate learners’ development of grammar

knowledge and communication skills, increase their engagement with the
learning activities and largely enhance in-class interactions. Based on the
positive results, the researchers recommended a wider application of this
system for supporting student-generated questioning. However, they also
stressed that this system may be more suitable for high proficiency
students than the low ones because it was ‘related to a higher extent
of instructional goals and topic’ and could be challenging for the low-
proficiency students (p. 1444).
As for out-of-class communication, social networks were effective in
prompting peer-to-peer information sharing and opinion exchanging.
Çetinkaya and S€ utç€
u (2018) investigated the possible advantages and
problems associated with using WhatsApp and Facebook as interaction
platforms for students’ vocabulary learning and found that WhatsApp
facilitated effective learning, while Facebook did not. Based on their
investigation, the researchers highly recommended the use of social net-
works in vocabulary courses and suggested the course instructors become
involved in the socialised learning process. They argued that future stud-
ies in this field could focus on students’ perceptions and opinions of the
interactions for language learning. Yeh and Lai (2019) used Skype as a
tutor-student communication tool through which participants were
required to have discussions with their peers and receive online-tutoring
for nine weeks. Their analyses of the pre- and post-tests of the partici-
pants’ oral performances indicated that Skype-assisted interactions were
conducive to learners’ L2 speaking development, especially among those
of low language proficiency. The researchers suggested that future studies
in this field could generalise these results using a larger sample over a
longer duration, and focus on tutors’ feedback in the Skype-based inter-
action system, especially on the ‘relationship between students’ outputs
and tutors’ feedback and instructional strategies’ (p. 190).
Collaborative tasks are generally in the format of ‘an activity where
there is a shared and negotiated decision-making process and shared
responsibility for the production of a single text’ (Storch, 2013, p. 3).
Collaborative learning plays a vital role in language learning, and various
technologies, especially internet technology, have been applied to facili-
tate it. Bikowski and Vithanage (2016) required experimental participants
to complete collaborative L2 writing tasks using Google Docs and found
that they had statistically significant writing gains as well as very positive
attitudes towards technology-enhanced collaborative learning. This study
therefore revealed the great potential of in-class web-based collaborative
writing tasks and suggested a three-stage teaching cycle for conducting
this learning method: (1) preparation, (2) collaborative writing, and (3)
20 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

~ez, and Barcena (2017) designed a collaborative

reflection. Talavan, Iban
reverse subtitling task based on Aegisub, a sub-title-making software, and
reported significant effectiveness of the technology in promoting learners’
writing, especially for coherence, cohesion and idea structuring. This
effectiveness may have resulted from the design of video interfaces that
guided the learners’ attention to the ‘discursive aspects’ of the learning
process and the ‘communicative and functional’ nature of the subtitling
activity (p. 55). They recommended future studies in this field could
investigate the learners’ preference for studying collaboratively as well as
their giving of feedback during the learning process.

3.2.4. Restructuring teaching approaches

The development of technology and change of lifestyles can uncover the
transition of instructional structures from the fixed to the flexible and
the teacher-dominant to the learner-centred, eventually, leading to more
efficient approaches (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). By supporting context-
ualisation and personalisation of instruction and access to information
repertoires, technologies enable hypothetical pedagogical approaches to
be realised and drive their further specification and development (Huang
et al., 2016). The present review reveals various attempts to explore the
use of different technologies to improve instructional structures and
pedagogical approaches in the field of TELL. Table B4 in Appendix B
illustrates the types of technology used to enhance the development of
different language knowledge aspects by restructuring teaching
approaches, including the effects of these technologies.
The flipped classroom was the most frequently investigated structure
enhanced by technologies. This approach to instruction refers to the
reversion or flipping of conventional pedagogical processes (Bergmann &
Sams, 2012). In this structure, the content delivery, which is traditionally
conducted through teachers’ in-class lectures is moved out of the class-
room into students’ own negotiated time and place; and as a replace-
ment, interactive learning tasks and activities are moved into the class
(Lin & Hwang, 2018). This teaching approach can enhance teacher–stu-
dent communication and mutual understanding, increase learners’
motivation and engagement in learning activities, and improve learning
efficiency (Hsieh, Wu, & Marek, 2017). With the fast development of
multimedia, mobile and Web technologies, flipped learning has been
widely applied in the language learning area in recent years, and positive
learning outcomes have been commonly reported. Lin, Hwang, Fu, and
Chen (2018), for instance, proposed a flipped learning approach based
on a computer-mediated contextualisation system and instructional
games, and their log file data indicated that the experimental group had
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 21

fewer errors in business writing tests and higher motivation than those
who learned in a conventional classroom. The researchers suggested that
future studies in this direction could investigate the effectiveness of the
proposed learning approach in language learning courses other than
business English, while exploring students’ higher-order thinking, self-
efficacy, learning anxiety and interactions with the tutors in the com-
puter-mediated flipped classroom. Hsieh et al. (2017) used LINE, a
mobile communication application, to enhance a flipped oral training
course where the participants were able to practice target knowledge
beyond the classroom through written and verbal discussions. The results
indicated that the flipped learning approach was conducive to L2 idiom
learning and that LINE could be used to support this approach. To
effectively implement this approach, the researchers suggested teachers
explain the instructional design and the formative benefits of flipped
learning at the beginning and monitor the students’ progress throughout
the learning process in case some students do not understand the mean-
ing of the approach or cannot regulate themselves to keep up with the
learning pace. Similarly, Haghighi, Jafarigohar, Khoshsima, and Vahdany
(2019) based their design of flipped learning on the mobile communica-
tion app, Telegram, and reported considerable improvement of the par-
ticipants’ L2 pragmatic competence and learning satisfaction. The
researchers argued that this significant improvement might have resulted
from the compatibility of Telegram with the structure of the flipped
learning and the increased opportunities of knowledge application and
interactions that the flipped classroom provided. Shyr and Chen (2018)
proposed a computer-based system, Flip2Learn, to facilitate the out-of-
class learning part of their course and encouraged teacher–student
communication by a self-regulation and guidance system. The results
indicated that the proposed flipped system was effective in enhancing
language learning performances and motivation. Theoretically, this study
re-confirmed the effectiveness of the flipped learning approach in lan-
guage learning and revealed the positive influence of the self-regulation
and guidance system on deepening the learners’ processing. Practically,
the researchers suggested language teachers ‘train their students to regu-
late their learning with hypermedia’ before conducting the flipped
approach pedagogy (p. 60). Wang, An, and Wright (2018) developed a
MOOC-based flipped classroom that saved class time from teacher-led
instruction and allowed the students to orally discuss and communicate
with their peers in an EFL class. Compared to the learners who learnt
speaking skills in traditional classrooms, the learners in their flipped
classroom learned the instruction much more quickly, demonstrated
more positive learning attitudes and had significantly more progress in
22 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

speaking proficiency, especially in speech fluency. Although the merits of

the proposed learning method seemed to decrease over the long term,
especially in speaking accuracy and complexity, the researchers con-
cluded that, overall, the MOOC-based flipped learning was a promising
approach to enhancing oral language proficiency and called for further
explorations in this field to fix the two challenges.
Some studies attempted to restructure teaching approaches from the
perspective of instructional foci. The traditional language classroom
tends to have meaning-focused instruction where language concepts
are taught in isolation occupying the majority of learners’ and tutors’
attention while language contexts and forms are ‘by and large sidelined
or trivialized’ (Marefat & Hassanzadeh, 2016, p. 107). Marefat and
Hassanzadeh designed a set of computer-mediated form-focused lan-
guage lessons that drew learners’ attention to the forms and structures of
the language within the context of communicative interactions by giving
metalinguistic information, highlighting the form and providing correct-
ive feedback. The results showed that the form-focused language teaching
method led to better learning efficiency by facilitating learners’ vocabu-
lary acquisition in corresponding contexts. Despite the positive results,
the researchers noted that computer-mediated form-forced language
learning was ‘an intricate practice’ and deserved more investigation
before wider implementation (p. 120). They also suggested that language
teachers should pay more attention to decontextualised learning practices
and the long-term merits of this learning method. Similarly, Huang and
Chuang (2016) emphasised the significance of authentic content and
contextualisation in language learning while adopting content-based
instruction theory and developing an animation-based reading course.
Their results showed that the participants in their experimental group
outperformed those in a control group from the perspectives of reading
speed, technology acceptance and attention on the target knowledge.
They claimed that with the proposed teaching approach, the teachers
may have better control over the learning conditions in a large class
which can help students, especially those with low proficiency, achieve
better learning outcomes.

