21PMBSE033 OVERSEAS BUYING BEHAVIOUR

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9 Buyer Behavior: Introduction, Meaning

& Definition, Nature & Scope, Buyer Behavior Process, Conceptual
Framework, Models of buyer Behavior, Inter Disciplinary Approach,
Buyer Research, Methods of Data Collection, Data Analysis, Report
Preparation.
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR UNIT 1

The term consumer behaviour, individual buyer behaviour, end user

behaviour and consumer buying behaviour all stands for the same.
Consumer behaviour is the study of how individuals, groups and
Organisation select buy, use and dispose of goods and services, ideas
or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants.

Consumer behaviour may be defined as the decision process and

physical activity individuals engage in when evaluating, acquiring,
using or disposing of goods and services.

According to Belch and Belch "consumer behaviour is the process and

activities people engage in when searching for, selecting,purchasing,
using, evaluating and disposing of products and services so as to satisfy
their needs and desires".
Nature of Consumer Behaviour:
Systematic process : Consumer behaviour is a systematic process
relating to buying decisions of the customers. The buying process
consists of the following steps :

• Need identification to buy the product

• Information search relating to the product
• Listining and evaluating the alternative
• Purchase decision
• Post purchase evaluation by the marketer

Influenced by various factors : Consumer behaviour is influenced by a

number of factors the factors that influence consumers include
marketing, personal, psychological, situational, social and cultural etc.

Different for different customers : All consumers do not behave in the

same manner. Different consumers behave differently. The different in
consumer behaviour is due to individual factors such as nature of the
consumer's lifestyle, culture etc.

Different for different products : Consumer behaviour is different for

different products there are some consumers who may buy more
quantity of certain items and very low quantity of some other items.
Vary across regions : The consumer behaviour vary across States,
regions and countries. For instance, the behaviour of urban consumers
is different from that of rural consumers. normally rural consumers are
conservative (traditional) in their buying behaviour.

Vital for marketers : Marketers need to have a good knowledge of

consumer behaviour they need to study the various factors that
influence consumer behaviour of the target customers. The knowledge
of consumer behaviour enables marketers to take appropriate
marketing decisions.

Reflect status : Consumer buying behaviour is not only influenced by

status of a consumer coma but it also reflect it. Those consumers who
owned luxury cars, watches and other items are considered by others
as persons of higher status.

Result in spread effect : Consumer behaviour as a spread effect. The

buying behaviour of one person may influence the buying behaviour of
another person. For instance, a customer may always prefer to buy
premium brands of clothing, watches and other items etc. This may
influence some of his friends, neighbours and colleagues. This is one
of the reasons why marketers use celebrities like Shahrukh Khan,
sachin to endorse their brands.

Undergoes a change : The consumer behaviour undergoes a change

over a period of time depending upon changes in age , education and
income level etc, for example, kids may prefer colourful dresses but as
they grow up as teenagers and young adults, they may prefer trendy
clothes.

Information search : Search for information is a common consumer

behaviour. Consumers cannot purchase goods and services if they are
unaware that a good or service exists. When a consumer decides to buy
a certain item, his decision must be based on the information he has
gethered about what products our services are available to fulfill his
needs. There might be a product available that would be better suited
to the consumers needs, but if he is an aware of product, he will not buy
it.

Brand loyalty : Brand loyalty is another characteristic of consumer

behaviour. Brand loyalty is the tendency of a consumer to buy product
products or services from a certain company that one likes or equates
with having high quality goods and services. For example, if Naina's
first car was a Honda as a teenager and the car lasted 200,000 miles,
she might have a tendency to buy hondas again in the future due to her
previous positive experience. This brand loyalty may be so strong that
she forgoes the information search all together when considering for
next vehicle.
Scope of Consumer Behaviour:

1) Consumer behaviour and marketing management : Effective

business managers realise the importance of marketing to the success
of their firm. A sound understanding of consumer behaviour is essential
to the long run success of any marketing program. In fact, it is seen as
a comerstone of the Marketing concept, an important orientation of
philosophy of many marketing managers. The essence of the Marketing
concept is captured in three interrelated orientations consumers needs
and wants, company integrated strategy.

2) Consumer behaviour and non profit and social marketing : In today's

world even the non-profit organisations like government agencies,
religious sects, universities and charitable institutions have to market
their services for ideas to the "target group of consumers or institution."
At other times these groups are required to appeal to the general public
for support of certain causes or ideas. Also they make their contribution
towards eradication of the problems of the society. Thus a clear
understanding of the consumer behaviour and decision making process
will assist these efforts.

3) Consumer behaviour and government decision making : In recent

years the relevance of consumer behaviour principles to government
decision making. Two major areas of activities have been affected:
i) Government services: It is increasingly and that government
provision of public services can benefit significantly from an
understanding of the consumers, or users, of these services.
ii) consumer protection: Many Agencies at all levels of government are
involved with regulating business practices for the purpose of
protecting consumers welfare.

4) Consumer behaviour and demarketing: It has become increasingly

clear that consumers are entering an era of scarcity in terms of some
natural gas and water. These scarcities have led to promotions stressing
conservation rather than consumption. In other circumstances,
consumers have been encouraged to decrease or stop their use of
particular goods believed to have harmful effects. Programs designed
to reduce drug abuse, gambling, and similar types of conception
examples. These actions have been undertaken by government agencies
non profit organisations, and other private groups. The term
"demarketing" refers to all such efforts to encourage consumers to
reduce their consumption of a particular product or services.

5) Consumer behaviour and consumer education: Consumer also stands

to benefit directly from orderly investigations of their own behaviour.
This can occur on an individual basis or as part of more formal
educational programs. For example, when consumers learn that a large
proportion of the billions spend annually on grocery products is used
for impulse purchases and not spend according to pre planned shopping
list, consumers may be more willing to plan effort to save money. In
general, as marketers that can influence consumers' purchases,
consumers have the opportunity to understand better how they affect
their own behaviour.

Importance of consumer behaviour:

1) production policies: The study of consumer behaviour effects
production policies of enterprise. Consumer behaviour discovers the
habits, tastes and preferences of consumers and such discovery enables
and enterprise to plan and develop its products according to these
specifications. It is necessary for an enterprise to be in continuous touch
with the changes in consumer behaviour so that necessary changes in
products may be made.

2) Price policies: The buyer behaviour is equally important in having

price policies. The buyers of some products purchase only because
particular articles are cheaper than the competitive articles available in
the market.

3) Decision regarding channels of distribution: The goods, which are

sold and solely on the basis of low price mast and economical
distribution channels. In case of those articles, which week T.V. sets,
refrigerators etc. Must have different channels of distribution. Thus,
decisions regarding channels of distribution are taken on the basis of
consumer behaviour.

4) Decision regarding sales promotion: Study of consumer behaviour

is also vital in making decisions regarding sales promotion. It enables
the producer to know what motive prompt consumer to make purchase
and the same are utilised in promotional campaigns to awaken desire
to purchase.

5) Exploiting marketing opportunities: Study of consumer behaviour

helps the marketers to understand the consumers needs, aspirations,
expectations, problems etc. This knowledge will be useful to the
marketers in exploiting marketing opportunities and meeting the
challenges of the market.

6) Consumer do not always act or react predictably: The consumers of

the past used to react to price levels as if price and quality had positive
relation. Today, week value for money, lesser price but with superior
features. The consumers response indicates that the shift had occurred.
7) Highly diversified consumer preferences: This shift has occurred
due to availability of more choice now. Thus study of consumer
behaviour is important to understand the changes.

8) Rapid introduction of new products: Rapid introduction of new

product with technological advancement has made the job of studying
consumer behaviour more imperative. For example, the information
Technologies are changing very fast in personal computer industry.

9) Implementing the "Marketing concept": This calls for studying the

consumer behaviour, all customers need have to be given priority. Thus
identification of target market before production becomes essential to
deliver the desired customer satisfaction and delight.

Applications of consumer behaviour:

1) Analysing market opportunity: Consumer behaviour study help in
identifying the unfulfilled needs and wants of consumers. This requires
examining the friends and conditions operating in the Marketplace,
consumers lifestyle, income levels and energy influences. This may
reveal unsatisfied needs and wants. Mosquito repellents have been
marketed in response to a genuine and unfulfilled consumer need.

2) Selecting target market: Review of market opportunities often helps

in identifying district consumer segments with very distinct and unique
wants and needs. Identifying these groups, behave and how they make
purchase decisions enable the marketer to design and market products
or services particularly suited to their wants and needs. For example,
please sleep revealed that many existing and potential shampoo users
did not want to buy shampoo fax price at rate 60 for more and would
rather prefer a low price package containing enough quantity for one or
two washers. This finding LED companies to introduce the shampoos
sachet, which become a good seller.

3) Marketing-mix decisions: Once unsatisfied needs and wants are

identified, the marketer has to determine the right mix of product, price,
distribution and promotion. Where too, consumer behaviour study is
very helpful in finding answers too many preplexing questions. The
factors of marketing mix decisions are:
i) product ii) price iii) promotion iv) distribution

4) Use in social and non profits marketing: Consumer behaviour

studies are useful to design marketing strategies by social,
governmental and not for profit organisations to make their
programmes more effective such as family planning, awareness about
AIDS.
Far too often, retailers think that consumer buying is randomized.
That certain products appeal to certain customers and that a purchase
either happens or it doesn’t. They approach product and service
marketing in the same way, based on trial and error. What if there
were a distinctive set of steps that most consumers went through
before deciding whether to make a purchase or not? What if there was
a scientific method for determining what goes into the buying process
that could make marketing to a target audience more than a shot in the
dark?
The good news? It does exist. The actual purchase is just one step. In
fact, there are six stages to the consumer buying process, and as a
marketer, you can market to them effectively.

1.Problem Recognition
Put simply, before a purchase can ever take place, the customer must
have a reason to believe that what they want, where they want to be or
how they perceive themselves or a situation is different from where
they actually are. The desire is different from the reality – this
presents a problem for the customer.
However, for the marketer, this creates an opportunity. By taking the
time to “create a problem” for the customer, whether they recognize
that it exists already or not, you’re starting the buying process. To do
this, start with content marketing. Share facts and testimonials of what
your product or service can provide. Ask questions to pull the
potential customer into the buying process. Doing this helps a
potential customer realize that they have a need that should be solved.

