01211322

Geometric Measurement and Instrumentations

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Chapter 1
Basic Principles of
Engineering Metrology

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Topics
✓ Introduction
✓ Metrology
✓ Need for Inspection
✓ Accuracy and Precision
✓ Objectives of Metrology and Measurements
✓ General Measurement Concepts
✓ Errors in Measurements
✓ Methods of Measurement

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Introduction
Introduction
✓ Metrology concerns itself with the study of measurements.

✓ The physical variable then gets transformed into a measured variable.

✓ Measurement is an act of assigning an accurate and precise value to a physical variable.

✓ Measurement encompasses different fields such as communications, energy, medical sciences,

food sciences, environment, trade, transportation, and military applications.

✓ Meaningful measurements require common measurement standards and must be performed

using them.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Definition
✓ Metrology literally means science of measurements.

✓ Webster Dictionary
The science of, or a system of, weights and measures; also, a treatise on the subject.

✓ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

The science that deals with measurement, a system of measurement

✓ International Vocabulary of Metrology

✓ Science of measurement and its applications including measurement uncertainty

✓ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)

✓ The science of measurement, embracing both experimental and
theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field
of science and technology
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 Definition
Metrology also deals with

a. Establishing the units of measurements and their reproduction in the form of

standards.

b. Ascertaining the uniformity of measurements.

c. Developing methods of measurement, analyzing the accuracy of methods of

measurement.

d. Establishing uncertainty of measurement, and investigating the causes of

measuring errors and subsequently eliminating them.

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 Scientific metrology
✓ Scientific metrology is concerned with the establishment of units of measurement, the
development of new measurement methods, the realisation of measurement standards, and
the transfer of traceability from these standards to users in a society.

✓ This type of metrology is considered the top level of metrology which strives for the highest
degree of accuracy.

✓ International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) maintains a database of the metrological
calibration and measurement capabilities of institutes around the world.

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 Industrial metrology
✓ Applied, technical or industrial metrology is concerned with the application of measurement to
manufacturing and other processes and their use in society, ensuring the suitability of
measurement instruments, their calibration and quality control.

✓ Although the emphasis in this area of metrology is on the measurements themselves,

traceability of the measuring-device calibration is necessary to ensure confidence in the
measurement.

✓ Industrial metrology is important to a country's economic and industrial development.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Legal Metrology
✓Legal Metrology applies to any application of metrology that is subjected to national laws or regulations.

✓There will be mandatory and legal bindings on the units and methods of measurements and measuring
instruments.

✓The scope of legal metrology may vary considerably from one country to another. The main objective is to maintain
uniformity of measurement in a particular country.

✓Legal metrology ensures the conservation of national standards and guarantees their accuracy in comparison with the
international standards, thereby imparting proper accuracy to the secondary standards of the country.

✓Applications of legal metrology are industrial measurement, commercial transactions and public health and
human safety aspects.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Inspection
✓ Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or product characteristic, such as a dimension,
is examined to determine whether it conforms to the design specification.

✓ Basically inspection is carried out to isolate and evaluate a specific design or quality attribute of a
component or product.

✓ In inspection, the part either passes or fails. Thus, industrial inspection has become a very
important aspect of quality control.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Inspection
Inspection essentially encompasses the following:

1. Ascertain that the part, material, or component conforms to the established or desired standard.
2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
3. Sustain customer goodwill by ensuring that no defective product reaches the customers.
4. Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in manufacture. The results of inspection are
recorded and reported to the manufacturing department for further action to ensure
production of acceptable parts and reduction in scrap.

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 Inspection
Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
5. Purchase good‐quality raw materials, tools, and equipment that govern the quality of the finished
products.

6. Coordinate the functions of quality control, production, purchasing, and other departments of the
organizations.
7. Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts, that is, to assess the possibility of making
some of these parts acceptable after minor repairs.

8. Promote the spirit of competition, which leads to the manufacture of quality products in bulk
by eliminating bottlenecks and adopting better production techniques.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Accuracy

• Accuracy is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with

its true magnitude.

• The maximum amount by which the result differs from the true value.
• The nearness of the measured value to its true value.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Accuracy

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Precision

• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process.

• Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.
• Precision refers to the consistent reproducibility of a measurement.

• If an instrument is not precise, it would give different results for the same
dimension for repeated readings.

• In most measurements, precision assumes more significance

than accuracy.
© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Repeatability

• The ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results during the

act of measurements for the same quantity is known as repeatability.

• Random in nature and, by itself, does not assure accuracy, though it is a

desirable characteristic.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Reproducibility

Reproducibility is normally specified in terms of a scale reading over a given

period of time

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Difference between Precision and Accuracy

(a) Precise but not accurate (b) Accurate but not precise (c) Precise and accurate (d) Not precise and not accurate

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Difference between Precision and Accuracy

(a) Precise but not accurate (b) Accurate but not precise (c) Precise and accurate (d) Not precise and not accurate

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Error

• Difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity
measured.

E = Error
Vm = Measured value
Vt = True value

E is also known as the absolute error

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 Metrological Terminologies
% Error

• known as relative error

• Accuracy of an instrument can also be expressed as % error.

• Accuracy of an instrument is always assessed in terms of error.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Example
A multimeter was used to measure the voltage 200 V. After measuring, the measured values are
204 205 203 203 and 205 V. Please calculate an accuracy of the measurement.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Factors affecting the Accuracy

• Two terms are associated with accuracy in measuring equipment:

• Sensitivity
• Consistency.

Sensitivity:
• The ratio of the change of instrument indication
to the change of quantity being measured.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Factors affecting the Accuracy

• Two terms are associated with accuracy in measuring equipment:

• Sensitivity
• Consistency.

Consistency

• The successive readings of the measured quantity

obtained from the measuring instrument are same all

the time, the equipment is said to be consistent

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Metrological Terminologies
Range is defined as the difference between the lower and higher values that an
instrument is able to measure.
E.g. If an instrument has a scale reading of 0–30 cm, then the range of the
instrument is 0–30 cm

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest increment a tool can detect and display.

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© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Accuracy and Cost

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 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS
• To ascertain, the newly developed components are comprehensively evaluated and
designed within the process, and that facilities possessing measuring capabilities are
available in the plant.

• To ensure uniformity of measurements.

• To carry out process capability studies to achieve better component tolerances
• To assess the adequacy of measuring instrument capabilities to carry out their
respective measurements

• To ensure cost-effective inspection and optimal use of available facilities

• To adopt quality control techniques to minimize scrap rate and rework

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS
• To establish inspection procedures from the design stage itself, so that the

measuring methods are standardized

• To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain accuracy in

measurement

• To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop floor

• To design gauges and special fixtures required to carry out inspection

• To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 General Measurement Concepts

The three basic elements of measurements

1. Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to be measured.
2. Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a known standard (reference) for
evaluation.
3. Reference, the physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons
are to be made, which is internationally accepted

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Calibration of Measuring Instruments
✓ The process of validation of the measurements to ascertain whether the given physical quantity conforms
to the original/national standard of measurement is known as traceability of the standard.

✓ Calibration is the procedure used to establish a relationship between the values of the quantities indicated
by the measuring instrument and the corresponding values realized by standards under specified
conditions. It

✓ If the values of the variable involved remain constant (not time dependent) while calibrating a given
instrument, this type of calibration is known as Static calibration,

✓ whereas if the value is time dependent or time‐based information is required, it is called Dynamic
calibration.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Error in Measurements
1. Systematic or Controllable Errors
Systematic errors are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently
in the same direction. Systematic errors are often due to a problem which
persists throughout the entire experiment.

2. Random Errors
Random errors usually result from the experimenter’s inability to
take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exact the same
number.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Systematic or Controllable Errors
✓ A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true value of measurement.
✓ These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and their direction.
✓ These types of errors can be assessed and minimized if efforts are made to analyze them. The following are
the reasons for their occurrence.
• Calibration errors
• Ambient conditions
• Deformation of work piece
• Avoidable errors

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Avoidable Errors
✓ Datum error

✓ Reading errors

✓ Errors due to parallax effect

✓ Effect of misalignment

✓ Zero Errors

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Random Errors
✓ Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when measurements
of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.

