By Patricia A. McLagan HRD in the ’90s: What is it? Why is it impor- tant? What does it in- clude? What constitutes quality? What com- petencies will people need to do HRD? Two years of research spon- sored by ASTD have produced some answers to those ques- tions. If your work affects the competence and performance of others, you will be in- terested in this sum- mary of the just- published research. McLagan is chief executive of McLagan International Inc, St. Paul, Minnesota. ‘She was the leader of ASTD’s Task Force (on Competencies and Standards, and is the author of Models for HRD Practice. Her work on that project, and the work of ber professional staff, was done on a volunteer basis. This article is a brief summary of Models for HRD Practice, available through ASTD Press for $145 for ASTD ‘members and $165 for non-members. The complete publication includes the research report, the models, the practi tioner's guide, and the manager's guide. See sidebar, “Models for HRD Practice: the Books," for compiete descriptions of the four books. Models for ::. HRD Practice The story must begin in the work- place of the nineties. tis a context for managing and developing people that wll require new assumptions, styles, hand skills from everyone who does HRD work. ‘The 1990s organization probably will be a more flexible, participative one. Itwill be simultaneously tougher dnd more human, It will value both ac- Countability and creativity and will ‘more often seek competitive advantage ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989) through people strategies. That is likely to be true because of changes in orga- nizations, the workforce, and human resource ‘management and develop- ‘ment processes, ‘The changing organization Our research identified six major areas of organization change that will have significant effects on develop- ment-oriented practices in and around the workplace. 4950 First, pressures for workforce pro: ductivity will intensify, with organiza- tions and industries looking beyond obvious efficiency gains to more sys- temic and “breakthrough” ways of be- ing low-cost producers of high-quality products and services. Second, most of the experts who participated in the study predict that the pace of change will continue to ac- cclerate. Cycle times will be reduced, the useful life of information will shrink, work will change due to ad- vances in technology, and time will become a more valuable resource. The bottom line is that organizations that work in less time will have a com- petitive advantage. Organizations of the nineties will also continue to shift their focus to the customer and quality. That shift will be more than a fad or a fleeting tactic. It What Can Earn You Big Cheers, Pats on the Back Plus a Raise with Praise for Improving Your Organization’s Productivity and Quality of Life? | THE UNIVERSAL CAREER DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION PROGRAM In today’s competitive world marketplace, your greatest asset is the quality and commitment of your workforce. High tech without high touch dehumanizes the work effort eroding your organization's commitment to quality and its ability to adapt to changes in the 1990's The Universal Career Development Education Program is a holistic organization development strategy for the 1990's that dramatically improves job performance and productivity. It is an inspirational, motivational, informational, self-study, small group, skills building, employee and management team building experience! Discover why so many of America’s leading corporations are piloting and implementing Universal's proven innovative strategy for developing a “lifelong learning center”. It's an investment in re-educating your organization to work smarter, not harder. But if you think educating and training employees is expensive consider the cost of ignorance. UNIVERSAL Communications, inc. ‘CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS 531255 Cedarvalley Or. /Sulte 319/Westake Vilage, CA 91362 (ets) 2689522 or (00) 458-8521/F AX: B18 889-2734 Detroit New York/ Washington, DC CGitele No. 140 on Reader Service Card will be pervasive because it is a key competitive characteristic. In tomor- row’s superior organization, customer and quality focus will permeate the organization, with every employee clear about the value he or she adds in both areas for internal as well as exter- nal customers. Fourth, in many organizations in the nineties, the arena for planning and action will be global. Markets, resource pools, competition, partnerships, or all Of them will cross national lines. For some, competitors will be suppliers or even customers. Relationships, in short, will be complex and the boun- aries will blur between the organiza- tion and its environment. Fifth, business strategies will be- come more dependent on the quality and versatility of the human resource. Whether they rely on improved pro- ductivity, quality, or innovation, the strategies of the nineties will not be delivered if the organization's people aren’t capable and committed. Orga- nizations that apply only money and technology to problems, without bringing the people along, will not survive—especially in industries in which peoples’ knowledge, attitudes, skills, and willingness to change are cctitical to