C/CPS 393

Introduction to UNIX, C and C++

Prof. Alex Ufkes

Topic 6: Review!
 Notice!

Obligatory copyright notice in the age of digital

delivery and online classrooms:

The copyright to this original work is held by Alex Ufkes. Students

registered in course C/CPS 393 can use this material for the purposes
of this course but no other use is permitted, and there can be no sale
or transfer or use of the work for any other purpose without explicit
permission of Alex Ufkes.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 2

 Course Administration

Midterm #2, covering all Linux material,

takes place in your lab on Nov 2/3

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 3

 Today

Linux
Review

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 4

 Week 1:
Basic Commands

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 5

 Directory Navigation

cd <path> Change directory using absolute or relative path

cd .. Move up to parent directory
ls List contents of current directory (dir in Windows)
ls <path> List contents of <path>

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 6

 Viewing File Contents
cd <path>
cd ..
cat <file> Display file contents, no paging
ls tac <file> Like cat, but lines in reverse order
ls <path>
pwd

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 7

 Viewing File Contents
cd <path>
cd ..
more Like cat, but paged (cat displays everything at once)
ls spacebar gives next screenful, enter gets next line, q quits
ls <path>
pwd
less Like more, has extended commands/features. How ironic.
cat <file>
tac <file>

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 8

 File Creation & Deletion
cd <path>
cd ..
cp <source> <dest> copies <source> to <dest>
ls works for directories as well
ls <path>
pwd
cat <file>
tac <file>
more
less

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 9

 File Creation & Deletion
cd <path>
cd ..
cp <source> <dest> copies <source> to <dest>
ls works for directories as well
ls <path>
pwd
rm <file> deletes (removes) a file
cat <file>
tac <file>
more
less

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 10

 File Creation & Deletion
cd <path>
cd ..
mkdir <name> Create a new directory called <name>
ls rmdir <name> remove/delete directory. Must be empty!
ls <path>
pwd
cat <file>
tac <file>
more
less
cp
rm

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 11

 File Creation & Deletion
cd <path>
cd ..
mv <src> <dest> Dest can be
ls in a different directory, thus moving the file.
ls <path>
pwd
cat <file>
tac <file>
more
less
cp
rm
mkdir
rmdir

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 12

 File Creation & Deletion
cd <path>
cd ..
wc <file> Gives size of file (lines, words, chars)
ls touch <file> Creates an empty file called <file>
ls <path>
pwd
If file exists, update modification time
cat <file>
tac <file>
more
less
cp
rm
mkdir
rmdir
mv

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 13

 File Editing

Using vim, nano, etc.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 14

 Week 1:
Command Options

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 Linux Commands: Options

Adding options to a command modifies the

behavior of that command from the default.
Rather than having five similar commands,
have one command with five options.
Options follow the command itself, prefixed
with a dash -

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 Recursive Removal

rm r <dir>
dir
and all files and sub-dirs
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 Long Directory Listing

ls t sorts newest to oldest

ls R recursively lists all subdirs and files
ls p print / following directory names
ls l long list, more properties

Can combine options! These are all the same,

and order us usually irrelevant:
ls l t ls t l
ls lt ls -tl
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 Keyword Searching man Pages

Performs a keyword search for <query>

man k zip

These commands
can be looked up in
man as well!

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 Week 1:
Permissions

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 Owners and Groups

Each file and directory has an owner and a group

associated with it. This can be seen using ls -l:

Owner Group

Here, I, aufkes, am the owner of both

files, and the group is named aufkes.
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 21
 Permissions

What about
this stuff?
file
means diMtᵈ% [ Capital
member
group

/
Group permission S if owner of
you lowercase
just
as are C a

you
→ . are
¢

u g o Each of:
owner (u) group members (g) other users (o)
I can read/write hello.txt have a set of :
read (r) write (w) execute (x)
permissions.
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 22
 rwx

file: Can be looked at, copied

r dir: Can look at contents (with ls), but cannot view files within.
Would need r perm on file, and x perm on directory.

file: Can modify or delete the file

w dir: Can add or delete entries to/from directory.
A file in the directory can be modified without w on dir.

file: Can run it, if it is runnable (executable)

X dir: Can access entry in dir, if its name is known. Cannot list
contents. Weaker than r permission.

