Laboratory 1

Scientific Method

1.1 The Scientific Method

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Laboratory 1
Scientific Method

For this and future labs, go over the lab report questions provided with every lab and
have some of your answers completed prior to the lab. This will not only help you
understand the lab, but will also help with the quizzes and allow more time in the lab to
work on the actual experiment and prevent needing too much time writing answers.
Remember, these answers can be added to during the lab. Additionally, some questions
are required as part of the Prelab assignments.

1.1 The Scientific Method

The scientific approach is a powerful method for understanding the natural world because it is
based on observations about how the world works. The observations must be systematic and
objective to be useful. The procedure for making these observations is very rigorous and is
broken down into several steps and is referred to as the Scientific Method, which we will be
studying today. The Scientific Method consists of five interrelated operations, in this order:

Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conclusions

Scientific method is a way in which a hypothesis, (a tentative explanation) is formulated, and

provides a step-by-step method to gather information in order to prove or disprove this
hypothesis. However most scientists do not strictly follow the scientific method but rather use
deductive or inductive reasoning with experiments in order to test the hypothesis.

Deductive reasoning is a form of reasoning in which, if the premise of the argument is true,
then the conclusion that you draw must also be true. With this type of reasoning the scientist
starts with broad generalizations which leads to the more specific conclusions by testing the
hypothesis. When using deductive reasoning, the scientist develops a hypothesis first and then
attempts to test the validity of that hypothesis. Based on this “hypothesis” the scientist expects
certain specific events to occur in the experimentation. In this type of reasoning, if something
is true of a class in general, it is also true for all members of that class. For example, “All men
are mortal. John is a man. Therefore John is mortal”. For deductive reasoning to be sound, the
hypothesis must be correct.

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning in which the premise tries to provide strong
evidence for the truth of a conclusion, but it is not an absolute truth. Inductive reasoning is
based on experiences and therefore cannot guarantee the truth of the inferences based on those
experiences. With inductive reasoning, the scientist makes a number of observations and then
attempts to formulate a hypothesis that will support their observations. Inductive reasoning
makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Even if all the premises are true in the
statement, inductive reason allows for the conclusion to be false. For example, “John is a
grandfather. John is bald. Therefore all grandfathers are bald”. This final statement is not true.

Inductive reasoning has its place in the Scientific Method. It allows scientists to form
hypotheses while deductive reasoning allows scientists to apply these hypotheses to a specific
situation. See this comparison in Figure 1.1 below.

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 Used to test hypotheses
and theories

Used to form hypotheses

and theories

Figure 1.1: Relationship between Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

The following example is from a study conducted by Francesco Redi during the 1600s, which
lead to the Scientific Method upon which modern science is based. At the time, Spontaneous
Generation (production of living things from non-living matter) was a very trendy theory.

1. Observation: We use our senses constantly to gather information about the world we live
in. To question a process or phenomenon, one must first recognize or observe its existence.

i.e. Flies swarm around spoiled meat; maggots later appear on meat.

2. Observations of phenomena lead to questions. Clearly define the problem/question to be

solved/answered.

i.e. Why do maggots appear on spoiled meat?

3. The question(s) lead to a tentative explanation or educated guess, called a hypothesis. Prior
knowledge or even intuition can contribute to the formulation of a hypothesis. A good scientific
hypothesis must be relevant, and should be testable.

i.e. Flies produce the maggots.

Science as a body of knowledge does not progress by "proving" theories, but rather by
disproving or falsifying existing ideas. Thus, scientists generate concise statements, called
hypotheses. The null hypotheses state there is not different between the groups. For example,
a Null Hypothesis could be: Group A is the same as Group B. While the alternate hypothesis,
your working hypothesis, the groups are different and there is an effect. Thus the alternate
hypothesis for the above null hypothesis would be; Group A is not the same as Group B. It is
your prediction and should be mutually exclusive of your null hypothesis. All possible
outcomes must be accounted for by this pair of hypotheses. Since it is very difficult to ever
prove that something is true, scientific progress is often made by proving that the opposite
possibility is false. Your observations will either verify or prove false that statement.