competitive advantage. Finally, work structure and design will change dramatically, building on changes that have already begun. Hicr- archies will melt into, ot be displaced by, flatter and more flexible organiza- tion designs. The boundaries between individual jobs will blus, with more team accountability and flexible, multi skilled job designs. Autocratic decision structures will give way to more par- ticipative modes. ‘Some of those changes are already underway, and a few industries and organizations can serve as examples. But, by the end of the nineties—the end of the century—the workplace will be a different place, everywhere. ‘The changes that organizations must make will only be successful if people change, develop, and grow, and if org- nizations as social systems can mobilize themselves to work in different ways. The changing workforce ASTD’s research identified four changes in the workforce that will stimulate new HRD responses. First, the workforce of the nineties will be more diverse. In the USS. it will be more female and non-white than male and white. Literacy gaps will ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989widen, with increasing proportions of the adult population classified as functionally illiterate” or unable to speak English. Add to that the divers that comes from 2 multinational work- force and the challenges that relate to an older workforce, and it is clear: management practices, communica- tion processes, and development issues will and must change. Second, in the nineties more people will do knowledge work, which re- quires judgment, flexibility, and per- sonal commitment rather than submis- sion to procedures. In the future, most work will be knowledge work, be- cause everyone—whether sweeping the floor or running the company— will be expected to generate and act on ideas for improvement. Creating competent knowledge workers is a key challenge facing tomorrow's organizations. The third major workforce change reflects a value shift: people in the nineties will expect meaningful work and involvement. They will see their skills as resources to be used. They will have access, through technology rather than hierarchy, to more of the informa- tion they need to do their jobs. They will expect to participate in decisions as well as in the wealth they help create. Finally, a shift is occurring in the nature of the contract between organi- zations and their employees. Merit is replacing loyalty as the basis of the bond. In the nineties, organizations must earn the right to “own” emplo- yees’ relevant skills. By the same token, individuals must ensure that they have the competencies needed to meet the ‘evolving needs of their organizations. Most of the workforce of the nine- ties is in place now, at the end of the eighties. But that mustn't fool us. Peo- ple’s work and needs are changing. That, t00, will affect the practice of HRD through the end of this century. Shifts in practices Practices related to human resources are changing and developing, too, and will continue to do so in the nineties as individuals and organizations create new responses to the challenges above. Three shifts will be particularly significant. First, we can expect breakthroughs in the ways that organizations eval- uate the impact of human resource- oriented interventions: “What is the value of various training or on-job- leaming practices?” “What difference did team development make to the quality of the team's decisions and its, bility to carry out the decisions?” “Did deliberate career-management efforts actually improve the timely availability of skills?” In the nineties we will be expected to ask those and even harder questions and to answer them with some rigor. By the end of the century, the workplace will be a different place, everywhere. ‘The changes will only be successful if people change, develop, and grow Second, we can anticipate greater sophistication and variety in HRD tools and theories. Artificial intelligence, advances in computer applications, and better applications of lessons from anthropology, psychology, sociology, and education will play roles. Also, savvy practitioners who are listening to their organizations’ needs will con- You spend so much time training and developing others, isn’t it time you gave yourself the same opportunity? With Zenger Miller's Professional Development Seminars you'll fal new alls, confidence and effectiveness. Not to mention more influence within your organization. ‘Arrange a seminar in-house. Or attend one of our public sessions, Topics include Consult- ing Skills, Marketing & Selling “Training, Evaluating Training and Facilitation Skills. Each seminar tinue to create and share new ap- proaches, techniques, and ideas. Finally, we are moving into an era of systems solutions where the concern is to resolve issues or make real ‘changes, not just to implement pro- grams. Problem solving and change Usually require multiple and diverse ac- tions (such as training, plus policy change, plus job redesign). Improving quality, for example, or focusing on the Customer, or increasing productivity require more than single responses. Single responses may be effective in the short term, but ineffective or even disastrous in the long. Most of the im- portant changes in the nineties will and ‘must