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 Changing Permissions

ls l, how can we change them?

Only the owner can change permissions, and
can do so using the chmod command

chmod (ugoa)(+-=)(rwx) name(s)

(ugoa) user, group, other, all

(+-=) + adds perm, - removes perm, = sets to given perm
(rwx) read, write, execute

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 24

 chmod: Alternative Permission Format

Notice that rwx triple can be represented in binary:

--- (000) 0
--x (001) 1 Use a 3-digit octal literal to represent
-w- (010) 2 ugo permissions in one shot:
-wx (011) 3
chmod 160 myFile
r-- (100) 4
--x for user, rw- for group, --- for others
r-x (101) 5
rw- (110) 6 Not as intuitive, but potentially much
rwx (111) 7 faster to type

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 Week 1:
IO Redirection

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 Output Redirection

Redirect stdout to a file instead of monitor using > or >>

Interesting!
lsfile created before ls
command executes!
> will overwrite file if it
exists, create it if not.
>> appends if file exists

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 Input Redirection

Can redirect stdin also! And both at the same time!

wc input redirected from lsfile

(like calling wc with file arg,
subtle difference here)
Output redirected to wcfile

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 stderr Redirection

Use 2>

Why 2>?
Each stream given a number by shell.
Stdin = 0, stdout = 1, stderr = 2
ls >outfile is same as ls 1>outfile
cat <infile is same as cat 0<infile
Redirect stdout and stderr at
the same time using &>

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 29

 Devices

Disks and printers and modems and so on

In Linux, we access devices as though they were (special) files

Typically found in directory /dev

/dev/stdin
stdin/stdout/stderr are: /dev/stdout
/dev/stderr

Displaying file contents on stderr could be done:

cp hello.txt /dev/stderr

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 /dev/null

Data goes in, cannot come back out.

Sending data to /dev/null throws it
away forever
/dev/null Common to send errors here
We know the errors are happening

Out of sight out of mind!

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 Week 2:
Glob Constructs

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 Glob Constructs

Globbing

Bash version of Regular Expression matching

Match over files, directory contents

When the shell encounters a glob construct:

1. Expand the construct
2. Execute the resulting command

? * [ ]
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 Match Any Single Character

This can be used to match any single character

? Multiple ? can match multiple characters

For example: The working directory contains the following:

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c

prog1.c lab2.txt lab3.txt prog2.c
top.c lab4.txt lab4.cpp a.out

ls lab?.txt
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt lab4.txt

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 Match Any Single Character

? Substitute for multiple characters? Use multiple ?

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c

prog1.c lab2.txt lab3.txt prog2.c
top.c lab4.txt lab4.cpp a.out

ls lab?.???
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt lab4.cpp
lab4.txt

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 35

 Match Any Character Sequence

The * symbol matches any sequence of characters

* Includes the null string!

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c

prog1.c lab2.txt lab3.txt prog2.c
top.c lab4.txt lab4.cpp a.out
ls lab?.*
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt lab4.cpp
lab4.txt

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 36

 Match Any Character Sequence

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c

* prog1.c
top.c
ls *.c*
lab2.txt
lab4.txt
# What prints?
lab3.txt
lab4.cpp
prog2.c
a.out

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 Very common for filtering based on file extension 37
 Match Specific Single Character

In square brackets we can specify a sequence of characters.

[ ] If one matches, the substitution will be successful.

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c
prog1.c lab2.txt lab3.txt prog2.c
top.c lab4.txt lab4.cpp a.out

ls lab[123].txt
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt

ls lab[1-3].txt # Variation
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 38
 Match Specific Single Character

lab1.txt lb2.txt new.txt pie.c

[ ] prog1.c
top.c
lab2.txt
lab4.txt
lab3.txt
lab4.cpp
prog2.c
a.out

ls lab[1-3].txt # Variation
lab1.txt lab2.txt lab3.txt
Can use a dash to specify a range of values.
[1-3], [A-Z], [a-z], etc.
Can also do [A-Za-z]
[A-z] is based on ASCII ordering.
Careful!
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 39
 Exclude Specific Characters

More examples:
[ ] [!ABC]
[!0-9]
Matches any character except A,B,C
Matches anything except digits

What happens if nothing matches? Cannot access:

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 40

 Ignoring Glob Constructs

What if we want to echo the glob construct, and not expand it?