2. Information Search
Once a problem is recognized, the customer search process begins.
They know there is an issue and they’re looking for a solution. If it’s a
new makeup foundation, they look for foundation; if it’s a new
refrigerator with all the newest technology thrown in, they start
looking at refrigerators – it’s fairly straight forward.
As a marketer, the best way to market to this need is to establish your
brand or the brand of your clients as an industry leader or expert in a
specific field. Methods to consider include becoming a Google
Trusted Store or by advertising partnerships and sponsors prominently
on all web materials and collaterals.
Becoming a Google Trusted Store, like CJ Pony Parts – a leading
dealer of Ford Mustang parts – allows you to increase search rankings
and to provide a sense of customer security by displaying your status
on your website.
Increasing your credibility markets to the information search process
by keeps you in front of the customer and ahead of the competition.

3. Evaluation of Alternatives
Just because you stand out among the competition doesn’t mean a
customer will absolutely purchase your product or service. In fact,
now more than ever, customers want to be sure they’ve done thorough
research prior to making a purchase. Because of this, even though
they may be sure of what they want, they’ll still want to compare
other options to ensure their decision is the right one.
Marketing to this couldn’t be easier. Keep them on your site for the
evaluation of alternatives stage. Leading insurance provider
Geico allows customers to compare rates with other insurance
providers all under their own website – even if the competition can
offer a cheaper price. This not only simplifies the process, it
establishes a trusting customer relationship, especially during the
evaluation of alternatives stage.

4. Purchase Decision
Somewhat surprisingly, the purchase decision falls near the middle of
the six stages of the consumer buying process. At this point, the
customer has explored multiple options, they understand pricing and
payment options and they are deciding whether to move forward with
the purchase or not. That’s right, at this point they could still decide to
walk away.
This means it’s time to step up the game in the marketing process by
providing a sense of security while reminding customers of why they
wanted to make the purchase in the first time. At this stage, giving as
much information relating to the need that was created in step one
along with why your brand, is the best provider to fulfill this need is
essential.
If a customer walks away from the purchase, this is the time to bring
them back. Retargeting or simple email reminders that speak to the
need for the product in question can enforce the purchase decision,
even if the opportunity seems lost. Step four is by far the most
important one in the consumer buying process. This is where profits
are either made or lost.

5. Purchase
A need has been created, research has been completed and the
customer has decided to make a purchase. All the stages that lead to a
conversion have been finished. However, this doesn’t mean it’s a sure
thing. A consumer could still be lost. Marketing is just as important
during this stage as during the previous.
Marketing to this stage is straightforward: keep it simple. Test your
brand’s purchase process online. Is it complicated? Are there too
many steps? Is the load time too slow? Can a purchase be completed
just as simply on a mobile device as on a desktop computer? Ask
these critical questions and make adjustments. If the purchase process
is too difficult, customers, and therefore revenue, can be easily lost.

6. Post-Purchase Evaluation
Just because a purchase has been made, the process has not ended. In
fact, revenues and customer loyalty can be easily lost. After a
purchase is made, it’s inevitable that the customer must decide
whether they are satisfied with the decision that was made or not.
They evaluate.
If a customer feels as though an incorrect decision was made, a return
could take place. This can be mitigated by identifying the source of
dissonance, and offering an exchange that is simple and
straightforward. However, even if the customer is satisfied with his or
her decision to make the purchase, whether a future purchase is made
from your brand is still in question. Because of this, sending follow-
up surveys and emails that thank the customer for making a purchase
are critical.
Take the time to understand the six stages of the consumer buying
process. Doing this ensures that your marketing strategy addresses
each stage and leads to higher conversions and long-term customer
loyalty.
Consumer research process
Developing Research Objectives

The first step in the consumer research process is developing the

research objectives which involves defining the purposes and
objectives to ensure an appropriate design. A statement of objective
helps to define the type and level of information needed.
Collect Secondary Data
There are two distinct sources of secondary data − internal and external.
Always seek internal sources first. Most go straight to Google without
considering the fact that data might exist within the organization itself.
This can sometimes be in the ‘heads’ of the personnel.
External Sources
External sources are numerous. Consumer Generated Media (CGM),
especially, has grown in importance as a data source. The key is to
avoid spending too much time following ‘blind alleys’. This is where
the time and cost can escalate sharply.
• Directories
 •Country information
• Published marketing research reports
• News sources
• CGM (Newsgroups, blogs, groups)
• Internet – single search engines, and multiple search
engines
Primary Research
Primary research is basically the original research. Here you yourself
collect the information through various tools available. In primary
research, you don’t tend to depend on any third parties. You may
conduct interviews or surveys, observe, or even directly go to the object
for collecting information.
Quantitative Research
A quantitative research study is comprised of research design, the data
collection methods, instruments to be used, and the sample design.
Following are the three basic designs or approaches used for
quantitative design −
• Observational Research − In this method of observational
research, the people or customers are observed effectively
when they purchase a particular product. It helps the
researcher to gain in-depth understanding of the relationship
between the people and products by observing them while
purchasing and using the product.
• Experimentation − Experimentation is a type of research
where only certain variables are manipulated while others
are kept constant in order to encourage the change in the
constant variable
• Surveys − A survey is a method of research in which an
interviewer interacts with respondents to obtain facts,
opinions and attitudes.
Following are the various survey methods which are generally used −
• Personal interview survey
• Telephone survey
• Mail surveys
• Online surveys
 • Quantitative research data collection instruments

Data Collection Instruments for Quantitative Research Data

Questionnaire and Attitude Scale − For quantitative research the

primary data collection instrument is a questionnaire and the most
frequent one is attitude scale which is used to capture evaluative data.
Following are the important methods of data collection in the
qualitative design techniques which are used in the initial stages of
research.
• In-Depth Interview − Depth interview is conducted in
length and in a non-structured manner where the interviewer
is highly trained and minimizes his own participation in the
discussion once the general subject is discussed.
• Focus Group − Focus group involves many respondents
who interact with the analyst in a group discussion and
focuses on a particular product.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques are best used to understand the motives of people

when they are unconsciously rational.
The analyst generally analyzes and reports his findings based on the
responses received in qualitative research whereas in quantitative
analysis, the researchers oversees the complete research, analyses the
open ended questions, classifies the responses and systematically
tabulate them.
conceptual framework

A conceptual framework illustrates the expected relationship

between your variables. It defines the relevant objectives for
your research process and maps out how they come together to draw
coherent conclusions.
Data Collection Methods
To analyze and make decisions about a certain business, sales, etc.,
data will be collected. This collected data will help in making some
conclusions about the performance of a particular business. Thus, data
collection is essential to analyze the performance of a business unit,
solving a problem and making assumptions about specific things
when required. Before going into the methods of data collection, let
us understand what data collection is and how it helps in various
fields.

What is Data Collection?

In Statistics, data collection is a process of gathering information from
all the relevant sources to find a solution to the research problem. It
helps to evaluate the outcome of the problem. The data collection
methods allow a person to conclude an answer to the relevant
question. Most of the organizations use data collection methods to
make assumptions about future probabilities and trends. Once the data
is collected, it is necessary to undergo the data organization process.
The main sources of the data collections methods are “Data”. Data
can be classified into two types, namely primary data and secondary
data. The primary importance of data collection in any research or
business process is that it helps to determine many important things
about the company, particularly the performance. So, the data
collection process plays an important role in all the streams.
Depending on the type of data, the data collection method is divided
into two categories namely,

• Primary Data Collection methods

• Secondary Data Collection methods

In this article, the different types of data collection methods and their
advantages and limitations are explained.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data or raw data is a type of information that is obtained
directly from the first-hand source through experiments, surveys or
observations. The primary data collection method is further classified
into two types. They are

• Quantitative Data Collection Methods

• Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Let us discuss the different methods performed to collect the data

under these two data collection methods.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

It is based on mathematical calculations using various formats like
close-ended questions, correlation and regression methods, mean,
median or mode measures. This method is cheaper than qualitative
data collection methods and it can be applied in a short duration of
time.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

It does not involve any mathematical calculations. This method is
closely associated with elements that are not quantifiable. This
qualitative data collection method includes interviews, questionnaires,
observations, case studies, etc. There are several methods to collect
this type of data. They are
Observation Method
Observation method is used when the study relates to behavioural
science. This method is planned systematically. It is subject to many
controls and checks. The different types of observations are:

• Structured and unstructured observation

• Controlled and uncontrolled observation

• Participant, non-participant and disguised observation

Interview Method
The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses. It is
achieved in two ways, such as

• Personal Interview – In this method, a person known as an

interviewer is required to ask questions face to face to the other
person. The personal interview can be structured or
unstructured, direct investigation, focused conversation, etc.
• Telephonic Interview – In this method, an interviewer obtains
information by contacting people on the telephone to ask the
questions or views, verbally.
Questionnaire Method
In this method, the set of questions are mailed to the respondent. They
should read, reply and subsequently return the questionnaire. The
questions are printed in the definite order on the form. A good survey
should have the following features:

• Short and simple

• Should follow a logical sequence

• Provide adequate space for answers

• Avoid technical terms

• Should have good physical appearance such as colour, quality of

the paper to attract the attention of the respondent
Schedules
This method is similar to the questionnaire method with a slight
difference. The enumerations are specially appointed for the purpose
of filling the schedules. It explains the aims and objects of the
investigation and may remove misunderstandings, if any have come
up. Enumerators should be trained to perform their job with hard
work and patience.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the actual
user. It means that the information is already available, and someone
analyses it. The secondary data includes magazines, newspapers,
books, journals, etc. It may be either published data or unpublished
data.
Published data are available in various resources including

• Government publications
• Public records

• Historical and statistical documents

• Business documents

• Technical and trade journals

Unpublished data includes

• Diaries
• Letters
• Unpublished biographies, etc.
UNIT 1 DATA ANALYSIS AND
RESEARCH REPORT
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Data Analysis and Interpretation
1.2.1 Definition
1.2.2 Types of Data Analysis
1.2.3 Steps in Descriptive Analysis
1.2.4 Analysis of Data
Application of Computer for Data Analysis
1.3.1 Anatomy of Computer
1.3.2 Basic Functions
1.3.3 Advantages of a Computer
Writing a Research Report
1.4.1 Purpose
1.4.2 Types of Research Reports
1.4.3 Content
1.4.4 Style of Writing: Language, Bibliography, References, Quotations
1.4.5 Sample Research Report
TerminaVSelf Assessment Exercises
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
defne analysis and interprekon;
list the descriptive measure used for the analysis;
describe the steps of descriptive analysis;
interpret the findings in selected examples;
list inferential techniques used for studying relationship and difference of
mean;
explain the basic principles of hypothesis testing;
define the term generalization;
explain how generalization are made;
state the purpose of writing research report;
identify the types of research report;
describe the content of research report; and
6 explain the style of writing' report.