be treated systemically. HRD will evolve the analytical tools and solu- tions to meet that need. Enter, a new era of HRD All of those changes have major implications for human resource development in organizations of the nineties. In the nineties’ envionment, there will clearly be great economic and personal value in being able to op- timize the performance of individuals, teams, and entire organizations. ‘But what will HRD in the nineties lively, practical and results- oriented. To find out more about advancing your own develop- ment, call Roy Blitzer at (408) 452-1244. You have nothing to lose. And every- thing to gain. Professional Development Center 7ATICLER 1735 Technology Driv, 6th Floor SanJore,CA 951101313 Circle No. 172.0n Reader Service Card ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989involve, and who must do it? ASTD's attempt to develop models for future HRD practice began by answering that question ‘Ona simple level, HRD is the pro- cess of increasing the capacity of the human resource through develop ment, It is thus a process of adding value to individuals, teams, or an organization as a human system. So HRD is something that everyone does. Individuals do it as they work to develop themselves, managers do it as. they work to support others’ develop- ment, and the HRD staff does it as it creates the overall development stra- tegy and provides formal development tools to the organization, HRD can also be viewed asa subset of the human resources discipline. Workforce Interaction “This isthe best training value I've seen. ‘Great format and cost The $0 minute meetings ‘An excellent program, I've seen better teamwork Education Specialist, Government ” Training Director, Health Care ©” Supervisor, Manufacturing This program's natural skill approach is powerful.” Training Director, Food Service ‘Customer compliments have increased tenfold since Manager, Service Industry Maximize the performance and potential of all your employees! Workforce Interaction is a performance: based program that provides the fundamentals for developing and improving interactions hout your organization, Participants will build on previously suc ‘cessful experiences in order to produce even higher levels of performance and skills. Their natural skills are enhanced using a practical real-world" approach, ‘You can facilitate this program in a 1/2 day fr 1 day format, or in series of 50 minute meetings. Organizations in Health Cate, Insurance. Retail, Banking, Hotels, Transportation, Food Service, Communications, Government, and others, all can benefit from its use. To order, please do one of the following: Ba carton rice soo-92-3482 1D Mail or Fax a Purchase Fax # 301-561-9944 TT Leader's Guide: Its 75 page professional design includes all the information and insight you will need to successfully lead this program. $45.00 each Participant's Workbook: This 28 page ‘workbook is easy to Follow and stimulates active participation, involvement and + ‘commitment. It incorporates learning ac tivities and interactive exercises in an out- standing design, 124 $19.00 each 317.00 each $15.00 each $313.00 each $11.00 each Satisfaction Guaranteed for any reason. you are less than satisfied with your purchase, you may retum it within 30 days fora full eredit or refund, Order ET 500, Timon Circle No. 141 on Reader Service Card Specifically, it consists of three of eleven areas of human resource prac: tice (see the figure). The three areas that use development as their primary process are Wm training and development (T&D): identifying, assessing, and helping de- velop, through planned learning, the key competencies that enable individ- uals to perform current or future jobs; organization development (OD) assuring healthy inter- and intra-unit relationships and helping groups in- itiate and manage change; m career development (CD): assuring the alignment of individual career planning and organizational career- ‘management processes to achieve an optimum match of individual and organizational needs. ‘Other HR areas may rely on devel- opment as a key process, but the role of development is not primary, as it is in T&D, OD, and CD. Therefore, in ‘Models for HRD Practice, the term HRD means “the integrated use of training and development, organiza- tion development, and career develop- ment to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness” So HRD is defined by its use of de- velopment 2s a core process, not by who does it. It is a process, not a de- partment. Everyone does HRD, but some of us have adopted it either as our life's work, or as the central work focus for at least part of our careers. People for whom HRD is the tem- porary or permanent focus of their jobs will be most interested in the models that follow, which are des- cribed in much more detail in Models for HRD Practice. ‘The HRD practitioner of the nineties HRD practitioners of the nineties will perform a great variety of work as they apply their competencies to the many development challenges facing their organizations, In order to provide a useful description of that work and the competencies that will be required to doit, we used our research to help answer four questions: mt What are the future components of HRD work? @ What quality requirements or stan- dards should guide HRD work? m What ethical requirements are associated with HRD? 1m What competencies will people need in order to do HRD work in the future? ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989Human’Resource‘Wheel HRD ee een ‘organization development and career development Paar ioe ye tock eter tees ere rae ee Se ere Lert ‘Training and Development Focus ientiying, emeuring, ‘ane—trough planes Tearning—Pelping develop kay competences that enable individual to perorm corr! or ttre jobs: HR Research and ‘Organization Devel ees Pocus! eneuring healthy ter ‘and ita-unit ealonships | elping groups iiato find manage change. ‘career Development Foncs. ensuing an signment of indicus career panning ena ges oconeestoaniove an ne Cie fratch of invdval and Petar) Ed ere aren) ore ene Perales rei ed oo ener! peed ec} ets ey parent) poet ae Peet ee a acace cee in ees peer eee orn a Gee aierree einen54 ‘The components of HRD work ‘Our research identified 74 key work dimensions for the entire HRD field. ‘We present them as “outputs,” the pro- ducts, services, or information that are the heart of the HRD field. Here are some of the outputs: m research designs; im plans to market HRD programs and services; resolved conflicts for an organiza- tion or group; ‘changes in group norms, values, or culture; ‘m recommendations to management regarding HRD systems; m definitions and descriptions of desired individual or group performance; @ program or intervention designs; print-based learner material; W instructor and facilitator guides; m presentations of materials; ‘@ facilitations of group discussions; individuals with new knowledge, skills, and attitudes; ‘Some peopl, vauabe people, covert oad hors o water Laalone ei ta ak. Why? What separates tg efectve loses tom telepens of fowers? The Management Rasch Grove spavalisn agnosie assessment. has ‘sapsed hat he qualisofleadesip ‘sre maasuabie Bul more mporantio Dotlomsne res we have the provon ‘xperieeto ova! andimprve an nie seaderp assets ania. Wo aronthe toronto eadorship assessment Our LaaarsipEloctvenest ‘nse, based on a behaera sty ot “loceetlronrunrarnationwice, roves ‘eodbackeon over 20 ay elmentscompcs Ingitelescarshiprole. ‘Ande flow trough ith ndviaed tatoos o ombaaen persuasion, ‘nee and impact. Callocrtehe Managerant esearch ‘Grupo vanstorm th habitual ed to the acivly lading, Management Research Group 2 Dering Se Patan, Mane OOD (775273 (Circle No. 118 on Reader Service Card ‘Training & Development Journal, September 19891m career guidance and counsel; HRD Outputs by Role” grouped into individual career assessments; _cleven roles. The roles Sickel ‘evaluation designs and plans; _ groupings of outputs that may or may HRD department strategy. [hot describe individual jobs. We use ‘The list of 74 is not exhaustive, but/ them for convenience to help “chunk” itdoes include the outputs that ex the outputs, but we encourage individ have identified as the most critical cof- uals and organizations to use the entire tributions across the HRD field. ‘The list of outputs as a menu for identify- entire list appears in the box, key ing their own work emphases. ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989 SE EN Training ry ELM (ost Savings Site-Licensed Courseware. Others who use as. Price Waterhouse, Federal Bank... CTS Computer Training Specialists 213-337-9900 CEES ETT TO COE56 The variety of output combinations for individuals and HRD organizations is virtually infinite. The roles are in- tended to enhance our understand- ing of the field and to make it easier to manage and use the research results. They are not intended to dictate job content or constrain HRD organization design Quality requirements ‘Our research results do more than just list HRD outputs. They also pre- HRD Competencies ‘Technical competencies ‘Technical competencies are func tional knowledge and skills. 1, Adult-learning understanding: knowing how adults acquire and use knowledge, skills, and attitudes; understanding individual dif- ferences in learning, 2, Career-development theories and techniques understanding: knowing the techniques and methods used in career develop- ment; understanding their ap- propriate uses. 3. Competency-identification skill: identifying the knowledge and skill requirements of jobs, tasks, and roles. 4. Computer competence: under- standing or using computer applications. 5. Hlectronic-systems skill: having knowledge of functions, fearures, and potential applications of elec- tronic systems for the delivery and ‘management of HRD (such as com- puter-based training, teleconfer- encing, expert systems, interactive video, and satellite networks). 6. Facilities skill: planning and ‘coordinating logistics in an efficicat and cost-effective manner. 7. Objectives-preparation skill: preparing clear statements that describe desired outputs. 8. Performance-observation stil: tracking and describing behaviors and their effects, 9. Subject-matter understanding: knowing the content of a given function or discipline being addressed. 