Use quotes:

Can also
use \

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 41

 Glob: Patterns & Regular Expressions

*(exp) 0 or more occurrences of exp

+(exp) 1 or more occurrences of exp

?(exp) 0 or 1 occurrences of exp

!(exp) Anything that does not match exp

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 42

 What Prints?

A Ax Axxx Axxxx Ay X x X.bak xx xxxx

ls A*(x) A Ax Axxx Axxxx

ls A*(xx) A Axxxx
ls A+(x) Ax Axxx Axxxx
ls A?(x) A Ax
ls X?(.bak) X X.bak
ls @(*xx|*ak) Axxx Axxxx X.bak xx xxxx
ls !(@(*xx|*ak)) A Ax Ay X x

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 43

 Week 2:
Basic Scripting

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 Hello, Bash!

Oh no!
Why is permission denied?
I created the script file.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 45

 Hello, Bash!

Much better!

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 46

 Shell Script Arguments

Common comment
structure at the top of
a Bash program

Bash program will

terminate when it ends,
but can do so explicitly
as well with exit

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 Week 2:
grep

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 grep

Global Regular Expression Print

(Globally search for a regular expression and print it)

grep string filename(s)

String The string to search for
Filename(s) One or more files to search in
Result? Displays the lines of the file containing the string

grep string

Without a filename, grep will read from stdin until EOF.

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 Example: grep

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 grep: Options

-i Ignore case
-v Print lines not matching search string
-x search string must match entire line

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 grep: Metacharacters

. Substitutes for any character, except \n

Like ? In glob
0 or more repetitions of previous character
* Very much NOT like glob!

grep A*xx gfile.txt Axxx, Axxxx, xx, xxxx

grep .xx gfile.txt Axxx, Axxxx, xxxx
grep ..... gfile.txt Axxxx, X.bak
grep Ay* gfile.txt A, Ax, Axxx, Axxxx, Ay

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 52

 grep: Metacharacters

. Beginning of line: pattern must

*
^ be at the start of the line
End of line: Pattern must be at
$ the end of a line

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 53

 grep: Metacharacters

.
*
[...] Like glob, any single character inside brackets

^ [^...] Like glob, any single character not inside brackets

Note that ^ works in glob, can use ! or ^ in glob
$ ! May or may not work in grep regex

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 54

 grep: Metacharacters

. \{m\} Exactly m repetitions of previous character

* \{m,\} At least m repetitions of previous character
\{m,n\} Between m and n repetitions of previous character
^
$ Consider additional flanking characters/expressions:
[...]
[^...] \{2\ AxxA
\{2,4\ AxxA, AxxxxA
\{1,\ Axa, AxxA, AxxxxA

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 55

 grep: Metacharacters

.
* \< Beginning of word
^ \> End of word
$
[...]
[^...]
\{m\}
\{m,\}
\{m,n\}

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 56

 Extended Regular Expressions

egrep or grep -E

| Logical OR:
grep - dog|cat|bird fname
Lines with at least 1 of dog, cat, or bird

+ 1 or more repetitions of previous character

grep - -Za- fname
Lines with at least one alpha char
(Recall * is zero or more)

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 57

 Extended Regular Expressions

egrep or grep -E

() Performs substring grouping:

grep - fname
Two or three consecutive substrings ab
Lines containing AababB or AabababB

\n Backreferencing
\1 replaced with first substring, \2
replaced with 2nd substring, etc.
grep - aei]+)B\ myfile
Here, \1 gets replaced with ([aei]+)
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 58
 Week 2:
find

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 59

 Find: By Type

grep searches files, find searches the filesystem

find <path> -options <additional args>

find . -type f List all files rooted in current directory

find . -type d List all folders rooted in current directory

Recursively finds in subdirectories as well

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 60

 Find: By Name

find /usr/[!c]* -name tali 2>/dev/null

Glob construct! -name Find by name, tali

Expands first. /usr/[!c]* Search /usr/*, but exclude
folders starting with c
2>/dev/null redirect stderr to /dev/null

Why redirect stderr?