1 1 INTRODUCTION
In Block 3 you have read about methods of data collection. In this unit you
will learn what to do with the data. This is the most interesting part of the
research study. Let us review the characteristics of research tool.
" Itr 11n;rljsis and You have read in Block 3 that an ideal measuring instrument must be accurate
L~c!rnductiol~to Statistics
and valid. If a test is valid, it will measure what the researcher wants to measure.
Most commonly the type of validity used is content validity. Reliability refers to
the accuracy and consistency of a measuring tool and is measured by reliability
coefficient. Sensitivity, objectivity, practicability are some of the other criteria of a
measuring tool.

Questionnaire can be self-administered, where the tool is administered to a group

of respondents, who complete answering the questionnaire at the same time. It can
also be mailed, where the respondent completes the questionnaire and mails it
back to the researcher.

An observation checklist or a schedule is a structured recording device that allows

easy recording during observation. The checklist is required to be constructed
carefully, where the behaviours are listed, a system of coding is devised and
method of recording is explained. Usually the check marks are placed in the
appropriate columns against the statement of behaviour.

1.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The data collected during research project need to be processed and analysed in
some systematic fashion so that trends and patterns of relationship can be
detected. Data analysis and interpretation enables the researcher to reduce,
summarize, organize, evaluate, interpret and communicate numeric information in
the descriptive form. The data analysis is planned while developing the research
proposal which provides the researcher opportunity to:
For see how s h e is going to examine the data,
Summarize the finding meaningfully, and
Draw conclusions about the findings.

1.2.1 Definitions
Data Analysis
The word analysis means the categorizing, ordering and summarizing the data
statistically to obtain answers to research questions.
In a way, analysis of data consist of putting all the factual information collected
into an order and summary according to the variable studied, objectives drawn and
the hypothesis stated.

The tern 'anaiysis' isgsingubr and 'analyses' is plural grammiftieaIly.

Interpretation
Interpretation means that you:
study the results of the analysis,
make inferences about its occurrences of relations, and
draw conclusions about these relations.
Interpretation becomes easier, if you put the data in to forms that are
understandable.
Example 1
Item No. 1 please check your age
i> 18-25 years
ii) 26-33 years
I
iii) 34-41 years Data Analysis and
Research Report
iv) 42-49 years ,

V) 50 years and above.

You had 200 women in your sample.
You count the numbers under each age category and find the following:

In the above example the analysis involves adding the frequencies (i.e., the
number of women, and the symbol of frequency is f of women under each age
category and find. the total number and percentages. Further, in example the
analysis also includes presentation of the data in a tabular form. The interpretation
may be made in terms of maximum/majority or minimum of women in an age
group. For example, you can say that " (i) majority of women, i.e., 52 per cent
belong to the age group of 34-41 years; (ii) only 24 out of 200 women (12%)
were 50 years age or above; (iii) 74 per cent of women are in the fertility group,
i.e., between the age of 18 to 41 years".

1.2.2 m e s of Data Analysis

Descriptive Analysis
From the example 1 it is evident that statistical methods are essential to
quantify the information in a meaningful and intelligible way. Without
statistical analysis it is impossible for the researcher to organize, summarize,
I
interpret or present the numerical information. Details of statistical analysis will
be taken up in Unit 3 and 4. You may study Unit 3 and 4 simultaneously to
understand this unit. Statistical analysis is broadly classified as descriptive and
inferential analysis.
Descriptive statistics are computed to describe the data at hand. These can be
numbers, percentages, averages (mean), or indications of how "spread out"
I
(variability) are the data, or relationships among two sets of data
(correlation).
The descriptive measure include:
i) frequency distribution, percentages, proportion, graphical presentation
ii) measures of central tendency : mean, median and mode
iii) measures of variability : range, standard deviation and variance
iv) measures of relationship between two or more variables : correlation
coefficient
A statistical index from a sample is called statistic and when summary is
made from population data it is referred as parameters. Definition of each
of these terms used are given in the glossary section and explained in Unit 3
and 4. 7
Data Analysis and Inferential
Introduction to Statistics
Various statistical tests are classified as inferential methods. Basically, inferential
statistics are necessary:
When hypotheses are to be tested.
When we need to infer that the observed relation would occur in similar .

sample groups or large population, we use inferential statistics to provide a

means.
For drawing conclusions about a population.
Refer to Example of Block 3 Unit 1: You will have to apply inferential statistics
to test the hypothesis that the patients who received breathing exercises
preoperatively developed less respiratory complications after operation when
compared with the control group.
Firstly, the researcher need to infer with confidence that the findings indicate
true difference between the experimental and control group, i.e., the
occurrence of "less complications" are not by chance in the experimental
group-
Secondly, the investigator has to infer "can the findings be applied to the
entire population of patients having surgery?' Thus the inferential statistics
provide an estimate of how reliable the observation are:

Given below are some of the examples of statistical analysis including inferential
statistics used for testing hypothesis:
Statistical Methods Used for Hypothesis Testing
 Data Analjsis iultl
1.2.3 Steps .in Descriptive Analysis Research Reput t
Following steps are taken by the researcher for preparing the data for analysis. If
the data are not large and the analysis process is simple, the researcher usually
processes the analysis by-hand using a simple calculator; otherwise computer
services are sought for data processing.

Use of Master List

Checking the data is extremely important particularly in surveys.
This should be started when the data are being collected, i.e., to make sure
that the respondent or the recorder does not leave any question or item
unanswered.
This is not possible in a mailed questionnaire. This is necessary because it
is very unlikely that revisits can be made for completing the data omitted by
the respondents.
Steps
The fust step is to sort the data. Data are sorted according to the variables
studied, e.g., if the analysis is to be done according to the male group and
female group or in the age group of youth, adult and old age, the researcher
has to then arrange the data-sheets appropriately in different piles.
For example, refer to IND-HND-007, in Block 3 the investigator had
collected data from 57 women. She had decided that the important variables
were i) women from two villages, Bataur and Barwala ii) number of
deliveries conducted by trained personnel and by untrained persons. Hence
the interview responses were first separated into two piles as per the villages.
Further each village pile was sorted as deliveries conducted by untrained and
trained personnel. Now there would be four piles.
The next step is to code the data by giving a number to each response for
easy recording of responses (coding is also necessary for computer
analysis). For example, refer to IND-HND-007 and note the coding
(hypothetical), e.g., Code No. 03 1 will mean Monthly income/Rs.200 or
below; 012 is village Barwala.
Code No.
Villages Bataur 01.1
Barwala 01.2
Age Below 35 02.1
Above 35 02.2
Monthly income 200 and Below 03.1

Education Illiterate 04.1

Primary 04.2
Secondary 04.3
Deliveries conducted by trained personnel 05.1
By untrained personnel 05.2

Now the data are ready for transferring them to the Master sheet. Note that
for each variable presented in each column the total number will equal to
total sample No. in this case 57.
 Example 2: Master Sheet N=57

The master sheet of data gives an overall picture, the range of numbers, how
many high, low and or average scores, cluster of scores, large gaps in the data,
missing elements, etc.

1.2.4 Analysis of Data

i) Statistical Computation and Presentation of Data
Statistical computation and presentation of data aim at giving meaning to data
once responses are tallied and fkquencies are found out. From the frequencies
percentages are calculated Percentages eliminates emrs during data description,
specially while comparing the results of two different group of unequal size,
e.g., instead of saying 21 out of 57 are from Bataur village and 36 out of 57
are from Barwala, one can state that 36.8 and 63.2 percentage of subjects are
from Bataur and Barwala villages respectively, Presentation of data can be made
in a table or the data can be presented graphically; other descriptive statistics
which could be used for comparison cue ratio and proportion. Actual
preparation of tables and graphs are given in Unit 3.
ii) Hypothesis Testing
Definition and elements of hypothesis are explained in Block 3, This unit
examines how hypotheses-are tested or verified. Firstly, hypothesis must be
clear, specific, and consists of only one research prediction. if the research is
designed in such a way that each hypothesis is testable, then the researcher will
always be able to come to a definite conclusion on each of the hypothesis
stated.

Refer to IND-HND-007 and read the following para:

"On the basis of rhe data receivedhrn two villages (liable 5) it was found that
a larger pmprtion of women preferred trained to untrained personnel in
B m a l a village where the svb center is hcuted In order to firther investigate
whether the relative prefemce of Barwala women for trained personnel was
statistically sign@cant, u chi-square zest war compuzed on the actual utilization
of trained or untrained personnel &ring 1976".

The author, here, has not stated the hypothesis but has expressed her guess
answer to whether the Barwala women's preference of use of trained personnel
is statistically associated with the proximity (or nearness) to the services
available. The probable research hypothesis is stated below:
Research hypothesis: Significantly more women of Barwala village, where the Data Analysls and
sub-center is located, will prefer the trained personnel for delivery than the Reseemh Report
women of Bataur village, where there is no health center.

Null hypothesis: There will be no association between the Barwala and Bataus
women's choice for trained personnel for delivery and the location of health
center.

Refer Table 6 of ~ - ~ B - 0 study, 0 7 The data presented show that chi-square

= 5.31, dfi, PC .05, which was found to be statistically significant at .05 level
of significance. Thus null hypothesis of no difference was rejected and research
hypothesis was accepted; i.e., more number of women of Barwala village,
where the sub-centre is located, showed significant preference for utilizing
trained personnel than the women tiom the other village. Note the descriptive
analysis in Tables 5 and 6 where data are summarized in frequencies and
percentages and are presented in tabular fom. The chi-square test is an
inferential statistics and is used to test the hypothesis of association (See Chi-
square in glossary). Let us see what is meant by level of significance. 0

Level of significance: In the above example the level of significance chosen is

.05, when the researcher has studied a specific population and wants to know if
the findings are true (i.e. sigdicantj md not by chance. It is a statistical
concept and stated in quantitative term, like .05, -01, .001 etc. The level of
significance represents the amount of risk the researcher is willing to take in
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis: If level .05 is accepted, it means that, in
5 out of 100 or in one out of 20 times, the cesearcher may accept or reject null
hypothesis, when the opposite is true.