10. Training and development theories and techniques under- ‘standing: knowing the theories and sent experts’ descriptions of the stan. dards, or “quality requirements” for each output. For example, the research concludes that, “Resolved conflicts of an organization or group” are high in quality when: W teal conflicts are addressed; m solutions are implemented and monitored; mall affected parties are willing to work toward a resolution; group performance is enhanced. ‘Program or invention designs” are high in quality when: methods used in training; under- standing their appropriate use. ‘Il, Research skill: selecting, devel- oping, and using methodologies such 2s statistical and data collection techniques for formal inquiry. Business competencies Business competencies have a strong management, economics, oF administration base. 12. Business understanding knowing how the functions of a business work and relate to each ‘other; knowing the economic im- pact of business decisions. 13. Cost-benefit-analysis skill: assessing alternatives in terms of their financial, psychological, and strategic advantages and disadvantages, 14, Delegation skill: assigning task responsibility and authority to others. 15. Industry understandin, knowing the key concepts and var- fables that define an industry orsec- _ tor. They might include critical’ issues, economic vulnerabilities, measurements, distribution chan- ‘nels, inputs, outputs, and informa- tion sources, 16, Organization-behavior under- standing: seeing organizations as ‘dynamic, political, economic, and social systems that have multiple goals; using that larger perspective as a framework for understanding and influencing events and change 17, Organization-development theories and techniques: knowing the techniques and methods used in onganization development; under- standing their appropriate use. 18. Organization understanding: m sequencing of content and methods reflects an understanding of the au dience and of adult-learing principles; m design supports the organization's business plans and objectives; m content is technically up to date and relevant to the objectives; m design supports the desired organi zational values and culture; iW they reflect an understanding of the application environment; iW they are developed with input from key stakeholders learning resources and methods are knowing the strategy, structure, power networks, financial posi- tion, and systems of a specific ‘organization, 19. Project-management skill planning, organizing, and monitor Jing work for purposes of delivering a specific output. 20. Records management skill: storing data in an easily retrievable form. Interpersonal competencies Interpersonal competencies have a strong communication base. 21. Coaching skill: helping inci- viduals recognize and understand personal needs, values, problems, alternatives, and goals. 22. Feedback skill: communicat- ing information, opinions, observa tions, and conclusions so that they are understood and can be acted upon. 23, Group-process skill: influen- cing groups 90 that tasks, relation- ships, and individual needs are addressed. 24, Negotiation skill: securing ‘win-win’ agreements while suc- ‘cessfully representing a special in- terest in a decision. 25, Presentation skill: presenting information orally so that an in- tended purpose is achieved. 26. Questioning skill: gathering information from and stimulating {insight in individuals and groups through the use of interviews, ques- tionnaires, and other probing methods. 27, Relationship-building skill: ‘establishing relationships and net- ‘works across a broad range of pco- ple and groups. ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989appropriate for the objectives; iw they include a plan for evaluation; m they can be achieved within time and budget constraints; im they are sequenced appropriately; m they promote learner participation; they include an implementation plan and methods for monitoring the implementation; m they are written clearly and under- stood easily; im they identify support roles and ac: tions that must be taken in order to en- sure application of learning on the job. 28, Writing skill: preparing writ: ten material that follows generally accepted rules of style and form, is appropriate for the audience, is creative, and accomplishes its in- tended purpose. Intellectual competencies Intellectual competencies are knowledge and skills related to thinking and processing of information: 29, Data-reduction skill: scan- ning, synthesizing, and drawing conclusions from data, 30. Information-search skill: gathering information from printed and other recorded sources; identi- fyingand using information special- ists and reference services and aids. 31. Intellectual versatility: recognizing, exploring, and using a broad range of ideas and practices; thinking logically and creatively ‘without undue influence from per sonal biases. 32, Model-building skal: concep- tualizing and developing theoretical and practical frameworks that des- cribe complex ideas in under- standable, usable ways. 33. Observing skill: recognizing ‘objectively what is happening in or across situations. 