4. Discussion and conclusion

The present review of research on TELL from 2016 to June 2019 indi-
cates there has been a broad application of various state-of-the-art tech-
nologies in language learning. In answering the three research questions,
the review reveals that among different technologies, mobile learning,
multimedia learning, socialised learning, STR and TRS recognition, and
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 23

digital-game-based learning were the most frequently investigated in the

literature. These technologies were mainly used to promote language
learning practices, deliver instructional content, facilitate interactions,
and restructure teaching approaches. Also, in general, positive results
concerning the learning outcomes and motivation of the students who
learned with technological support were reported.

4.1. Pedagogical implications

For the purposes of promoting practices, educators and researchers were
advised to apply mobile technologies, including mobile-based multimedia
applications, such as Story and Painting House, Penultimate, and Vine,
and mobile handwriting tools, such as digital pens (Chen, Carger, et al.,
2017; Kurt & Bensen, 2017; Liu, Chen, et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2019).
Digital game elements were frequently integrated into mobile-assisted
language learning and were found to be effective in improving learning
experiences prompting learner motivation.
For educators and researchers who want to enhance language learning
in the direction of instruction delivery, multimedia was a recommended
choice. The animations and audio and video clips embedded in storytell-
ing systems were viewed as facilitative for learners’ development of
speaking, vocabulary, and comprehensive language skills as well as for
improving their learning motivation (Hwang et al., 2016; Shadiev,
Huang, et al., 2017).
The review also revealed that educators and researchers can apply
technologies to facilitate interactions from two dimensions. For peer-to-
peer and teacher–student communications, clickers and social networks
were found effective in bridging the in-class and out-of-class activities
seamlessly, expediting the question-and-answer interplay between stu-
dents and instructors and encouraging students to apply their newly
acquired language knowledge (Çetinkaya & S€ utç€
u, 2018; Hung, 2017;
Roussel & Galan, 2018; Yeh & Lai, 2019). For increasing peer-to-peer
collaborations, Google Doc and Aegisub were viewed as tools that encour-
age learners to have group discussions and conduct writing and transla-
tion exercises in teams (Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016; Talavan et al.,
2017). The review showed that most learners could improve their ability
in speaking, listening, writing, vocabulary, and learning motivation
through technology-enhanced interactions with their peers and teachers
In restructuring teaching approaches, some articles recommended the
flipped classroom model based on the combined use of social networks,
multimedia, Internet, and mobile technologies. LINE, Telegram, and
Flip2Learn were investigated and found to enhance learning motivation
24 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

and the learning of speaking, vocabulary, and comprehensive language

skills by increasing learners’ interactive learning activities with their
classmates and teachers (e.g. Hsieh et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2018; Shyr &
Chen, 2018).

4.2. Future directions for TELL

Our review has identified similar findings with previous review studies,
one of which is the types of commonly applied and investigated language
learning technologies. Consistent with Golonka et al. (2014), we found
that mobile devices and social networks are widely applied in TELL. We
also identified four most frequently used technologies, namely the digital
game, social networks, STR recognition and multimedia technologies,
which were consistent with the findings of Shadiev and Yang (2020).
However, different from their review which summarised the content of
the reviewed studies from the perspectives of the article counts by jour-
nals and by year, the target languages and skills, the types of technology,
and the trend, our review involved more in-depth analyses of the types,
purposes, and effectiveness of the state-of-the-art technologies. The find-
ings that have been identified in both our review and previous reviews
indicate the effectiveness and technology maturity of mobile learning,
socialised learning, digital-game-based learning, multimedia learning, and
STR recognition for TELL. Future educators and researchers are there-
fore encouraged to make full use of these state-of-the-art technologies to
enhance language learning.
In addition to the above similar findings, our review also found new
developments and tendencies in TELL. Some types of technology that
were popular several years ago have rarely been discussed or used in
recent years, while others have experienced great developments recently.
For example, computer-mediated chats and iPods were frequently used
to increase learners’ interactions and facilitate their mobile learning
when Golonka et al. (2014) conducted their review. Yet neither was
investigated in the 57 articles that we reviewed. As replacements, social
networks, smartphones, and tablets have been extensively applied in
recent three years (e.g. Chen, Carger, et al., 2017; Lin & Hwang, 2018).
Compared with the chats, social networks enable learners to have group
discussions, post and repost learning information, and make comments
€
in addition to one-to-one talks (Satar & Ozdener, 2008; Sykes, 2013).
Learners can also interact using pictures and videos, apart from texts
and audios. Compared with iPods, smartphones and tablets have more
functions and higher levels of compatibility with other technologies, such
as Instant Massage (Liu, 2016), instructional games (Rachels &
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 25

Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2018), and GPS (Chang et al., 2018). The finding

that state-of-the-art technologies such as social networks and smart-
phones have superseded previously popular technologies such as chats
and iPods indicates the development of TELL, as accompanied with the
rapid improvements of mobile devices and Web 2.0 technologies.
Digital language learning games and AR are two typical technologies
that are newly emerged and well developed in recent years, as found in
our review and Shadiev and Yang (2020). Digital-game-based learning is
one of the five most important types of TELL, the effects of which is
generally positive, especially for enhancing vocabulary learning and
improving learning experience (e.g. Casta~ neda & Cho, 2016; Hsu, 2017;
Yukselturk et al., 2018). However, most publications on digital-game-
based language learning before 2014 did not present explicit supporting
data when discussing the effectiveness of the games (Golonka et al.,
2014). We also found that AR technology has been increasingly
employed for language learning in recent three years and has overall
positive effects on knowledge acquisition and learner motivation (e.g. Ho
et al., 2017; Hsu, 2017), although Golonka et al. (2014) did not report
positive results concerning the effectiveness of AR. Such conflicting
research results may stem from three main reasons. Firstly, the digital
games and AR technology were not mature enough five years ago, and
they were not well integrated in language learning to assist students to
enter flow states (e.g. in deHaan, Reed, & Kuwada’s (2010) research);
however, they have been largely improved in recent years and can be
well embedded in learning systems to increase the likelihood of causing
flow states in students learning with the system (e.g. Hsu, 2017;
Yukselturk et al., 2018). Secondly, previous researchers tended to conduct
game-based learning and AR-featured learning in isolation, while recent
researchers applied blended use of games and AR with other learning
strategies, which could alleviate possible problems and realise full poten-
tial of the new technologies. For instance, Ho et al. (2017) pointed out
that learner diversities from the perspective of cognitive styles were sel-
dom considered in previous AR-featured u-learning, which may place
negative influence on the learning outcomes. To solve this problem, they
developed the instruction of AR-enhanced u-learning based on the the-
ory of field dependence and field independence, and positive effects of
this system in promoting learning were identified. Thirdly, there was
‘lack of control groups using traditional methods’ in previous TELL stud-
ies, which ‘ma[d]e it impossible to evaluate whether learning was
improved, impaired, or unaffected by these technologies’ (Golonka et al.,
2014, p. 82). However, studies in recent three years conducted compari-
sons between experimental groups and control groups (e.g. Ho et al.,
26 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

2017; Huang et al., 2016; Liakin et al., 2017), thus empirical data con-
cerning the effectiveness of technologies can be collected and analysed.
In sum, future research on TELL may further explore the use of
mobile technologies, social networks, digital games, and AR technology
in language education, as they are the state-of-the-art technologies with
great potential for effective learning and teaching.

4.3. Factors that may influence the effectiveness of TELL

Not all studies reported the positive effects of TELL, although most did.
Our results showed several factors that may influence the effectiveness of
TELL, the first of which is the lack of training sessions that aimed to
increase students’ technology acceptance. Because students usually have
years of experience learning languages under traditional approaches and
have developed associated habits and strategies that are not necessarily
useful for TELL (Lin, 2017), some of them may have felt unprepared for
the change of learning mode, which might have negatively influenced
their perceptions and learning motivation and thus the outcomes. We
therefore suggest that in the classrooms typical of the studies reported
here, training sessions be conducted to help students understand why e-
learning is being applied, how it can assist their learning, what digital
tools and devices are used, and how to use them to effectively participate
in e-learning activities (Zou, 2020). Shyr and Chen (2018) demonstrated
a good example of this when they trained their students before conduct-
ing a flipped classroom to familiarise them with the technologies used,
which helped them adjust to the new pedagogy. The research results
showed the positive effects of the flipped approach on learning achieve-
ments and motivation.
Second, the positive effects of TELL may decrease over time when
learners lose the sense of freshness about the newly introduced technolo-
gies and become disengaged in the learning activities, as found by Wang
et al. (2018). To address this problem, we suggest that teachers employ
diversified modes of effective and innovative teaching strategies and skills
and integrate them into their technology-enhanced teaching. Many stud-
ies have reported the positive effects of adding or applying new digital
elements, new technology-enhanced strategies, or new classroom inter-
action modes to promote students’ learning performance and motivation
(Yang, Chang, Hwang, & Zou, 2020). Example of this include: the appli-
cation of online peer assessment (Hsia, Huang, & Hwang, 2016); the use
of a multi-level concept mapping-based question-posing approach
(Hwang, Zou, & Lin, 2020), integration of technology-enhanced just-in-
time teaching and peer instruction in flipped classrooms (Zou & Xie,
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 27