If a null hypothesis is rejected, this would mean that Group A was not the same as Group B.

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4. Design experiments to test your hypothesis.

i) Clearly define the experiment's independant variable. This is the factor or experimental
condition that is being varied during the experiment. The independent variable is intentionally
manipulated to observe the effect (if any) on the dependent variable.

i.e. remove the flies OR change the type of meat OR move the
meat to another location, etc.

ii) Clearly define the experiment's dependant variable. This is the factor that is being tested
and measured in a scientific experiment. The dependent variable shows some response to the
manipulations of the independent variable and is what is measured, counted, or recorded during
your experiment. As the independent variable is manipulated in the experiment, the changes (if
any) of the dependent variable are observed and recorded

i.e. the appearance (if any) of maggots

iii) Clearly define the experiment’s controlled variable. These are the factors that remain the
same throughout all experiments. This is in order to ensure that any changes observed in the
dependant variable are correctly attributed to the independent variable.

i.e. temperature, jar size remain constant, etc.

iv) Additionally, a proper experiment must have the following components:

a. Replication – Suppose if this experiment that we have two jars, one that will be
accessible to flies and one that will exclude flies. Suppose the meat in the jar that is
accessible becomes covered with maggots and the other does not. Will this really
demonstrate that flies result in maggots? What if the meat that was covered failed to
produce maggots by chance? We should have more than one jar exposed to each
treatment (i.e. covered or not covered) to reduce the likelihood of chance events leading
us to the wrong conclusion.

b. Reference – A reference (also called control) is not the same as a controlled variable.
A reference or control group is a set of replicates that are treated exactly the same as
the experimental group, but which excludes the effect of the independent variable. In
the case of Redi’s experiment, the reference is the group of jars (replicates) that are
covered excluding access by flies. The experimental group is the group of jars that are
uncovered providing access by flies (our independent variable).

v) Select materials and identify experimental methods, methods of data collection and
analysis, and plan the experimental design.

i.e. Since Redi felt the factor producing maggots was presence of flies (stated in his
hypothesis) and not kind of meat, etc.,he chose to remove access of flies to the meat.

He took several identical, clean jars and placed identical pieces of rotting meat in them. He
covered half of the jars with gauze; the other half were uncovered where flies could gain access.
When writing a null and alternate hypothesis, be sure to include both your independent and
dependent variable in your statements ie how does the manipulation in the independent variable
effect the dependent variable (what you are measuring).
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His null hypothesis would be: (A=B)

There is no difference between the covered jars and uncovered jars in term of the presence of
maggots

His alternate hypothesis would be: (A≠B)

There is a difference between the covered jars and uncovered jars in term of the presence of
maggots

vi). Conduct experiments, recording observations as objectively as possible.

i.e. After several days, he noted that meat swarming with flies had maggots.
Meat covered with gauze did not have maggots.

vii). Analyze the results from the experiments that tested the original hypothesis. Statistics are
performed on the data and used to interpret these results to help determine whether the null
hypothesis should be supported or rejected.

5. Make a conclusion drawing on the analysis of the results, determine whether the null
hypothesis should be supported or rejected.

i.e. Redi’s hypothesis was correct. Flies produce maggots.

He rejected his null hypothesis.

Additionally, state any further testing that may need to be carried out due to new questions that
arose from your results.

Remember, experiments do not prove anything. This is because we can NEVER be certain that
we examined all the evidence, or considered all possible alternative hypotheses. Experiments
can only offer evidence that either supports, or fails to support, a hypothesis.

Prelab Exercise

Using the Scientific Method for Testing Activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae

Cydia deshaisiana is a species of moth native to Mexico. In the Spring, females lay eggs on
the flowers of a shrub called Sebastiana pavoniana. When the eggs hatch, the larva burrows
into the ovule of the flower, and as the seedpod develops, the larva becomes encapsulated in a
seed. The larva develops inside the seed, consuming some of the endoderm. The larva spins
fibers that attach it to the wall of the seed. When the seedpods burst and the seeds fall to the
ground, the larva begins to twitch, tugging on the fibers and causing the seed to hop. This is
why the seeds of Sebastiana pavoniana, when invaded by Cydia deshaisiana are often referred
to as “Mexican jumping beans”.

