Admas University

Department of Computer Science

Module: Core Competency II

Compiled by
Destalem Hagos (MSc)
Teklay Hagos (MSc)

Editor: Mezgebu Aynabeba (MSc)

February 2023
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The module contains Four parts

Part I: Computer Networking and Security

 Data Communication and Computer Networking

 Network and System Administration

 Computer Security

Part II: Computer Architecture and Operating Systems

 Computer organization and architecture

 Operating Systems

Part III: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Part IV: Formal Language, Complexity theory & Compiler design

 Formal Language and Complexity Theory

 Compiler design

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Executive summary
This module introduces students to fundamental and advanced concepts in computer science that
leads students in preparing the national exit examination in relevant areas of Data
Communication and computer networking to explain the concepts and principles of data
communications and computer networks, Computer Security and privacy to comprehend
information security, including security threats, security vulnerabilities, Security goals and
security mechanisms, Network and system administration, computer organization and
architecture, operating systems identify basic concepts ,process scheduling, inter-process
communication; threads; CPU scheduling, , scheduling criteria, scheduling algorithms; process
synchronization . Formal language and complexity theory introduces some fundamental concepts
in automata theory and formal languages including grammar, finite automaton, regular
expression, formal language, push down automaton, and Turing machine. compiler design learns
basic techniques used in compiler construction such as lexical analysis, Syntax analysis, Semantic
analysis, intermediate code generation and target code generator. Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence defines reasoning, knowledge representation and learning techniques of artificial
intelligence.

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Table of Contents
Executive summary ......................................................................................... 1
Part I: Computer Networking and Security ......................................................... 4
1.1. Data Communications and Computer networking ............................................................... 4
1.2. Network and System Administration .................................................................................. 41
1.4. Computer Security and privacy ........................................................................................... 55
Part II: Computer Organization and Architecture ............................................... 86
2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 86
2.1.1. Types of computer Architecture ......................................................................................................... 87
2.1.2. Logic gates and Boolean algebra ........................................................................................................ 88
2.1.3. Types of Sequential Circuits .............................................................................................................. 95
2.1.4. Types of Latches ................................................................................................................................ 99
2.1.5. Number System ................................................................................................................................ 100
2.1.6. Register transfer languages ............................................................................................................... 114
2.1.7. Computer Registers .......................................................................................................................... 116
2.1.8. Computer Instructions ...................................................................................................................... 118
2.2. Operating Systems .............................................................................................................. 119
2.2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 119
2.2.2. Basic elements of computer system.................................................................................................. 120
2.2.3. Operating system Services ............................................................................................................... 121
2.2.4. Operating system categories ............................................................................................................. 124
2.2.5. Operating System Types................................................................................................................... 128
2.2.6. Process Management ........................................................................................................................ 129
2.2.7. Operating System Scheduling Techniques ....................................................................................... 133
2.2.8. Inter-process communication (IPC).................................................................................................. 145
2.2.9. Memory Management ...................................................................................................................... 149
2.2.10. File system Interface ........................................................................................................................ 152
Part III: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence ...................................................159
3.1. Introduction to AI ............................................................................................................... 159
3.2. Main goals of Artificial Intelligence ................................................................................. 160
3.3. Types of Artificial Intelligence.......................................................................................... 160
3.4. Types of AI Agents ............................................................................................................ 166
3.5. The Nature of Environments ............................................................................................. 169
3.6. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning ...................................................................... 176
3.7. Syntax of propositional logic ............................................................................................. 177
3.8. Knowledge Representation ................................................................................................ 182
3.9. The relation between knowledge and intelligence ........................................................... 185
3.10. Machine Learning Basics ................................................................................................... 189
3.11. Natural Language Processing (NLP) Basics ..................................................................... 193
Part IV: Formal Language Theory and Compiler ...............................................204
4.1. Introduction to the Theory of Computation ...................................................................... 204
4.1.1. Grammars ......................................................................................................................................... 207
4.1.2. Types of Grammars .......................................................................................................................... 209
4.1.3. Regular Expression and Regular Grammars ..................................................................................... 210
4.1.4. EQUIVALENCE WITH FINITE AUTOMATA ............................................................................. 213
4.1.5. Introduction to Turing machines ...................................................................................................... 225
4.2. Compiler Design ................................................................................................................. 229
4.2.1. Language Processing System ........................................................................................................... 230
4.2.2. The Structure of a Compiler ............................................................................................................. 233
4.2.3. Intermediate Code Generation .......................................................................................................... 238
4.2.4. Compiler-Construction Tools ........................................................................................................... 240
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Part I: Computer Networking and Security
1.1. Data Communications and Computer networking
Activity
 Define data communication?
 What Computer Networking?
 Explain and differentiate between TCP/IP and OSI mode
 Mention and Explain Briefly the Type of Computer networking

After completing this chapter students will able to:

Explain the concepts and principles of data communications and computer networks
Demonstrate data transmission and transmission media
Describe Protocols and various networking components
Differentiate TCP/IP & OSI Reference Model
Differentiate LAN and WAN Technologies
Explain and implement IP addressing.
Build small to medium level Computer networks Demonstrate subnets

The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two
parties. Figure 1.1 presents one particular example, which is communication between a
workstation and a server over a public telephone network.
Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same
network. The key components of the model are as follows:
 Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and
personal computers.
 Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly
in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes
the information in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be
transmitted across some sort of transmission system. For example, a modem takes a
digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal computer and transforms that
bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the telephone network.
 Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network
connecting source and destination.
 Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it
into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will

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 accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a
digital bit stream.
 Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Figure 1.1 Simplified Communications Model

To get some flavor for the focus of data communication, Figure 1.2 provides a new perspective
on the communications model of Figure 1.1a. We trace the details of this figure using electronic
mail as an example. Suppose that the input device and transmitter are components of a personal
computer. The user of the PC wishes to send a message m to another user. The user activates the
electronic mail package on the PC and enters the message via the keyboard (input device). The
character string is briefly buffered in main memory. We can view it as a sequence of bits (g) in
memory. The personal computer is connected to some transmission medium, such as a local
network or a telephone line, by an I/O device (transmitter), such as a local network transceiver
or a modem. The input data are transferred to the transmitter as a sequence of voltage shifts
[g(t)] representing bits on some communications bus or cable. The transmitter is connected
directly to the medium and converts the incoming stream [g(t)] into a signal [s(t)] suitable for
transmission; specific alternatives will be described later on coming sections.

The transmitted signal s(t) presented to the medium is subject to a number of impairments,
discussed in later section, before it reaches the receiver. Thus, the received signal r(t) may differ
from s(t). The receiver will attempt to estimate the original s(t), based on r(t) and its knowledge
of the medium, producing a sequence of bits These bits are sent to the output personal computer,
where they are briefly buffered in memory as a block of bits In many cases, the destination
system will attempt to determine if an error has occurred and, if so, cooperate with the source
system to eventually obtain a complete, error-free block of data. These data are then presented to

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the user via an output device, such as a printer or screen. The message as viewed by the user will
usually be an exact copy of the original message (m).

Now consider a telephone conversation. In this case the input to the telephone is a message (m) in
the form of sound waves. The sound waves are converted by the telephone into electrical signals
of the same frequency. These signals are transmitted without modification over the telephone
line. Hence the input signal g(t) and the transmitted signal s(t) are identical. The signals (t) will
suffer some distortion over the medium, so that r(t) will not be identical to s(t). Nevertheless, the
signal r(t) is converted back into a sound wave with no attempt at correction or improvement of
signal quality. Thus, is not an exact replica of m. However, the received sound message is
generally comprehensible to the listener. The discussion so far does not touch on other key
aspects of data communications, including data link control techniques for controlling the flow of
data and detecting and correcting errors, and multiplexing techniques for transmission efficiency

Figure 1.2 Simplified Data Communications Model

Transmission Media
In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter
and receiver. For guided media, electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium, such as
copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fiber. For unguided media, wireless
transmission occurs through the atmosphere, outer space, or water.

The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics
of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself
is more important in determining the limitations of transmission.

For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more
important than the medium in determining transmission characteristics. One key property of
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signals transmitted by antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are
omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher
frequencies, it is possible to focus the signal into a directional beam.
Classification Of Transmission Media:

In considering the design of data transmission systems, key concerns are data rate and distance:
the greater the data rate and distance the better. A number of design factors relating to the
transmission medium and the signal determine the data rate and distance:
 Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a signal,
the higher the data rate that can be achieved.
 Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance. For
guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more impairment than coaxial cable, which in
turn suffers more than optical fiber.
 Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can
distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for unguided media, but
is also a problem with guided media. For guided media, interference can be caused by
emanations from nearby cables. For example, twisted pairs are often bundled together and
conduits often carry multiple cables. Interference can also be experienced from unguided
transmissions. Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize this problem.
 Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-to-point link or
a shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case, each attachment introduces
some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance and/or data rate.
Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media.
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Types of Guided media

Twisted pair
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted
pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable
is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to
3.5KHz. A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
Types of Twisted Pair
There are two types of twisted pair Shielded twisted pair and unshielded twisted pair
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable. The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other. It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
Fiber Optic
Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication. Fiber optic is a cable
that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light. The
plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other
types of wiring. Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Unguided Transmission

An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium. Therefore, it is also known as wireless transmission. In unguided media, air is the media
through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily. Unguided transmission is broadly
classified into three categories:
Radio waves
Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions. The range
in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz. In the case of radio waves, the sending and
receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by
any receiving antenna. An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Microwaves
Microwaves are of two types:
 Terrestrial microwave
 Satellite microwave communication.
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Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio
signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another. Microwaves are the
electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz. Microwaves
are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the
sending antenna are narrowly focused. In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a
beam to another antenna which is km away. It works on the line-of-sight transmission, i.e., the
antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of each other.
Satellite Microwave Communication
A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height. Satellite
communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fiber optic
systems. We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
Infrared
An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges. The
frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz. It is used for short-range
communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area
Transmission modes

The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission
mode. The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode. Each communication
channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the direction. The
transmission mode is defined in the physical layer. The Transmission mode is divided into three
categories:
 Simplex mode
 Half-duplex mode
 Full-duplex mode
Simplex mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction. A
device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.

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Half-Duplex mode
n a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the
data as well. Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time. The entire bandwidth
of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
Full-duplex mode
In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously. Full-duplex mode has two
simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic
flowing in the opposite direction. The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication
between devices. The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single
medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used
for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer. Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing
follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line. Demultiplexing is achieved by using
a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a
signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that
demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach. The following lists are some of the reasons
why we are using multiplexing techniques
 The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium
can only have one signal at a time.
 If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For
example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is
shared by each signal.
 When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
 Transmission services are very expensive.
Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as indicating in the diagram

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Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

It is an analog technique. Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available

bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels. The main aim of
the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels and allocate
them to different devices. Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
Advantages Of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
 FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
 It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
 A Large number of modulators are required.
 It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
 FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
 It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies,
and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted
in the air.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fiber optic cable.
 WDM is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the
help of multiplexer.
 At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
Time Division Multiplexing

It is a digital technique. In Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time. In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available
in the channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different
time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender. A user takes
control of the channel for a fixed amount of time. In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data
is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
There are two types of TDM:
 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM

A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device. In

Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device
contains the data or not. If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is
having no data.
Asynchronous TDM

An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM. An asynchronous TDM is a technique

in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to
only those devices which have the data to send.
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Multiplexing Techniques
The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in
Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads
to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.

Computer Network
Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through communication
links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network. The aim of the
computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices. In the case of computer
network technology, there are several types of networks that vary from simple to complex level.

Components of computer network

NIC (National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol uses this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination. There are
two types of NIC known as wireless NIC and wired NIC.
Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices.
Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network,
i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to.
Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.
Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on
the motherboard.
Cables and connectors

Different types of network cables and connectors

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Application of Computer Network

Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and
data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the
resource and user.
Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing
their business over the internet.
Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:
 Peer-To-Peer network
 Client/Server network
Peer-To-Peer network

Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data. Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small
environments, usually up to 10 computers. Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server. Special
permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

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  If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system. Therefore,
it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network

Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server. The central
controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients. A
server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.