In other words, the researcher is willing to run a 5 per cent error when slhe
rejects the null hypothesis.
iii) Generalization
Generalizations refer to the application of findings to a particular population,
i s . , haw far the researcher can stretch the conclusions from the sample
findings. For example, from a group of 800 students you draw a sample of 100
students randomly, and assess their attitude towards HIV/L41DS. Can you now
generalize!predict the attitude of 800 students on the findings of these 100
students Will these 100 students have same attitude as the other students of
India ?

A principle commonly fsllvwed in research is that generatbations can Re made

ftom the findings if the sample is representative of the populat~on.Prediction
is a special k p e of generalization that'involves forecasting. Empirjcally ,
generalizations and predictions are established through inductive reasocing. If
we are stre that sample number is adequate, and ti~atthe sample is
representative of the population the^ we can safely generalize from the
research results.
To Summarize
Analysis is the step of research that begins from the designing stage, i.e., when
the researcher thinks of the rationale for finding the type of data that are
appropriate to analyzs the study objectives and hypothesis. The selection or the
development of the research instrument is often guided by this consideration.

The word analysis means the sorting, ordering and summarizing the data to
find answers to research questions: whereas interpretation refers to the study
of results of data analysis for inference and conclusions.
Data Analysis and Descriptive statistics enable the researcher to reduce, summarize and describe
introduction to Statistics the data obtained. Some of the common methods used are: frequencies,
percentage, ratio, proportion, graphical presentation, measures of central
tendency, measures of variability and correlation coefficient. Inferential statistics
help in testing hypothesis and in analyzing the data to draw conclusions about a
population. Example of inferential statistical analyses are chi-square and t-test.

Sorting data, preparation of master sheet and presentation of data in

frequencies and percentage are few important steps in descriptive analysis of
data. For inferential statistical analysis null hypothesis is stated, level of
significance is identified. The result is checked against rejections or acceptance
of null hypothesis.

Activity 1
Read Research Report on Project IND-HND-007 given in the beginning of
Block 3 and identify the types (s) of analysis the researcher had applied in her
study.
 Data Analysis and
1.3 APPLICATION OF COMPUTER FOR DATA Research Report

ANALYSIS -

1.3.1 Anatomy of Computer

Computer is an electrpnic machine that is designed to accept data and
instructions, store the data and instructions, process the data according to the
instructions to produce desired results.
Computer is often compared with human brain which can be called as most
powerful super computer. Computer can perform excellent job that is tedious
and complicated without error, but it is the human brain that is behind the
computer to make the machine work competently. The human brain can make
sense out of disorganized nonsense, but computer can make sense out of sense
only.

1.3.2 Basic Functions

Any computer performs the following fundamental steps: (You will read about
computer in nursing in BNS- 112)
Data Aoalyeh and The Memory Unit is Mher divided into
latroductlon to ,Strt&tka
RAM: Random Access Memory
ROM R d only Memory
And Cache Memory (Pronounced as "Cash")
RAM: is used for storing data and instructions that are currently being used
for immediate Access Memory. This memory can be erased when the power
supply is cut off (it is referred as volatile)
CPU: is unit that is fully electronic. It is made of millions of electronic
components etched on to a number of silicon chips. These chips are all
a

assembled on Printed Circdt Board called Mother Board.

Functions of the CPU are : (1) Store data and instructions, (2) control the
operations, and (3) carry out processing,
The equipment for input devices. output devices, CPU and S e c o n w Storage
Devicm me Collectively called Hardware.
DATA: Data is defined as information or facts related to people, places, events,
things or anything that can be represented using numbers and letters.
FOP'example
Age : represented as numbers - 10, 20, 22 etc.

Instruction: Lnstructiom specify what must be done with the &ta

For example, Add the numbers
The fbnctions of Secondary Storage Devices are to store the data and have
ir@tmctions permanently on diffkrent types of secondary storage media, .such as
Floppy Disk Drive (FDD), Hard Disk Drive (HDD)'to store and retrieve fiom a
Hard Disk and Cartridge Type Drive (GTD) and cartridge tape.

Terminal: A combination of the keyboard (to input data) and VDU {to output
data) is called a terminal.
There are different types of computers, such as Digttal Computers, which
measure digital data and perfom arithmetic and logical operations: Analog
Computers - which measures eontiawusly changing conditions, such as,
temperature, pressure a d conver& them into quantities. Hybrid Computers -
which combine features of Analog and Digital Computers; General Purposes
Computers - a computer is &signed to solve a wide range of problem.
Majority of digital computers are of this type.

13.3 Advantages of a Computer

Kt provides the foUowiog advantages:
i) A computer is capable of performing calculations at very high speed..
Stored data can be retrieved also at very high s p e d .
ii) The computer @ i repetitive jobs without making any mist&& and
without getting tired Hence, it is more reliable in doing these tasks than
probably huaan brain.
iii) The computer can be for variety of jobs - calculations, data retrieval,
etc. - i-e., Vgtsatilify.

Storage Devices. The

the advantage of proceeding data at very high speed, repeatedly without making
mistakes and can be used for variety of jobs. We shall next proceed to discuss
health statistics in the following section.

1.4 WRITING A RESEAFkCH REPORT

No research is complete unless the report is written and communicated. It is
necessary for you as the researcher to maintain proper notes on progress made,
e.g., problem statement objectives, justifications for the study, review of
literature, development of instruments for data collection, hypothesis, sample
description and sampling technique, pilot study, problems faced in data
collection, the data and the analysis. These notes help in preparing the research
report.

1.4.1 Purpose
The main purpose of research report is to let others interested in the subject
know the findings of the research. The researcher himseltlherself may have
definite purpose of writing the research report.
Examples of purposes are listed below:
1) Research is conducted for the partial fulfillment of the degree like M.Sc.,
Ph.D. Therefore writing report is a part sf the academic programme.
2) Research is conducted to find an answer to the problems faced by the
practitioner, teacher or administrator. Here the report is written to
communicate the findings to others in the profession for critiquing,
application of result or future investigation in the area of research.
3) When the research is funded by the government or a research foundation.
They stipulate the requirements of the report.

1.4.2 Types of Research ~ e ~ o ; b

The &ctors that govern the types of research report are purpose of writing the
report, expected readers of the report, time at hand and the money available.

Most common types of research reports are:

i) Thesis:The research report written for the partial fulfillment of the degree
requirement.
ii) Research Monogrsph: The r a e m h report Mitten to communicate the
methodology and findings of a scientific work specially when it is
supported by a funding agency.
iii) Research Artkle: The research report written for publication in a
professional journal. .
iv) Newspaper M a w e Articie: The research report is written to
~mmunicatethe findings to the general public. Usually a non-technical
language is used in writing an article for g d public.

1.43 Content
The content of a research report may vaay accordii to the institutional or
putslidon requirements. Before. a researcher sits down to write, S h e should
fiasQ out r
k requii=mentsof the academic institution, funding agency or the
pubilcation agency. An outline of ihe, c a f m t s of a typical report is given
beis w:
Data Analysis and Introduction
to Statistics
ll~trnd~action
This section contains background of the problem, need for the study, problem
statement, statement of objectives, theoreticaVconceptua1 kamework, operational,
definitions, assumptions, scope and delimitation and statement of hypothesis, if
any,
i) Background of the Problem: Outlines the problem area, studies done in
this area and the findings of such studies, the areas not explored and
needing further investigation.
ii) Need for the Study: This is an extension from the previous section but
specific to the research topic. The researcher explains the need for the
study by quoting available statistics where needed, mentioning the
recommendations of other researcher suggesting for further investigation of
the problem, and justifying the need for doing the present study.
iii) Problem Statement: The reader is advised to review Unit 1 for &ting the
statement of a problem. The problem statement should indicate the nature
of the study e.g., "to find relationship between", "to compare the
performance of, "to explore the" or "to answer the question", etc.
iv) Statement of Objectives: The objectives are written in observable and
measurable terms. Each objective states one purpose. These may be stated
in declarative form or question form. Refer to IND-HHD-007.
For example
Do families prefer to use untrained dais when trained personnel are
available?
This can be stated in a declarative form: e.g.
To identify the preference of the families regarding their choice of
untrained dais when trained personnel are available.
v) Rationale for the Study: This could be developed into a theoretical/
conceptional framework that supports the investigation, development of
hypothesis, construction of instrument and analysis and interpretation of
findings.
vi) Operational Definitions: All variables are defined in a way that indicate
how they are observed and measured.
vii) Scope and Limitation: The scope indicates the areas that are covered and
where the results could be applied, whereas tile delimitation indicates what
the researcher is not investigating and the limitations that are taken into
consideration, while planning the research.
For writing a Thesis or Monograph these areas (listed from (i) to vii) are
usually included in Chapter I, whereas for an article these descriptions are
included in the introductory section of the article covering three to four
paragraphs.
Literature Study
There are different sections in the report on review of literature. The first para
usually contains the areas of related literature reviewed and the outline of the
presentation. While organizing the written report, present the broad areas first
and then the specific areas: For example in IND-HND-007 first the author
writes on maternal mortality and mobility, and then presents on utilization of
rural health services.

In a thesis while presenting the review of research literature, a brief description

of the research is given including design, analysis and findings. The reviewer
also emphasizes on what areas are explored and what is yet to be studied.
Sometimes non-research literature are also included in the review but these are Data Analysis and
Research Rcporr
mostly theories and principles. The writer should acknowledge all sources of
literature using accepted form of presentation. At the end of the chapter
summarizk the review presented.

This is the second chapter of the thesis report. Theoretical framework may
follow the review of literature. It is important to bring out a comprehensive
summary in the last paragraph of the chapter. For an article, usually a
paragraph or two are written on the related research review.
Methodology
This section contains i) the research approach, design (specially if experimental
or evaluated method is adopted), ii) description of dependent and independent
variables (if these are not discussed in Chapter 11), iii) development or selection
of research instrument including pretesting, reliability and validity,
iv) description of the tool, v) description of study setting, vi) sample and
sampling technique, vii) procedure for data collection, and. viii) plan of data
analysis.
The summary of the chapter is a necessity if the chapter is long.
This is the third chapter of the thesis report. The organization of different
section may vary on which comes first or second because there is no hard-and-
fast rule about it. The writer using herhis intuition and logic. Use figures
necessary to show the desigri or relation of variables.