✓ When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component under similar

conditions, the values or results of measurements vary.

✓ They are of variable magnitude and may be either positive or negative.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Sources of Errors
The following are the likely sources of random errors:

✓ Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring instrument.

✓ Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments

✓ Error in operator’s judgment in reading the fractional part of engraved scale divisions.

✓ Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations during measurement.

✓ Positional errors associated with the measured object and standard, arising due to small variations in
setting.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Relationship between systematic and random errors

Figure 1.5 clearly depicts the relationship between systematic and random errors with
respect to the measured value.
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 Difference between Systematic and Random Errors

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

l. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Null measurement method
10. Substitution method
11. Contact method
12.Contact less method
13.Composite method

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Direct method

In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the primary or
secondary standard. Scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are
used in the direct method. This method is widely employed in the production field. In
the direct method, a very slight difference exists between the actual and the
measured values of the quantity. This difference occurs because of the limitation of
the human being performing the measurement.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Indirect method

In this method, the value of a quantity is obtained by measuring other quantities that
are functionally related to the required value. Measurement of the quantity is carried
out directly and then the value is determined by using a mathematical relationship.
Some examples of indirect measurement are angle measurement using sine bar,
measurement of strain induced in a bar due to the applied force, determination of
effective diameter of a screw thread, etc.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Comparative method

In this method, as the name suggests, the quantity to be measured is compared with
the known value of the same quantity or any other quantity practically related to it.
The quantity is compared with the master gauge and only the deviations from the
master gauge are recorded after comparison. The most common examples are
comparators, dial indicators, etc.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Transposition method

This method involves making the measurement by direct comparison, wherein the
quantity to be measured (V) is initially balanced by a known value (X) of the same
quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced again by
another known value (Y).

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Coincidence method

This is a differential method of measurement wherein a very minute difference

between the quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by careful
observation of the coincidence of certain lines and signals. Measurements on vernier
calliper and micrometer are examples of this method.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Deflection method
This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be measured
directly by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale. Pressure measurement is an
example of this method.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Complementary method

The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the
same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values is
equal to the predetermined comparison value. An example of this method is
determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Null measurement method

In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and
the known value of the same quantity with which comparison is to be made is
brought to zero.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Substitution method

It is a direct comparison method. This method involves the replacement of the value
of the quantity to be measured with a known value of the same quantity, so selected
that the effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.
The Borda method of determining mass is an example of this method.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Contact method
In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or measuring tip
of the instrument. Care needs to be taken to provide constant contact pressure in
order to avoid errors due to excess constant pressure. Examples of this method
include measurements using micrometer, vernier calliper, and dial indicator.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement

Contactless method

As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the surface to be measured.
Examples of this method include the use of optical instruments, tool maker’s
microscope, and profile projector.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 Methods of Measurement
Composite method

The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared with its maximum and
minimum tolerance limits. Cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the
component, which are controlled through a combined tolerance, can be checked by
this method. This method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and is usually
effected through the use of composite GO gauges. The use of a GO screw plug gauge
to check the thread of a nut is an example of this method.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 A QUICK OVERVIEW
• The importance and necessity of metrology.
• Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or product characteristic.
• The importance of accuracy of measurement.
• Precision is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process.
• Repeatability is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results.
• Error is the difference between the true value and the mean value of the set of readings
on the same component.
• Sensitivity is the ratio of the change of instrument indication to the change of quantity
being measured.
• Range is defined as the difference between the lower and higher values that an
instrument is able to measure.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 A QUICK OVERVIEW
• Traceability is the process of validation of the measurements to ascertain whether the
given physical quantity conforms to the original/national standard of measurement is known
as of the standard.
• Calibration is the procedure used to establish a relationship between the values of the
quantities indicated by the measuring instrument and the corresponding values realized by
standards under specified conditions.
• Systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true value of
measurement.
• Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when measurements of a physical
quantity are carried out repeatedly.

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU
 01211322
Geometric Measurement and Instrumentations
การวัดรูปทรงเรขาคณิตและเครื่องมือวัด

Q&A

© Oxford University Press 2013. All rights reserved. Asst.Dr.Chamaporn Chianrabutra, EMME, KU