A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc. All
the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send
some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server
sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore, we can back up the
data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

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  Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A
computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 PAN (Personal Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network)
 Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
 It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
 The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)
 Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within
a range of 10 meters.
 Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
 Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
 Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

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  A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
 Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
 In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
 The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
 It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
 MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
 It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 It can be used in a college within a city.
 It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
 A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
 A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
 A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
 The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
 A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Internetworking

An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer

network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking. An interconnection between public, private,
commercial, industrial, or government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
An internetworking uses the internet protocol. The reference model used for internetworking is
Open System Interconnection (OSI) and the working model used is TCP/IP Model.
Types Of Internetworks:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as

Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or
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 other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, at least it must have one
connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The
main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Network Topology

Topology defines the structure of the network and shows how all the components are
interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topologies:
1. physical and
2. logical topology.
Physical topology: is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six
types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star
Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
Logical Topology: is a concept in networking that defines the architecture of the communication
mechanism for all nodes in a network.
Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and
modify. To overcome such problem, a layered approach was developed, that is the networking
concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we
can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.
Network Layered Architecture

The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each lower
layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications. It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e.,
provides interaction between subsystems. It ensures the independence between layers by
providing the services from lower to higher layer without defining how the services are

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implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers. There are two
important network architectures: the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model.
The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
 Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
 Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer
entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.
 Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another
layer.
In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on
another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a
particular network function. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications. OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
Characteristics of OSI Model
The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layer of the
OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application
layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another
layer. The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest
layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly
responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
Seven Layers of OSI Model
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions.

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Physical layer
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node. It is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It establishes, maintains and deactivates the
physical connection. It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
Data-Link Layer
This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames. It defines the format of the data
on the network. This layer provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices. It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.

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Data link layer contains two sub-layers:
Logical Link Control Layer
It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving. It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header. It also
provides flow control.
Media Access Control Layer
A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer. It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
Network Layer
It is a layer 3 that manages device logical addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.

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It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors. The network layer is responsible for routing
and forwarding the packets. Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork. The protocols used to route the
network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Functions of Network Layer:
Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing.
Transport Layer
The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data. The main responsibility of the transport layer is to
transfer the data completely. It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments. This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides
a point-to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol
It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts. When data is sent over the TCP
connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each
segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
User Datagram Protocol
User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment
when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this
makes a protocol unreliable.
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Functions of Transport Layer:
Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.
Session Layer
It is a layer 3 in the OSI model. The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes
the interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer
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A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems. It acts as a data translator for a network. This layer is a part
of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to another format. The
Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, video.
Application Layer
An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service. It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc. An application
layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP model

The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model. It is a working model. It is not exactly
similar to the OSI model. The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer. The first four layers provide

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physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to
the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, and each of them provides specific functionality.
Network Addressing and Routing

Layer-3 in the OSI model is called Network layer, in the TCP/IP model is called Internet.
Network layer manages options pertaining to host and network addressing, managing sub-
networks, and internetworking. Network layer takes the responsibility for routing packets from
source to destination within or outside a subnet. Two different subnets may have different
addressing schemes or non-compatible addressing types. Same with protocols, two different
subnets may be operating on different protocols which are not compatible with each other.
Network layer has the responsibility to route the packets from source to destination, mapping
different addressing schemes and protocols. Internet protocol is widely respected and deployed
Network Layer protocol which helps to communicate end to end devices over the internet. It
comes in two flavors. IPv4 which has ruled the world for decades but now is running out of
address space. IPv6 is created to replace IPv4 and hopefully mitigates limitations of IPv4 too.
Network Addressing

Layer 3 network addressing is one of the major tasks of Network Layer. Network Addresses are
always logical i.e. these are software based addresses which can be changed by appropriate
configurations. A network address always points to host / node / server or it can represent a whole
network. Network address is always configured on network interface card and is generally
mapped by system with the MAC address (hardware address or layer-2 address) of the machine
for Layer-2 communication. IP addressing provides mechanism to differentiate between hosts and
network. Because IP addresses are assigned in hierarchical manner, a host always resides under a
specific network. The host which needs to communicate outside its subnet, needs to know
destination network address, where the packet/data is to be sent.
Hosts in different subnet need a mechanism to locate each other. This task can be done by DNS.
DNS is a server which provides Layer-3 address of remote host mapped with its domain name or
FQDN. When a host acquires the Layer-3 Address (IP Address) of the remote host, it forwards all
its packet to its gateway. A gateway is a router equipped with all the information which leads to
route packets to the destination host. Routers take help of routing tables, which has the following
information:

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  Address of destination network
 Method to reach the network
Routers upon receiving a forwarding request, forwards packet to its next hop (adjacent router)
towards the destination. The next router on the path follows the same thing and eventually the
data packet reaches its destination.
Network address can be of one of the following:
 Unicast (destined to one host)
 Multicast (destined to group)
 Broadcast (destined to all)
 Anycast (destined to nearest one)
A router never forwards broadcast traffic by default. Multicast traffic uses special treatment as it
is most a video stream or audio with highest priority. Anycast is just similar to unicast, except
that the packets are delivered to the nearest destination when multiple destinations are available.
Network Routing

When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination, it always selects one path by preferring it
over others. This selection process is termed as Routing. Routing is done by special network
devices called routers or it can be done by means of software processes. The software-based routers
have limited functionality and limited scope.
A router is always configured with some default route. A default route tells the router where to
forward a packet if there is no route found for specific destination. In case there are multiple
paths existing to reach the same destination, router can make decision based on the following
information:
 Hop Count
 Bandwidth
 Metric
 Prefix-length
 Delay
Routes can be statically configured or dynamically learnt. One route can be configured to be
preferred over others.
Unicast routing

Most of the traffic on the internet and intranets known as unicast data or unicast traffic is sent
with specified destination. Routing unicast data over the internet is called unicast routing.

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Broadcast routing

By default, the broadcast packets are not routed and forwarded by the routers on any network.
Routers create broadcast domains. But it can be configured to forward broadcasts in some special
cases. A broadcast message is destined to all network devices.
Multicast Routing

Multicast routing is special case of broadcast routing with significance difference and challenges.
In broadcast routing, packets are sent to all nodes even if they do not want it. But in Multicast
routing, the data is sent to only nodes which wants to receive the packets.
Anycast Routing

Anycast packet forwarding is a mechanism where multiple hosts can have same logical address.
When a packet destined to this logical address is received, it is sent to the host which is nearest in
routing topology. Anycast routing is done with help of DNS server. Whenever an Anycast packet
is received it is enquired with DNS to where to send it. DNS provides the IP address which is the
nearest IP configured on it.
Routing Protocols

There are two kinds of routing protocols available to route packets:

Distance Vector Routing Protocol

Distance Vector is simple routing protocol which takes routing decision on the number of hops
between source and destination. A route with a smaller number of hops is considered as the best
route. Every router advertises its set best routes to other routers. Ultimately, all routers build up
their network topology based on the advertisements of their peer routers, for example, Routing
Information Protocol (RIP).
Link State Routing Protocol

Link State protocol is slightly complicated protocol than Distance Vector. It takes into account the
states of links of all the routers in a network. This technique helps routes build a common graph of
the entire network. All routers then calculate their best path for routing purposes, for example,
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and Intermediate System to Intermediate System (ISIS).
Routing Algorithms

The routing algorithms are used to route the data as follows:

Flooding
Flooding is simplest method packet forwarding. When a packet is received, the routers send it to
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all the interfaces except the one on which it was received. This creates too much burden on the
network and lots of duplicate packets wandering in the network.

Time to Live (TTL) can be used to avoid infinite looping of packets. There exists another
approach for flooding, which is called Selective Flooding to reduce the overhead on the network.
In this method, the router does not flood out on all the interfaces, but selective ones.
Shortest Path
Routing decision in networks, are mostly taken on the basis of cost between source and
destination. Hop count plays major role here. Shortest path is a technique which uses various
algorithms to decide a path with minimum number of hops. Common shortest path algorithms
are:
 Dijkstra's algorithm
 Bellman Ford algorithm
 Floyd Warshall algorithm
Internetworking

In real world scenario, networks under same administration are generally scattered
geographically. There may exist requirement of connecting two different networks of same kind as
well as of different kinds. Routing between two networks is called internetworking. Networks can
be considered different based on various parameters such as, Protocol, topology, Layer-2 network
and addressing scheme. In internetworking, routers have knowledge of each other‘s address and
addresses beyond them. They can be statically configured go on different network or they can
learn by using internetworking routing protocol.

Routing protocols which are used within an organization or administration are called Interior
Gateway Protocols or IGP. RIP, OSPF are examples of IGP Routing between different
organizations or administrations may have Exterior Gateway Protocol, and there is only one
EGP i.e., Border Gateway Protocol.
Network Layer Protocols

Every computer in a network has an IP address by which it can be uniquely identified and
addressed. An IP address is Layer-3 (Network Layer) logical address. This address may change
every time a computer restarts. A computer can have one IP at one instance of time and another IP
at some different time.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

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While communicating, a host needs Layer-2 (MAC) address of the destination machine which
belongs to the same broadcast domain or network. A MAC address is physically burnt into the
Network Interface Card (NIC) of a machine and it never changes. On the other hand, IP address
on the public domain is rarely changed. If the NIC is changed in case of some fault, the MAC
address also changes. This way, for Layer-2 communication to take place, a mapping between the
two is required.
To know the MAC address of remote host on a broadcast domain, a computer wishing to initiate
communication sends out an ARP broadcast message asking, ―Who has this IP address?‖ Because
it is a broadcast, all hosts on the network segment (broadcast domain) receive this packet and
process it. ARP packet contains the IP address of destination host, the sending host wishes to talk
to. When a host receives an ARP packet destined to it, it replies back with its own MAC address.

Once the host gets destination MAC address, it can communicate with remote host using Layer-2
link protocol. This MAC to IP mapping is saved into ARP cache of both sending and receiving
hosts. Next time, if they require to communicate, they can directly refer to their respective ARP
cache. Reverse ARP is a mechanism where host knows the MAC address of remote host but
requires to know IP address to communicate.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP is network diagnostic and error reporting protocol. ICMP belongs to IP protocol suite and
uses IP as carrier protocol. After constructing ICMP packet, it is encapsulated in IP packet.
Because IP itself is a best-effort non-reliable protocol, so is ICMP.

Any feedback about network is sent back to the originating host. If some error in the network
occurs, it is reported by means of ICMP. ICMP contains dozens of diagnostic and error reporting
messages.

ICMP-echo and ICMP-echo-reply are the most commonly used ICMP messages to check the
reachability of end-to-end hosts. When a host receives an ICMP-echo request, it is bound to send
back an ICMP-echo-reply. If there is any problem in the transit network, the ICMP will report
that problem.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

IPv4 is 32-bit addressing scheme used as TCP/IP host addressing mechanism. IP addressing
enables every host on the TCP/IP network to be uniquely identifiable. IPv4 provides hierarchical
addressing scheme which enables it to divide the network into sub-networks, each with well-

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defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided into many categories:

 Class A: It uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host addressing.
 Class B: It uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host addressing.
 Class C: It uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host addressing.
 Class D: It provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical structure
for above three.
 Class E: It is used as experimental.

IPv4 also has well-defined address spaces to be used as private addresses (not routable on
internet), and public addresses (provided by ISPs and are routable on internet). Though IP is not
reliable one; it provides ‗Best-Effort-Delivery‘ mechanism.
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses gave birth to a next generation Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6
addresses its nodes with 128-bit wide address providing plenty of address space for future to be
used on entire planet or beyond. IPv6 has introduced Anycast addressing but has removed the
concept of broadcasting. IPv6 enables devices to self-acquire an IPv6 address and communicate
within that subnet. This auto-configuration removes the dependability of Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. This way, even if the DHCP server on that subnet is
down, the hosts can communicate with each other.

IPv6 provides new feature of IPv6 mobility. Mobile IPv6-equipped machines can roam around
without the need of changing their IP addresses. IPv6 is still in transition phase and is expected to
replace IPv4 completely in coming years. At present, there are few networks which are running on
IPv6. There are some transition mechanisms available for IPv6-enabled networks to speak and
roam around different networks easily on IPv4. These are:

 Dual stack implementation

 Tunneling

 NAT-PT
Transport Layer Services

Transport layer offers end-to-end connection between two processes on remote hosts. Transport
breaks data received into smaller size segments, numbers each byte, and hands over to lower layer
for delivery.
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Functions

 This Layer is the first one which breaks the information data, supplied by Application
layer in to smaller units called segments. It numbers every byte in the segment and
maintains their accounting.

 This layer ensures that data must be received in the same sequence in which it was sent.

 This layer provides end-to-end delivery of data between hosts which may or may not
belong to the same subnet.

 All server processes intend to communicate over the network are equipped with well-
known Transport Service Access Points (TSAPs) also known as port numbers.
End-to-End Communication

A process on one host identifies its peer host on remote network by means of TSAPs, also known
as Port numbers. TSAPs are very well defined and a process which is trying to communicate with
its peer knows this in advance.

For example, when a DHCP client wants to communicate with remote DHCP server, it always
requests on port number 67. When a DNS client wants to communicate with remote DNS server, it
always requests on port number 53 (UDP).

The two main Transport layer protocols are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol

It provides reliable communication between two hosts.

2. User Datagram Protocol

It provides unreliable communication between two hosts.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most important protocols of Internet
Protocols suite. It is most widely used protocol for data transmission in communication network

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such as internet.
Features

 TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the receiver always sends either positive or negative
acknowledgement about the data packet to the sender, so that the sender always has bright
clue about whether the data packet is reached the destination or it needs to resend it.