If the researcher has used a standardized tool or an instrument prepared by

some other researcher, he or she needs to take the author's (instrument)
permission. There are tests when are confidential in nature, In that case the
instrument is not given in the Appendix.

This is also a major section in an article. A brief description of each of the sub-
section are mentioned above are presented in brief. Usually the content is
presented under the heading of method or research design and cover at least 4-5
paragraphs in the article.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
This is one of the major chapters/sections which presents: i) the methods used
for analysis, and ii) the findings of the study. It is a logical development of
analysis presented according to the objectives and hypothesis stated in earlier
section.
One of the most common methods of presentation of descriptive analysis is:
i) To use tat and graphs. ii) The statistical analysis for the test of significance is
presented by stating the null-hypothesis, the inferential statistics selected and
indicating the result of test of significance. iii) Use tables to present data.

Usually interpretation of statistical analysis is done as the author presents each

table or graph. Testing of hypothesis should indicate rejection or acceptance of
null hypothesis all its interpretation. At the end of analysis chapter a summary
of major findings are present following a discussion of findings. In a thesis or
monograph, sometimes a chapter is written on discussion of the findings where
the author compares the present result with findings other studies indicating the
similarities and differences. This may be presented in one or chapter 1 forming
either the fourth or the fourth and fifth chapters.
Data analysis and discussion make the main body of the article. Essential
tables and figures are included. Discussion is presented under a separate
heading.
Data Analysis and Summary, Conclusion, Implication and Recommendations
Introduction to Statistics
The summary contains briefly all the research steps including the list of major
findings; usually tables and figures are not used in this chapter.

i) All expected and unexpected findings and the conclusions drawn from each
of the findings are presented. It also explains how far generalization of
results can be made The researcher also reasons out if the hypothesis
tested is found to be not significant.
ii) The implication indicate author's reflective thinking in terms of possible
application of the result. For example, if the survey indicate 70 per cent of
pregnant women are anaemic, the implications may be written on the
probable reasons for anaemia and what health care strategies can be
adopted to improve the status. In other words, that implications suggest the
values of these findings in terms of patient care improve educational
changes or the administrative strategies to be adopted.
iii) Limitations of the present study are noted here. Limitations are those
restrictions or problems which the researcher had not deliberately planned
out but comes across while doing the study.
iv) The recommendations give direction to future research and suggestion for
improving the present study.
Usually a monograph expounds on the conclusions and implications. It not
only says what may happen if the system continues but also what need to
be done for future.
v) Besides a summary, an abstract is prepared (executive summary) which
usually contains 500-1000 words.
In an article two or three paragraphs are written to discuss the implications. A
short summary is made which is usually put as a synopsis at the beginning of
the article.
Appendices, Bibliography, References
This section is specially needed for thesis and monograph and is not required
for an article. Except that all references used in the content are to be listed at
the end of the article. An approved style is to be adopted to write the
references and bibliography.
Acknowledgement, Preface, Table of Content
Acknowledgement, table of content, list of tables and figures are included in
the first part of the research report. The monograph in addition also includes a
page on preface. Articles do not require this section.

Outline of the Format of the Research Report

Research reports usually follow the structure given below or modified according
to institution's specification.
A) Beginning
Title Page
Sponsors approval
Table of Contents
List of Table and Figures
Acknowledgement
Abstract
B ) Content or Main Section Data Analysis and
Research Report
Five or six chapters as discussed earlier under sub-section 1.3.3.
C ) Bibliography and References
References include all books/joumals/reports etc., the author has referred or
quoted in the context, The bibliography includes all the literature source
surveyed and found relevant and useful. Which mayor may not have been
quoted or referred in the text,
D) Appendix
- important correspondence, mainly with reference to permission for the
study, subjects, willingness, request to experts etc.
- instrument: the final form of the tool and the key sheet for scoring
- master data sheet
- description of treatment variable
- any other important, relevant document that explain or bring clarity in
the writing of the report

1.4.4 Style of Writing: Language, Bibliography, References,

Quotations
This unit does not attempt to teach the art of writing. Some guidelines "are
given for effective writing. Correct grammar, though important, is not enough
for good communication; use of precise and unambiguous words, orderly
presentation of ideas, simple (not too complicated) sentences, smooth flow and
clear expressions are the key to good writing.
Language
i) Use precise words. For example, do not mix up words like "disinterested"
(means impartial) and "uninterested" (means apathetic, not interested).
ii) Avoid qualifiers e.g., "almost neve~""almost always", "extremely good" as
every reader attaches different meaning to these words. Thus qualifiers
weaken statements that express empirical observations.
iii) Avoid ambiguity: Simple words that are used "as referents e,g., this, that,
these and those can be troublesome. Instead of saying "in this table" write"
in "Table No. 12".
iv) Throughout units and sequences must be orderly. Presentation need to be
organized. Use punctuation, like commas but do not over use them.
v) Use short simple sentences which are easy to comprehend, but make sure
that writing is readable and not a choppy prose. If long sentences are
required for explaining concepts, do not break the content in short
sentence.
vi) Do not introduce topic abruptly. n e reader should not ask "from where
did it come or "how does that fit in"?
vii) Avoid change of tenses, i.e., from past tense to present tense and vice-
versa. Verbs must agree with the subjects.
viii) Avoid use of abbreviations unless it is absolutely necessary. Make sure that
the abbreviations used are useful and standard abbreviations.
Some examples of standard abbreviations
IQ, DNA, WHO, PhD, e.g., (for example), i.e., (that is), etc., (and so for
the), viz., (namely).
ix) Writing is a difficult task, specially when one is not used to writing
research report is advisable to take help of a critic or editor.
x) Use headings and sub-headings for writing an article or thesis as headings
indicate organization.
The following style is suggested:
A Centered Main Heading
Side Heading
An indented paragraph heading
The three headings are underlined (instead bold prints inay be used). Note
that every word starts with capital letter for centre and side hzadings but
not in paragraph heading. Except for paragraph heading no punctuations
(like periodfullstop, comma, colon) are used at the end of the heading
statement. Whichever pattern is used for organizing the content, method
consistently in the manuscript.

xi) Use the symbol for per cent (%) only when preceded by a number e.g., 22%.
Otherwise use the word percentage when a number is not given. If the per
cent is used in the running text it is better to use the word and not the
symbol. But use the symbol in the table or when the number is used in
parentheses. Examples:
Majority (80%) of the children were malnourished.
Children in the age group of below five years 80 per cent were
malnourished.
xii) Usually a sentence is not started with a number; but if used write the
number in words.
Example 1
Eighty per cent of children were malnourished.
Some numbers are expressed in words in the text, i.e., any number
below 10 is written in words. Example:
Out of 100 subjects nine were female students.
Bibliography and References
There are different styles of writing bibliography and references. The writer has
to select one of the recommended methods or follow the method prescribed by
the publisher or the institution. There may by minor changes in punctuation and
order, but basic elements remain the same between methods. In this unit the
form recommended by the American Psychological Association (APA style) is
used.

A reference list cites works that are specifically referredquoted in the writing,
e.g., in quotation; in reference to theory, in reference to the selection of tool
etc. Each reference cited in the text must be entered in the reference list. This
is in contrast to a bibliography list which cites works for background or
further reading and not necessarily they have been referred in the text. In other
words all the relevant studies that have helped the researcher in planning and
conducting the research and in analyzing the research result are included in the
bibliography list.

The writing of reference or bibliography style is followed religiously. If there is

any omission or haphazard writing, the manuscript is usually returned, i.e., not
accepted. Therefore, the students are cautioned for proper use of the style.
 Arrange the elements in a reference entry in the following order: Dato Analysis and
Research Report
Author: All authors of the work, with surnames and initials (not fill
name) in inverted order.
Title: article, chapter, or book
Facts of publication: For journals - journal name in fill, date of
publication, volume number, inclusive pages.
For books - city of publication, publisher's name, date of publication.
Punctuation: Use periods (or fill stop) to separate the three major sub-'
divisions of a reference citation: author title and publication data. Use
commas (,) within subdivisions (e.g., between data and volume number in
a journal entry) use a colon (:) between the place of publication and the
publisher, use parentheses (( )) for extensions, qualifications or

---
interpretations of each sub-divisions or the entire entry. Underline the title
of the book and the name of the journal.
Example 2
Periods separate the sub-division:

* Author * Title of the Work * Publication Data

I
Commas separate within sub-divisions:
I
Journal (Underline the volume number and Journal title)
I

Book
' J.B. Lippicott Company, 1979'
A Colon separates the place of publication and the publisher:
I
'Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincon Company, 1979
Parenthesis extended, qualify, or interpret ( note the book title is underlined)
Book

Journal

Where each issue of journal starts with page 1, enter issue number after
volume.
Inverted order of names (surname first)

Polit, D.F. - One author

Polit, D.F. & Hungler, B.P. - Two authors

Writing Book Reference

Example 3
Polit, D.F. & Hungler B.P., Nursing Research, Philadelphia : J.B. Lippincott
Company, 1979.
Da'ta Analysis and Writing Journal Article
Introduction to Statistics
Example 4
Alderson, M.J., "Effect of Increased Body Temperature on the Perception of
Time". Nursing Research, 1974, 23, 42-49.

For details of writing magazine articles, reports, unpublished literature

reference, the reader is advised to refer any of the books given in the reference
section of this module.
Quotations
Quotations used are usually short quotations of not more than four typed lines.
The quotations are writing in exact words of the writer quoted. When long
quotations a no quotation marks (" ") are used and usually typed in single-
space as below (i.e., is set off in a separate paragraph, or paragraphs).

Short Quotation
Example 5
They stated "Evaluation research has an important role to play both in
localized settings and in programmes at the National level" (Polit and Hungler,
1978, p. 210).

Polit and Hungler ( 1978) explained that "evaluation research has an

important role to play in localized settings and in programmes at the national
level" (p .210).

