PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND - importance was “Who is in league with the

LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Devil?”
- By the eighteenth century, Christian von Wolff
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE - 19TH CENTURY
had anticipated psychology as a science and
- It is believed that tests and testing programs first psychological measurement as a specialty within
came into being in China as early as 2200 B.C.E. that science.
- Testing was instituted as means of selecting who,
CHARLES DARWIN
of many applicants, would obtain government
jobs. - History records that it was Darwin who spurred
- The content of the examination changed over scientific interest in individual differences.
time and with the cultural expectations of the - Darwin (1859) wrote: The many slight
day— as well as with the values of the ruling differences which appear in the offspring from the
dynasty. same parents . . . may be called individual
➢ music differences. . . . These individual differences are
➢ archery of the highest importance . . . [for they] afford
➢ horsemanship materials for natural selection to act on
➢ writing
FRANCIS GALTON
➢ arithmetic
➢ agriculture - classified people “according to their natural
➢ geography gifts
➢ civil law - determined people’s “deviation from an
➢ military strategy average”
➢ rites & ceremonies - contribution to development of many tools
- Individuals passing the tests were entitled to a (questionnaires, rating scales, self-report
number of privileges, which varied depending inventories)
on the current dynasty. - initial work on heredity with sweat peas, then
• During some periods, in addition to a people.
government job, those who passed the - pioneered (early roots) of the coefficient of
examination were entitled to wear correlation.
special garb; this entitled them to be - At an art exhibit in 1884, displayed his
accorded special courtesies by anyone Anthropometric Laboratory, where people
they happened to meet. could be measured on different variables.
• In some dynasties, passing the
examinations could result in WILHELM WUNDT
exemption from taxes. Passing the - tried to formulate general description of human
examination could also exempt one abilities (reaction time, perception, attention
from governments-sponsored span), but he focused on similarities.
interrogation by torture if the - Wundt attempted to control all extraneous
individual was suspected of committing variables in an effort to reduce error to a
a crime. minimum. As we will see, such attempts are
- During some dynasties, testing was virtually fairly routine in contemporary assessment.
suspended and government positions were
given to family members or friends, or simply JAMES MCKEEN CATTEL (WUNDR’S
sold. STUDENT)
- Ancient Greco-Roman writings indicated - doctoral dissertation on individual differences
attempts to categorize people in terms of in reaction time.
personality types. - later met Galton who he described as “the
greatest man I have ever known”.

- During the Middle Ages, a question of critical

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- coined the term “mental test” and was MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
responsible for introducing mental testing in
America. - During World War I, a government Committee
- Went on to train many psychologists, found many on Emotional Fitness chaired by Robert S.
publications and was instrumental in founding the Woodworth was assigned the task of developing
Psychological Corporation. an efficient measure of adjustment and
emotional stability to groups of recruits.
OTHER STUDENTS OF WUNDT
Charles Spearman
- originated concept of test reliability & built
“Personal Data Sheet” by WoodWorth
mathematical framework for factor analysis.
- After the war, Woodworth developed a
Victor Henri personality test for civilian use – the Woodworh
Psychoneurotic Inventory – the first widely
- collaborated with Alfred Binet on papers used self-report test of personality.
suggesting how mental tests could be used to
measure higher mental processes. Self-Report Personality Tests

Emil Kraepelin ➢ Advantages: they are the most qualified

to provide answers about themselves!
- early experimenter with the word association ➢ Disadvantages: OR ARE THEY? Poor
technique as a formal test. insight! Unwillingness to reveal!
Lightner Witmer Projective Test
- director of the lab at University of Pennsylvania. ➢ is one in which an individual is assumed
cited as the “little-known founder of clinical to “project” onto some ambiguous
psychology”. Founded first psychological stimulus his or her own unique needs,
clinic in the US at the same university & the fears, hopes, and motivation.
journal Psychological Clinic.
THE ACADEMIC AND APPLIED TRADITIONS
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE – 2OTH CENTURY
- the development of psychological measurement
MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE can be traced along two distinct threads: the
- As early as 1895, Alfred Binet and Victor Henri academic and the applied.
published several articles arguing for the o Academic- researchers at universities
measurement of abilities (like memory and social throughout the world use the tools of
comprehension). assessment to help advance knowledge and
- In 1905, Binet and Simon developed the first understanding of human and animal
intelligence test to identify intellectually behavior.
disabled Paris schoolchildren. o Applied- the goal is to help select
- In 1939, David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist applicants for various positions on the
at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, introduced basis of merit: placement of children in
a test designed to measure adult intelligence: school, selection of employees in an industry,
originally called the Wechsler-Bellevue etc.
Intelligence Scale, now more popularly known CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT
as WAIS.
- A natural outgrowth of the individually Culture
administered intelligence test devised by Binet
- “The socially transmitted behavior patterns,
was the group intelligence test (in response to
beliefs, and products of work of a particular
the military’s need for an efficient method for
population, community, or group of people”
screening recruits.
(Cohen, 1994).