One of the basic features of life is that living things must react to stimuli from the environment.
The twitching of Cydia deshaisiana larvae is in response to environmental stimuli, and is an
adaptive behaviour. As a result of the twitching, the seed in which a larva is encapsulated may
move to an environment that is better suited to the survival of the larva. In this co-evolutionary
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relationship, the twitching may also move the seed of the plant into a habitat more suitable for
the survival and successful germination of the seed, which in turn increases the available
resources for the next generation of Cydia deshaisiana.

For this experiment, you hypothesize that certain stimuli may cause the larva to twitch. Data
has been provided. Therefore following through the steps of the Scientific Method.

1. Observation

Step 1: Making Observations

Twenty “jumping beans” were stored in the refrigerator for several hours. Observations were
made to determine if they were jumping? How often? And if they begin to move more as they
warmed up once removed from the refrigerator. The total number of movements a bean made
in 1 minute was recorded and is indicated below.

Table 1.1: Data Collected on Cydia deshaisian movements for 1 minute

Bean # Movements Bean # Movements

1 5 11 4
2 7 12 2
3 2 13 9
4 8 14 5
5 1 15 6
6 11 16 3
7 4 17 4
8 6 18 7
9 0 19 6
10 8 20 4

Step 2: Determining Variation Among Your Sample Population

The movements recorded cover a range from 0 movements per minute (bean 9) to 11
movements per minute (bean 6).
Next, all observations that fall within a given range needs to be lumped together in ‘bins’. We
could have as many as 12 bins (bin 1 = 0 movements, bin 2= 1 movement, bin 3 = 2 movements,
etc), however that would not really be a useful way to aggregate data and get a better sense of
overall patterns. A smaller number of evenly sized bins might be better.
For example, let’s consider 6 bins, where bin 1 = 0 or 1 movement, bin 2 = 2 or 3 movements,
etc. (see below).
Record the total number of beans that fit within each of these bins in the Table 1.2 below. For
example, bin 1 (0-1 movements) includes two observations, bean 5 which had 1 movement in
a minute, and bean 9 which had 0 movements in a minute.

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Table 1.2: Number of Observations per Bin of Cydia deshaisian

Bins # observations
1 ( 0-1 movements)
2 (2-3 movements)
3 (4-5 movements)
4 (6-7 movements)
5 (8-9 movements)
6 (10-11 movements)

What is your independent variable?

What is your dependent variable?

Using the graph below in Figure 1.2, plot a histogram, which has the dependent variable on the
y-axis and independent variable on the x-axis. Label the graph accordingly.

Note, we are using a histogram for this data and not a bar graph. A histogram is used to show
the distribution of all the data collected, while a bar graph is used to illustrate the mean value
of the data. In a histogram, quantitative data is plotted and each bin represents a range of that
data grouped together summing up to 100%. The bins are organized sequentially. On the other
hand, a bar graph is used to plot categorical data and can be organized in any manor, for
instance, alphabetical or by size. Since the data of a histogram represents the whole date set,
the columns (bars) touch each other in a continuous manner. While on a bar graph the columns
(bars) are individual and do not touch, since the data that they represent are individual
categories.

Chart Title
12
11
10
9
8
Axis Title

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Axis Title

Figure 1.2:

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Step 3: Measures of Central Tendency

The histogram gives you a good way to visualize the central tendency of movements per minute
for this population of seeds. Eleven of the 20 seeds had 4-7 movements per minute. From the
histogram above that you plotted, these seeds were found in which bins?

Another common measure of central tendency is the median. The median is the value for which
half of all observations lie above, and half of all observations lie below. If we sort the
observations in Table 1 into order (from smallest to largest), we would find that the tenth
observation has a value of 5 movements per minute. We would find that the eleventh
observation also has a value of 5 movements per minute. The median value would, therefore,
be 5.