2019), and the implementation of game-based learning (Hung et al.,

2018; Yukselturk et al., 2018). Diversified teaching approaches, modes,
and strategies are essential for the maintenance of students’ learning
motivation and engagement.
Third, students’ language proficiency may influence the extent to which
they benefit from TELL, controversial results of which have appeared in
the literature. On the one hand, Park and Warschauer (2016) and Shadiev,
Huang, et al. (2017) identified statistically significant positive effects of
TELL in assisting low-achievers but not higher-achievers. This is perhaps
because low-achievers needed more help with information processing and
comprehension; in addition, certain types of technology made the content
more comprehensible and easier to process (Chen, Wang, Zou, Lin, et al.,
2019). On the other hand, Song et al. (2017) found that TELL benefitted
higher-achievers more as it might have increased the cognitive load on
low-achievers, who may have felt certain types of technology too challeng-
ing. Such results indicate the importance of designing TELL activities and
materials that are suitable for learners’ language proficiency levels, as well
as the necessity of providing low-achievers with more scaffolding and
high-achievers with more challenges. Therefore, the development of more
personalised learning systems appears to be an important task for future
educators and researchers (Xie, Zou, Zhang, Wang, & Kwan, 2019; Zou &
Xie, 2018).

4.4. Limitations and future studies

This research is limited in several aspects. Firstly, as we only reviewed
original research articles that are published in 10 SSCI journals, the find-
ings are preliminary. Clearly, if more publications from a wider range of
sources (e.g. book chapters, conference papers, articles in journals that
are indexed by AHCI, Scopus and ERIC, etc.) were included, the findings
would be more comprehensive. Future research may work in this direc-
tion for results that can be better generalised.
Our list of papers for review was limited and some important studies
on TELL were not included; thus, the technologies that we analysed did
not cover all possibilities, for example, online or digital dictionaries,
robots, virtual reality, and virtual environments. This is because we aimed
at an in-depth review of high-quality empirical studies and applied very
strict article selection criteria. Our search in the database turned up 220
articles, among which, six were on virtual reality and two on robots, but
we excluded them from the review list either because they investigated first
language learning, or because they did not examine the effectiveness of
TELL. This leaves open the possibility for a more comprehensive review
28 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

that includes a wider range of technologies in the future. Nevertheless, our

aim was not to summarise all types of technology but to analyse represen-
tative technologies in depth.
Additionally, we investigated the types, purposes, and effectiveness of
the state-of-the-art technologies in second or foreign learning; however,
we did not investigate the possible connection between the technologies
and various aspects of language learning outcomes. Future studies may
focus on this direction and investigate the optimal types and use of tech-
nologies in developing different aspects of language learning.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This research received grants from the Standing Committee on Language Education and
Research (EDB(LE)/P&R/EL/175/2), the Education Bureau of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, and the Internal Research Grant (RG93/2018-2019R) and the
Internal Research Fund (RG 1/2019-2020R), The Education University of Hong Kong.

Notes on contributors
Ruofei Zhang is a research assistant at the Education University of Hong Kong. She
received her bachelor degree in Tongji University and master degree in City University
of Hong Kong. Her research interests include technology-enhanced language and culture
learning and socialised language learning. She is a PC member of GCCCE 2019 and
ICCE 2019.
Di Zou is an Assistant Professor at The Education University of Hong Kong. Her
research interests include second-language acquisition, technology-enhanced language
learning, game-based language learning and flipped classroom. She has published more
than 30 research papers in international journals and books, including Computers &
Education, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Language Teaching Research, and
British Journal of Educational Technology.

ORCID
Di Zou http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8435-9739

References
Aldera, A. S., & Mohsen, M. A. (2013). Annotations in captioned animation: Effects on
vocabulary learning and listening skills. Computers & Education, 68, 60–75.
Balaman, U. (2018). Task-induced development of hinting behaviors in online task-
oriented L2 interaction. Language Learning & Technology, 22(2), 95–115.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 29

Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class
every day. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.
Chen, C. H., Wang, K. C., & Lin, Y. H. (2015). The comparison of solitary and collab-
orative modes of game-based learning on students’ science learning and motivation.
Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(2), 237–248.
Chen, M., Wang, L., Zou, D., Lin, S., & Xie, H. (2019). Effects of caption and gender on
junior high students’ EFL learning from iMap-enhanced contextualized learning.
Computers & Education, 140, 1–16.
Chen, M. P., Wang, L. C., Zou, D., Lin, S. Y., Xie, H., & Tsai, C. C. (2019). Effects of
captions and English proficiency on learning effectiveness, motivation and attitude in
augmented-reality-enhanced theme-based contextualized EFL learning. Computer
Assisted Language Learning. 33(12), 131. doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.1704787
Chen, X. L., Zou, D., Cheng, G., & Xie, H. (2020). Detecting latent topics and trends in
educational technologies over four decades using structural topic modeling: A retro-
spective of all volumes of Computer & Education. Computer & Education, 151,
103855.
Chen, X. L., Zou, D., & Xie, H. (2020). Fifty years of British Journal of Educational
Technology: A topic modelling based bibliometric perspective. British Journal of
Educational Technology. doi:10.1111/bjet.12907
deHaan, J., Reed, W. M., & Kuwada, K. (2010). The effect of interactivity with a music
video game on second language vocabulary recall. Language Learning and Technology,
14, 74–94.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2011). Mobile apps for language learning. Language Learning &
Technology, 15(2), 2–11.
Golonka, E. M., Bowles, A. R., Frank, V. M., Richardson, D. L., & Freynik, S. (2014).
Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their
effectiveness. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 27(1), 70–105.
Hsia, L., Huang, I., & Hwang, G. (2016). A web-based peer-assessment approach to
improving junior high school students performance, self-efficacy and motivation in
performing arts courses. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(4), 618–632.
Huang, C. S., Yang, S. J., Chiang, T. H., & Su, A. (2016). Effects of situated mobile
learning approach on learning motivation and performance of EFL students. Journal
of Educational Technology & Society, 19(1), 263–276.
Hung, H. T., Yang, J. C., Hwang, G. J., Chu, H. C., & Wang, C. C. (2018). A scoping
review of research on digital game-based language learning. Computers & Education,
126, 89–104.
Hwang, G. J., & Fu, Q. K. (2018). Trends in the research design and application of
mobile language learning: A review of 2007–2016 publications in selected SSCI jour-
nals. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(4), 567–581.
Hwang, G. J., Zou, D., & Lin, J. (2020). Effects of a multi-level concept mapping-based
question-posing approach on students’ ubiquitous learning performance and percep-
tions. Computer & Education, 149, 103815.
Lee, S. M. (2019). A systematic review of context-aware technology use in foreign lan-
guage learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning. doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.
1688836
Li, X., & Chu, S. K. (2018). Using design-based research methodology to develop a peda-
gogy for teaching and learning of Chinese writing with wiki among Chinese upper
primary school students. Computers & Education, 126, 359–375.
30 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Marijuan, S., & Sanz, C. (2017). Technology-assisted L2 research in immersive contexts

abroad. System, 71, 22–34.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia
learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52.
Mitnik, R., Recabarren, M., Nussbaum, M., & Soto, A. (2009). Collaborative robotic
instruction: A graph teaching experience. Computers & Education, 53(2), 330–342.
Rampton, B. (2002). Ritual and foreign language practices at school. Language in Society,
31(4), 491–525.
€
Satar, H. M., & Ozdener, N. (2008). The effects of synchronous CMC on speaking profi-
ciency and anxiety: Text versus voice chat. The Modern Language Journal, 92(4),
595–613.
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., & Huang, Y. M. (2017). Review of research on mobile lan-
guage learning in authentic environments. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
30(3–4), 284–303.
Shadiev, R., & Yang, M. (2020). Review of studies on technology-enhanced language
learning and teaching. Sustainability, 12(2), 524.
Slavuj, V., Me
strovic, A., & Kova
cic, B. (2017). Adaptivity in educational systems for
language learning: A review. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(1–2), 64–90.
Storch, N. (2013). Collaborative writing in L2 classrooms. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Subramanya, S. R. (2014). Mobile apps as supplementary educational resources.
International Journal of Advances in Management, Technology & Engineering Sciences,
9, 38–43.
Sykes, J. M. (2013). Synchronous chat and pragmatic development: Effects of oral and
written chat. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 399–431.
Xie, H., Zou, D., Zhang, R., Wang, M., & Kwan, R. (2019). Personalized word learning
for university students: A profile-based method in e-learning systems. Journal of
Computing in Higher Education, 31(2), 273–289.
Yang, Q. F., Chang, S. C., Hwang, G. J., & Zou, D. (2020). Balancing cognitive complex-
ity and gaming level: Effects of a cognitive complexity-based competition game on
EFL students’ English vocabulary learning performance, anxiety and behaviors.
Computers & Education, 148, 103808.
Zou, D. (2020). Gamified flipped EFL classroom for primary education: Student and teacher
perceptions. Journal of Computers in Education. doi:10.1007/s40692-020-00153-w
Zou, D., Huang, Y., & Xie, H. (2019). Digital game-based vocabulary learning: Where
are we and where are we going? Computer Assisted Language Learning. doi:10.1080/
09588221.2019.1640745
Zou, D., & Xie, H. R. (2018). Personalized word-learning based on technique feature
analysis and learning analytics. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(2),
233–244.
Zou, D., & Xie, H. (2019). Flipping an English writing class with technology-enhanced
just-in-time teaching and peer instruction. Interactive Learning Environments, 27(8),
1127–1142.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 31