34. Self-knowledge: knowing “Career guidance and counse!” is high in quality when: i itis responsive to the client's needs; m agreed-upon levels of confidenti ality are maintained; 1 it adapts to the style and individual approach of the client; Wit recommends alternative courses of action; the advisor is perceived as credible and having integrity. it establishes trust and rapport @ it maintains professional standards. Those and the quality requirements for the other outputs are a checklist to use in developing or evaluating the HRD outputs. Each of the 74 has from three to 15 quality requirements. Their purpose is to guide judgment to ensure: m@ responsible practitioners; m that the organi: met; W consistency in quality of outputs across practitioners; acommon vision of quality among all who practice HRD. actions by all tions’ needs are Gest ag Se U OR (ore ee pee The Instrument Societ videotape prc of instrument and control reo a ures | oun) nce skills, Contro eum) one’s personal values, needs, in- terest, style, and competencies and their effects on others, 35. Visioning skill: projecting trends and visualizing possible and probable futures and their implications per cea SS] ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989 a) BO cg LN eeitecn ater ucla usta experienced, have relied on ISA for over forty year For a free catalog, call or write fo ISA. And plug PoC ect lamin mcloncmshcomMoncus) MSU ule ana wale Cog eetey oN Lolsra rani reg sl Le a orese (19) 549-8411 « (600)334-6301 « FAX (19) 549-8288 Circle No, 188 on Reader Service Card Visit us at ASTD Booth #305Individual situations may require that additional requirements be met, or that some requirements be considered ‘more critical than others. In a high- judgment field like HRD, such flexi- bility is inevitable and even welcome. HRD work cannot be prescribed as a ‘cookbook or set of procedures. But, ‘our research presents the opinions of HRD experts regarding the quality re- ‘quirements of each major HRD output. The quality requirements can be used to guide and nurture high-quality HRD performance in the years ahead. We hope they will Ethical requirements ‘Models for HRD Practice also treats ethics in HRD as a key area for “stan- dards” or “quality requirements.” High- ‘quality HRD work is ethical work. Our research identified 13 areas where ethical dilemmas are likely to arise in the course of HRD work in the future. It did not attempt to describe what to do when such dilemmas arise; unless a legal or professional code applies to aspecific situation, HRD practitioners ‘must use judgment in resolving ethical issues. ‘The 13 areas of ethical challenge for HRD identified in the research are Flexibility is inevitable and even welcome. HRD work cannot be prescribed as a cookbook or set of procedures listed in the box, “HRD Ethical Issues “Areas,” page 55. In some cases, when issues in the areas arise, the proper response is clear, as in the case of copyright violations or the usc of psychological tests by people without proper credentials. But in most HRD situations when the 13 issues arise, the proper course of action is less clear ‘When there are no clearly relevant laws or professional codes, people must be ready to use careful analysis, judgment, and the open involvement of others to ensure the most ethical outcomes. Competencies for HRD work Models for HRD Practice also presents 35 competencies that enable HRD practitioners to do HRD work. They are the technical, business, terpersonal, and intellectual know!- ‘edge and skills that experts predict will be important across the full range of HRD work in the nineties. Again, in- dividuals and HRD organizations may only require a subset of the competen- cies, depending on the range of HRD work that they do. The 35 compe- tencies are another menu that des- ibes important HRD work dimen- sions. They are listed in the box, “HRD Competencies,” page 56. ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989Creating HRD’s future: uses of Models for HRD Practice ‘The outpuits, quality requirements, ethical challenges, and competencies that ASTD’s research has produced provide models for HRD practice. The models should be especially valuable as HRD practitioners tackle the issues of the nineties. The field needs agree- ment and a common language on ‘what constitutes professional practice. But, that consensus must be used in a ‘way that supports creative action and continuous improvement in all areas of HIRD practice. That is a paradox we ‘must treasure and live with. ‘Through Models for HRD Practice, ‘we now have standards and a common language, but individuals and insti- tutions must use judgment and flex- ibility in applying the information it contains. Suggested uses: 1§ for practitioners—job design, per- formance self-management, com- petency assessment, career planning, professional development, and assur- ing ethical behavior; wm for HRD managers—designing the HRD organization, staffing, assessing, and developing HRD staff, managing staff performance, ensuring ethical conduct, career advising, and orga- nization development of the HRD organization; 1 for academicians—course and cur- riculum planning, learner assessment, student advising, faculty management and development, and establishing research agendas. ‘The models for HRD practice are meant to be used by everyone who does or influences HRD work. Many challenges lie ahead that require higher levels of professionalism and contsibu- tion of HRD. The models provide a ‘common language and guidance to help meet those challenges. They are the gift of many research participants to the HRD field for the future, [4 ‘Training & Development Journal, September 1989Copyright © 2003 EBSCO Publishing