 TCP ensures that the data reaches intended destination in the same order it was sent.

 TCP is connection oriented. TCP requires that connection between two remote points be
established before sending actual data.

 TCP provides error-checking and recovery mechanism.

 TCP provides end-to-end communication.

 TCP provides flow control and quality of service.

 TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.

 TCP provides full duplex server, i.e. it can perform roles of both receiver and sender.
Header

The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes and maximum 60 bytes.

 Source Port (16-bits): It identifies source port of the application process on the sending
device.
 Destination Port (16-bits): It identifies destination port of the application process on the
receiving device.
 Sequence Number (32-bits): Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a session.
 Acknowledgement Number (32-bits): When ACK flag is set, this number contains the
next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of the
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 previous data received.
 Data Offset (4-bits): This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words) and
the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
 Reserved (3-bits): Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
 NS: Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit Congestion Notification signaling process.
 CWR: When a host receives packet with ECE bit set, it sets Congestion Windows
Reduced to acknowledge that ECE received.
 ECE: It has two meanings:
 If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the IP packet has its CE (congestion
experience) bit set.
 If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the device is ECT capable.
 URG: It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has significant data and should be processed.
 ACK: It indicates that Acknowledgement field has significance. If ACK is cleared to 0,
it indicates that packet does not contain any acknowledgement
 PSH: When set, it is a request to the receiving station to PUSH data as soon as it comes
to the receiving application without buffering it.
 RST: Reset flag has the following features:
 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
 It is used to reject a segment.
 It is used to restart a connection.
 SYN: This flag is used to set up a connection between hosts.
 FIN: This flag is used to release a connection and no more data is exchanged thereafter.
Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they are processed in
correct order.
 Windows Size: This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates the
amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much data is
the receiver expecting.
 Checksum: This field contains the checksum of Header, Data, and Pseudo Headers.
 Urgent Pointer: It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
 Options: It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular header.
Option field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-bit,
padding is used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32- bit boundary.
Addressing
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 TCP communication between two remote hosts is done by means of port numbers
(TSAPs). Ports numbers can range from 0 – 65535 which are divided as:
 System Ports (0 – 1023)
User Ports (1024 – 49151)
 Private/Dynamic Ports (49152 – 65535)
Connection Management

TCP communication works in Server/Client model. The client initiates the connection and
the server either accepts or rejects it. Three-way handshaking is used for connection
management.

Establishment

Client initiates the connection and sends the segment with a Sequence number. Server
acknowledges it back with its own Sequence number and ACK of client‘s segment which is one
more than client‘s Sequence number. Client after receiving ACK of its segment sends an
acknowledgement of Server‘s response.
Release

Either of server and client can send TCP segment with FIN flag set to 1. When the receiving end
responds it back by Acknowledging FIN, that direction of TCP communication is closed and
connection is released.
Bandwidth Management

TCP uses the concept of window size to accommodate the need of Bandwidth management.
Window size tells the sender at the remote end the number of data byte segments the receiver at
this end can receive. TCP uses slow start phase by using window size 1 and increases the window
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size exponentially after each successful communication. For example, the client uses windows size
2 and sends 2 bytes of data. When the acknowledgement of this segment received, the windows
size is doubled to 4 and next the segment sent will be 4 data bytes long. When the
acknowledgement of 4-byte data segment is received, the client sets windows size to 8 and so on.
If an acknowledgement is missed, i.e. data lost in transit network or it received NACK, then the
window size is reduced to half and slow start phase starts again.
Error Control and Flow Control

TCP uses port numbers to know what application process it needs to handover the data segment.
Along with that, it uses sequence numbers to synchronize itself with the remote host. All data
segments are sent and received with sequence numbers. The Sender knows which last data
segment was received by the Receiver when it gets ACK. The Receiver knows about the last
segment sent by the Sender by referring to the sequence number of recently received packet.

If the sequence number of a segment recently received does not match with the sequence number
the receiver was expecting, then it is discarded and NACK is sent back. If two segments arrive
with the same sequence number, the TCP timestamp value is compared to make a decision.
Congestion Control

When large amount of data is fed to system which is not capable of handling it, congestion
occurs. TCP controls congestion by means of Window mechanism. TCP sets a window size
telling the other end how much data segment to send. TCP may use three algorithms for
congestion control:

 Additive increase, Multiplicative Decrease

 Slow Start

 Timeout React
Timer Management

TCP uses different types of timers to control and management various tasks:

Keep-alive timer:
 This timer is used to check the integrity and validity of a connection.

 When keep-alive time expires, the host sends a probe to check if the connection still exists.
Retransmission timer:
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  This timer maintains stateful session of data sent.

 If the acknowledgement of sent data does not receive within the Retransmission time, the
data segment is sent again.
Persist timer:

 TCP session can be paused by either host by sending Window Size 0.

 To resume the session a host needs to send Window Size with some larger value.
 If this segment never reaches the other end, both ends may wait for each other for infinite
time.
 When the Persist timer expires, the host resends its window size to let the other end know.
 Persist Timer helps avoid deadlocks in communication.
Timed-Wait:

 After releasing a connection, either of the hosts waits for a Timed-Wait time to terminate
the connection completely.
 This is in order to make sure that the other end has received the acknowledgement of its
connection termination request.
 Timed-out can be a maximum of 240 seconds (4 minutes).
Crash Recovery

TCP is very reliable protocol. It provides sequence number to each of byte sent in segment. It
provides the feedback mechanism i.e. when a host receives a packet, it is bound to ACK that
packet having the next sequence number expected (if it is not the last segment).

When a TCP Server crashes mid-way communication and re-starts its process, it sends TPDU
broadcast to all its hosts. The hosts can then send the last data segment which was never
unacknowledged and carry onwards.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is simplest Transport Layer communication protocol
available of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It involves minimum amount of communication
mechanism. UDP is said to be an unreliable transport protocol but it uses IP services which
provides best effort delivery mechanism. In UDP, the receiver does not generate an
acknowledgement of packet received and in turn, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgement of packet sent. This shortcoming makes this protocol unreliable as well as
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easier on processing.
Requirement of UDP

A question may arise, why do we need an unreliable protocol to transport the data? We deploy
UDP where the acknowledgement packets share significant amount of bandwidth along with the
actual data. For example, in case of video streaming, thousands of packets are forwarded towards
its users. Acknowledging all the packets is troublesome and may contain huge amount of
bandwidth wastage. The best delivery mechanism of underlying IP protocol ensures best efforts
to deliver its packets, but even if some packets in video streaming get lost, the impact is not
calamitous and can be ignored easily. Loss of few packets in video and voice traffic sometimes
goes unnoticed.
Features

 UDP is used when acknowledgement of data does not hold any significance.

 UDP is good protocol for data flowing in one direction.

 UDP is simple and suitable for query-based communications.

 UDP is not connection oriented.

 UDP does not provide congestion control mechanism.

 UDP does not guarantee ordered delivery of data.

 UDP is stateless.

 UDP is suitable protocol for streaming applications such as VoIP, multimedia streaming.
UDP Header

UDP header is as simple as its function.

UDP header contains four main parameters:

1. Source Port: This 16-bit information is used to identify the source port of the packet.
2. Destination Port: This 16-bit information is used identify application-level service on
destination machine.

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 3. Length: Length field specifies the entire length of UDP packet (including header). It is
16-bits field and minimum value is 8-byte, i.e., the size of UDP header itself.
4. Checksum: This field stores the checksum value generated by the sender before
sending. IPv4 has this field as optional so when checksum field does not contain any
value, it is made 0 and all its bits are set to zero.
UDP application

Here are few applications where UDP is used to transmit data:

 Domain Name Services
 Simple Network Management Protocol
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
 Routing Information Protocol
 Kerberos
Network Services

Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and explore
the unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the capabilities are
enhanced multiple times. Some basic services computer network can offer are:
Directory Services

These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or fixed. This
software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various means of
accessing it.
Accounting

In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped to them.
Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic form and make available
when requested.
Authentication and Authorization

User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or periodically. User
accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to resources can be controlled
using authorization schemes.
Domain Name Services

DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This system maps
IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and recall than IP addresses. Because

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network operates with the help of IP addresses and humans tend to remember website names, the
DNS provides website‘s IP address which is mapped to its name from the back-end on the request
of a website name from the user.
File Services

File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.
File Sharing

One of the reasons which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing enables its users
to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a specific server, which is
accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can make its file shared on its own
computer and provides access to intended users.
File Transfer

This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to multiple
computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to locate other users in the
network and transfers files.
Communication Services
Email

Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot work without.
This is the basis of today‘s internet features. Email system has one or more email servers. All its
users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends email to other user, it is actually
transferred between users with help of email server.
Social Networking

Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples, can find other
known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share thoughts, pictures, and videos.
Internet Chat

Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or more people can
communicate with each other using text-based Internet Relay Chat services. These days, voice
chat and video chat are very common.
Discussion Boards

Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same interests. It
enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be seen by all other users.
Other may respond as well.
Remote Access
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This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This feature is
known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g. mobile phone or home
computer.
Application Services

These are nothing but providing network-based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.
Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share them. This may
include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.
Databases

This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and information,
processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using queries. Databases help
organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
Web Services

World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet. It is used to connect to the internet, and
access files and information services provided by the internet servers.
Application Layer applications

An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model. It is responsible for handling high-
level protocols, issues of representation. This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer. There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer.
Every application cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the
communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while
web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known
as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

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SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-
mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another
e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of
a host to the internet uniquely. But people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore,
the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal
at the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

1.2. Network and System Administration

Network and system administration is a branch of engineering that concerns the operational
management of human–computer systems. It is unusual as an engineering discipline in that it
addresses both the technology of computer systems and the users of the technology on an equal
basis. It is about putting together a network of computers (workstations, PCs and
supercomputers), getting them running and then keeping them running in spite of the activities of
users who tend to cause the systems to fail.
A system administrator works for users, so that they can use the system to produce work. System
administration is the term used traditionally by mainframe and UNIX engineers to describe the
management of computers whether they are coupled by a network or not. To this community,
network administration means the management of network infrastructure devices (routers and
switches). The world of personal computers (PCs) has no tradition of managing individual
computers and their subsystems, and thus does not speak of system administration,
The challenges of system administration
System administration is not just about installing operating systems. It is about planning and
designing an efficient community of computers so that real users will be able to get their jobs
done. That means:

 Designing a network which is logical and efficient.

 Deploying large numbers of machines which can be easily upgraded later.
 Deciding what services are needed.
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  Planning and implementing adequate security.
 Providing a comfortable environment for users.
 Developing ways of fixing errors and problems which occur.
 Keeping track of and understanding how to use the enormous amount of knowledge which
increases every year.

The Meta principles of system administration

 System administration begins with a policy – a decision about what we want and what
should be, in relation to what we can afford.
 The highest-level aim in system administration is to work towards a predictable system.
Predictability has limits. It is the basis of reliability, hence trust and therefore security.
 Scalable systems are those that grow in accordance with policy; i.e. they continue to
function predictably, even as they increase in size.
 Restriction of unnecessary privilege protects a system from accidental and malicious
damage, infection by viruses and prevents users from concealing their actions with false
identities. It is desirable to restrict users‘ privileges for the greater good of everyone on the
network.

System components

In system administration, the word system is used to refer both to the operating system of a
computer and often, collectively the set of all computers that cooperate in a network.

Network infrastructure

There are three main components in a human–computer system:

 Humans: who use and run the fixed infrastructure, and cause most problems.
 Host computers: computer devices that run software. These might be in a fixed location,
or mobile devices.
 Network hardware: This covers a variety of specialized devices including the following
key components:
o Dedicated computing devices that direct traffic around the Internet.
o Routers talk at the IP address level, or ‗layer 3‘,1 simplistically speaking.
o Switches: fixed hardware devices that direct traffic around local area networks.
Switches talk at the level of Ethernet or ‗layer 2‘ protocols, in common parlance.
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 o Cables: There are many types of cable that interconnect devices: fiber optic cables,
twisted pair cables, null-modem cables etc.

1.3. Operating systems

An operating system has a number of key elements:

I. a technical layer of software for driving the hardware of the computer, like disk drives, the
keyboard and the screen; (ii) a filesystem which provides a way of organizing files
logically, and
II. a simple user interface which enables users to run their own programs and to manipulate
their files in a simple way. Of central importance to an operating system is a core software
system or kernel which is responsible for allocating and sharing the resources of the
system between several running programs or processes. It is supplemented by a number of
supporting services (paging, RPC, FTP, WWW etc.) which either assist the kernel or
extend its resource sharing to the network domain.