Appendix A. The reviewed articles

Alvarez-Marinelli, H., Blanco, M., Lara-Alecio, R., Irby, B. J., Tong, F., Stanley, K., &
Fan, Y. (2016). Computer assisted English language learning in Costa Rican elemen-
tary schools: An experimental study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(1),
103–126. doi:10.1080/09588221.2014.903977
Bikowski, D., & Vithanage, R. (2016). Effects of web-based collaborative writing on indi-
vidual L2 writing development. Language Learning & Technology, 20(1), 79–99.
Bodnar, S., Cucchiarini, C., Penning de Vries, B., Strik, H., & van Hout, R. (2017).
Learner affect in computerised L2 oral grammar practice with corrective feedback.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(3–4), 223–246. doi:10.1080/09588221.2017.
1302964
Casta~neda, D. A., & Cho, M. H. (2016). Use of a game-like application on a mobile
device to improve accuracy in conjugating Spanish verbs. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 29(7), 1195–1204. doi:10.1080/09588221.2016.1197950
Cerezo, L. (2016). Type and amount of input-based practice in CALI: The revelations of
a triangulated research design. Language Learning & Technology, 20(1), 100–123.
Çetinkaya, L., & S€utç€
u, S. S. (2018). The effects of Facebook and WhatsApp on success
in English vocabulary instruction. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(5),
504–514. doi:10.1111/jcal.12255
Chang, C. C., Warden, C. A., Liang, C., & Chou, P. N. (2018). Performance, cognitive
load, and behaviour of technology-assisted English listening learning: From CALL to
MALL. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(2), 105–114. doi:10.1111/jcal.12218
Chen, Y., Carger, C. L., & Smith, T. J. (2017). Mobile-assisted narrative writing practice
for young English language learners from a funds of knowledge approach. Language
Learning & Technology, 21(1), 28–41. doi:10.1080/09588221.2018.1544151
Chen, C. M., Tan, C. C., & Lo, B. J. (2016). Facilitating English-language learners’ oral
reading fluency with digital pen technology. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(1),
96–118. doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.817442
Connor, C. M., Day, S. L., Zargar, E., Wood, T. S., Taylor, K. S., Jones, M. R., &
Hwang, J. K. (2019). Building word knowledge, learning strategies, and metacognition
with the Word-Knowledge e-Book. Computers & Education, 128, 284–311. doi:10.
1016/j.compedu.2018.09.016
Darling-Aduana, J., & Heinrich, C. J. (2018). The role of teacher capacity and instruc-
tional practice in the integration of educational technology for emergent bilingual stu-
dents. Computers & Education, 126, 417–432. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.002
Haghighi, H., Jafarigohar, M., Khoshsima, H., & Vahdany, F. (2019). Impact of flipped
classroom on EFL learners’ appropriate use of refusal: Achievement, participation,
perception. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32(3), 261–293. doi:10.1080/
09588221.2018.1504083
Hsieh, J. S., Wu, W. C. V., & Marek, M. W. (2017). Using the flipped classroom to
enhance EFL learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(1–2), 1–21. doi:10.
1080/09588221.2015.1111910
Ho, S. C., Hsieh, S. W., Sun, P. C., & Chen, C. M. (2017). To activate English learning:
Listen and speak in real life context with an AR featured u-learning system. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 20(2), 176–187.
Hsu, T. C. (2017). Learning English with augmented reality: Do learning styles matter?
Computers & Education, 106, 137–157. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.007
32 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Huang, Y. H., & Chuang, T. Y. (2016). Technology-assisted sheltered instruction:

Instructional streaming video in an EFL multi-purpose computer course. Computer
Assisted Language Learning, 29(3), 618–637. doi:10.1080/09588221.2014.1000933
Huang, Y. M., Shadiev, R., & Hwang, W. Y. (2016). Investigating the effectiveness of
speech-to-text recognition applications on learning performance and cognitive load.
Computers & Education, 101, 15–28. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.05.011
Hung, H. T. (2017). Clickers in the flipped classroom: Bring your own device (BYOD)
to promote student learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(8), 983–995. doi:
10.1080/10494820.2016.1240090
Hwang, W. Y., Shadiev, R., Hsu, J. L., Huang, Y. M., Hsu, G. L., & Lin, Y. C. (2016).
Effects of storytelling to facilitate EFL speaking using Web-based multimedia system.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(2), 215–241. doi:10.1080/09588221.2014.
927367
Kurt, M., & Bensen, H. (2017). Six seconds to visualize the word: Improving EFL learn-
ers’ vocabulary through VVVs. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(4), 334–346.
doi:10.1111/jcal.12182
Lan, Y. J., & Lin, Y. T. (2016). Mobile Seamless Technology Enhanced CSL Oral
Communication. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3).
Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., & Liakina, N. (2017). The pedagogical use of mobile speech
synthesis (TTS): Focus on French liaison. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
30(3–4), 325–342.
Lin, C. C. (2017). Learning English with electronic textbooks on tablet PCs. Interactive
Learning Environments, 25(8), 1035–1047. doi:10.1080/10494820.2016.1242505
Lin, C. J., & Hwang, G. J. (2018). A learning analytics approach to investigating factors
affecting EFL students’ oral performance in a flipped classroom. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 21(2), 205–219.
Lin, C. J., Hwang, G. J., Fu, Q. K., & Chen, J. F. (2018). A flipped contextual game-
based learning approach to enhancing EFL students’ English business writing per-
formance and reflective behaviors. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3),
117–131.
Liu, P. L. (2016). Mobile English vocabulary learning based on concept-mapping strat-
egy. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 128–141.
Liu, G. Z., Chen, J. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2018). Mobile-based collaborative learning in
the fitness center: A case study on the development of English listening comprehen-
sion with a context-aware application. British Journal of Educational Technology,
57(2), 305–320. doi:10.1111/bjet.12581
Liu, M. C., Huang, Y. M., & Xu, Y. H. (2018). Effects of individual versus group work
on learner autonomy and emotion in digital storytelling. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 66(4), 1009–1028. doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9601-2
Liu, K. P., Tai, S. J. D., & Liu, C. C. (2018). Enhancing language learning through cre-
ation: The effect of digital storytelling on student learning motivation and perform-
ance in a school English course. Educational Technology Research and Development,
66(4), 913–935. doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9592-z
Liu, C. C., Wang, P. C., & Tai, S. J. D. (2016). An analysis of student engagement pat-
terns in language learning facilitated by Web 2.0 technologies. ReCALL, 28(2),
104–122. doi:10.1017/S095834401600001X
Marefat, F., & Hassanzadeh, M. (2016). Applying form-focused approaches to L2
vocabulary instruction through podcasts. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3),
107–127.
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 33