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 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Henry Goddard - In clinical settings, an experienced evaluator may
develop hypotheses to be tested from the
- The U.S. Public Health Service began using such
nonverbal behavior of the interviewee.
tests to measure the intelligence of people seeking
- Psychoanalysis pays particular attention to the
to immigrate to the United States. The chief
symbolic meaning of nonverbal behavior.
researcher assigned to the project was Henry
- Differences in the pace of life across cultures may
Goddard.
detract or enhance test scores for timed tests.
- Goddard found most immigrants from various
nationalities to be mentally deficient when tested. Standards of Evaluation
- Goddard’s findings were largely the result of
- Judgments related to certain psychological traits
using a translated Binet Test that
can be culturally relative.
overestimated mental deficiency in native
- Cultures differ with regard to gender roles and
English-speaking populations, let alone
views of psychopathology.
immigrant populations
- Cultures also vary in terms of collectivist versus
- Goddard’s research sparked a nature–
individualist value.
nurture debate:
➢ Were IQ results indicative of some Collectivist Cultures
underlying native ability or the extent to
which knowledge and skills had been ➢ value traits such as conformity,
acquired? cooperation, interdependence, and
- Early developers of IQ tests devised culture- striving toward group goals.
specific tests and clarified that the tests were Individualist cultures
designed for people from one culture but not from
another. ➢ place value on traits such as self-
- Today, developers of intelligence tests take reliance, autonomy, independence,
precautions against bias. uniqueness, and competitiveness.

SOME ISSUES REGARDING CULTURE AND TESTS AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP

ASSESSMENT
- Conflict often ensues when groups
Verbal Communication systematically differ in terms of scores on a
particular test.
- When an assessment is conducted with the aid of - In vocational assessment, test users are sensitive
a translator, different types of problems may to legal and ethical mandates concerning the use
emerge: of tests with regard to hiring, firing, and related
➢ Certain nuances of meaning or decision making.
unintentional hints. ➢ Conflicts may arise from disagreements
➢ Some interpreters may not be familiar about the criteria for performing a
with mental health issues and pre- particular job.
training may be necessary. - Some would argue that if tests are measuring
➢ In interviews, language deficits may be what they are supposed to then group
detected by trained examiners but may go membership should not be an issue, while others
undetected in written tests. seek to “level the playing field” through
➢ Assessments need to be evaluated in initiatives such as affirmative action.
terms of the language proficiency
required and the language level of the LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
test taker.
Laws
Nonverbal Communication
- are rules that individuals must obey for the good
- Nonverbal signs or body language may vary of the society as a whole.
from one culture to another.

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Ethics study or method enjoys general
acceptance.
- a body of principles of right, proper, or good
➢ General acceptance could typically be
conduct.
established by the testimony of experts
CONCERNS OF THE PUBLIC and by reference to publications in peer-
reviewed journals.
- Concerns about the use of psychological tests - The Daubert versus Merrell Dow
started after World War One when test developed Pharmaceuticals ruling by the Supreme Court
for military use were adapted in schools and superseded the long-standing policy, set forth in
industry. Frye, of admitting into evidence only scientific
- The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union testimony that had won general acceptance in the
prompted the U.S. government to greatly increase scientific community.
testing of abilities and aptitudes in schools to ➢ Opposing expert testimony, whether
identify talented students. such testimony had won general
- In 1969, an article “How Much Can We Boost IQ acceptance in the scientific
and Scholastic Achievement?” was published and community, would be admissible.
widespread skepticism about intelligence tests ➢ The Daubert ruling gave trial judges
followed. more leeway in deciding which
Legislation testimony should be heard by the
jury.
- Minimal competency testing programs: In the ➢ Some jurisdictions still rely on the
1970s, many states passed laws to ensure that Frye standard when it comes to
high school graduates should be able to meet admitting expert testimony, and
“minimal competencies” in reading, writing, and some subscribe to Daubert.
arithmetic.
- Truth-in-testing legislation: Passed at the state CONCERNS OF THE PROFESSION
level in the beginning of the 1980s. The objective - The American Psychological Association (APA)
was to give test takers a way to learn the criteria and related professional organizations have
by which they are being judged. published many works over the years to delineate
- The Civil Rights Act of 1964 created the Equal ethical, sound practice in the field of
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) psychological testing and assessment.
to enforce the act. ➢ 1895: APA formed 1st committee on
➢ The EEOC has published sets of mental measurement.
guidelines concerning standards to ➢ 1906: Another APA committee on
be met in constructing and using measurements to further study
employment tests. testing-related issues and problems.
➢ An initiative to prevent ➢ 1916, 1921: symposia dealing with
discriminatory testing practices issues surrounding the expanding
during employment. uses of tests.
Litigation ➢ 1954: APA published its Technical
Recommendations for Psychological
- PARC versus Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Tests and Diagnostic Tests.
(1971) and Mills versus Board of Education of ➢ The following year, the National
District of Columbia (1972) prompted Congress Education Association published its
to ensure appropriate educational opportunities Technical Recommendations for
for children with disabilities. Achievement Tests.
- Psychologists may act as expert witnesses in
civil and criminal cases. Test-User Qualifications
- The 1923 case of Frye versus the United States. - In 1950, an APA Committee on Ethical Standards
➢ Established that scientific research is for Psychology published a report called Ethical
admissible as evidence when the research