Block Quotation
Example 6
Kaith (1987) explains that, ethical theories provide a framework which let
us determine what we ought to do. Professional nursing decisions made by
an appeal to justice should, in the long run, carry more weight than just
doing the best we can. h c h appraach may remove some of the inequalities
in health care that have come through the 'he who shouts loudest gets the
most way of allocating resources'.

Summary
In this section we learnt about the purpose and types of research report.
The reports are usually written as a thesis, monographs or article for
publication in journal or magazine. The content outline can be broadly
divided as introduction, review of literature, methodology, data analysis and
interpretation, summary and conclusions. The introduction section include:
background of the study, need and justification for the study, problem statement,
variables, objectives and hypothesis, scope and limitations, and assumptions.
Methodology includes: justification and explanation of research approach,
sampling technique and size of sample, setting of the study, construction or
selection of instrument for data collection, procedure for data collection and the
plan of data analysis.

'
Style of writing references and bibliography is recommended by the publishers
and the research departments of institutions. The writer has to follow them
strictly. Reference are works that are referred in the text whereas bibliography
includes all the relevant literature reviewed irrespective of "referred" or "not
referred" status.
1.4.5 Sample Research Report Data Analysis and
Research Report
Title: A'Study on Development of Evaluation Model for Nursing
Programme through Distance Education

The Development of Programme Evaluation Model for Nursing Programme

through Distance Education was carried out by Kapoor, Bimla in the partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
A developmental approach with opinion survey was adopted to achieve the
objectives of the study. The present study was carried at the School of
Education, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India.

The objective of the study were: i) To construct a set of evaluative criteria for
the development of a programme evaluation model, ii) To develop a programme
evaluation model for nursing programme through distance education, iii) To
determine empirical validation of the programme evaluation model on the B.Sc.
Nursing Programme of IGNOU.

The sample of the study comprised experts from nursing education and distance
education. All 405 third year leamers who appeared for the mental health
nursing terminal examination conducted in December, 2002 and their 35
Academic C o ~ s e l l o r swho were involved in conduct of theory and practical
courses of mental health nursing were a part of the study. The records of
IGNOU also formed the sample of the study.

The instruments developed and used for generating necessary data were:
I) evaluative criteria checklist for the development of PEM, ii) programme
evaluation model checklist, iii) records checklist, iv) opinionnaire for the
learners on mental health nursing course on theory and practical and
v) opinionnaire for the academic counselors on mental health nursing courses in
theory and practical.

The data obtained were analyzed using frequency and percentage. Qualitative
analysis was done for open-ended responses. Chi-square was used to test the
significance of references in the responses of two groups.

Significant findings of the study revealed that all the experts agreed on the
most of the items on the evaluative criteria. However, some suggested a
reorganization of items which were incorporated. The final evaluative criteria
had eight areas. Guidelines were developed as suggested by experts.

There was 100 per cent agreement by the experts on most of the items on the
PEM in terms of experts' comments the PEM was finalized under three frames:
evaluation of and development, evaluation of implementation and evaluation of
monitoring.

The empirical validation of the PEM was established by testing it on the B.Sc.
Nursing Programme of IGNOU through records checklist, opinion of learners
and opinion academic counselors.

Findings revealed that records were available on almost all the areas listed in
the records checklist.

It was found that the mean age of learners were 40.3 years and most of them
were female. Three fourth of nurses worked as staff nurses. The mean gap of
resuming education was 8 years.

The profile of Academic Counselors indicated that about half of the ACs
were in age group of 29-50 years. Most of them were women. As many as
Data Analysis and 46 per cent had specialization in mental health and psychiatric nursing. On a:
Introduction to Statistics
average, ACs had 15 years of teaching experience and 18 years of clinical
experience.

It was found that both the groups, the learners and academic counselors
provided evidence to the effect that the various dimensions mentioned in the
recommendations of PEM were relevant.

The two groups differed in their opinion on adequacy of lab facilities and use
of academic media. Both the groups emphasized that increasing theory
counseling and practical contact sessions in mental health nursing course was
important.

Based on the findings on the research, it was recommended that a study may
be conducted on empirical validation on implementation of PEM on larger
sample. It was also recommended that PEM can be tested on other distance
education programme for nursing. Empirical validation of PEM may be done by
using other tools to establish its reliability.

Good Research generally builds on existing knowledge. Links between new

research and existing knowledge are developed through review of the prior
research on a topic and through efforts to identify an appropriate theoretical
framework for the research problem. Both these activities are important not
only because they provide a conceptual context for a scientific investigation, but
also because they may help the researcher to refine and delitinit the problem to
be studies. .

Activity 2
Read the research report of IND-HND-007 given in the beginning of BNS-111,
Block 3 and answer the following questions.
i) What was the purpose of her writing the research report?
ii) What is the type of report?
iii) How many paragraphs have been used to explain the methodology?
iv) How are the findings-of descriptive, analysis presented?
 Data Analysis and
,qesejreh*s y o r t

- - -

1.5 TERMINAL/SELP ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

The following statements are to be answered by indicating whether the
statements are generally true or false. Place the chosen response in the space to
the left of the item number:

1) Plans for the interpretation of data need not be done before the data
collection.
2) The methods used to collect data must be appropriate to the study of the
problem being studied.
3) The reason-for organizing data for analysis is to make manifest possible
relationships, proportions, trends or tendencies.
4) Analysis of data is simplified if tables are designed before the data is
collected.
5) The degree to which a sample mean represents its parameter is an index of
the significance or trust worthiness of the computed statistics.
Data Analysis and 6) The ultimate aim of the nurse researcher is to make generalizations about
Introduction to Statistics what has been observed in a single study.
7) Generalization means extending the implicating of the data to a drawn
population from which a study sample was drawn.
8) Generalization involves moving from broad concepts to specific ones.
9) The size of the ample is an important factor to consider in making a
generalization.
10) Conclusion refers to the summary of research 'report.
11) One of the most important reminders when writing conclusions is to draw
conclusions that go beyond the data analyzed.
12) Inductive and deductive reasoning can lead to the implications of research.
13) A research report usually is written in past tense.
14) The more technical words and phrases used in writing a research report.
15) A research report should be organized in the same chronological order and
as the research study can completed.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Unit one of this block contains two major sections, data analysis,
interpretations, and writing research report. The term analysis means the sorting,
ordering and summarizing the data to answer the research questions. Statistical
analysis is broadly classified as descriptive and inferential statistics. Inferential
statistics help in testing hypotheses.

A research report can be in the form of an article, thesis or monograph. The

length and form of each section of the report differ according to the purpose of
writing the report, space and time and money available. Scientific
communication should be presented as simply and clearly as possible. Various
styles of writing references exist to assist the researcher to adopt an acceptable
style. The proposal writing demands certain acceptable format.

Evaluating a research plan involves critically appraising both the merits and the
limitations of the plan. A systematic assessment of the various section of a
research plan is essential in judging the utility, value and scientific nature of the
study.

In this unit you have learnt about -analysis and interpretation of research data,
so as to make the data more meaningful by presenting into tabulation and
statistical form. The steps of data analysis that is collection, organization of
data presentation and interpretation of data. This unit also describes about how
to communicate the findings to the researchers interested in subject. The
purpose types, .content and style of writing report have been elaborated.

1.7 KEY WORDS.

Analysis : Means categorizsg, ordering, summarizing of
data collected to answer the research question.
Descriptive analysis : Is used to describe and summarize the
researcher's data explaining then with e.g.
mean, standard deviation.
Generalization : Refers to application of research findings to nata Analysis and
Research Report
particular population from which the sample is
drawn.
Inferential : The statistics that receipt us to infer whether
relationships observed in a sample are likely to
occur in a large population of concern.
Interpretation : Refer to the study of the results of the analysis
in order to make inference about the
occurrence of relationships.

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1) Analysis refers to categorizing, ordering, summarizing the research data
statistically to obtain the answers to research questions.
2) Frequency distribution
Percentages
Proportions
3) Purposes of preparing Master sheet are:
i) code the data for easy understanding
ii) sort the data and present in an orderly form for inspection of overall
picture, e.g., any missing data, range (high and low scores).
4) The difference between analysis and interpretation is that analysis describes
and summaries data statistically whereas the Interpretation helps in
infemng from the findings about the occurrences and relationship between
variables.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The broad content outlines are research approach, study design,
descriptions and definition of variables, hypotheses, development of tools,
description of setting, sample, size and sampling, and procedure for data
analyses.
2) Appendix includes:
i) Copies of important relevant correspondence
ii) Master sheet
iii) Description of treahent variables
iv) Tools
3) i) Eighty per cent children are immunized in village Marne.
ii) Avoid vague terms: almost always, out of the 100 mothers studied,
70 per cent came for registration during third semester, in village
Marne.
iii) Underline the title of the book and put a colon between place of
publication and name of the publisher.
4) Not more than three to four typed lines.
5) Research proposal is a written document which outlines the plan of
research study and is written before the research project is started.
$&* ,&a ~ c t i d t y1
~nfroductionto Statlstks
Types of analysis applied in IND-HND-007 study are:
fiequencies, percentages of responses
Chi-square tests
Level of significance chosen is .05
Data are presented in 12 tables.
Activity 2
i) To communicate the findings through a professional journal
* Report of a study funded by Government of India and WHO project
ii) Journal articlelresearch article
iii) Setting - 1 para
Sample - 5 para
Instrument - 2 para
Procedure - 1 para
Total 9 paragraphs
iv) Descriptive findings are presented in 12 tables where the data are
summarized in frequencies and percentages.
Self Assessment Exercises

1) False 2) True 3) True

4) True 5) True 6) True

7) True 8) False 9) True

10) False 11) False 12) True

13) True 14) False 15) True

 20
Models of Consumer Behaviour

The only goose that lays golden eggs everyday...

forever... is your customer.

In this chapter, various models of consumer behaviour are explained. These models explain
how a consumer searches and gets the information and goes on to make a decision for
himself, for his family or for the organisation. The student must understand the:
• Input, process and output model
• Individual decision-making
• Family decision-making
 CHAPTER 20

Models of Consumer Behaviour

20.1 Introduction
We have already seen that there are many factors which influence the decision-making of
consumers. There are various consumers models which help in the understanding of consumer
behaviour. These are listed below. We shall discuss these briefly.
1. Economic Model
2. Psychological Model
3. Pavlovian Model
4. Input, Process Output Model—Gandhi: Philip Kotler
5. Sociological Model
6. Howarth Sheth Model
7. Engel-Blackwell-Kollat Model
8. Model of Family Decision-making
9. Nicosia Model
10. A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour.