Nguyen, T. H., Hwang, W. Y., Pham, X. L., & Ma, Z. H. (2018). User-Oriented EFL
Speaking through Application and Exercise: Instant Speech Translation and
Shadowing in Authentic Context. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(4),
129–142.
Okuno, T., & Hardison, D. M. (2016). Perception-production link in L2 Japanese vowel
duration: Training with technology. Language Learning & Technology, 20(2), 61–80.
Park, Y., & Warschauer, M. (2016). Syntactic enhancement and second language literacy:
An experimental study. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 180–199.
Qian, M., Chukharev-Hudilainen, E., & Levis, J. (2018). A system for adaptive high-
variability segmental perceptual training: Implementation, effectiveness, transfer.
Language Learning & Technology, 22(1), 69–96.
Rachels, J. R., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2018). The effects of a mobile gamification
app on elementary students’ Spanish achievement and self-efficacy. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 31(1–2), 72–89. doi:10.1080/09588221.2017.1382536
Roussel, S., & Galan, J. P. (2018). Can clicker use support learning in a dual-focused
second language German course? Language Learning & Technology, 22(3), 45–64.
Saricaoglu, A. (2019). The impact of automated feedback on L2 learners’ written causal
explanations. ReCALL, 31(2), 189–203. doi:10.1017/S095834401800006X
Shadiev, R., Huang, Y. M., & Hwang, J. P. (2017). Investigating the effectiveness of
speech-to-text recognition applications on learning performance, attention, and medi-
tation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(5), 1239–1261. doi:10.
1007/s11423-017-9516-3
Shadiev, R., Wu, T. T., & Huang, Y. M. (2017). Enhancing learning performance, atten-
tion, and meditation using a speech-to-text recognition application: Evidence from
multiple data sources. Interactive Learning Environments, 25(2), 257–261. doi:10.1080/
10494820.2016.1276079
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., Huang, Y. M., & Liu, T. Y. (2018). Facilitating application of
language skills in authentic environments with a mobile learning system. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 34(1), 42–52. doi:10.1111/jcal.12212
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., & Liu, T. Y. (2018). A Study of the Use of Wearable Devices
for Healthy and Enjoyable English as a Foreign Language Learning in Authentic
Contexts. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(4), 217–231.
Sharifi, M., Soleimani, H., & Jafarigohar, M. (2017). E-portfolio evaluation and vocabu-
lary learning: Moving from pedagogy to andragogy. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 48(6), 1441–1450. doi:10.1111/bjet.12479
Shyr, W. J., & Chen, C. H. (2018). Designing a technology-enhanced flipped learning
system to facilitate students’ self-regulation and performance. Journal of Computer
Assisted Learning, 34(1), 53–62. doi:10.1111/jcal.12213
Song, D., Oh, E. Y., & Glazewski, K. (2017). Student-generated questioning activity in
second language courses using a customized personal response system: A case study.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(6), 1425–1457. doi:10.1007/
s11423-017-9520-7
~ez, A., & Barcena, E. (2017). Exploring collaborative reverse subtitling
Talavan, N., Iban
for the enhancement of written production activities in English as a second language.
ReCALL, 29(1), 39–57. doi:10.1017/S0958344016000197
Tan, C. C., Chen, C. M., & Lee, H. M. (2019). Effectiveness of a digital pen-based learn-
ing system with a reward mechanism to improve learners’ metacognitive strategies in
listening. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–26. doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.
1591459
34 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Tecedor, M., & Campos-Dintrans, G. (2019). Developing oral communication in Spanish

lower-level courses: The case of voice recording and videoconferencing activities.
ReCALL, 1–19. doi:10.1017/S0958344018000083
Tseng, M. F., Lin, C. H., & Chen, H. (2018). An immersive flipped classroom for learn-
ing Mandarin Chinese: Design, implementation, and outcomes. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 31(7), 714–733.
Tsai, S. C. (2019). Implementing interactive courseware into EFL business writing:
Computational assessment and learning satisfaction. Interactive Learning
Environments, 27(1), 46–61. doi:10.1080/10494820.2018.1451896
Wang, Y. H. (2017). Integrating self-paced mobile learning into language instruction:
Impact on reading comprehension and learner satisfaction. Interactive Learning
Environments, 25(3), 397–411. doi:10.1080/10494820.2015.1131170
Wang, J., An, N., & Wright, C. (2018). Enhancing beginner learners’ oral proficiency in
a flipped Chinese foreign language classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning,
31(5–6), 570–521. doi:10.1080/09588221.2017.1417872
Wang, H. Y., Lin, V., Hwang, G. J., & Liu, G. Z. (2019). Context-aware language-learn-
ing application in the green technology building: Which group can benefit the most?
Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(3), 359–377. doi:10.1111/jcal.12336
Wu, W. C. V., Hsieh, J. S. C., & Yang, J. C. (2017). Creating an online learning commu-
nity in a flipped classroom to enhance EFL learners’ oral proficiency. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 20(2), 142–157.
Yang, Y. F. (2016). Self-directed learning to develop autonomy in an online ESP com-
munity. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(7), 1629–1646. doi:10.1080/10494820.
2015.1041402
Yeh, H. C., & Lai, W. Y. (2019). Speaking progress and meaning negotiation processes
in synchronous online tutoring. System, 81, 179–191. doi:10.1016/j.system.2019.01.001
Yukselturk, E., Altıok, S., & Başer, Z. (2018). Using Game-Based Learning with Kinect
Technology in Foreign Language Education Course. Journal of Educational
Technology & Society, 21(3), 159–173.

Appendix B. Technologies for the four main purposes

Table B1. Technologies for promoting practices.
Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Speaking Development of speaking proficiency  Interactive multimedia learning
proficiency was enhanced (Tecedor & software (Moodle)
Campos-Dintrans, 2019; Kurt &  Mobile-based multimedia
Bensen, 2017; Huang et al., 2016; applications (Story and Painting
Liu et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2016) House, Vine)
 Multimedia technology (online
voice recording,
videoconferencing)
 Speech-to-text recognition
 Mobile technology (digital pen)
No significant effect on learners’  Automatic speech
speaking development was recognition technology
identified (Bodnar et al., 2017)
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 35

Table B1. Continued.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Listening Development of listening proficiency  Interactive multimedia learning
proficiency was enhanced (Tan et al., 2019; software (Livescribe)
Liu, Chen, et al., 2018; Ho  Multimedia technology
et al., 2017)  QR codes
 Mobile technology (digital
pen, smartphone)
 Augmented Reality
 Wiki (Wikitude World Browser)
Reading Development of reading proficiency  Multimedia technology
proficiency was enhanced (Darling-Aduana &  Mobile-based multimedia
Heinrich, 2018; Wang, 2017) application (Learn English Audio
and Video)
 Mobile-based electronic book
Writing proficiency Development of writing proficiency  Mobile-based digital handwriting
was enhanced (Chen, Carger, application (Penultimate)
et al., 2017; Talavan et al., 2017;  Wiki (Google Doc)
Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016)  Multimedia technology
 Subtitle making software (Aegisub)
Learners’ comprehension of essay Computer-based automated
writing was enhanced but their formative feedback
writing proficiency was not
enhanced in the short term
(Saricaoglu, 2019)
Vocabulary Development of vocabulary  E-portfolios
knowledge knowledge was enhanced (Sharifi,  Mobile-based multimedia
Soleimani, & Jafarigohar, 2017; application (Vine, Story and
Kurt & Bensen, 2017; Ho et al., Painting House)
2017; Hsu, 2017; Hsieh et al.,  Augmented Reality
2017; Marefat & Hassanzadeh,  Wiki (Wikitude World Browser)
2016; Liu, 2016; Liu et al., 2016)  Gamified learning
 Social media (Line)
 Mobile-assisted learning
(Instant Message)
 Multimedia technology
No significant effect was found on  Mobile-based gamified
learners’ vocabulary development learning (Duolingo)
(Rachels & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2018)
Pronunciation Development of pronunciation was  Corpus-based word frequency lists
enhanced (Qian, Chukharev-  Text-to-speech recognition
Hudilainen, & Levis, 2018)
No immediate effect on learners’  Text-to-speech recognition
pronunciation was identified, but  Interactive multimedia learning
long-term effects were identified software (Moodle)
(Liakin et al., 2017)
Grammar Development of grammar knowledge  Multimedia technology
knowledge was enhanced (Talavan et al,  Subtitle making software (Aegisub)
2017; Cerezo, 2016; Casta~ neda &  Mobile-based gamified learning
Cho, 2016)
No significant effect on learners’  Mobile-based gamified
grammar knowledge development learning (Duolingo)
was identified (Rachels &
Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2018)
Comprehensive Development of comprehensive  Gamified learning (Kahoot!)
language skills language skills was enhanced  Kinect camera
(Yukselturk et al., 2018; Shadiev,  Mobile-based electronic book
Hwang, Huang, et al., 2018;  Multimedia technology
Shadiev, Huang, et al., 2017;  Social media (Facebook, Skype)
Shadiev, Wu, et al., 2017; Hung,  Clicker
2017; Yang, 2016)  Online learning platform (ESP Cafe)
 Computer-aided translation
 Speech-to-text recognition
(continued)
36 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Table B1. Continued.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Learning Learning motivation and attitude  Interactive multimedia learning
motivation were enhanced (Tan et al., 2019; software (Livescribe, Moodle)
and attitude Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, et al.,  Mobile technology (digital
2018; Liu, Chen, et al., 2018; pen, smartphone)
Sharifi et al., 2017; Kurt & Bensen,  Mobile-based electronic book
2017; Wang, 2017; Hsu, 2017;  Multimedia technology
Chen, Carger, et al., 2017; Hung,  QR codes
2017; Rachels & Rockinson-  E-portfolios
Szapkiw, 2018; Hsieh et al., 2017;  Clicker
Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016; Chen  Mobile-based multimedia
et al., 2016; Casta~neda & applications (Learn English Audio
Cho, 2016) and Video, Vine)
 Gamified learning
(Kahoot!, Duolingo)
 Mobile-based digital handwriting
application (Penultimate)
 Augmented Reality
 Social media (Line)
 Wiki (Google Doc)
Learning motivation was reduced  Computer-generated corrective
(Cerezo, 2016) feedback to learners’ practices
Leaning attention Learning attention was enhanced  Social media (Facebook, Skype)
(Shadiev, Huang, et al., 2017;  Speech-to-text recognition
Shadiev, Wu, et al., 2017)  Computer-aided translation
 Multimedia technology