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Standards for the Distribution of Psychological RIGHT OF TEST TAKERS
Tests and Diagnostic Aids.
Right Of Informed Consent
- It outlined three levels of tests in terms of
expertise: - Test takers should give their informed consent
➢ Level A: Tests or aids that can adequately only with full knowledge of such information.
be administered, scored, and interpreted - Information needed for consent must be in
with the aid of the manual and a general language the test taker can understand.
orientation. - Some groups (example: dementia, bipolar
➢ Level B: Tests or aids that require some disorder, and schizophrenia) may not have the
technical knowledge of test construction capacity, or competency, to provide informed
and of supporting psychological and consent.
educational fields. • If competency cannot be provided by
➢ Level C: Tests and aids that require the person, consent may be obtained
substantial understanding of testing and from a parent or a legal
supporting psychological fields together representative.
with supervised experience in the use of • Components of competency include:
these devices. ➢ Being able to evidence a choice
Testing People with Disabilities as to whether one wants to
participate.
- Some challenges in testing people with ➢ Demonstrating a factual
disabilities may include: understanding of the issues.
➢ transforming the test into a form that ➢ Being able to reason about the
can be taken by the test taker. facts of a study, treatment, or
➢ transforming the responses of the test whatever it is to which consent is
taker so that they are scorable. sought.
➢ meaningfully interpreting the test data. ➢ Appreciating the nature of the
- Under Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act, situation.
terminally ill patients requesting assistance dying - But what about cases wherein testing involves
must first have a psychological evaluation. research / experimental situations wherein
“deception” to not contaminate the data?
Computerized Testing
• Minimum amount of information
- Computerized test administration, scoring, and before testing
interpretation. • Full disclosure and debriefing after
➢ A number of psychological tests can be - APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists Code
purchased on disc or administered and of Conduct (2017):
scored online. a) do not use deception unless it is
➢ Offer convenience, simplicity, and absolutely necessary,
greater range of assessment (b) do not use deception at all if it will
- Issues in computer-assisted psychological cause participants emotional distress, and
assessment (CAPA). (c) fully debrief participants
➢ Access to test administration, scoring and
interpretation software. Right To Be Informed of Test Findings
➢ Comparability of pencil-and-paper and - In the past, test takers were often not informed of
computerized tests. diagnostic findings or anything that might hurt
➢ The value of computerized test their self-image.
interpretations. - Currently, giving information about test
➢ Unprofessional, unregulated performance to examinees is ethically and
“psychological testing” online. legally mandated and may be useful from a
therapeutic perspective as well.

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- Test takers have a right to know about test
findings and recommendations.
- Test users should sensitively inform test takers
of the purpose of the test, the meaning of the
score relative to those of other test takers, and
the possible limitations and margins of error of
the test.
Right To Privacy & Confidentiality
- The concept of the privacy right “recognizes the
freedom of the individual to pick and choose for
himself the time, circumstances, and particularly
the extent to which he wishes to share or withhold
from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and
opinions” (Shah, 1969).
- In most states, information provided by clients to
psychologists are considered privileged
information.
➢ Privilege is not absolute: Psychologists
may have to disclose information if it will
prevent harm either to the client or to
some endangered third party.
➢ Another ethical mandate regarding
confidentiality pertains to safeguarding
test data.
Right to the Least Stigmatizing Label
- The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing
labels should always be assigned when
reporting test results.

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