The operating system can be responsible for sharing the resources of a single computer, but
increasingly we are seeing distributed operating systems in which execution of programs and
sharing of resources happens without regard for hardware boundaries; or network operating
systems in which a central server adds functionality to relatively dumb workstations.
Sometimes programs which do not affect the job of sharing resources are called user
programs. In short, a computer system is composed of many subsystems, some of which are
software systems and some of which are hardware systems. The operating system runs
interactive programs for humans, services for local and distributed users and support programs
which work together to provide the infrastructure which enables machine resources to be
shared between many processes.

Most Unix-like

Operating systems support symmetric multi-threaded processing and all support simultaneous
logins by multiple users.

Multi-user operating systems

The purpose of a multi-user operating system is to allow multiple users to share the resources of a
single host. In order to do this, it is necessary to protect users from one another by giving them a
unique identity or user name and a private login area, i.e. by restricting their privilege. In short,
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we need to simulate a virtual workstation for each individual user, with private files and private
processes.

The legacy of insecure operating systems

The home computer revolution was an important development which spread cheap computing

power to a large part of the world. As with all rapid commercial developments, the focus in

developing home operating systems was on immediate functionality, not on planning for the

future. The home computer revolution preceded the network revolution by a number of years and

home computer operating

Systems did not address security issues. Operating systems developed during this priod include

Windows, MacIntosh, DOS, Amiga-DOS. All of these systems are completely insecure: they

place no limits on what a determined user can do.

Securable operating systems

To distinguish them from insecure operating systems we shall refer to operating systems like
UNIX and NT as securable operating systems. This should not give the impression that Unix and
NT are secure: by its nature, security is not an achievable goal, but an aspiration that includes
accepted levels of risk (see section 11.4). Nevertheless, these operating systems do have the
mechanisms which make a basic level of preventative security possible.

A fundamental prerequisite for security is the ability to restrict access to certain system resources.
The main reason why DOS, Windows 9x and the Macintosh are so susceptible to virus attacks is
because any user can change the operating system‘s files. Properly configured and bug-free
Unix/NT systems are theoretically immune to such attacks, if privilege is not abused, because
ordinary users do not have the privileges required to change system files.2 unfortunately the key
phrases properly configured and bug-free highlight the flaw in this dream. Shells or command
interpreters

Today it is common for operating systems to provide graphical window systems for all kinds of
tasks. These are often poorly suited to system administration because they only allow us to choose
between pre-programmed operations which the program designers foresaw when they wrote the

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program. Most operating systems provide an alternative command line user interface which has
some form of interpreted language, thus allowing users to express what they want with more
freedom and precision. Windows proprietary shells are rudimentary; UNIX shells are rich in
complexity and some of them are available for installation on Windows.

Shells can be used to write simple programs called scripts or batch files which often simplify
repetitive administrative tasks.

Logs and audits

Operating system kernels share resources and offer services. They can be asked to keep lists of
transactions which have taken place so that one can later go back and see exactly what happened
at a given time. This is called logging or auditing.

Full system auditing involves logging every single operation that the computer performs. This
consumes vast amounts of disk space and CPU time and is generally inadvisable unless one has a
specific reason to audit the system. Part of auditing used to be called system accounting from the
days when computer accounts really were accounts for real money. In the mainframe days, users
would pay for system time in dollars and thus accounting was important since it showed who
owed what [133], but this practice remains mainly on large super-computing installations today
and ‗computing farms‘.

Auditing has become an issue again in connection with security. Organizations have become
afraid of break-ins from system crackers and want to be able to trace the activities of the system in
order to be able to look back and find out the identity of a cracker. The other side of the coin is
that system accounting is so resource consuming that the loss of performance might be more
important to an organization than the threat of intrusion.

Privileged accounts
Operating systems that restrict user privileges need an account which can be used to configure
and maintain the system. Such an account must have access to the whole system, without regard
for restrictions. It is therefore called a privileged account. In UNIX the privileged account is
called root, also referred to colloquially as the super-user. In Windows, the Administrator account
is similar to UNIX‘s root, except that the administrator does not have automatic access to
everything as does root. Instead, he/she must be first granted access to an object. However the
Administrator always has the right to grant themselves access to a resource so in practice this
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feature just adds an extra level of caution. These accounts place virtually no restriction on what
the account holder can do. In a sense, they provide the privileged user with a skeleton key, a
universal pass to any part of the system.

Principle 4 (Minimum privilege). Restriction of unnecessary privilege protects a system from

accidental and malicious damage, infection by viruses and prevents users from concealing their
actions with false identities. It is desirable to restrict users‘ privileges for the greater good of
everyone on the network.

Comparing Unix-like and Windows computers

The two most popular classes of operating system today are Unix-like operating systems (i.e.
those which are either derived from or inspired by System V or BSD) and Microsoft Windows
NT-like operating systems. We shall only discuss Windows NT and later derivatives of the
Windows family, in a network context. For the sake of placing the generalities in this book in a
clearer context, it is useful to compare ‗Unix‘ with Windows.

The file and directory structures of UNIX and Windows are rather different, but it is natural that
both systems have the same basic elements.

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Unix-like operating systems are many and varied, but they are basically similar in concept.

Filesystems

Files and filesystems are at the very heart of what system administration is about. Almost every
task in host administration or network configuration involves making changes to files. We need to
acquire a basic understanding of the principles of filesystems, so what better way than to examine
some of the most important filesystems in use today. Specifically, what we are interested in is the
user interfaces to common filesystems, not the technical details which are rather fickle. We could,
for instance, mention the fact that old filesystems were only 32 bit addressable and therefore
supported a maximum partition size of 2GB or 4GB, depending on their implementation details,
or that newer filesystems are 64 bit addressable and therefore have essentially no storage limits.
We could mention the fact that UNIX uses an index node system of block addressing, while DOS
uses a tabular lookup system: the list goes on. These technical details are of only passing interest
since they change at an alarming pace. What is more constant is the user functionality of the
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filesystems: how they allow file access to be restricted to groups of users, and what commands are
necessary to manage this.

UNIX file model

UNIX has a hierarchical filesystem, which makes use of directories and subdirectories to form a
tree. All file systems on UNIX-like operating systems are based on a system of index nodes, or i
nodes, in which every file has an index entry stored in a special part of the filesystem. The i nodes
contain an extensible system of pointers to the actual disk blocks which are associated with the
file. The i node contains essential information needed to locate a file on the disk. The top or start
of the UNIX file tree is called the root filesystem or ‗/‘. Although the details of where common
files are located differ for different versions of UNIX, some basic features are the same.

The file hierarchy

The main subdirectories of the root directory together with the most important file are shown
below. Their contents are as follows.

 /bin Executable (binary) programs. On most systems this is a separate directory to /usr/bin. In
SunOS, this is a pointer (link) to /usr/bin.
 /etc miscellaneous programs and configuration files. This directory has become very messy
over the history of UNIX and has become a dumping ground for almost anything. Recent
versions of UNIX have begun to tidy up this directory by creating subdirectories /etc/mail,
/etc/inet etc.
 /usr this contains the main meat of UNIX. This is where application software lives, together
with all of the basic libraries used by the OS.
 /usr/bin more executables from the OS.
 /usr/sbin Executables that are mainly of interest to system administrators.
 /usr/local this is where users‘ custom software is normally added.
 /sbin a special area for (often statically linked) system binaries. They are placed here to
distinguish commands used solely by the system administrator from user commands, and so
that they lie on the system root partition, where they are guaranteed to be accessible during
booting.
 /sys this holds the configuration data which go to build the system kernel.

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 /export Network servers only use this. This contains the disk space set aside for client
machines which do not have their own disks. It is like a ‗virtual disk‘ for diskless clients.
 /dev and /devices A place where all the ‗logical devices‘ are collected. These are called
‗device nodes‘ in Unix and are created by mknod. Logical devices are UNIX‘s official entry
points for writing to devices. For instance, /dev/console is a route to the system console,
while /dev/kmem is a route for reading kernel memory. Device nodes enable devices to be
treated as though they were files.
 /home (Called /users on some systems.) Each user has a separate login directory where files
can be kept. These are normally stored under /home by some convention decided by the
system administrator.
 /root On newer Unix-like systems, root has been given a home-directory which is no longer
the root of the filesystem ‗/‘. The name root then loses its logic.
 /var System V and mixed systems have a separate directory for spooling. Under old BSD
systems, /usr/spool contains spool queues and system data. /var/spool and /var/adm etc.

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Chapter Review Questions
1. One of the following is correct about transmission mode.
A. In simplex mode, data transmitted from the source to the receiver in both directions.
B. Data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneous in half duplex.
C. Data is transmitted in both directions alternatively in full duplex.
D. Telephone communication is a typical example of full duplex.
2. What does a Network Protocol define?
A. It defines the Syntax of a Message
B. It defines the Semantics of a Message
C. It defines the actions to take on receipt of a message
D. All
3. One of the following is the Default Mask of Class B.
A. 255.0.0.0 C. 255.248.0.0
B. 255.255.255.0 D. 255.255.0.0
4. What is the Class of the IP Address 132.21.34.78?
A. Class A C. Class B
B. Class C D. Class D
5. Select the incorrect statement about network connectivity.
A. Every client computer is equal in the client/server architecture.
B. There is high security in peer-to-peer network than client /server.
C. In peer-to-peer connectivity, there is no dedicated Server.
D. Client /Server network is more expensive than peer-to- peer.
6. Which one of the following pair of IP Addresses are within the same Block (Network)?
A. 189.34.455.25 and 189.34.455.24 C. 191.23.16.55 and 192.23.16.56
B. 246.22.31.66 and 246.22.32.254 D. 221.22.45.66 and 221.22.45.189
7. Which one of the following is an advantages of computer Networks?
A. Information Hacking C. Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses
B. Resource Sharing D. Vulnerability to remote exploits
8. One of the following statements is a valid MAC Address.
A. AB-34-SD-44-00-FK C. F0-EE-09-D0-90-AB
B. B0-EE-H9-D0-90-00 D. CC-EE-09-D0-90-FZ
9. One of the following is the most popular LAN Architecture (Technology)?
A. Ethernet B. Token Ring
B. FDDI D. DNS
10. Which one of the following statements is not true?
A. MAC Address is used at the Data link layer.
B. Transport layer uses IP address.
C. IP address is a logical address
D. MAC address is a physical address.
11. The Application Layer Protocol that dynamically assigns IP addresses to hosts is called:
A. HTTP C. DHCP
B. DNS D. SNMP
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12. The standard connector used by UTP cables is _______.
A. BNC C. ST
B. RJ-45 D. SC
13. One of the following is wrong about internetworking devices?
A. Repeaters are dedicated to extend the length of cable segments
B. Hub is a multi-port signal regenerator.
C. Router provides connectivity between two different LANs.
D. Both Switch and Hub Assigns IP address to Computers
14. One of the following is a parameter used to select either a Peer-to-Peer or Server based
network:
A. Size of the organization C. Level of Network Security required
B. Network budget D. All of the above
15. Which one of the following is true?
A. LAN has no geographic area limitations.
B. CSMA/CD is a type of Random-Access protocol.
C. Logical Topology refers to the way cables and computers are arranged
D. Physical topology refers to the data flow in a computer network
16. A Network Device that has two ports and used only to regenerate a weak signal is:
A. Hub C. Router
B. Switch D. Repeater
17. One of the following is not true?
A. The OSI Reference Model divides communication functions into Seven Layers.
B. The OSI Reference model is developed by the standard organization called ISO.
C. It discourages competition and innovation
D. The OSI Reference Model was developed for Interoperability purpose.
18. As data units are encapsulated down the OSI reference model, which one of the following
is the correct order?
A. User Data → Packet → Frame → Bits → Segment
B. Bits → Frame → Packet → Segment → User Data
C. User Data → Segment → Frame → Bits → Packet
D. User Data → Segment → Packet → Frame → Bits
19. The layer in the OSI Reference model responsible for Data format conversion, Data
compression and Encryption (Decryption) is ______.
A. Presentation C. Data Link
B. Session D. Application
C.
20. What is the purpose of flow control?
A. To ensure that data is retransmitted if an acknowledgment is not received
B. To reassemble segments in the correct order at the destination device
C. To provide a means for the receiver to govern the amount of data sent by the sender
D. To regulate the size of each segment