Table B2. Technologies for delivering instructional content.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Speaking Development of speaking proficiency  Mobile-based multimedia
proficiency was enhanced (Liu, Tai, et al., 2018; applications (Story and Painting
Lin & Hwang, 2018; Huang et al., House, MObile SEeamless)
2016; Lan & Lin, 2016; Hwang  Social media (Facebook)
et al., 2016)  Multimedia technology
 Speech-to-text recognition
 Web-based multimedia storytelling
No significant effect on learners’  Automatic speech
speaking development was identified recognition technology
(Bodnar et al., 2017)
Development of speaking fluency was  MOOC
enhanced.
No significant effect on learners’
speaking complexity and accuracy
was identified (Wang et al., 2018)
Listening Development of listening proficiency  Multimedia technology
proficiency was enhanced (Liu, Chen, et al.,  Mobile technology (smartphones)
2018; Chang et al., 2018)  QR codes
 Fitness machines
 GPS
Reading Development of reading proficiency was  Mobile-based multimedia
proficiency enhanced (Liu, Huang, et al., 2018; applications (Noteledge, Learn
Wang, 2017) English Audio and Video)
 Multimedia technology
No significant effect on learners’  Mobile-based electronic book
reading was identified (Lin, 2017;  Multimedia technology
Park & Warschauer, 2016)  Visual-syntactic text formatting
technology for visualising
syntactic structures
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 37

Table B2. Continued.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Writing proficiency Development of writing proficiency was  Multimedia technology
enhanced (Tsai, 2019)  Interactive courseware
No significant effect on high achievers’  Multimedia technology
L2 writing was identified, but the  Visual-syntactic text formatting
low achievers’ development of technology for visualising
written conventions and writing syntactic structures
strategies was enhanced (Park &
Warschauer, 2016)
Vocabulary Development of vocabulary knowledge  Mobile-based electronic book
knowledge was enhanced (Connor et al., 2019;  Mobile-based multimedia
Liu, Huang, et al., 2018; Marefat & application (Noteledge)
Hassanzadeh, 2016; Liu, 2016)  Multimedia technology
 Mobile-assisted learning
(Instant Message)
No significant effect on learners’  Mobile-based gamified
vocabulary knowledge development learning (Duolingo)
was identified (Rachels & Rockinson-
Szapkiw, 2018)
Pronunciation Development of pronunciation was  Corpus-based word frequency lists
enhanced (Qian et al., 2018; Okuno &  Text-to-speech recognition
Hardison, 2016)  Multimedia technology
No immediate effect on learners’  Text-to-speech recognition
pronunciation was identified, but the  Interactive multimedia learning
long-term effect was found (Liakin software (Moodle)
et al., 2017)
Grammar Development of grammar knowledge  Mobile-based gamified learning
knowledge was enhanced (Castan ~eda &
Cho, 2016)
Comprehensive Development of comprehensive  QR codes
language skills language skills was enhanced (Wang  Mobile technology (smartphone)
et al., 2019; Yukselturk et al., 2018;  Gamified learning
Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, et al., 2018;  Kinect camera
Tseng et al., 2018; Shadiev, Huang,  Multimedia technology
et al., 2017; Yang, 2016)  Mobile-based electronic book
 Online learning platforms (Zaption,
Quizlet, ESP Cafe)
 Mobile-based multimedia
applications (Padlet, Flipgrid)
 Social media (Facebook, Skype)
 Speech-to-text recognition
 Computer-aided translation
Learning Learning motivation and attitude were  QR codes
motivation enhanced (Wang et al., 2019; Tsai,  Mobile technology (smartphone)
and attitude 2019; Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, et al.,  Multimedia technology
2018; Tseng et al., 2018; Rachels &  Mobile-based electronic book
Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2018; Shadiev,  Interactive courseware
Huang, et al., 2017; Wang, 2017; Lin,  Online learning platforms
2017; Hwang et al., 2016; Castan~eda (Zaption, Quizlet)
& Cho, 2016)  Mobile-based multimedia
applications (Padlet, Flipgrid, Learn
English Audio and Video, GBELA)
 Mobile-based gamified
learning (Duolingo)
 Social media (Facebook, Skype)
 Speech-to-text recognition
 Computer-aided translation
 Web-based multimedia storytelling
Cognitive load Cognitive load was reduced (Chang  GPS
et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2016)  Mobile technology (smartphone)
 Speech-to-text recognition
Peer-to-peer collaboration and  Mobile-based multimedia
interactions were enhanced (Lan & application (MObile SEeamless)
Lin, 2016)
38 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Table B3. Technologies for facilitating interactions.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Speaking Development of speaking proficiency  Multimedia technology (online
proficiency was enhanced (Tecedor & voice recording,
Campos-Dintrans, 2019; Yeh & Lai, videoconferencing)
2019; Nguyen et al., 2018; Lin &  Social media (Skype, Facebook)
Hwang, 2018; Kurt & Bensen,  Mobile-based multimedia
2017; Alvarez-Marinelli applications (ezTranslate, Vine)
et al., 2016)  Speech-to-text recognition
 Computer-assisted language
learning (Picture Vocabulary,
Verbal Analogies,
Understanding Directions,
Story Recall)
Listening Development of listening proficiency  Mobile-based multimedia
proficiency was enhanced (Nguyen et al., application (ezTranslate)
2018; Chang et al., 2018; Liu,  Speech-to-text recognition
Chen, et al., 2018; Alvarez-  GPS
Marinelli et al., 2016)  Mobile
technology (smartphone)
 Multimedia technology
 QR codes
 Computer-assisted language
learning (Picture Vocabulary,
Verbal Analogies,
Understanding Directions,
Story Recall)
Reading Development of reading proficiency  Mobile-based electronic book
proficiency was enhanced (Darling-Aduana &  Multimedia technology
Heinrich, 2018; Wang, 2017)  Mobile-based multimedia
application (Learn English Audio
and Video)
Writing proficiency Development of writing proficiency  Gamified learning
was enhanced (Lin et al., 2018;  Mobile-based digital
Chen, Carger, et al., 2017; Talavan handwriting application
et al., 2017; Bikowski & (Penultimate)
Vithanage, 2016)  Multimedia technology
 Subtitle making
software (Aegisub)
 Wiki (Google Doc)
Vocabulary Development of vocabulary  Social media (Facebook,
knowledge knowledge was enhanced WhatsApp, Vine, Line)
(Çetinkaya & S€
utç€
u, 2018; Kurt &  Computer-assisted language
Bensen, 2017; Hsieh et al., 2017; learning (Picture Vocabulary,
Alvarez-Marinelli et al., 2016) Verbal Analogies,
Understanding Directions,
Story Recall)
Pronunciation Development of pronunciation was  Clicker
enhanced (Roussel & Galan, 2018)
Grammar Development of grammar knowledge  Multimedia technology
knowledge was enhanced (Talavan  Subtitle making
et al., 2017) software (Aegisub)
Comprehensive Development of comprehensive  Mobile-based electronic book
language skills language skills was enhanced  Multimedia technology
(Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, et al.,  Online learning platforms
2018; Tseng et al., 2018; (Zaption, Quizlet)
Hung, 2017)  Mobile-based multimedia
applications (Padlet, Flipgrid)
 Clicker
 Gamified learning (Kahoot!)
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 39

Table B3. Continued.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art technologies
learning outcomes technologies for L2 learning
Learning Learning motivation and attitude  Mobile-based multimedia
motivation were enhanced (Nguyen et al., applications (ezTranslate, Padlet,
and attitude 2018; Lin et al., 2018; Çetinkaya & Flipgrid, Vine, Learn English
S€
utç€
u, 2018; Chang et al., 2018; Audio and Video)
Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, et al.,  Speech-to-text recognition
2018; Lin & Hwang, 2018; Tseng  Gamified learning (Kahoot!)
et al., 2018; Liu, Chen, et al.,  Social media (Facebook,
2018; Kurt & Bensen, 2017; Wang, WhatsApp, Line)
2017; Chen, Carger, et al., 2017;  GPS
Hsieh et al., 2017; Hung, 2017;  Mobile
Bikowski & Vithanage, 2016) technology (smartphone)
 Mobile-based electronic book
 Multimedia technology
 Online learning platforms
(Zaption, Quizlet)
 QR codes
 Mobile-based digital
handwriting application
(Penultimate)
 Clicker
 Wiki (Google Doc)
Cognitive load Cognitive load was reduced (Roussel  Clicker
& Galan, 2018; Chang et al., 2018)  GPS
 Mobile
technology (smartphone)
Learning attention Learning attention was enhanced  Customised personal response
(Song et al., 2017) system for students’
questioning and answering and
for instructors’
feedback provision
Interaction Peer-to-peer collaboration and  Social media (Facebook)
interactions were enhanced (Lin &  Multimedia technology
Hwang, 2018; Song et al., 2017)  Customised personal response
system for students’
questioning and answering and
for instructors’
feedback provision
40 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Table B4. Technologies for restructuring teaching approaches.