And of course, another obvious measure of central tendency is the mean. This is the most
commonly used, although its use suggests that the data (frequency distribution) follows a
normal distribution, or bell shaped curve about the mean. If we add all of the movements per
minute and divide by 20, we find that the mean number of movements per minute is 5.1.When
reporting a mean value for a sample, it is common to also provide an estimate of the variation
around this mean. Are all individual observations close to the mean, or is there a wide spread
in the observations? The standard deviation is the most commonly used measurement of the
variation around that mean. It is not the purpose of this activity to teach you how to calculate
standard deviation, but rather to introduce the general concept. If you do not know how to
calculate standard deviation, please watch the video below and it will show you how to use
Excel to calculate mean and standard deviation. http://youtu.be/OmH3bg_v9jg . Using the data
given, what is the standard deviation of this experiment? When recording means and standard
deviation, they are expressed as: mean ± standard deviation. Therefore for this experiment it
would be;
5.1

2. Asking Questions

You may have some ideas on what stimuli make seeds jump more (or stop jumping). What do
you think might be an important stimulus? This will lead to the research question. For example,
if you think that the seeds will be more active when put in the dark, the question could be
formulated as:

“Does darkness increase the activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae?”

or, if you think that playing music might make the seeds jump, the question would be
formulated as:
“Does music increase the activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae?”

Formulate a question that you would like to test that is different for the examples and record it
here.

3. Formulating a Hypothesis

Based on your research question, formulate a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis that can
be used to test whether the stimulus does affect activity of the larvae.

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Following the example questions above, you might formulate the hypotheses:

Null Hypothesis: (A=B)

“There is no difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae under dark and light conditions.”

Alternate Hypothesis: (A≠B)

“There is a difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae under dark and light conditions.”

Or, based on the second research question, you might formulate the following pair of
hypotheses:

Null Hypothesis:
“There is no difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae with music versus without
music.”

Alternate Hypothesis:
“There is a difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae with music versus without
music.”

Notice that the null hypothesis is always that there is NO DIFFERENCE between your
experimental groups, and the alternative hypothesis is that there is a difference.

Based on your own research question write a Null Hypothesis and an Alternate

Hypothesis. Null Hypothesis:

Alternate Hypothesis:

4. Experimentation

Step 1: Set up your Experiment; Determine your Variables

Next we are going to do an experiment with these seeds. Using the histogram that you
constructed in Figure 1.2, and the medians and means for this sample, select 10 seeds that
represent “central tendency” in your data set.

These seeds would be from bins #

Using the 10 seeds selected each of which contains a larva, mix these seeds up, and randomly
put 5 into one group and 5 into another group. One group will be your reference group, the
other your experimental (or treatment) group. Why do you think you were asked to pick your
10 seeds from among those exhibiting greatest central tendency?

As an example, we are pursuing the first research question:

“Does darkness increase the activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae?”

The first set of 5 seeds are put into a dark place. The remaining 5 seeds would be placed into a
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place with ambient light (not directly under a bulb). Which group would be your reference
group and which would be your experimental group?

The set in the dark represent the

The set in the light represent the

In setting up the experiment make sure that, other than light, all other variable are the same
between the groups. For example, make sure that the temperature, humidity, noise, etc. are the
same in the dark place and in the light place. These are variables that might affect activity of
the larvae, so you need to be sure they are the same for each group. Therefore, there could be
no effect of temperature on the outcome since it was the same for both groups.

What is the term used to describe these other variables?

These variables are the _________________________________________

Step 2: Perform Experiment and Collect Data

In performing the experiment, each seed was observed to determine how many times it moved
in 1 minute. Since there are 5 seeds in the dark and 5 seeds in the light, I will have 5 replicates
for each experimental condition and thus there will be data for each of the 5 seeds in the dark
and each of 5 seeds in the light.

In our example, the independent variable (the variable that we think affects activity of the
larvae, and is the variable which is manipulated) is darkness (or light conditions).

And, the dependent variable (the variable that is being measured) can be expressed as Cydia
deshaisiana activity, or as Movements per Minute.