1. Economic Model
In this model, consumers follow the principle of maximum utility based on the law of diminish-
ing marginal utility. The consumer wants to spend the minimum amount for maximising his
gains.
Economic man model is based on:
Price effect: Lesser the price of the product, more will be the quantity purchased.
Substitution effect: Lesser the price of the substitute product, lesser will be the utility
of the original product bought.
Income effect: When more income is earned, or more money is available, more will be
the quantity purchased.
This model, according to behavioural scientists, is not complete as it assumes the homo-
geneity of the market, similarity of buyer behaviour and concentrates only on the product or
price. It ignores all the other aspects such as perception, motivation, learning, attitudes,

174
MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 175

personality and socio-cultural factors. It is important to have a multi-disciplinary approach, as

human beings are complex entities and are influenced by external and internal factors dis-
cussed in Chapter 2. Thus, price is not the only factor influencing decision-making and the
economic model according to scientists have shortcomings.

2. Psychological Model
Psychologists have been investigating the causes which lead to purchases and decision-mak-
ing. This has been answered by A.H. Maslow in his hierarchy of needs. The behaviour of an
individual at a particular time is determined by his strongest need at that time. This also
shows that needs have a priority. First they satisfy the basic needs and then go on for second-
ary needs.
The purchasing process and behaviour is governed by motivational forces. Motivation
stimulates people into action. Motivation starts with the need. It is a driving force and also a
mental phenomenon. Need arises when one is deprived of something. A tension is created in
the mind of the individual which leads him to a goal directed behaviour which satisfies the
need. Once a need is satisfied, a new need arises and the process is continuous.

5. Self-actualisation: Self-fulfilment

4. Ego Needs: Prestige, Status, Success, Self-respect, etc.

3. Social Needs: Affection, Friendship, Belonging, etc.

2. Safety and Security Needs: Protection, Order, Stability, etc.

1. Physiological Needs: Food, Water, Air, Shelter, Sex, etc.

Fig. 20.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

3. Pavlovian Learning Model

This model is named after the Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov. He experimented on a dog
and observed how it responded on the call of a bell and presenting it with a piece of meat. The
responses were measured by the amount of saliva secreted by the dog. Learning is defined as
the changes in behaviour which occur by practice and, based on previous experience. This is
important to marketeers as well.
The learning process consists of the following factors:

Drive
This is a strong internal stimuli which impels action. Because of the drive, a person is stimu-
lated to action to fulfil his desires.

Drives
Can be innate (in-born) which stem from physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, pain,
cold, sex, etc. Learned drive, such as striving for status or social approval.

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176 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Cause are weak stimuli that determine when the buyer will respond. We have:
(a) Triggering Cues: These activate the decision process for any purchase.
(b) Non-triggering Cues: These influence the decision process but do not activate it.
These are of two kinds:
1. Product cues are external stimuli received from the product directly, e.g., colour
of package, weight, style, price, etc.
2. Informational cues are external stimuli which provide information about the
product, like advertisement, sales promotion, talking to other people, sugges-
tions of sales personnel, etc.
Response is what the buyer does, i.e., buys or does not buy.

Reinforcement
Thus, when a person has a need to buy, say clothing, and passes by a showroom and is at-
tracted by the display of clothing, their colour and style, which acts as a stimulus, and he
makes a purchase. He uses it, and if he likes it, an enforcement takes place and he is happy
and satisfied with the purchase. He recommends it to his friends as well, and visits the same
shop again. Learning part, thus is an important part of buyer behaviour and the marketeer
tries to create a good image of the product in the mind of the consumer for repeat purchases
through learning.

Personality
Purchase
Need Intention
recognition
Firm’s Post-purchase
Perception
Motivation

marketing behaviour
effort Product
Interest Evaluation
awareness
Social Repeat
environment purchase

Interest breakdown Discontinuation

Attitudes

Fig. 20.2 Input, process and ouput model

4. Input, Process and Output Model

This is a simple model of consumer behaviour, in which the input for the customer is the firm’s
marketing effort (the product, price, promotion and place) and the social environment. The
social environment consists of the family, reference groups, culture, social class, etc. which
influences the decision-making process. Both these factors together constitute the input in the
mind of the consumer.

Need recognition
When one is aware of a want, tension is created and one chooses a product to satisfy his needs.
There is also a possibility that a person may be aware of a product before its need is recognised.
This is indicated by the arrows going both ways from the need to the product and vice-versa.

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MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 177

Product awareness
Product awareness can be had from advertisement or exposure to different types of media or
by the social circle. The awareness and the need leads to the building of interest. In some
cases, the interest may also breakdown and, the decision process also stops or may be post-
poned for the time being.

Evaluation
Evaluation may consist of getting more information about the product and comparing and
contrasting it with other products. This can be done theoretically or by taking a trial. Once the
evaluation is completed, the consumer’s interest may either build up and he has intentions to
buy, or he may lose interest and the decision process may again stop or be postponed.

Intention
Once there is intention to purchase the product, the consumer goes ahead and acts or pur-
chases the product. Once the product is purchased, it is used to fulfil the need and, the more
the product is used, the more the consumer becomes aware of the positive and negative points
of the product.

Post-purchase behaviour
If, after the purchase and use of the product the customer is satisfied, he is happy and goes in
for repeat purchases or recommends the same to his friends and acquaintances. If, however,
the customer is dissatisfied, he discontinues further purchase of the product and builds a
negative attitude towards it, which may be harmful to the company.
The post-purchase behaviour is very important for the marketeer and the company
because it leads to proper feedback for improvement and maintaining the quality and features
desired by the product. If the customer is very happy with the purchase, he forms a good
impression about the product and the company.

Buyers Black Box

Buyers Buyers Buyers Response

Marketing Other Characteristics Decision Process
1. Product choice
Stimuli Stimuli
Cultural Problem
2. Brand choice
Product Economical Social Recognition
Price Cultural Personal Information 3. Dealer choice
Promotion Technological Psychological Search
Evaluation 4. Purchase timing
Place Political
Decision 5. Purchase amount
Post-purchase
Behaviour

Fig. 20.3 Buyer’s black box model

The above figure shows three stages in terms of stimuli buyer’s black box and buyer’s
response.
The consumer gets the input from the marketing effort of the firm (4 Ps) and the other
stimuli. This input is processed in the mind (Black Box), which constitutes the characteristics

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178 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

of the buyer and the process of decision-making. Once the buyer has decided to buy then, he
responds in terms of his choice of product, brand, dealer, timing and amount.
The post-purchase behaviour of being satisfied or dissatisfied is also important, and is
shown in the decision-making process.

5. Sociological Model
This is concerned with the society. A consumer is a part of the society and he may be a member
of many groups in a society. His buying behaviour is influenced by these groups. Primary
groups of family friends and close associates exert a lot of influence on his buying. A consumer
may be a member of a political party where his dress norms are different. As a member of an
elite organisation, his dress requirements may be different, thus he has to buy things that
conform to his lifestyles in different groups.

6. Howarth Sheth Model

This model is slightly complicated and shows that consumer behaviour is complex process and
concepts of learning, perception and attitudes influence consumer behaviour. This model of
decision-making is applicable to individuals. It has four sets of variables which are:
(i) Input
(ii) Perceptual and learning constructs
(iii) Outputs
(iv) Exogenous or external variables.

Input
Some inputs are necessary for the customer for making decisions:
These inputs are provided by three types of stimuli as shown in Fig. 20.4.
(a) Significative stimuli: These are physical tangible characteristics of the product. These
are price, quality, distinctiveness, services rendered and availability of the product. These are
essential for making decisions.
(b) Symbolic stimuli: These are the same as significative characteristics, but they in-
clude the perception of the individual, i.e., price is high or low. Quality is upto the mark or
below average. How is it different from the other products, what services can the product
render and, what is the position of after sales service and how quickly or easily is the product
available and, from where.
(c) Social stimuli: This is the stimulus provided by family, friends, social groups, and
social class. This is important, as one lives in society and for the approval and appreciation of
the society, buying habits have to be governed.

Perceptual and learning constructs

These constructs are psychological variables, e.g., motives, attitudes, perception which influ-
ence the consumer decision process.
The consumer receives the stimuli and interprets it. Two factors that influence his in-
terpretation are stimulus-ambiguity and perpetual bias.
Stimulus ambiguity occurs when the consumer cannot interpret or fully understand the
meaning of the stimuli he has received, and does not know how to respond. Perceptual bias
occurs when an individual distorts the information according to his needs and experiences.

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Perceptual Constructs
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Motives attitudes
Perception which
influences decision
making process
(Psychological variables)
Learning Constructs Outputs

Intention Purchase
Inputs
Stimulus display
significative stimuli Intention
Physical (a) Quality
Tangible (b) Price Overt search Confidence
Price paid (c) Distinctiveness
(d) Service
(e) Availability
Intangible
Symbolic Stimuli
Perceptual Attitude
(a) Quality
product Attitude
(b) Price Stimulus
perception ambiguity
(c) Distinctiveness
that price is
(d) Service Choice Brand Brand
high or low Motives
(e) Availability criteria comprehension comprehension
symbolic
Social groups Social Stimuli
to which (a) Family
customer (b) Reference groups Attention
belongs (c) Social class
Attention Perceptual
bias Satisfaction

Fig. 20.4 Simplified version of the Howarth-Sheth model of buyer behaviour

179
180 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

These two factors influence the individual for the comprehensions and rating of the
brand. If the brand is rated high, he develops confidence in it and finally purchases it.

Output
By output we mean the purchase decision. After purchase there is satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Satisfaction leads to positive attitude and increases brand comprehension. With dissatisfac-
tion, a negative attitude is developed. The feedback shown by the dotted line and the solid
lines shows the flow of information.

Exogenous or external variables

These are not shown in the model, and do not directly influence the decision process. They
influence the consumer indirectly and vary from one consumer to another. These are the indi-
vidual’s own personality traits, social class, importance of purchase and financial status.
All the four factors discussed above are dependent on each other and influence the deci-
sion-making process. The model though complicated, deals with the purchase behaviour in an
exhaustive manner.