Aspects of Effectiveness of state-of-the-art Types of state-of-the-art
learning outcomes technologies technologies for L2 learning
Speaking Development of speaking  Multimedia technology
proficiency proficiency was enhanced (online voice recording,
(Tecedor & Campos-Dintrans, videoconferencing)
2019; Yeh & Lai, 2019; Lin &  Social media (Skype,
Hwang, 2018; Kurt & Bensen, Facebook, Line)
2017; Wu, Hsieh, &  Mobile-based multimedia
Yang, 2017). application (Vine)
Development of speaking fluency  MOOC
was enhanced. No significant
effect on learners’ speaking
complexity and accuracy was
identified (Wang et al., 2018)
Reading Development of reading  Interactive multimedia
proficiency proficiency was enhanced learning software
(Huang & Chuang, 2016) (PowerCam software)
 Multimedia technology
 Online learning platform
Writing proficiency Development of writing  Gamified learning
proficiency was enhanced (Lin
et al., 2018)
Vocabulary Development of vocabulary  Social media (Line)
knowledge knowledge was enhanced  Mobile-based multimedia
(Hsieh et al., 2017; Kurt & application (Vine)
Bensen, 2017; Marefat &  Multimedia technology
Hassanzadeh, 2016)
Comprehensive Development of comprehensive  Social media (Telegram)
language skills language skills was enhanced  Online learning platforms
(Haghighi et al., 2019; Shyr & (Flip2Learn, ESP Cafe)
Chen, 2018; Hung, 2017;  Gamified learning (Kahoot!)
Yang, 2016)  Multimedia technology
Learning Learning motivation and attitudes  Social media (Telegram,
motivation were enhanced (Haghighi Facebook, Line)
and attitude et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2018;  Gamified learning
Lin & Hwang, 2018; Hsieh  Multimedia technology
et al., 2017; Kurt & Bensen,  Mobile-based multimedia
2017; Hung, 2017; Huang & application (Vine)
Chuang, 2016)  Gamified learning (Kahoot!)
 Interactive multimedia
learning software
(PowerCam software)
 Online learning platform
Learning attention Learning attention was enhanced  Interactive multimedia
(Huang & Chuang, 2016) learning software
(PowerCam software)
 Multimedia technology
 Online learning platform
Interaction Peer-to-peer collaborations and  Social media
interactions were enhanced (Facebook, Line)
(Lin & Hwang, 2018; Wu  Multimedia technology
et al., 2017)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 41

Appendix C. Types, purposes, and effectiveness of state-of-the-art

technologies for L2 learning

Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-

technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Alvarez-Marinelli Computer-assisted Facilitating peer-to-peer Development of
et al. (2016) language learning, and tutor-student speaking and
Picture Vocabulary, communication listening proficiency
Verbal Analogies, in class and vocabulary
Understanding knowledge
Directions, and was enhanced.
Story Recall
Bikowski and Google Doc Assisting in-class Development of writing
Vithanage (2016) collaborative writing proficiency and
learning attitudes
were enhanced.
Bodnar et al. (2017) Automatic speech Automatically No significant effect on
recognition recognising and learners’ speaking
technology pointing out errors in was identified.
learners’ speeches
~eda and
Castan Mobile-based Encouraging learners’ Development of
Cho (2016) digital game practices of grammar grammar knowledge
and promoting and learning
learning engagement confidence
were enhanced.
Cerezo (2016) Computer-generated Providing immediate Development of
corrective feedback to evaluation of learners’ grammar knowledge
learners’ practices output, feedback to was enhanced, but
errors, and the learning
personalised motivation
practice contents was reduced.
Çetinkaya and WhatsApp, Facebook Serving as a peer-to- Development of word
S€utç€
u (2018) peer interaction knowledge and
platform for learners’ learning attitude were
vocabulary learning enhanced. WhatsApp
was more effective
than Facebook.
Chang et al. (2018) Combination of Contextualising the Development of
ubiquitous outdoor instructional contents listening
learning and indoor and providing comprehension and
computer-assisted instructions learning motivation
learning by GPS and anywhere anytime were enhanced.
mobile devices Cognitive load in
learning process
was reduced.
Chen, Carger, Penultimate, an iPad- Facilitating the in-class Development of writing
et al. (2017) based commercial narrative writing proficiency and
app for digital learning attitude
handwriting were enhanced.
Chen et al. (2016) Digital pen, Moodle Expediting the repeated Development of oral
reading strategy for reading fluency,
promoting oral learning motivation,
reading fluency, and learning
learning motivation, satisfaction
and learning were enhanced.
satisfaction
Connor et al. (2019) Tablet-based multimedia Monitoring learners’ Development of word
e-book embedded comprehension of the knowledge and
with instructional contents learning strategies
comprehension and providing was enhanced.
questions personalised learning
experiences
(continued)
42 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Darling-Aduana and Tablet (eReader)-based Assisting the low-income Development of reading
Heinrich (2018) multimedia learning English learners in proficiency was
with accessibility to both English/Spanish enhanced better in
the Internet bilingual and the bilingual
traditional English- classroom than in the
only traditional classroom.
reading classrooms
Haghighi et al. (2019) Telegram Supporting the flipped Development of
classroom by posting pragmatic
course materials competence and
through Telegram learning satisfaction
before class, and were enhanced.
conducting
communicative
activities in class
Ho et al. (2017) Augmented Reality , Facilitating learners’ Individuals with field-
Wikitude English listening and dependent cognitive
World Browser speaking practices by style performed
providing better than those
contextualised digital with field
information and independent and mix
artificial learning field cognitive styles
contexts in terms of the
anywhere anytime development of
speaking and
listening proficiency.
Hsieh et al. (2017) Line Assisting students of a Development of
flipped oral training idiomatic knowledge
course in practicing and learning
target English idioms motivation
beyond the classroom were enhanced.
through written and
verbal discussions
Hsu (2017) Digital game enhanced Encouraging vocabulary Development of word
by Augmented Reality learning and knowledge, learning
technologies practicing within motivation, and
artificial learning experiences
learning contexts were enhanced.
Huang and E-learning course Supporting a content- Development of reading
Chuang (2016) platform, PowerCam based reading course comprehension,
software, video where the language reading speed,
learning focused learning engagement,
more on meaning and learning attitude
and content were enhanced.
than form
Huang et al. (2016) Speech-to-text Reducing learners’ Development of
recognition system cognitive load speaking proficiency
was enhanced, and
low achievers’
cognitive load
was reduced.
Hung (2017) Clicker, Kahoot! game Facilitating students’ Development of
question-and-answer comprehensive
in class and language skills and
promoting in-class learning motivation
interactions were enhanced.
Hwang et al. (2016) Web-based multimedia Supporting speaking Development of
storytelling classrooms by speaking proficiency
presenting and learning
instructional contents motivation
through multimedia were enhanced.
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 43