21. The Technique that converts digital data to analogue signal is called
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 A. Encoding C. Modulation
B. Demodulation D. Decoding
22. Communication between a radio station and its listeners involves ________transmission.
A. Simplex C. half-duplex
B. full-duplex D. automatic
23. How does a host on an Ethernet LAN know when to transmit after a collision has
occurred?
A. In a CSMA/CD collision domain, multiple stations can successfully transmit data
simultaneously.
B. You can improve the CSMA/CD network by adding more hubs.
C. After a collision, the station that detected the collision has first priority to resend the
lost data.
D. After a collision, all stations run a random backoff algorithm. When the backoff delay
period has expired, all stations have equal priority to transmit data.
24. Which one of the following lists is not component of an analogue signals
A.Discrete pulse B. Amplitude
B. phase D. Wavelength
25. Which of the following does not describe router functions
A. Packet switching C. Broadcast forwarding
B. Packet filtering D. Internetwork communication
26. Routers operate at layer __. LAN switches operate at layer __.
A. 3, 2 B. 2, 3,
B. 3, 4 D. 2, 1
27. Acknowledgments, sequencing, and flow control are characteristics of which OSI layer?
A. Layer 3 B. Layer 5
B. Layer 4 D. Layer 7
28. Which two of the following are private IP addresses?
A. 12.0.0.1 C. 192.172.19.39
B. 172.40.14.36 D.192.168.24.43
29. What is the maximum number of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts on a local
subnet that uses the 255.255.255.224 subnet mask?
A. 14 B. 15 C. 31 D. 30
30. You want to implement a network medium that is not susceptible to EMI. Which type of
cabling should you use?
A. coaxial B. Microwave C. Category 6 UTP D. Fiber-optic
31. Which one of the following routing protocol mappings incorrectly.
A. RIP-Distance vector C. OSPF-Link state
B. EIGRP-Hybrid D. IGRP-Link State

32. The likelihood of a threat source taking advantage of vulnerability is termed as_______
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 A. Vulnerability
B. Threat
C. Risk
D. Exposure
33. The phrase ____ describe viruses, worms, Trojan horse attack applets and attack scripts.
A. Phishing
B. Virus
C. Malware
D. Spam
34. What role does biometrics have in logical access control?
A. Certification
B. Authorization
C. Authentication
D. Confirmation
35. The practice of embedding a message in a document, image, video or sound recording so
that its very existence is hidden is called?
A. Steganography.
B. Shielding.
C. Data diddling.
D. Anonymity.
36. A cryptographic _______________ is an algorithm that takes an arbitrary amount of data
input and produces a fixed-size output.
A. Hash Function
B. Encryption
C. Digital Signature
D. None
37. In __________ attack, the victim is targeted from a large number of individual
compromised systems simultaneously.
A. DDoS
B. Rootkit
C. DoS
D. Spyware

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 38. A form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are performed using
different keys is:
A. Symmetric key encryption
B. Secret- key
C. Conventional encryption.
D. Asymmetric encryption
39. Copyright provides what form of protection:
A. Protects an author‘s right to distribute his/her works.
B. Protects information that provides a competitive advantage.
C. Protects the right of an author to prevent unauthorized use of his/her works.
D. Protects the right of an author to prevent viewing of his/her works.
40. Which one of the following users is responsible to create account for all other users and to
assign rolls to them in the database server?
A. End user
B. Application user
C. Database administrator
D. Application Programmer

 Answer For Self-Test Questions (Data Communication, Network and System

Administration)

1.A 11.C 21.C 31.D

2.D 12.B 22.A 32.C
3.D 13.D 23.D 33.C
4.C 14.D 24.A 34.C
5.B 15.B 25.C 35.A
6.D 16.D 26.A 36.A
7.B 17.C 27.B 37.A
8.C 18.D 28.D 38.D
9.A 19.A 29.D 39C
10.B 20.C 30.D 40.C
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 1.4. Computer Security and privacy
Module Objective
On completion of the module successfully, students will be able to:
 Explain the basic concepts in information security, including security attacks/threats,
security vulnerabilities, security policies, security models, Security goals and security
mechanisms
 Define the concepts, principles and practices related to elementary cryptography
 Recall issues related to program security and the common vulnerabilities in computer
programs; including buffer overflow vulnerabilities, time-of-check to time-of-use flaws,
incomplete mediation.
 Describe techniques for ensuring database reliability and integrity, secrecy, inference
control, and multi-level databases.
 Describe threats to networks, and explain techniques for ensuring network security
 Explain the requirements and techniques for security management,
Introduction
Computer security, also known as cyber security or IT security, is the protection of computer
systems from the theft or damage to the hardware, software or the information on them, as well
as from disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.
Computer security is concerned with protecting a computer system‘s information assets as well
as the computer systems them selves. Asset = items of value
Information security is protecting information and information systems from unauthorized
access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification and destruction
The scope of information security is vast
 From tiny chips to massive server farms
 From local private networks to entire Internet
 Hardware, software, operating system, databases, network etc.
Computer Security Terminologies
 Vulnerability
• A weakness in the system protection
• Vulnerability can be exploited to cause loss or harm.

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  Threat
• A set of circumstances that has the potential to cause loss or harm
• A potential for violation of security
 Risk
• The potential of loss or damage Information Assets.
 Control
• An action ,device , procedure or technique that eliminates or reduce vulnerability.
Who is vulnerable?
 Financial institutions and banks
 Internet service providers
 Pharmaceutical companies
 Government and defense agencies
 Contractors to various government agencies
 Multinational corporations
 Anyone on the network
Why do we need security?
 Protecting systems against attacks
 Protect vital information while still allowing access to those who need it
• Trade secrets, medical records, etc.
 Provide authentication and access control for resources
 Guarantee availability of resources
 To find means of mitigating risks
What should we protect?
Determining what to protect requires that we first what has value and to whom
Assets include: -
Hardware
• Computer component
• Network and communication channels
• Mobile devices
Software
• Operating system
• Off- the -shelf programs and apps

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 • Custom or customized programs and apps
Data
• Files
• databases
Computer Security Goals

The three primary security goals are confidentiality, Integrity and Availability
1. Confidentiality
 the ability of a system to ensure that assets are viewable only by authorized parties
2. Integrity
 the ability of a system to ensure that assets are modifiable only by authorized parties
3. Availability
 the ability of a system to ensure that assets are usable by and accessible to all
authorized parties
Additional goals of computer security
Aside from CIA authentication, non-repudiation and auditability are also desirable system
properties.
Authentication:
 the ability of a system to confirm the identity of a sender
Non-repudiation
 the ability of a system to confirm that a sender cannot convincingly deny having sent a
message
Auditability
 the ability of a system to trace all actions related to a given asset
Harmful acts
Harm to information system can be effected in four different ways
1. Interception
2. Interruption
3. Modification
4. Fabrication
Each of these four acts can cause harm to a system by affecting its ability to ensure
confidentiality, integrity and availability

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Additional Details to CIA

Confidentiality
Confidentiality is roughly equivalent to privacy and avoids the unauthorized disclosure of
information. It involves the protection of data, providing access for those who are allowed to see
it while disallowing others from learning anything about its content. It prevents essential
information from reaching the wrong people while making sure that the right people can get it.
Data encryption is a good example to ensure confidentiality.
Use the ―need to know‖ basis for data access
 How do we know who needs which data?
 Access control specifies who can access what?
How do we know a user is the person or a system that they claim to be?
 Need to verify their identity
 Identification and authentication
Similarly, access to physical assets should be granted only on a ―need‖ basis
Example: Access to data center, a computer room or use of a desk top
Confidentiality is:
 Difficult to ensure
 Easiest to in terms of success
Tools for Confidentiality

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Integrity
Integrity refers to the methods for ensuring that data is real, accurate and safeguarded from
unauthorized user modification. It is the property that information has not be altered in an
unauthorized way, and that source of the information is genuine.
Integrity v confidentiality
 Integrity is concerned with unauthorized modification of assets
 Confidentiality is concerned with access to assets
Integrity is more difficult to measure than confidentiality
 Integrity is not binary -there are degrees of integrity
 Integrity is context dependent-integrity means different things in different situations
 Integrity could refer to any combination of precision, accuracy, currency, consistency,
meaningfulness, usefulness etc.
Tools for Integrity

Availability
Availability is the property in which information is accessible and modifiable in a timely fashion
by those authorized to do so. It is the guarantee of reliable and constant access to our sensitive
data by authorized people.
Not understood very well yet
Availability is a complex issue
• Context – dependent

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 • Could refer to any combination of asset properties
Example: usefulness, sufficient capacity, progressing at proper space completed in acceptable
amount of time
An asset can be considered available when there is:-
• A timely request response
• Fair allocation of resources(no starvation)
• Fault tolerance(no total breakdown)
• Ease of use
• Controlled concurrency (concurrency control, deadlock control etc.)
Tools for Availability
o Physical Protections
o Computational Redundancies
Computer Security threats

In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach
security and therefore cause possible harm.
A threat can be either intentional (i.e. hacking: an individual cracker or a criminal organization)
or "accidental" (e.g. the possibility of a computer malfunctioning, or the possibility of a natural
disaster such as an earthquake, a fire, or a tornado, hurricane) or otherwise a circumstance,
capability, action, or event.
Threat classification

Threats can be classified according to their type and origin

 Physical damage: fire, water, pollution
 Natural events: climatic, seismic, volcanic
 Loss of essential services: electrical power, air conditioning, telecommunication
 Compromise of information: eavesdropping, theft of media, retrieval of discarded
materials
 Technical failures: equipment, software, capacity saturation,
 Compromise of functions: error in use, abuse of rights, denial of actions

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Threat communities

Subsets of the overall threat agent population that share key characteristics. The notion of threat
communities is a powerful tool for understanding who and what we‘re up against as we try to
manage risk
If the organization were to come under attack, what components of the organization would be
likely targets? For example, how likely is it that terrorists would target the company information
or systems?
The following threat communities are examples of the human malicious threat landscape
many organizations face:
1. Insiders (Internal)
• Employees
• Contractors (and vendors)
• Partners
2. Outsiders (External)
• Cyber-criminals (professional hackers and crackers)
• Spies
• Non-professional hackers
• Activists
• Nation-state intelligence services (e.g., counterparts to the CIA, etc.)
• Malware (virus/worm/etc.) authors
Malicious Code (Malware)

Malicious code (also known as a rogue program or malware) is a software written to

intentionally cause unanticipated or undesirable effects. Malicious code can do anything that
as a ―normal‖ program can do. Malicious Code can damage data and other program. Malicious
code was ―defined‖ by Cohen in 1984 but virus behavior has been known since at least 1970.
Common forms of malware
Virus, Trojan horse and worm are the most common types of malware.

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Virus
A hidden, self-replicating section of computer software, usually malicious logic, that propagates
by infecting another program or system memory
Viruses can be divided in to two groups
Transient virus is active only when its host program is active
Resident virus establishes itself in the computer‘s memory and can remain active without its
host.
Worm
A computer program that can run independently, can propagate a complete working version of
itself on to other hosts in a network, and may consume computer resources destructively.
Trojan horse
A computer program that appears to have a useful function but also has a hidden and malicious
purpose that evades security mechanism, sometimes by exploiting the legitimating authorizations
of the user who invokes the program
Example: you downloaded a game app for your smart phone, when you launch the app, you will
able to play the game but the app is secretly made copies of your contacts list and transfer
information to the remote server.

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Zombie
A malicious software that enables a computer to be controlled by a remote master machine
Logic bomb
Malicious program logic that activates when specified conditions are met.
Time bomb
A type of logic bomb that activates at a specific date/time
Hiding a virus
Viruses can be hidden in many places i.e. in:
• boot sector
• memory
• application programs
• library files(e.g .dll files)
• other widely shared files and programs
Network security attacks
Network advantages
• Resource sharing
• Distribution of workload
• Increased reliability
• easy expandability and scalability
Network vulnerability
Several characteristics make networks vulnerable to attack, including:
• Anonymity
• Many point of attack
• Resource and workload sharing
• Network architecture is complex
• Networks have unknown boundary
Example: wireless node
Software Threats

Adversary
An adversary (a person/hacker/cracker who is interested in attacking your network) can use any
kind of attack to threat the network infrastructures. A network may face several other attacks

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from adversary while achieving above goals. In following section, it includes some most
common attacks
Computer Software Security threats
Reconnaissance Attack (Investigation)
In this kind of attack, an adversary collects as much information about your network as he
needed for other attacks.
This information includes IP address range, server location, running OS, software version, types
of devices etc.
Packet capturing software, Ping command, trace root command, who is lookup are some
example tools which can be used to collect this information. Adversary will use this information
in mapping your infrastructure for next possible attack.
Passive attack
In this attack an adversary deploys a sniffer tool and waits for sensitive information to be
captured. This information can be used for other types of attacks.
It includes packet sniffer tools, traffic analysis software, filtering clear text passwords from
unencrypted traffic and seeking authentication information from unprotected communication.
Once an adversary found any sensitive or authentication information, he will use that without the
knowledge of the user
Active Attack
In this attack an adversary does not wait for any sensitive or authentication information. He
actively tries to break or bypass the secured systems. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan horses,
stealing login information, inserting malicious code and penetrating network backbone. Active
attacks are the most dangerous in natures. It results in disclosing sensitive information,
modification of data or complete data lost.
Distributed Attack
In this attack an adversary hides malicious code in trusted software. Later this software is
distributed to many other users through the internet without their knowledge. Once end user
installs infected software, it starts sending sensitive information to the adversary silently.
Pirated software is heavily used for this purpose.
Insider Attack
According to a survey more than 70% attacks are insider. Insider attacks are divided in two
categories; intentionally and accidentally. In intentionally attack, an attacker intentionally

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damage network infrastructure or data. Usually intentionally attacks are done by disgruntled or
frustrated employees for money or revenge. In accidentally attack, damages are done by the
carelessness or lack of knowledge.
Hijacking
This attack usually takes place between running sessions. Hacker joins a running session and
silent disconnects other party. Then he starts communicating with active parties by using the
identity of disconnected party. Active party thinks that he is talking with original party and may
send sensitive information to the adversary.
Phishing
Phishing attack is gaining popularity from last couple of years. In this attack an adversary creates
fake email address or website which looks like a reputed mail address or popular site. Later
attacker sends email using their name. These emails contain convincing message, some time with
a link that leads to a fake site. This fake site looks exactly same as original site. Without knowing
the truth user tries to log on with their account information, hacker records this authentication
information and uses it on real site.
Spoofing
In this kind of attack an adversary changes the sources address of packet so receiver assumes
that packet comes from someone else. This technique is typically used to bypass the firewall
rules.
Buffer overflow attack
This attack is part of DoS technique. In this attack an adversary sends more data to an application
than its buffer size. It results in failure of service. This attack is usually used to halt a service or
server.
Exploit attack
Exploit attack is used after Reconnaissance attack. Once an attacker learned from reconnaissance
attack that which OS or software is running on target system, he starts exploiting vulnerability in
that particular software or OS.
Packet capturing attack
This attack is part of passive attack. In this attack an attacker uses a packet capturing software
which captures all packets from wire. Later he extracts information from these packets. This
information can be used to deploy several kinds of other attacks.