Data collected in experiments are usually presented visually in the form of tables or graphs. In this
case, we used a table. All tables and figures must have an appropriate descriptive title or caption. For
tables this appear before the actual table and for figures they appear after the actual figure. The data
that was obtained for this experiment is provided in Table 3 below. In the space provided, give it an
appropriate title.

Table 1.3:

Dark Light
Movements per minute (raw data for each seed) 3, 5, 1, 4, 3 3, 6, 4, 5, 4
Movements per minute (mean ± standard deviation)

Step 3: Do Statistical Analysis

The mean is the average for the replicates in each group. The standard deviation (as described
above) is a measurement of the variation around that mean. Determine the mean and standard
deviation for this data and record in Table 1.3.

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5. Forming a Conclusion
Based on the data recorded in your table, you will now make a conclusion. The conclusion is
based on the Null hypothesis. Remember that in this experiment, scientists cannot prove that
light conditions increase activity of the larvae, since this may depend on other factors that may
not have been considered. Instead, determine if the data support the null hypothesis. If they do
not, then the alternate hypothesis is more likely.

In the example the Null Hypothesis:

“There is no difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae under dark and light
conditions.”

Alternate Hypothesis:
“There is a difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae under dark and light conditions.”

In the dark, there were 3.2 ± 1.5 movements per minute and in the light 4.4 ± 1.1 movements
per minute. Based on this, it might be tempting to say there were more movements per minute
in the light versus in the dark. BUT WAIT A MINUTE! The experimental mean is used to
approximate a much larger (infinite) number of seeds placed under a given condition. In the
dark, the experimental mean was 3.2, but given the variation among replicates, the true mean
(of a larger, infinite number of seeds in the dark) might be as low as 1.7 (3.2 – 1.5) or might be
as high as 4.7 (3.2 + 1.5). Similarly, in the light, experimental mean was 4.4, but the true mean
might be as low as 3.3 (4.4 – 1.1) or as high as 5.5 (4.4 + 1.1).

Based on the mean and standard deviation, we can say that the true mean number of movements
in the dark is likely between 1.7 and 4.7 per minute. In the light, the true mean number of
movements is between 3.3 and 5.5 per minute. Given this overlap in ranges, we cannot say
there is a difference between light and dark. Therefore, we have to accept the null hypothesis,
there is no difference in activity of Cydia deshaisiana larvae under dark and light conditions.

Suppose, instead, my data showed 3.3 ± 0.3 movements per minute in the dark and 4.5 ± 0.5
movements in the light. Now, the true mean in the dark would be somewhere between 3.0 and
3.6. The true mean in the light would be somewhere between 4.0 and 5.0. In this case, there is
no overlap in ranges, and there are clearly fewer movements in the dark versus in the light. The
null hypothesis can then be rejected and concluded that there is a difference in larval activity
between the dark and the light.

In this example, based on the data in Table 1.3, I would write:

“There is no difference in activity between dark conditions and light

conditions, the Null hypothesis is accepted”.

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 Laboratory Exercise

Learning Objectives:

Understand and be able to use the Scientific Method

Realizing the difference in data collection methods and the effect it has on your
experimental design.

Experiment 1.1a: Using the Scientific Method for Testing Reaction Times
One of the basic features of life is that living things must react to stimuli from the environment (either
external or internal) in order to survive. This stimulus is detected by a receptor which than transforms
the stimuli into a nerve impulse that travels to the area of the brain were decision-making activities
occurs. Once a response is selected, a signal is transmitted along neurons to the effector, which causes
a change in the organism. As seen in the Figure 1.3 below, the receptor (the eye) registers the stimulus
(glass of water) and a nerve impulse travels to the brain were the decision to drink is formulated, which
in turn sends the signal to the effector (arm muscle) along the neurons, causing the person to take a
drink of water.