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Kurt and Bensen (2017) Vine, a mobile Encouraging learners’ Development of
application that speaking practices vocabulary
allowed the recording and word knowledge knowledge, speaking
and sharing of application proficiency, and
video clips learning motivation
were enhanced.
Lan and Lin (2016) MObile SEeamless, a Supporting learners’ Development of
mobile application task-induced pragmatic speaking
which created real- language learning in proficiency and peer-
world contexts real-world contexts to-peer collaborations
were enhanced.
Liakin et al. (2017) Text-to-speech Assisting learners’ No immediate effect on
recognition practices in speaking learners’
system, Moodle and pronunciation pronunciation was
identified, but the
long-term effect
was found.
Lin (2017) Tablet-based multimedia Delivering the textbook No significant effect on
e-book contents in the learners’ reading
language classroom comprehension was
identified, but
learning motivation
was enhanced.
Lin and Hwang (2018) Facebook, videos Supporting the flipped Development of
language classroom pragmatic speaking
by providing video proficiency, peer-to-
instructions and peer interactions, and
encouraging speaking learning motivation
practices and peer-to- were enhanced.
peer interactions in-
and out-of-classroom
Lin et al. (2018) Contextual digital game Encouraging learners’ Development of writing
knowledge proficiency, learning
application by experience, and
providing interesting learning interest
artificial environments were enhanced.
Liu (2016) Instant Message function Facilitating learners’ Development of
(IM) of mobile phones vocabulary learning vocabulary knowledge
by helping them was enhanced.
exchange, receive,
and create
multimedia electronic
word knowledge
Liu, Chen, et al. (2018) Video, context-aware Encouraging learners’ Development of
tools that consisted contextualised listening
of smartphones, QR practices of listening comprehension,
codes and comprehension listening strategies,
fitness machines and learning attitudes
were enhanced
Liu, Huang, et al. (2018) Noteledge, a tablet-based Supporting learners’ Development of reading
multimedia individual and comprehension and
storytelling collaborative practices vocabulary knowledge
application of story reading was enhanced. The
students who learned
collaboratively
outperformed those
who learned
individually.
(continued)
44 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Liu, Tai, et al. (2018) Story and Painting House, Supporting the free- Development of
a tablet-based space digital speaking accuracy,
multimedia storytelling and creativity, and
storytelling encouraging learners’ learning motivation
application speaking practices were enhanced.
Liu et al. (2016) Story and Painting House, Supporting the free- Development of
a tablet-based space digital speaking fluency and
multimedia storytelling and vocabulary knowledge
storytelling encouraging learners’ was enhanced.
application speaking practices Learners’ engagement
was low at the
beginning but
increased later.
Marefat and Video Supporting the delivery Development of
Hassanzadeh (2016) of classroom-based vocabulary knowledge
form-focused was enhanced.
instructions that drew
learners’ attention to
the forms and
structures of the
language within the
context of
communicative
interaction
Nguyen et al. (2018) ezTranslate, a mobile Facilitating the Development of
application contextualised and speaking and
supporting the instant ubiquitous practices listening and learning
speech-to-text of speaking and motivation
translation listening and were enhanced.
encouraging peer-to-
peer
cooperative learning
Okuno and Multimedia technologies Facilitating learners’ Both audio-visual and
Hardison (2016) training and learning audio-only training
of pronunciation helped enhance
learners’
pronunciation. Audio-
visual training was
more effective.
Park and Multimedia technologies, Facilitating learners’ No significant effects on
Warschauer (2016) Visual-syntactic text reading and learning reading or on high-
formatting technology by converting the proficient learners’ L2
that visualised textbook to the one writing were
syntactic structures with syntactic identified, but the
enhancement low-proficient
learners’ development
of written
conventions and
writing strategies
was enhanced.
Qian et al. (2018) Computer-based Personalising the Development of
segmental perceptual phonetic input pronunciation
training system that according to learners’ was enhanced.
utilised the corpus- individual learning
based word frequency perceptions
lists, text-to-
speech technology
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 45

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Rachels and Rockinson- Duolingo, a mobile- Encouraging learners’ No significant effects on
Szapkiw (2018) based game vocabulary and learners’ vocabulary
application grammar learning and and grammar
practices by providing development were
personalised learning identified, but their
experiences based on learning motivation
students’ personal was enhanced.
preferences and
learning styles
Roussel and Clicker Expediting learners’ self- Development of
Galan (2018) reporting and pronunciation was
opinion-voicing in enhanced, and
vocabulary classrooms learners’ cognitive
load was alleviated.
Saricaoglu (2019) Computer-based Facilitating learners’ Learners’ comprehension
automated cause-and-effect of essay writing was
formative feedback essay writing enhanced, but their
writing proficiency
was not enhanced in
the short term.
Shadiev, Hwang, Huang, Tablet-based electronic Supporting learners’ Learners in collaboration
et al. (2018) textbook, multimedia textbook learning in had their
technologies individual and development of
collaboration modes comprehensive
language skills and
learning
motivation enhanced.
Shadiev, Hwang, and Multimedia technologies, Facilitating learners’ Development of writing,
Liu (2018) smart-watch-based writing by providing grammar knowledge,
learning system that synchronous and learning
supported text-to- corrections and motivation
speech and speech- language support were enhanced.
to-text technologies
Shadiev, Huang, Facebook, Skype, Supporting learners’ Development of
et al. (2017) speech-to-text online cross-culture comprehensive
recognition communication and language skills,
technology, language learning learning attention,
computer-aided and mediation were
translation system enhanced. Female
learners had higher
levels of attention
and meditation.
Shadiev, Wu, Multimedia technologies, Expediting language Development of
et al. (2017) speech-to-text learning during the comprehensive
recognition lectures by providing language skills,
technology synchronous learning attention,
language support and mediation were
enhanced. In long-
term, the learning
attention declined.
Sharifi et al. (2017) E-portfolios Encouraging learning Development of
engagement by vocabulary knowledge
providing and learning
opportunities to apply motivation
pedagogical concepts were enhanced.
(continued)
46 R. ZHANG AND D. ZOU

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Shyr and Chen (2018) Flip2Learn, an online Supporting the flipped Development of
learning platform language classroom comprehensive
by facilitating the language skills
out-of-class learning was enhanced.
section and
encouraging
teacher–student
communication
Song et al. (2017) Customised personal Expediting the question- Learners’ engagement
response system in and-answer section with the learning and
which students could between instructors the in-class
generate questions and students interactions
and answer questions were increased.
for the instructors to
give feedback
Talavan et al. (2017) Video, Aegisub, a subtitle Facilitating the learning Development of
making software of grammar and grammar knowledge
writing by supporting and writing
learners’ collaborative proficiency
reverse subtitling was enhanced.
Tan et al. (2019) Livescribe, a multimedia Facilitating learners’ Development of
computing platform, practices of listening
interactive board, listening exercises comprehension and
digital pens learning motivation
were enhanced.
Tecedor and Campos- Online voice recording, Facilitating learner’s Development of
Dintrans (2019) videoconferencing speaking practices by speaking complexity
supporting the peer- and fluency
to-peer computer- was enhanced.
mediated
communications
Tseng et al. (2018) Padlet, Flipgrid, Zaption, Supporting the Development of
Quizlet, multimedia immersive flipped comprehensive
technologies language classroom language skills and
by providing learning motivation
instructional contents were enhanced.
pre-class and
encouraging out-of-
class interactions
Tsai (2019) Multimedia technologies, Expediting learners’ Development of writing
Interactive courseware writing practices proficiency and
learning attitudes
were enhanced.
Wang (2017) Learn English Audio and Supporting self-paced Development of reading
Video, a mobile learning by providing proficiency and
application for multimedia language learning satisfaction
language learning, learning materials and were enhanced.
multimedia exercises
technologies anywhere anytime
Wang et al. (2018) MOOC Supporting the flipped Development of speech
language classroom fluency was
by integrating several enhanced. No
online instructional significant effect on
platforms learners’ speaking
and resources complexity and
accuracy
was identified.
(continued)
 COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 47

Appendix C. Continued.
Types of state-of-the-art Purposes of state-of-the- Effectiveness of state-of-
technologies for art technologies in the-art technologies in
Author L2 learning L2 learning L2 learning
Wang et al. (2019) Green-building English- Providing contextualised Development of
learning, a mobile instructional materials comprehensive
application, QR codes according to learners’ language skills and
surroundings where self-efficacy was
they scanned the enhanced for both
QR codes high- and low-
proficient learners.
Wu et al. (2017) Video, Line Supporting the flipped Development of
language classroom speaking proficiency
by providing and peer-to-peer
instructional contents cooperation
before class and was enhanced.
encouraging peer-to-
peer interactions out-
of-class
Yang (2016) ESP Cafe, an online Facilitating self-directed Development of
learning workshop language learning by comprehensive
providing learning language skills
materials and was enhanced.
encouraging
discussions
and practices
Yeh and Lai (2019) Skype Supporting online Development of
communication speaking proficiency
between teachers was enhanced,
and students especially for the low-
proficient learners.
Yukselturk et al. (2018) Digital games, Kinect Facilitating self-directed Development of
camera technology learning in interesting comprehensive
that gave learning contexts and language skills
synchronous providing was enhanced.
commands depending immediate feedback
on learners’ responses
during gaming