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Ping sweep attack
In this attack an attacker pings all possible IP addresses on a subnet to find out which hosts are
up. Once he finds an up system, he tries to scan the listening ports. From listing ports he can
learn about the type of services running on that system. Once he figures out the services, he can
try to exploit the vulnerabilities associated with those services.
DNS Query attack
DNS queries are used to discover information about public server on the internet. All OS
includes the tool for DNS queries such as lookup in Windows, Dig and Host in Linux. These
tools query a DNS server for information about specified domain. DNS server respond with
internal information such as Server IP address, Email Server, technical contacts etc. An
adversary can use this information in phishing or ping attack.
MiTM attacks
In this attack an adversary captures data from middle of transmission and changes it, then send it
again to the destination. Receiving person thinks that this message came from original source.
For example in a share trading company Jack is sending a message to Rick telling him to hold
the shares. An adversary intercepts this message in way that it looks like Jack is telling for sell.
When Rick receives this message, he will think that Jack is telling for the sell and he will sell the
shares. This is known as Man in the middle attack.
Botnets
Botnets are armies of remote-controlled devices used for the purpose of sending spam (including
Phishing scams), propagating malware and launching DDoS attacks. Botnets are the master-
mover of most cyber security threats in terms of the scope of damage they cause in CSP
networks across the globe
Computer Security Techniques

What is biometrics?
From the Greek meaning life (bio) and metric (to measure), the term ―biometrics‖ refers to
technologies for measuring and analyzing a person‘s physiological or behavioral characteristics.
In reality, biometrics refers to protecting network and physical security through physical and
behavioral biometric techniques.
Automatic recognition of people based on their anatomical (e.g., face, fingerprint, iris, retina)
and behavioral (e.g., signature, posture) individualities is called Biometrics. It is a form of

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information that helps in identifying one's physical characters such as psychosomatic, behavioral
characters, etc.
Biometrics
The physical biometric techniques include
• Finger printing
• hand and finger geometry
• facial recognition
• iris and retinal scanning
• Vascular pattern recognition.
Behavioral biometric techniques include
• speaker and voice recognition
• signature verification, and
• Keystroke dynamics.
Mitigating network security threats
Port scanning
A software program that is designed to examine one or more IP Addresses and record which
ports are open and which known vulnerabilities are present. Network administrator or security
analyst can use port scanner to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a network.
• An attacker can also use port scanner to assess how or at which point to attack
• High-quality port scanners are freely available to both white-hats and black hats alike.
Segmenting network
One way of controlling threats from port scanner is to implement network segmentation. In a
segmented network, many hosts belong to a protected sub-networks that are not directly visible
to the outside world.
Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA)
Authentication
• The Process of identifying a user or computer
Authorization
• The process of determining level of access for user or computer
Accounting
• The process of keeping a log of activity by a user or computer

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User Authentication
There are two protocols used to provide authentication, authorization and accounting.
• Remote Authentication Dial In Service (RADIUS)
• Terminal Access Controller Access Control System+(TACACS+)
One significant difference is that TACACS+ relies on TCP connections while RADIUS uses
UDP connections
What is firewall?

Firewalls are an absolutely indispensable tool in the part of security of computer networks. A
firewall is s device (hardware, software or both) that is designed to:
• prevent unauthorized outside users from accessing a network or workstation
• Prevent inside users from transmitting sensitive information or accessing unsecure
resources.
A firewall protects a local network from the outside global network. Firewall work by inspecting
each inbound or outbound packet and determining weather it should be blocked or allowed to
pass through properly implemented firewall can reduce or eliminate many network threats It can
be implemented in a router, gateway, or special host.

Types of firewall

The following are the most common types of firewall

a. Packet filtering gateway
b. Stateless and statefull inspection firewall

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 c. Application proxy gateways
d. Circuit-level gateways
e. Guard firewalls
f. Personal firewalls
a. Packet filtering gateway
All internet traffic in the network is of the packets form. A packet consists the following
information
 Source IP address
 Destination IP address
 The data
 Error checking information
 Protocol information
 And additional options
b. Stateless and Statefull Firewall
Statefull filtering are the most modern approach of firewall, it combines the capabilities of NAT
firewalls, circuit level firewalls and application firewalls into a common system.
This approach validates connection before allowing data to be transferred. These firewalls filters
traffic initially with packet characteristics and rules and also includes the session validation
check to make sure that the specific session is allowed.
Stateless firewalls watch the traffic packet by packet and filter them based on Firewalls
individual rules. Each packet is individually checked and filtered.
They do not attempt to correlate the packets that came before and then judge if there is a
malicious potential or intention. However, it is necessary to watch a set of packets between a
source and a destination to infer any malicious intent. Statefull firewalls can watch traffic
streams from end to end.
c. Application proxy gateway
These firewall understand and work on layer 7 of OSI i.e; application layer of the network stack.
Application firewall inspect the payload of the IP packet that contains a TCP/UDP segment
within which it inspects the application layer data.
Circuit level firewall
Circuit level filtering works at the session layer of OSI model. Traffic to the remote compute is
made as though the traffic is originated from a circuit level firewall. This modification will

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partially allow to hide the information about the protected network but has a drawback that it
does not filter individual packets in a given connection.

Figure: Security framework architecture using firewall

Figure: web-enabled architecture

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Cryptography

What is Cryptography?
Cryptography (from Greek kryptos “hidden, secret”and graphein “writing” is the practice and
study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third party called adversaries.
The process of converting from plaintext to cipher text is known as encryption; restoring the
plaintext from the cipher text is decryption.
Cryptographic Terminology
Encryption
 The process of encoding a message so that its meaning is not obvious
 Encryption: the process of converting an original message into a form that cannot be
understood by unauthorized individuals.
Cryptography
 The art / science of keeping a message secure
Cryptanalysis
 The art / science of breaking cipher Ext
Cryptanalysis: Techniques used for deciphering a message without any knowledge of the
enciphering details fall into the area of cryptanalysis. Cryptanalysis is what the lay person calls
"breaking the code." It is about analyzing hidden messages using a statistical/analytical
approach.
Cryptology
 Cryptography + cryptanalysis
 Cryptology is the science of encryption and decryption that encompasses two disciplines.
The areas of cryptography and cryptanalysis together are called cryptology. It is more
about reading hidden messages
Plain text (Also known as clear text)
 The original form of a message (unencrypted form of a message)
 By convention written in UPPERCASE
Cipher text (Cryptogram)
 The encrypted form of a message
 By convention written in lowercase

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A key or crypto variable: the information used in conjunction with the algorithm to create the
cipher text from the plaintext. It can be a series of bits used in a mathematical algorithm or the
knowledge of how to manipulate the plaintext
Key space: the entire range of values that can possibly be used to construct an individual key
Cryptosystems: The combination of algorithm, key and key management functions used to
perform cryptographic operations.
Steganography: The process of hiding messages, usually within graphic images
To encrypt a message, we need
 an encryption algorithm
 an encryption key
 The plaintext.
Types of cryptography

We can divide all the cryptography algorithms (ciphers) into two groups:
 Symmetric key (also called secret-key) cryptography algorithms and
 Asymmetric (also called public-key) cryptography algorithms
Symmetric key cryptography
In symmetric-key cryptography, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this key
and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key and the
corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data. The key is shared.
Symmetric encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are
performed using the same key. It is also known as conventional encryption

Public key cryptography

First revolution in cryptography in hundreds of years originally introduced in a paper in 1976:
―New directions in cryptography‖, by Daffier and Hellman. In asymmetric or public-key
cryptography, there are two keys: a private key and a public key. The private key is kept by the
receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
Note
Two encryption/ decryption possibilities exist in a key pair
1. The plaintext is encrypted with a private key. Or decrypted with a public key.
2. The plaintext is encrypted with public key and decrypted with a private key.
Given the usefulness of public key encryption, do we still need symmetric key encryption?

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Absolutely,
Symmetric key encryption systems are typically at least 10,000 times faster than Public key
encryptions.

Relationship between service and mechanism

Polyalphabetic cipher
To achieve this goal, we need to divide the text in groups of characters and use a set of keys. For
example, we can divide the text "THISISANEASYTASK" in groups of 3 characters and then
apply the encryption using a set of 3 keys. We then repeat the procedure for the next 3
characters.
 The vigenere cipher
 The Hill Cypher
 The Permutation cipher
Example
The following shows a plaintext and its corresponding cipher text. Is the cipher
monoalphabetic?
Plain text: HELLO
Cipher text: abnzf
Solution
The cipher is not monoalphabetic because each occurrence of L is encrypted by a different
character. The first L is encrypted as N; the second L as Z.
Transposition cipher

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In a transposition cipher, there is no substitution of
Characters; instead, their locations change. A character in the first position of the plaintext may
appear in the tenth position of the cipher text. A character in the eighth position may appear in
the first position. In other words, a transposition cipher reorders the symbols in a block of
symbols. A transposition cipher reorders (permutes) symbols in a block of symbols. The simplest
such cipher is the rail fence technique, in which the plaintext is written down as a sequence of
diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows

For example, to encipher the message "meet me after the toga party" with a rail fence of depth 2,
we write the following:
mematrhtgpry
etefeteoaat
The encrypted message is mematrhtgpryetefeteoaat,
This sort of thing would be trivial to cryptanalyze.
Similarly, Encrypt “Let us meet at hawassa ” by yourself.
“Let us meet at hawassa ”
l t s e tta as
e u meahwsa
The encrypted message is ltsettaaseumeahwsa
Simple modern ciphers
The traditional ciphers we have studied so far are character-oriented. With the advent of the
computer, ciphers need to be bit-oriented. This is so because the information to be encrypted is
not just text; it can also consist of numbers, graphics, audio, and video data.
It is convenient to convert these types of data into a stream of bits, encrypt the stream, and then
send the encrypted stream. In addition, when text is treated at the bit level, each character is
replaced by 8 (or 16) bits, which means the number of symbols becomes 8 (or 16). Mingling and
mangling bits provides more security than mingling and mangling characters. Modem ciphers
use a different strategy than the traditional ones. A modern symmetric cipher is a combination
of simple ciphers. In other words, a modern cipher uses several simple ciphers to achieve its
goal. We first discuss these simple ciphers.
Simple modern cipher examples
 One-time pad cipher

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  XOR Cipher
 Stream Ciphers
 Block Ciphers
 Diffusion and confusion
Symmetric-key cryptography Algorithms

Examples include DES, 3DES, and AES

DES: Data Encryption standard
 The algorithm encrypts a 64-bit plaintext block using a 64-bit key(usually).
 Key idea for this: XOR the data with the key
 (Remember XOR? How did it work?)
3DES: Triple Data Encryption Standard
 Effort to salvage DES
 Main algorithm: repeat DES 3 times with different keys
 (so key size is now 168 bits)
 Still very secure - brute force attacks would take too long, and that is the only way to
attack this algorithm
 Main problem: SLOW
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) was designed because DES's key was too small.
Although Triple DES increased the key size, the process was too slow.AES is a very complex
round cipher. AES is designed with three key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits.
AES essentially, proceeds in 4 rounds (which are repeated
1. Substitute bytes
2. Permute
3. Mix columns
4. Add round key
Cryptosystem
Cryptosystem is a five-tuple(P, C, K, E, D) Where the following is satisfied

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 Public Key Cryptography
First revolution in cryptography in hundreds of years Originally introduced in a paper in 1976:
―New directions in cryptography‖, by Diffie and Hellman.In asymmetric or public-key
cryptography, there are two keys: a private key and a public key. The private key is kept by the
receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
Characteristics of public key encryption
Note
Two encryption/ decryption possibilities exist in a key pair
1. The plaintext is encrypted with a private key. Or decrypted with a public key.
2. The plaintext is encrypted with public key and decrypted with a private key.
Given the usefulness of public key encryption, do we still need symmetric key encryption?
Absolutely,
Symmetric key encryption systems are typically at least 10,000 times faster than Public key
encryptions.
How it works?