Permission denied results in message to stderr, can clog terminal.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 61

 Find: By Name

Can also exclude using prune option:

cd /usr/courses/cps393/dwoit/courseNotes/Programs/c

find . -name c2 -prune -o -name "m*.c" -print

Does not recurse -print says print from

down dir ./c2 directories that recursed.
Otherwise, ./c2 itself is
still printed

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 62

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 63
 Week 2:
head & tail

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 64

 Head and Tail

Not too exciting:

head sends to stdout the first 10 lines of stdin

tail sends to stdout the last 10 lines of stdin

Redirect to use with files (can also pass file as arg):

head <myfile
# Displays first 10 lines of myfile on screen
tail <myfile >end.of.myfile
# Copies of last 10 lines of myfile into file called end.of.myfile

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 65

 Head and Tail

Specify number of lines with options:

head -20 f1 # First 20 lines of file f1
tail -3 # Last 3 lines of stdin
option -n-X for head and -n+X for tail:

tail -n+3 f1 # all lines of f1 starting at line 3

head -n-2 f1 # all but the last 2 lines of f1

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 66

 Week 3:
cut & paste

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 67

 cut

Cut by column (character) using c option:

cut -c8 myfile # outputs 8th column of each line of myfile
cut -c5-7,25- # outputs columns 5,6,7,25... of each line of stdin

Cut by field using f option:

cut -f2 myfile # outputs second field of each line of myfile
(assumes fields separated by a tab)

Change field delimiter using d option:

cut -d' ' -f3 # outputs field 3, fields delimited by one space

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 68

 paste

paste f1 f2

Line_x of stdout contains Line_x of f1, followed by tab, followed by Line_x of f2

If you want to save the results, simply redirect to a file.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 69

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 70
 Week 3:
Pipes

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 71

 | Pipes |

A pipe connects stdout of one command to stdin of another.

Easy to understand once we know about streams and redirection.

ls | more # Lists all files in current dir in alpha

order, one screen at a time
ls -t | head # Lists the 10 most recently modified
files in this dir

Pipes make the shell very flexible!

No need to create new commands that emulate combined behavior.
No need to create (and later delete) temporary files.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 72

 Pipes & Tees

The tee command saves the data passing through a pipe.

Sends output to a file as well as the next command.

head <big.file | grep "paper"

VS.
head <big.file | tee first10 | grep "paper"

The same command, but first 10 lines of big.file are also saved in first10

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 73

 Back to Scripts

#!/bin/bash
#source profs
#prints names of profs logged in
who: Gives who | grep dwoit | cut -c1-8 | uniq
list of users who | grep eharley | cut -c1-8 | uniq
logged in who | grep aabhari | cut -c1-8 | uniq
who | grep aufkes | cut -c1-8 | uniq
exit 0

uniq: remove duplicate lines

grep: Search for cut: Extract first from input (same user can be
a userid string 8 columns (max logged in more than once)
length of CS IDs)
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 74
 Back to Scripts

Or, in a single-line command?

who | egrep "dwoit|eharley|aabhari|aufkes" | cut -c1-8 | sort -u

sort u: sort lines of input, removing duplication

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 75

 With Argument?

#!/bin/bash
#source prof1
#prints names of a prof logged in
#name supplied as command line arg
who | grep $1 | cut -c1-8 | uniq

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 76

 Week 3:
Transformers and Translators

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 77

 Transformers & Translators: sed

We can also transform/modify a stream

Stream editor:
sed Can perform simple search and replace using the e option
-e indicates the string that follows is an edit command

sed s/Hello/HELLO

s indicates substitution
Hello String to search for
HELLO String to replace it with
© Alex Ufkes, 2022 78
 Use i option to modify input file

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 79

 Transformers & Translators: sed

sed

This command replaces the first occurrence on each line.