Figure 1.1: Reflex arc. Source:https://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-a-neurobiology-and/a4-innate-and-learned-behav/reflex-arcs.html

Some responses to stimuli are involuntary and do not involve the brain. These responses are called
reflexes. In this pathway, the sensory information is directly relayed to the motor neuron via the spine.
This results in a faster response since it does not involve conscious thought or deliberation. An example
here is what happens when you see yummy food, your mouth starts to water instantly, producing saliva
in anticipation of eating.
Response to a stimulus can be measured and is referred to as an organism’s reaction time. Reaction
time is the time between the stimulus and a response i.e. the length of time it takes to begin a response
to a stimulus and is different depending on if that stimulus is visual, auditory, or by touch and varies
between individuals.

In our lab today, we will test your reaction time by measuring your attempts to catch a ruler dropped
between your fingers. The brain in an integral part of this interaction. The dropped ruler example
involves the visual detection of the moving ruler. Sensory neurons send this information from your eye
along the optic nerve to the brain. In the brain, sensory neurons are stimulated, causing information to
be sent to the frontal lobe of your brain. The frontal lobe must then decide to react and send instructions
to the motor cortex, which leads to motor control signals being released from your motor cortex
travelling through your spinal cord, down your arm and to your hand causing your fingers to contract
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and potentially catch the ruler. This all happens in approximately 0.25 seconds!

In today’s experiment you will formulate a hypothesis to suggest whether certain identified variables
or factors play a role in reaction times of an individual and to answer the research question:

Does _____________________ affect reaction time?

The class will be divided by benches and each will formulate one hypothesis, independent from
the rest of the class, therefore creating totally different, unique experiments to answer this
question.

Materials:

• 30 cm Ruler
• Calculator

Procedure:

1: Making Observations

Make a few practice catches of the ruler first. It can take some time to master the ability to
catch it. Do not let fatigue become a factor.

a. Work in pairs. Hold a ruler several centimeters above your partner’s hand. Your partner
should have their second (index) and third fingers open as wide as possible. Orient the ruler
so that the 1cm mark is downward (see Figure 1.4, left image) and above the crevice formed
by your partner’s second (index) and third fingers, but not touching your partner’s hand in any
way.

Figure 1 . 4 : Positioning of ruler for reaction time experiment. Source: Biology in the
Laboratory, 3rd Edition. Helms et al.

b. Without verbal warning, drop the ruler. Try to ensure that the ruler is totally vertical, and
not tilted against the fingers. If the ruler was caught, record the centimeter marking at the top
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surface of the fingers (see Figure 1.4, right image). If the ruler was not caught, record as a total
miss (i.e. 45cm).
Record data in Table 1.4 on your Report Sheet

c. Repeat the experiment 5 times, allowing rest times to ameliorate fatigue if needed. Make
sure that the original position of the ruler is the same each time, before dropping it.

d. Record your observations about the mechanics (i.e. did reaction time speed up or slow
down during the 5 trials, etc.) and "times" of reactions (measured as number of centimeters) of
your partner and yourself.

Complete Table 1.4 in the Report Sheets under Step #1: Observations.

2: Asking Questions

a. After you and your partner have performed 5 trials each, work with the other groups on
your bench and share your information. Discuss questions in regards to reaction time to
determine whether there are any environmental or individual differences that might be affecting
reaction times? Following the above example with coffee drinkers, the question would be;
Does drinking coffee have an effect on reaction time?

You will be given time for this brainstorming session as well as formulation of hypotheses, putting
together your data, and briefly presenting how you used the scientific method to analyze reaction
times.
State your research question in the Report Sheets under Question #2.

3: Formulating a Hypothesis

a. Formulate a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis that can be used to investigate
differences between groups or individuals with regards to reaction time based on the question
your bench wishes to answer (devised in Step #2). For instance, you may wish to investigate
whether the response times differ between:

athletes and non-athletes

coffee drinkers and non-coffee drinkers

This is just an example; do not use these, rather your group will devise its own hypothesis as a
bench based on your group’s research question.

Null Hypothesis:
There is no difference in the reaction times of people who drink coffee and those who do not
A=B

Alternate Hypothesis:
There is a difference in the reaction time of people who drink coffee and those who do not
A≠B

Record your groups formulated hypothesis and alternate hypothesis in the Report
Sheets Question # 3.