7. Engel-Blackwell-Kollat Model
It consists of four components:
(i) Information processing
(ii) Central control unit
(iii) Decision process
(iv) Environmental influences.

Information processing
A shown in the diagram the information processing consists of exposure, attention, compre-
hension and retention of the marketing and non-marketing stimuli. For successful sales, the
consumer must be properly and repeatedly exposed to the message. His attention should be
drawn, such that he understands what is to be conveyed and retains it in his mind.

Central control unit

The stimuli processes and interprets the information received by an individual. This is done by
the help of four psychological factors.
(a) Stores information and past experience about the product, which serves as a stand-
ard for comparing other products and brands.
(b) Evaluative criteria which could be different for different individuals.
(c) Attitudes or the state of mind which changes from time to time, and helps in choos-
ing the product.
(d) The personality of the consumer which guides him to make a choice suiting his per-
sonality.

Decision process
This chapter is dealt with later in the text, and consists basically of problem recognition, inter-
nal and external search, evaluation and the purchase. The decision outcome or the satisfaction
and dissatisfaction is also an important factor which influences further decisions.

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MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 181

Environment
Information Processing Central Control Unit Influences

Stimuli Exposure Income

Information
and Culture
Attention experience

Personality
Family

Filter
Comprehension Social class
Evaluative
criteria
Physical
Retention
Attitude Other

Problem
recognition
Information
feedback Hold
External
search Internal search
and alternative
evaluation

Hold

External search
and alternative
evaluation

Hold

Purchasing
processes

Outcomes

Post-purchase Further
evaluation behaviour

Solid lines show flow of information, dashed lines feedback effect

Fig. 20.5 Engel-Blackwell-Kollat model of buyer behaviour

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182 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

The decision process may involve extensive problem solving, limited problem solving or
routinised response behaviour. This depends on the type and value of the product to be pur-
chased.

Environmental influences
The environmental influences are also shown in a separate box and consist of income, social
class, family influences, social class and physical influences and other considerations. All these
factors may favour or disfavour the purchase decisions.

8. Model of Family Decision-making

In a family decision-making model, it is important to understand how the family members
interact with each other in the context of their consumer decision-making. There are different
consumption roles played by various members of the family. These roles are as follows:

(i) Influencers
The members who influence the purchase of the product by providing information to the family
members, the son in a family may inform the members of a new fast food joint. He can influ-
ence the family members to visit the joint for food and entertainment.

(ii) Gate keepers

These members control the flow of information for a product or brand that they favour and
influence the family to buy the product of their choice. They provide the information favour-
able to themselves and, withhold information about other product which they do not favour.

(iii) Deciders
These are the people who have the power or, money and authority to buy. They play a major
role in deciding which product to buy.

(iv) Buyers
Buyers are the people who actually buy. A mother buying ration for the house etc. Father
buying crayons for his children.

Preparers
Those who prepare the product in the form it is actually consumed. Mother preparing food by
adding ingredients to the raw vegetable. Frying an egg for consumption, sewing clothes for the
family, etc.

User
The person who actually uses or consumes the product. The product can be consumed indi-
vidually or jointly by all members of the family. Use of car by the family, use of refrigerator,
TV, etc.
The roles that the family members play are different from product to product. Some
products do not involve the influence of family members—vegetables bought by the housewife.
She can play many roles of a decider, preparer as well as the user. In limited problem solving
or extensive problem solving there is usually a joint decision by family members.
The diagram shows the predisposition of various family members, which when influenced
by other factors leads to joint or individual decisions. These factors are shown in the diagram

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Sex Personality Confidence Reference Group Social Class Life Style Role Orientiation

Overt Buying
Search Motives

Perceptual Predisposition
Bias of Father

Sensitivity of Evaluative
Information Beliefs

Autonomous
Sources of Members
Decisions
Information
Overt Buying
Search Motives
Masss Media
Family
Perceptual Predisposition
Display Buying Family
Bias of Mother
Decisions
Word of Sensitivity of Evaluative
Mouth Information Beliefs
Joint Household
Decisions Unit

Overt Buying
Search Motives
Predisposition
Perceptual
of Other Family
Bias
Members
Sensitivity of Evaluative
Information Beliefs

Whether a decision is made

individually or jointly is affected Life Cycle Perceived Risk Importance of Purchase Time Pressure
by these factors
Solid lines indicate flow of information, dashed lines indicate feedback effects

183
Fig. 20.6 A model of family decision-making
184 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

and consist of social class, lifestyle, role orientation, family life-cycle stage, perceived risk,
product importance and time pressure.

9. Nicosia Model
This model explains the consumer behaviour on the basis of four fields shown in the diagram.
The output of field one becomes the input of field two, and so on.

Field One Sub-field Two

Consumer
Sub-field One Message Attributes Attitude
Firm’s Attributes Exposure (Pre-disposition)
Field Two

Field Four Search

Experience Evaluation

Search for and Evaluation

of Means-end Relationship
Consumption (Pre-action Field)
Storage
Motivation
Field Four
Feedback Field Three
Act of Purchase
Purchase Search
Behaviour Evaluation

Fig. 20.7 Nicosia model

Field one consists of subfields one and two. Subfield one is the firm’s attributes and the
attributes of the product. The subfield two is the predisposition of the consumer and his own
characteristics and attributes, which are affected by his exposure to various information and
message, and is responsible for the building of attitude of the consumer.
Field two is the preaction field, where the consumer goes on for research and evaluation
and gets motivated to buy the product. It highlights the means and end relationship. Field
three is the act of purchase or the decision-making to buy the product. The customer buys the
product and uses it. Field four highlights the post-purchase behaviour and the use of the prod-
uct, its storage and consumption. The feedback from field four is fed into the firms attributes
or field one, and the feedback from the experience is responsible for changing the pre-disposi-
tion of the consumer and later his attitude towards the product.
Nicosia Model is a comprehensive model of dealing with all aspects of building atti-
tudes, purchase and use of product including the post-purchase behaviour of the consumer.

10. A Model of Industrial Buyer Behaviour

The purchases made in an industrial organisation involve many more people of different back-
grounds and it is more complex.
There are three main features in this model:
1. There are different individuals involved who have a different psychological make up.
2. Conditions leading to joint decision-making by these individuals.
3. Differences of opinion on purchases or conflicts that have to be resolved to reach a
decision.
These are shown in Fig. 20.8 as (1), (2) and (3).

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Temporary Economic Conditions,
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Specialised Role Life (4)

(1b) e.g., Inflation, Recession, Boom, Price Situational
Education Origination Style
Information Control, Rationing, Foreign Trade, Factors
Sources Strikes, Lockout, Organisational
Changes Mergers, Acquisitions,
Change of Personnel.
Salesmen (1c) (1a) (1e)
Active Background Satisfaction
Search of the with
Exhibitions and Individuals Purchase
Trade Shows

Direct Mail
(1)
Expectations of Autonomous
Press Releases 1. Purchasing Agents Decisions
2. Engineers
Journal 3. Users Supplier or
Advertising 4. Others Brand Choice

Professional and
Technical (2)
Conferences Industrial Joint
Buying Decisions (3)
Trade News Process Conflict Resolution
1. Problem Solving
2. Persuasion
Word-of-Mouth 3. Bargaining
(2a) (2b)
(1d) Product Specific Company Specific 4. Politicking
Others Perceptual Factors Factors
Distortion

Time Perceived Type of Organisation Organisation Degree of

Pressure Risk Purchase Orientation Size Centralisation

185
Fig. 20.8 An integrative model of industrial buyer behaviour
186 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

The persons involved in the decision-making are from quality control, manufacturing,
finance, research and development and other possible areas. These may be named as purchase
agents, engineers, and users, as referred to in the model.
These constitute a purchasing committee. They have:
(1a) Different backgrounds
(1b) Different information sources
(1c) Undertake active search
(1d) They have perceptual distortion
(1e) Satisfaction with past purchase.
With these characteristics, they develop certain expectations from the product to be
bought. The obvious ones are product quality, delivery time, quantity of supply, after sales
service and price. These are known as explicit objectives. There are other objectives as well,
which are the reputation of the supplier, credit terms, location of the supplier, relationship
with the supplier, technical competence and even the personality, skill and lifestyle of the
salesman. These are known as implicit objectives.
Different individuals in the purchasing committee give emphasis on different aspects of
the product. Engineers look for quality and standardisation of the product.
Users think of timely delivery, proper installation and after sales service. Finance peo-
ple look for maximum price advantage. Thus, there are conflicting interests and view that
have to be resolved. If autonomous decisions are made, these issue do not surface. There are
conditions leading to autonomous or joint decisions.

(2a) Product specific factors

Perceived risk: With higher risks joint decisions are favoured.
Type of purchase: Items involving heavy investments are made jointly, routine and less
costly decisions can be made independently.
Time pressure: If goods are urgently required, individual decisions are favoured.

(2b) Company specific factors

Size of the organisation: Larger the size of the organisation, the more the emphasis laid on
joint decision.
Organisation orientation: In a manufacturing organisation, the purchases are domi-
nated by production personnel and in a technology oriented organisation, the decisions are
based on engineers.
(3) The conflict that arises for buying decision has to be resolved. The resolution can be
done by:
(a) Problem solving
(b) Persuasion
(c) Bargaining
(d) Politicking
The fourth aspect is the influence of situational factors which must be considered. These
are economic conditions such as inflation, recession or boom, price contracts, rationing foreign

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MODELS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 187

trade, strikes or lock outs. Organisational change such as a merger, acquisition change of key
personnel, etc. Sometimes these factors outweigh the realistic criteria of decision-making.
This model explains how purchase decision are made in an industrial organisation.
All the models discussed in this chapter give us an idea of the buying behaviour in
diverse situations. An understanding of these models gives the marketeer clues to formulate
his strategies according to the target audience, e.g., an individual, a family or an industry, etc.

Questions
1. What is the significance of the Pavlovian Model? Discuss in brief.
2. Discuss and illustrate the Input, Output Process Model by means of a diagram.
3. Discuss the Howarth Sheth Model, the Engel-Blackwell-Kollat Model as applicable to
individuals.
4. Discuss the model of family decision-making and its importance.
5. Discuss the various fields of the Nicosia Model.
6. How is industrial buying different from individual buying? Illustrate by means of an
industrial buyer model.

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