To replace ALL occurrences, do the following:

sed

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 80

 Transformers & Translators: sed

sed -e "s/xx*/1234/" myfile

The same regular expressions we used
Changes first occurrence of x or xx or
with grep and be used with sed:
xxx etc on a line to 1234 in myfile

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 81

 More Edit Commands: sed

sed e "1,5 s/HI/hi there/" f1.txt

Changes 1st occurrence of "HI" to "hi there" on lines 1-5

sed -e "/UNIX/ s/shell/Shell/" f1.txt

Changes first occurrence of "shell" to "Shell" only on
lines containing the string "UNIX"

sed -e "/UNIX/ d" deletes all lines containing UNIX

sed -e "1,5 d" delete lines 1-5

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 82

 Translate: tr

Translates stdin, character by character, writes to stdout.

- -
Uses a 1-to-1 correspondence between them when replacing

tr ":" ";" <inf Changes all colons

into semicolons
Read from file inf,
From-string To-string write to stdout

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 83

 Translate: tr

Translates stdin, character by character, writes to stdout.

Changes space to A
tr " x" "AX" <inf Changes x to X

Note:
If to-string is shorter than from-string, last character in
to-string is repeated implicitly until lengths are equal.
Excess characters in to-string are ignored

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 84

 Translate: tr

Translates stdin, character by character, writes to stdout.

tr " x" "AX" <inf Space to A, x to X

tr "A-Z" "a-z" <inf Uppercase to lowercase
tr "a-zA-Z" "A-Za-z" Invert case
tr " " "\n" <inf Spaces to newlines

Can also use octal codes, precede with \

Change blanks to newlines

tr " x" "\012y" <inf \012 is octal for newline
Change x to y

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 85

 Translate: Options

-d for delete:
tr -d "\n" <inf Remove all newlines
tr -d "a-z" <inf Remove all lowercase

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 86

 Translate: Options

-s for squeeze:
Take all repeated occurrences of char1, replace with a single occurrence of char2

tr -s " " " " <inf

All strings of 1 or Replaced by
single space

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 87

 Translate: Options

Can squeeze multiple characters:

tr -s "Ae" " Y" <inf

All strings of one or more "A"s are replaced by one space
All strings of one or more "e"s are replaced by one "Y"

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 88

 Week 4:
Interactive & Scripted Functions

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 89

 hello ( ) { They can be defined interactively,
then called interactively:
}

As a one-liner

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 90

 Functions in Shell Programs

echo e option:
#!/bin/bash Enable interpretation of \
#Source: showLastLines
lastLine () {
echo -e "Last line of $1 is:\t\c "
tail -1 $1
}
lastLine $1 \c escape sequence in string
Causes echo to suppress further output.

Not universal. Does nothing in Python for example.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 91

 Functions as Aliases

What if I want echo to always have the e option turned on?

In .bash_profile (or type manually interactively)

echo () {
/bin/echo -e "$@" gives all args
}

Now, calling echo runs this function,

which calls built-in echo with e option

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 92

 Deleting a Function

unset -f fname
Behavior of unset:
unset fn fn
If variable fn does not exist, unsets function fn.
Use f option to specify function instead of variable

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 93

 Current Shell VS Sub-shell

Functions defined interactively (or in

.bash_profile) execute in the current shell.
Shell programs run in a sub-shell.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 94

 Variables

Like functions, they can be set interactively or declared in a Bash program

shell programs run in their own sub-shell

Individual shells have their own environments

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 95

 Variables & Function Scope

Functions run in current shell

They can modify/access variables
defined in the current shell

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 96

 Shell Variables

Seen previously when we talked about functions:

No declaration required, just assign value to name

myname=Denise # No spaces around = or interpreted as shell cmd

myname='Dr. Woit' # Quote if value contains spaces or special chars

{} optional, but
prevents ambiguity.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 97

 Shell Variables: Ambiguity?

fn=Denise ; ln=Woit ;
echo $fn$ln # DeniseWoit

Try printing an "M" between first and last name, as in: DeniseMWoit

echo $fnM$ln # Wrong. Why?

echo ${fn}M$ln # Correct
echo ${fn}M${ln} # Correct

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 98

 Shell Variables: Indexed Arrays

Indexed Arrays:
students[0]=Bob
students[1]=Ha can just use directly
students[2]=Sue

Once again, { } removes

ambiguity
$students without index
gives first element

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 99

 Shell Variables: Indexed Arrays

Arrays can be declared in one shot, seen below.