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4: Experimentation

a. Define the independent, dependent and controlled variable. In this case, the dependent
variable is reaction time, what you are measuring. The independent variable is the factor you
wish to explore which could be affecting reaction time (i.e. whether you drink coffee or not).
The controlled variable is the factor that remains the same throughout all experiments.
Record these variables in the Report Sheets under Question #4.

b. In practice, this is where you would carry out experiments to test your hypothesis and
collect data. For the purpose of today’s laboratory, we are going to use the summary of the
observations you and your bench mates have already collected as the data for the experiment.
For example, for today’s work, your observations were recorded in Table 1.6 regarding your
individual reaction times while the data collected on the average reaction time for each member
of the bench represent the data. Therefore you could have up to 8 data points for today’s
experiments.
Enter your data in Table 1.6 in the Report Sheets.

c. Summarize your experimental data as a group. You must decide how your data (which you
gathered previously as individual pairs) is best presented so that your results can be readily
communicated to others. Data are usually presented visually in the form of tables or graphs.
Draw your graph in the Report Sheets using Figure 1.5.

5: Forming a Conclusion

a. By calculating the mean of each individual's test trials (i.e. average centimeter measurement
in 5 tries converted to seconds), and then calculating the means of all trials of one group
(i.e. average reaction time of all coffee drinkers), compare with the means of the other group
(as in our example above, the non-coffee drinkers). Determine the standard deviation and
record. From this, draw a conclusion and proceed to either accept or reject the null
hypothesis that your group formulated. State other factors that could be contributing to the
observations.
Record this in the Report Sheets under Question #5

b. Formal statistics, such as determining significant differences based on t-tests, or Chi-

Square testing, would usually be required. For this first experiment, just assess the differences
and similarities based on ranges of the averages. For example, if coffee drinkers reaction times
overall are faster, is there a large overlap in the individual averages compared with the non-
coffee drinking group?

Experiment 1.1b: Determining the Difference in Data Collection Methods and the Effect
it has on Experimental Design

From the last activity, you might have observed that you and your classmates had different
reaction times when catching a dropped ruler. You might also be wondering if how we
measured reaction time has an impact on your result. Therefore for this part of the experiment
we would like to take a closer look at experimental design and determine if we get the same
result for reaction time if we measure it a different way.

Therefore, our research question here would be:

Does how we design an experiment have an outcome on our results/conclusion?
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Our null hypothesis would be:
There is no difference in reaction time of an individual between the different methods
of measuring it.

And our alternate hypothesis would be:

There is a difference in reaction time of an individual between the different methods of
measuring it.

We now have our Observation, Question, and Hypothesis steps of the Scientific Method
complete. Next we will perform the Experiment.

For this part of the experiment, one partner will time, while the other partner makes dots within
the circle provided in Figure 1.6 of the Report Sheets.

Method:
1. Partner B will time for 5 seconds, clearly telling Partner A when to start and stop
2. Partner A will make as many clearly defined dots as they can during this 5 seconds within
the circle provided in Figure 1.6 of the Report sheet
3. Switch roles. Partner B now makes the dots while Partner A times.
4. Repeat until both partners have completed 3 trials
5. When finished all trials, determine how many dots you have in each of your 3 circles and
record on the space provided in Figure 1.6
6. Determine your reaction time by dividing 5 by the number of dots created. This number
should be less than 1
5
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Record your and your partner’s results in Table 1.7

7. Calculate your average and standard deviation as well as your partner’s. Show your work for your
average and standard deviation.

Record your and your partner’s results in Table 1.7

8. What is your favourite colour? For the purpose of this experiment choose one of the following:
Red, green, blue, yellow, orange, purple, or brown
Record your and your partner’s favourite colour on the Report Sheets.

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Conclusion: the last step of the Scientific Method is drawing conclusions from our results. In
this case, comparing the data from the different methods measuring your reactions times. Do
these conclusions raise more questions? Do we need to do more experimentation? Do we need
to alter our methodology to address our research question more accurately?