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Public Key Cryptography: Security Uses
Authentication

Digital Signatures
 Proving that a message is generated by a particular individual
Non-repudiation: the signing individual can not be denied, because only him/her knows the
private key.
Hash function:
Cryptographic hash function is a mathematical transformation that takes a message of arbitrary
length and computes it a fixed-length (short) number.
Properties
(Let the hash of a message m be h(m))
For any m, it is relatively easy to compute h(m). Given h(m), there is no way to find an m that
hashes to h(m) in a way that is substantially easier than going through all possible values of m
and computing h(m) for each one. It is computationally infeasible to find two values that hash to
the same thing.
Password hashing
The system stores a hash of the password (not the password itself) When a password is supplied,
it computes the password‘s hash and compares it with the stored value.
Message integrity
Using cryptographic hash functions to generate a MAC

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 Public key Cryptography Algorithms
 RSA algorithm (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) Algorithm
 Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)
 Elliptic-curve Diffie - Hellman (ECDH)

Symmetric v Asymmetric Encryption

Program Security

 Protecting programs is the heart of computer security

 All kinds of programs
 Applications
 Operating systems
 Databases etc.
A program is secure if it provides/enforces
 Confidentiality
 Integrity
 Availability
Program security vulnerability
 Buffer over flaw
 Incomplete mediation (incomplete checking)
 Race condition

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  TOCTTOU(Time of Check to Time of Out)
 Undocumented access point
Controls against program threats
We can control program threats through the following
 Sandboxing
 Modularity
 Encapsulation
 information hiding
 Mutual suspicion and confinement
 Generic Diversity

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Review Questions (Computer Security and Privacy)

1. In computer security, ________________means that computer system assets can be

modified only by authorized parities.
A. Confidentiality
B. Integrity
C. Availability
D. Authenticity
2. When hackers look or steal your electronic or paper files without permission, it is said
to be:
A. Back door Attacks
B. Snooping attacks
C. Spoofing Attacks
D. Packet Sniffing attack
3. _______ is a point where a system is susceptible to attack.
A. Threats
B. Vulnerabilities
C. Countermeasures
D. hacker
4. What role does biometrics have in logical access control?
E. Certification
F. Authorization
G. Authentication
H. Confirmation
5. The science of encryption and decryption that encompasses two disciplines is:
A. Cryptography
B. Cryptanalysis
C. Cryptology
D. Steganography

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6. What is the inverse of confidentiality, integrity, and availability (C.I.A.) triad in risk
management?
A. misuse, exposure, destruction
B. authorization, non-repudiation, integrity
C. disclosure, alteration, destruction
D. confidentiality, integrity, availability
7. The practice of embedding a message in a document, image, video or sound recording
so that its very existence is hidden is called?
E. Anonymity.
F. Steganography.
G. Shielding.
H. Data diddling.
8. ____ are devices or programs that control the flow of network traffic between networks
or hosts that employ differing security postures
A. Spoofing
B. Scanning
C. Network address translation
D. Firewall
9. Which of the following is not mandatory security of the operating system?
A. Access authorization
B. Trustworthiness
C. Authentication usage
D. Cryptographic usage
10. A form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are performed using the
same key is:
E. Symmetric key encryption
F. Conventional encryption.
G. Asymmetric encryption
H. All but C

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11. Which of the following entity is ultimately responsible for information security within
an organization?
A. IT Security Officer
B. Project Managers
C. Department Directors
D. Senior Management
12. The absence of one of the CIA leads mores to denial of service (DOS).
A. confidentiality
B. availability
C. integrity
D. none
13. Cryptography does not concern itself with:
A. Availability
B. Authenticity
C. Integrity
D. Confidentiality
14. Existence of a weakness, design or implementation error that can lead to an unexpected,
undesirable event compromising the security of a system
A. Threat
B. Vulnerability
C. Exploit
D. Risk
15. Which of the followings is an example of simple substitution algorithm?
A. Rivest, Shamir, Adleman (RSA)
B. Data Encryption Standard (DES)
C. Caesar cipher
D. Blowfish
16. What is the effective length of a secret key in the Data Encryption Standard (DES)
algorithm?
A. 56-bit
B. 64-bit
C. 32-bit
D. 16-bit

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17. A program security vulnerability that occurs when two concurrently executing
processes produce incorrect computational results.
A. Buffer over flow
B. Race condition
C. TOCTTOU
D. Incomplete mediation
18. A Proxy server is used for which of the following?
A. To provide security against unauthorized users
B. To process client requests for web pages
C. To process client requests for database access
D. To provide TCP/IP
19. Trojan-Horse programs
A. are legitimate programs that allow unauthorized access
B. are hacker programs that do not show up on the system
C. really do not usually work
D. are usually immediately discovered
20. All of the following are examples of real security and privacy risks. EXCEPT:
A. Hackers
B. Spam
C. Viruses
D. Identity theft
21. Suppose an employee demands the root access to a UNIX system, where you are the
administrator; that right or access should not be given to the employee unless that
employee has work that requires certain rights, privileges. It can be considered as a
perfect example of which principle of cyber security?
A. Least privileges
B. Open Design
C. Separation of Privileges
D. Both A & C

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22. Which one of the following is considered as the most secure Linux operating system
that also provides anonymity and the incognito option for securing the user's
information?
A. Ubuntu
B. Tails
C. Fedora
D. All of the above
23. Which of the following known as the oldest phone hacking techniques used by hackers
to make free calls?
A. Phreaking
B. Phishing
C. Cracking
D. Spraining
24. __ is a computer crime in which a criminal break into a computer system for exploring
details of information etc.
A. Hacking
B. Spoofing
C. Eavesdropping
D. Phishing
25. The ability to recover and read deleted or damaged files from a criminal‘s computer is
an example of a law enforcement specialty called:
A. robotics
B. simulation
C. computer forensics
D. animation
26. Software, such as viruses, worms and Trojan horses, that has a malicious intent is
known as:
A. spyware
B. adware
C. spam
D. malware

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 27. An electronic file that uniquely identifies individuals and websites on the internet and
enables secure, confidential communications.
A. Digital signature
B. Digital certificates
C. Encryption
D. Firewalls
28. The private content of a transaction, if unprotected, can be intercepted when it goes
through the route over the internet is
A. spoofing
B. Snooping
C. sniffing
D. eavesdropping

Answer sheet (Computer Security and Privacy)

1.B 6.C 11.D 16.A 21.A 26.D

2.C 7.B 12.B 17.B 22.B 27.B

3.B 8.D 13.A 18.B 23.A 28.D

4.C 9.D 14.B 19.A 24.A 29.

5.A 10.C 15.C 20.B 25.C 30.

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Part II: Computer Organization and Architecture
Module Objective
On completion of the module successfully, students will be able to:
 Carry out design and development of complex elements, such as user interfaces,
multiprocessing, and fault-tolerant components;
 Describe the basic structure and operation of a digital computer
 Explain in detail the operation of the arithmetic unit including the algorithms &
implementation of fixed-point and floating-point addition, subtraction, multiplication &
division.
 Identify different ways of communicating with I/O devices and standard I/O interfaces.
 Describe different performance enhancement of computer architecture
 Explain the basic structure of computer hardware & software
 Identify the processes involved in the basic operations of CPU
 Demonstrate basic concepts of circuits and their design

2.1. Introduction
Computer organization
 Design of the components and functional blocks using which computer systems
are built.
 Analogy: civil engineers task during building construction (cement, bricks, iron
rod and other building materials)
Computer Architecture
 How to integrate the components to build the computer system to achieve a desire
level of performance?
 Analogy: Architects task during the planning of a building (overall layout, floor
plan etc.)
Computer architecture comprises rules, methods, and procedures that describe the execution
and functionality of the entire computer system. In general terms, computer architecture refers to
how a computer system is designed using compatible technologies. This article will tell you how
computer architecture is classified into a disciplinary method.

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The term architecture in computer literature signifies the efforts of Sir Lyle R. Johnson and Sir
Frederick P. Brooks, members of the Machine Organization department, in 1959. Sir Johnson
noted his description of formats, instruction types, hardware limitations, along with speed
improvements. These were at the level of system architecture, a term that is more useful than
machine organization. Succeedingly, a computer user can use that term in many less precise
methods.
Earlier, computer architects designed computer architecture on paper. It was then directly built
into a final hardware form. Later, they assembled computer architecture designs materially in the
form of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) computers. By the 1990s, new computer architectures
are typically built, examined, and tweaked inside another computer architecture, in a computer
architecture simulator, or the interior part of an FPGA, as a microprocessor before perpetrating to
the ultimate hardware form.

2.1.1. Types of computer Architecture

Here are the various categories of architecture that exist in our computer systems.
 Von-Neumann Architecture
 Harvard Architecture
 Instruction Set Architecture
 Micro-architecture
 System Design
John von Neumann coined and developed this architecture. The computer we are using
nowadays is based on the von Neumann architecture. It has some concepts. It is also known as
Princeton architecture. It renders a unique design for the electronic digital systems having the
following components:
A Central Processing Unit (CPU) with arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and processors with
attached registers.
A memory that can store data and instructions.
External mass storage or secondary storage.
A Control Unit (CU) with the ability to hold instructions in the program counter (PC) or
instruction register (IR).

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Input and output mechanisms and peripherals.
The von Neumann design thus constitutes the foundation of modern computing. The Harvard
architecture, a similar model, had committed data addresses and buses for reading and writing to
memory. It wins because von Neumann's architecture was easier to execute in real hardware.

2.1.2. Logic gates and Boolean algebra

Logic Gates
 The logic gates are the main structural part of a digital system.
 Logic Gates are a block of hardware that produces signals of binary 1 or 0 when input
logic requirements are satisfied.
 Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be described by means of
algebraic expressions.
 The seven basic logic gates include: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
 The relationship between the input-output binary variables for each gate can be
represented in tabular form by a truth table.
 Each gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A and B and one binary
AND GATE:
o The AND gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output only if all its inputs are
high. The AND operation is represented by a dot (.) sign.
o output variable designated by x.

OR GATE:
The OR gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output if one or more of its inputs are
high. The operation performed by an OR gate is represented by a plus (+) sign.

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NOT GATE:
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit which produces an inverted version of the input at its
output. It is also known as an Inverter.
NAND GATE:
The NOT-AND (NAND) gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The
NAND gate gives a high output if any of the inputs are low. The NAND gate is represented by a
AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

NOR GATE:
The NOT-OR (NOR) gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The NOR gate
gives a low output if any of the inputs are high. The NOR gate is represented by an OR gate with
a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

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Exclu
sive-OR/ XOR GATE:
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if one of its inputs is high but
not both of them. The XOR operation is represented by an encircled plus sign.

EXCLUSIVE-NOR/Equivalence GATE:
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate is a circuit that does the inverse operation to the XOR gate. It will
give a low output if one of its inputs is high but not both of them. The small circle represents
inversion

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Basic gates
The OR, AND, and NOT are the three basic logic gates as they together can construct the logic
circuit for any given Boolean expression.
Derived gates
The logic gates which are derived from the basic gates such as AND, OR, NOT gates are called
derived gates. These derived gates have their own unique Symbols, Truth Tables and Boolean
Expressions. Here we will explore the most common derived gates such as NAND Gate, NOR
Gate, EX-OR Gate, and EX-NOR Gate
Universal gate
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to use any
other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this is advantageous
since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used
in all IC digital logic families.
Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic
operations. Boolean algebraic variables are designated by letters such as A, B, x, and y. The
basic operations performed are AND, OR, and complement.
The Boolean algebraic functions are mostly expressed with binary variables, logic operation
symbols, parentheses, and equal sign. For a given value of variables, the Boolean function can be
either 1 or 0. For instance, consider the Boolean function:
F = x + y'z
The logic diagram for the Boolean function F = x + y'z can be represented as:

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  The Boolean function F = x + y'z is transformed from an algebraic expression into a logic
diagram composed of AND, OR, and inverter gates.
 Inverter at input 'y' generates its complement y'.
 There is an AND gate for the term y'z, and an OR gate is used to combine the two terms
(x and y'z).
 The variables of the function are taken to be the inputs of the circuit, and the variable
symbol of the function is taken as the output of the circuit.