Use * as index to access entire array
Use length operator # to get array size
Used on discrete variables, # gives number of chars

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 100

 Shell Variables: Associative Arrays

Must declare using

declare -A
Index can be any string

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 101

 Week 4:
Quoting

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 102

 Quoting

Required when argument contains whitespace.

Why? Shell will read this whitespace as a separator
between arguments.

grep Alex Ufkes myFile

VS this:

myFile

myFile

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 103

 Quoting: Single VS Double Quotes

Single Quotes:
Most restrictive, nothing within is evaluated.
(Single quoted string passed to grep still evaluates regex)
Ignores Glob metacharacters, special characters, etc.

Using double quotes:

$ is evaluated

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 104

 Backquote

The symbol above the tilde: `

Also evaluated in double quotes, but not single quotes.

But, more importantly, what does the backquote even do?
Performs command substitution.
A string in backquotes will be executed as a command.
Whatever that command printed to stdout will be
substituted into the larger expression.

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 105

 Backquote

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 106

 $(command)

$(command) is an alternative for `command`

Pipe date output into cut

Take first 10 characters
Passed as argument to echo

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 107

 Week 4:
Logic & Conditions

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 108

 Testing Files

test -x fname # Does fname have execute perms for user?

echo $? # 0 printed if yes; 1 if no
Options include: -r, -w, -f, -d, etc.
-r for readable, -w for writable, -f for regular file, -d for directory

© Alex Ufkes, 2022 109

 Testing Files

Can logically connect multiple expressions using o (OR) and a (AND)

test -x fname -a -d bin

True if fname is executable AND bin is a directory

hello.txt is writeable AND

bashprogs is a directory

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 test: Alternative Syntax

Use square brackets [ ]

[ -w hello.txt -a -d bashprogs ]

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 Testing Value Equality

NAME="Alex" Problem:
test $NAME = "Alex" test $NAME = "Alex"
echo $? becomes: test = "Alex"
0 Results in an error.

Solution? Use quotes:

test "$NAME" = "Alex"

which becomes:
test "" = "Alex"

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 Integer Comparisons

test "$NAME" = "Alex"

= works for strings, for integers we use other options:

-eq Equal test 5 eq 7 # $? = 1

-ne Not equal test 5 ne 7 # $? = 0
-lt Less than test 5 lt 7 # $? = 0
-gt Greater than test 5 gt 7 # $? = 1
-le Less than or equal
-ge Greater than or equal

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 expr VS test

The expr command evaluates expressions, and prints TRUE or

FALSE (1 or 0) to stdout (not in $?), or numerical value

Supports more symbolic operators, as opposed to using options:

* / % + - = != < > <= >=

Produces Produces
integer boolean

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 Assign Result to Variable

Use backquotes, or $( )
c=`expr $a \* 5` # OR
c=`expr $a '*' 5` # OR
c=$(expr $a \* 5)
echo $c

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 Arithmetic Evaluation (in Bash)

We can use the expr command, but Bash supports it natively:

Oops, x+1 is read as a string!

Must declare as integer explicitly

Use typeset i
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 Arithmetic Evaluation (in Bash)

Can also use $(( ))

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 Week 4:
Control Structures

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 Control Flow

Sub-shell VS Current shell

Careful!
If you call a shell program within
{ }, it still has its own subshell.
Shell programs cannot change
calling environment
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 Crossing Streams

Both () and {} group stdout/stderr of multiple cmds into one stream:

(cat f1; cat f2) | grep Hello

Combined into single output stream

Combined stream piped into grep.
Without ( ), cat f1 prints in terminal,
cat f2 piped into grep

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 Conditional Execution

&& Tests for true and executes

cmd1 && cmd2 # execute cmd2 if cmd1 returns true (0)
|| Tests for false and executes
cmd1 || cmd2 # execute cmd2 if cmd1 returns false (1)

Combine with ( ) cmd1 || ( cmd2; cmd3 )

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 if / then / elif / else / fi