This lab activity illustrates how we design an experiment can have an impact on the data we
collect from the experiment and the conclusions we draw. Therefore, we must be sure when
designing an experiment that we take the following parameters into consideration:

• Does our experimental design aid in answering our research question that we set out to
determine?

• Are the conclusions we draw from the data accurate? I.e. gathering data that is not
relevant to the experiment can be misleading (correlating favourite colour with reaction
time).

References

Audesirk, T., G. Audesirk, and B.E. Byers. Biology: Life on Earth, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005.

Life Science Staff. July 2012. Deductive Reasoning vs Inductive Reasoning. Internet [cited:
July 15, 2013]. Available from: http://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-
induction.html
Morgan, J.G. and M.E.B. Carter. Investigating Biology, 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Benjamin
Cummings, 2002.

17
Laboratory 1 Report Sheet Name: __________________________

Experiment 1.1: Using the Scientific Method for Testing Reaction Times

1: Observations
Provide in Table1.1 below, the observations you gathered between you and your partner. Each
student needs to fill in their own tables.

Table 1.4: Reaction Times Measured in Length of Catching a Ruler

5 trials of testing reaction time of catching a ruler between two fingers (cm)
My Reaction Times My Partner’s Reaction Times

Average: cm Average: cm
Standard Deviation Standard Deviation

Overall observations: Do you see a trend in your data or are your results random?

Between you and your partner, look at your averages, and list at least 2 variables that you
think might have an effect on the difference these results.

Using the equation provided by your TA, determine your reaction time (in seconds) for you
and your partner’s average reaction time (cm) and fill in Table 1.2 below.

Table 1.5: Reaction time converted to seconds

My Reaction Time My Partner’s Reaction Time
Average (cm) Seconds Average (cm) Seconds

2: Questions
State the research question that you are trying to solve with today’s experiment.

3: Formulating a Hypothesis
Provide the null and alternate hypotheses that were developed for your group indicating how a
change in the independent variable may or may not have an effect on the dependent variable.

Null Hypothesis:

Alternate Hypothesis:
18
4: Experimentation

List all your variables for this experiment and the data collected for you and your partner in the
space provided below.

Independent Variable:

Dependent Variable:

Controlled Variable(s):

Table 1.6: Average Reaction Times of Whole Group Testing of an Independent Variable
Column A Column B Column C
Non-coffee drinkers Coffee drinkers
Example: Student A 0.249
Student B 0.231
Person Average Reaction Times (sec)
Control = Test group =
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total averages and
standard deviation

(Indicate what your group tested) (as in the example non-coffee drinkers vs coffee drinkers)

Using the space provided below in Figure 1.5, create a graph to represent you data summarized
in Table 1.3. Discuss with your bench if this be a bar graph, histogram, line graph, or pie chart?
Be sure to label appropriately both the x and y axis, title, caption, as well as legend. Your TA
can help with this if needed.

19
 Figure 1.5:

5: Conclusion
Provide your conclusion(s) for this experiment. Do you accept or reject your hypothesis?

6. What must now be done to make this a rigorous study, based on the Scientific Method?

7. What is the control (reference) in this experiment?

8. When is it appropriate to use each of the different types of graphs?

Bar graph is used for

Histogram is used for

Line graph is used for

Pie chart is used for

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Experiment 1.1b: Determining the Difference in Data Collection Methods and the Effect
it has on Experimental Design

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Number of Dots:
Figure 1.6: Data collection area for dot experiment

Table 1.7: Reaction Times Measured by creating dots within a circle

Trials of Testing Reaction Time Using Dot Method

My Reaction Times My Partner’s Reaction Times

Average: Average:
Standard Deviation Standard Deviation

My Favourite colour is My partners Favourite colour is

9. From the overall data collected within the lab, what conclusions can you draw about
our research question, “Does how we design an experiment have an outcome on our
results/conclusion”?

10. Can we conclude that we get the same reaction time no matter the method of measuring?

11. Can we say that favourite colour affects reaction time? I.e., that people who have a
particular favourite colour have a faster/slower reaction time?

21