Examples:
if test -f fn1
then
cp fn1 fn5 #only done if fn1 is a file
fi

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 if [ -f fname -a -x fname ] ; then
echo fname is an executable file
else
echo fname is not executable and/or not a file
fi

x=dog # a string
if [ $x = "dog" ] ; then
echo YES
fi

One-liner, ; used as separator

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 #!/bin/bash
#Source: datecase
mnth=`date +%m` #formats it as mm (month)
case ${mnth} in
09)
echo "September"
;;
Case driven by
10) variable mnth
echo "October"
;;
11) Values to match
echo "November" followed by )
;;
12)
echo "December" Cases terminated by ;;
;;
*)
echo "some other month"
;;
esac
exit 0
Asterisk defines catch-all case
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 Combining Cases

Use |

case ${userdate} in
01|Jan|January) Assume userdate is a
echo "first month" variable defined earlier.
;; The first case will match if
02|Feb|February) o userdate=01
o userdate=Jan
;; o userdate=January
# etcetera
esac

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 For Loop

Semantically similar to high level languages

for variable in value1 value2 ... valuen

do
... # loop body code here
done
# loops n times
# 1st: $variable is value1
# 2nd: $variable is value2 etc.

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© Alex Ufkes, 2022 rm i: Interactive, prompts for delete 128
 #!/bin/bash Glob construct, any file
#source renamePgm
for i in *sample*
do
cp $i `echo $i | sed -e 's/sample/Ch1.sample/'` 2>/dev/null
if [ $? = "0" ]
then echo arg, pipe into sed
echo copied $i sed substitutes sample for
else Ch1.sample
echo could not copy $i Outputs to stdout, becomes
fi If command succeeded, exit 2nd arg to cp command
done status is zero.
Exit status stored in variable $?

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 While Loop

Like traditional HLLs, while loops are driven by conditions:

#!/bin/bash
#Source: list10
x=1 Initialize x to 1
while [ $x -le 10 ]
do Test x <= 10
echo $x
x=$((x+1)) Print and
done update x
exit 0

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 While Loop

Spy on your friends:

#!/bin/bash
#Source: profgone
# does nothing until prof logs off
# should run this in the background using &
while [ "`who | grep dwoit`" ]
do
sleep 60 # 1 minute
done
echo "she's finally gone \a\a"
exit 0
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 Week 5:
Odds & Ends

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 Reading

We can read from files, we can read from the keyboard

read line < fn

Variable to File to read from

read to Using redirection

By default, one line is read at a time from stdin

Returns nonzero value (in $?) if at EOF

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 Reading

Useful example? #!/bin/bash

Ask for forgotten if [ $# -eq 0 ]
arguments:
then
echo "Enter filename"
read fn
else
fn=$1
fi
cp $fn ${fn}.bak
exit 0
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 Clean way to read contents of a file!

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 Odds & Ends: xargs

Example: List lines containing 'bash' from all files whose NAME
starts with 'f', where files are located anywhere in the filetree
under current directory

find . -type f -name "f*" | xargs grep bash

By type: By name:
Find in file starting Output piped into xargs,
current which calls grep with that
directory output as args to grep

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 find . -type f -name "f*" | xargs grep bash

-VS-
find . -type f -name "f*" | grep bash

The one without xargs is going to grep on the output

stream of find, NOT the files themselves!
It will find file NAMES that contain bash, not file CONTENTS

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 More Built-ins: eval

Consider the following variable:

v1="cat hello.txt | grep Alex"
Suppose we want to run this
as a command? Try: $v1

cat hello.txt succeeds,

but fails at the |
Because the | is not
recognized as a pipe
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 More Built-ins: eval

Consider the following variable:

v1="cat hello.txt | grep Alex"
Use eval instead:

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 More Built-ins: eval

Another: v1="cat hello.txt | grep 3"

v2="grep 9 | more "

We want to execute: cat hello.txt | grep 3 | grep 9 | more

$v1 | $v2 | inside v1 and v2 not

recognized as pipes

eval "$v1 | $v2" Eval makes two passes:

1) Make variable substitutions:
eval "cat fn
2) Result evaluated, meta chars etc. interpreted

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 More Built-ins: eval

eval "$v1 | $v2"

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 Linux & Bash

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