The truth table for the Boolean function F = x + y'z can be represented as:

Combinational Circuits
A combinational circuit comprises of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined
directly from the present combination of inputs without any regard to previous inputs. A
combinational circuit performs a specific information-processing operation fully specified
logically by a set of Boolean functions. The basic components of a combinational circuit are:
input variables, logic gates, and output variables.

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In our previous sections, we learned about combinational circuit and their working. The
combinational circuits have set of outputs, which depends only on the present combination of
inputs. Below is the block diagram of the synchronous logic circuit.
Examples of combinational circuits: Adder, Subtractor, Converter, and Encoder/Decoder,
multiplexer/de-multiplexer

The 'n' input variables come from an external source whereas the 'm' output variables go to an
external destination. In many applications, the source or destination are storage registers.
Decoder
The combinational circuit that change the binary information into 2N output lines is known
as Decoders. The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines. The output lines
define the 2N-bit code for the binary information. In simple words, the Decoder performs the
reverse operation of the Encoder. At a time, only one input line is activated for simplicity. The
produced 2N-bit output code is equivalent to the binary information.
Encoders
The combinational circuits that change the binary information into N output lines are known
as Encoders. The binary information is passed in the form of 2N input lines. The output lines
define the N-bit code for the binary information. In simple words, the Encoder performs the
reverse operation of the Decoder. At a time, only one input line is activated for simplicity. The
produced N-bit output code is equivalent to the binary information.
Multiplexer
A multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has 2n input lines and a single output line. Simply,
the multiplexer is a multi-input and single-output combinational circuit. The binary information
is received from the input lines and directed to the output line. On the basis of the values of the
selection lines, one of these data inputs will be connected to the output.

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Unlike encoder and decoder, there are n selection lines and 2n input lines. So, there is a total of
2N possible combinations of inputs. A multiplexer is also treated as Mux.
De-multiplexer
A De-multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has only 1 input line and 2N output lines.
Simply, the multiplexer is a single-input and multi-output combinational circuit. The information
is received from the single input lines and directed to the output line. On the basis of the values
of the selection lines, the input will be connected to one of these outputs. De-multiplexer is
opposite to the multiplexer.
Unlike encoder and decoder, there are n selection lines and 2n outputs. So, there is a total of
2n possible combinations of inputs. De-multiplexer is also treated as De-mux.
Sequential circuits
The sequential circuit is a special type of circuit that has a series of inputs and outputs. The
outputs of the sequential circuits depend on both the combination of present inputs and previous
outputs. The previous output is treated as the present state. So, the sequential circuit contains the
combinational circuit and its memory storage elements. A sequential circuit doesn't need to
always contain a combinational circuit. So, the sequential circuit can contain only the memory
element.

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Difference between the combinational circuits and sequential circuits are given below:

Sequential circuits refer to the combinational logic circuits that consist of input variables (X)
and logic gates (or Computational circuits) along with the output variable (Z).
For example, flip-flops, counter, register, clocks,

2.1.3. Types of Sequential Circuits

Asynchronous sequential circuits
The clock signals are not used by the Asynchronous sequential circuits. The asynchronous
circuit is operated through the pulses. So, the changes in the input can change the state of the
circuit. The asynchronous circuits do not use clock pulses. The internal state is changed when the
input variable is changed. The un-clocked flip-flops or time-delayed are the memory elements of
asynchronous sequential circuits. The asynchronous sequential circuit is similar to the
combinational circuits with feedback.
Synchronous sequential circuits
In synchronous sequential circuits, synchronization of the memory element's state is done by
the clock signal. The output is stored in either flip-flops or latches (memory devices). The

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synchronization of the outputs is done with either only negative edges of the clock signal or only
positive edges.
Clock Signal and Triggering
Clock signal
A clock signal is a periodic signal in which ON time and OFF time need not be the same. When
ON time and OFF time of the clock signal are the same, a square wave is used to represent the
clock signal. Below is a diagram which represents the clock signal:

A clock signal is considered as the square wave. Sometimes, the signal stays at logic, either high
5V or low 0V, to an equal amount of time. It repeats with a certain time period, which will be
equal to twice the 'ON time' or 'OFF time'.
Types of Triggering
These are two types of triggering in sequential circuits:
Level triggering
The logic High and logic Low are the two levels in the clock signal. In level triggering, when the
clock pulse is at a particular level, only then the circuit is activated. There are the following types
of level triggering:
Positive level triggering
In a positive level triggering, the signal with Logic High occurs. So, in this triggering, the circuit
is operated with such type of clock signal. Below is the diagram of positive level triggering:

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Negative level triggering
In negative level triggering, the signal with Logic Low occurs. So, in this triggering, the circuit is
operated with such type of clock signal. Below is the diagram of Negative level triggering:

Edge triggering
In clock signal of edge triggering, two types of transitions occur, i.e., transition either from Logic
Low to Logic High or Logic High to Logic Low.
Based on the transitions of the clock signal, there are the following types of edge triggering:
Positive edge triggering
The transition from Logic Low to Logic High occurs in the clock signal of positive edge
triggering. So, in positive edge triggering, the circuit is operated with such type of clock signal.
The diagram of positive edge triggering is given below.

Negative edge triggering

The transition from Logic High to Logic low occurs in the clock signal of negative edge
triggering. So, in negative edge triggering, the circuit is operated with such type of clock signal.
The diagram of negative edge triggering is given below.

Counters
A special type of sequential circuit used to count the pulse is known as a counter, or a collection
of flip flops where the clock signal is applied is known as counters.

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The counter is one of the widest applications of the flip flop. Based on the clock pulse, the output
of the counter contains a predefined state. The number of the pulse can be counted using the
output of the counter.
There are the following types of counters:
o Asynchronous Counters
o Synchronous Counters
Asynchronous or ripple counters
The Asynchronous counter is also known as the ripple counter. Below is a diagram of the 2-
bit Asynchronous counter in which we used two T flip-flops. Apart from the T flip flop, we can
also use the JK flip flop by setting both of the inputs to 1 permanently. The external clock pass to
the clock input of the first flip flop, i.e., FF-A and its output, i.e., is passed to clock input of the
next flip flop, i.e., FF-B.
Synchronous counters
In the Asynchronous counter, the present counter's output passes to the input of the next
counter. So, the counters are connected like a chain. The drawback of this system is that it
creates the counting delay, and the propagation delay also occurs during the counting stage.
The synchronous counter is designed to remove this drawback.
In the synchronous counter, the same clock pulse is passed to the clock input of all the flip
flops. The clock signals produced by all the flip flops are the same as each other. Below is the
diagram of a 2-bit synchronous counter in which the inputs of the first flip flop, i.e., FF-A, are
set to 1. So, the first flip flop will work as a toggle flip-flop. The output of the first flip flop is
passed to both the inputs of the next JK flip flop.
Ripple Counter
Ripple counter is a special type of Asynchronous counter in which the clock pulse ripples
through the circuit. The n-MOD ripple counter forms by combining n number of flip-flops. The
n-MOD ripple counter can count 2n states, and then the counter resets to its initial value.
Features of the Ripple Counter:
o Different types of flip flops with different clock pulse are used.
o It is an example of an asynchronous counter.
o The flip flops are used in toggle mode.
o The external clock pulse is applied to only one flip flop. The output of this flip flop is
treated as a clock pulse for the next flip flop.

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 o In counting sequence, the flip flop in which external clock pulse is passed, act as LSB.
Latches
A Latch is a special type of logical circuit. The latches have low and high two stable states. Due
to these states, latches also refer to as bistable-multivibrators. A latch is a storage device that
holds the data using the feedback lane. The latch stores 1 -bit until the device set to 1. The latch
changes the stored data and constantly trials the inputs when the enable input set to 1.
Based on the enable signal, the circuit works in two states. When the enable input is high, then
both the inputs are low, and when the enable input is low, both the inputs are high.

2.1.4. Types of Latches

There are various types of latches used in digital circuits which are as follows:
o SR Latch
o Gated S-R Latch
o D latch
o Gated D Latch
o JK Latch
o T Latch.
Basics of Flip Flop
A flip-flop is a device which stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states
represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero". Such data storage can be used for storage of
state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic in electronics.
There are basically four different types of flip flops and these are:
Set-Reset (SR) flip-flop or Latch.
The S-R flip flop is the most common flip flop used in the digital system. In SR flip flop, when
the set input "S" is true, the output Y will be high, and Y' will be low. It is required that the
wiring of the circuit is maintained when the outputs are established. We maintain the wiring until
set or reset input goes high, or power is shutdown.
JK flip-flop.
The JK flip flop is used to remove the drawback of the S-R flip flop, i.e., undefined states. The
JK flip flop is formed by doing modification in the SR flip flop. The S-R flip flop is improved in
order to construct the J-K flip flop. When S and R input is set to true, the SR flip flop gives an
inaccurate result. But in the case of JK flip flop, it gives the correct output.

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D (Data or Delay) flip-flop.
D flip flop is a widely used flip flop in digital systems. The D flip flop is mostly used in shift-
registers, counters, and input synchronization.
T (Toggle) flip-flop.
Just like JK flip-flop, T flip flop is used. Unlike JK flip flop, in T flip flop, there is only single
input with the clock input. The T flip flop is constructed by connecting both of the inputs of JK
flip flop together as a single input.

2.1.5. Number System

In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number system. In these
systems, digits symbols are used to represent different values, depending on the index from
which it settled in the number system.
In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in the digital system
The digit value in the number system is calculated using:
1. The digit
2. The index, where the digit is present in the number.
3. Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the number system.
Types of Number System
In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for representing
information.
1. Binary Number System
2. Decimal Number System
3. Hexadecimal Number System
4. Octal Number System
Binary Number System
Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number system, it
carries only two digits, either 0 or 1. There are two types of electronic pulses present in a binary
number system. The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse representing '0'and second one
is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each digit is known as a bit. A four-bit
collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of eight bits (11001010) is known as a
byte. The location of a digit in a binary number represents a specific power of the base (2) of the
number system.

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Characteristics:
1. It holds only two values, i.e., either 0 or 1.
2. It is also known as the base 2 number system.
3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(2). Example: 20
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base (2). Example: 2x, where x
represents the last position, i.e., 1

Examples:
(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.
Decimal Number System
The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system contains ten
digits from 0 to 9(base 10). Here, the successive place value or position, left to the decimal point
holds units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0 is the
minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the maximum value of the digit. For example, the decimal
number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit position, 4 in the tens position, 5 in the hundreds
position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value will be written as:
(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)
(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
2541
Octal Number System
The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There are only
eight possible digit values to represent a number. With the help of only three bits, an octal
number is represented. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 7.
Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:
Characteristics:
1. An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
2. It is also known as the base 8 number system.
3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base (8). Example: 80
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base (8). Example: 8x, where x
represents the last position, i.e., 1

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Examples:
(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.
Hexadecimal Number System
It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called the hexadecimal
number system. The number system has a base of 16 means there are total 16 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a number. The single-bit representation of
decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F. Only 4 bits are
required for representing a number in a hexadecimal number. Each set of bits has a distinct value
between 0 and 15. There are the following characteristics of the octal number system:
Characteristics:
1. It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.
2. The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.
3. It is also known as the base 16number system.
4. In hexadecimal number, the position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(16).
Example: 160
5. In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x power of the
base(16). Example: 16x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

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Examples:
(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.
Number Base Conversion
In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary, decimal,
octal, and hexadecimal. In this part of the tutorial, we will learn how we can change a number
from one number system to another number system.
As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the remaining three
systems. There are the following conversions possible in Number System
1. Binary to other Number Systems.
2. Decimal to other Number Systems.
3. Octal to other Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

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Binary to other Number Systems
There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal,
and binary to hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from
the remaining others. Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary Number System conversion.
Binary to Decimal Conversion
The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying
the bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those
products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.
Example 1: (10110.001)2
We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.
(10110.001)2 = (1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2 = (1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2 = 16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2 = (22.125 )10

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Binary to Octal Conversion
The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of
three bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an
octal number which are as follows:
In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there
will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on
extreme sides.
In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2
1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
111 110 101 011.001 1
On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair of
three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.
111 110 101 011.001 100
2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(111110101011.0011)2 = (7653.14)8
Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number, the
pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to convert a
binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number
of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2
1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
111 1010 1011.0011
On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of four
bits, add one zero on the extreme side.
0111 1010 1011.0011
2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

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Decimal to other Number System
The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a
floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal number
in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that are used to convert the
decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with
base 'r'. We will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the
remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of the equivalent number of base 'r'.
In this, the least and most significant digits are denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and
successive fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or when the required number
of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part of the equivalent number of
base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is considered.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base
of binary(2).
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.
(152)10=(10011000)2
Step 2:
Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

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(152)10=(10011000)2
Step 2:
Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

(0.25)10 = (.01)2
Decimal to Octal Conversion
For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base
of octal (8).
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

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(0.25)10=(2)8
So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2
Decimal to hexadecimal conversion
For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive
quotient with the base of hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the
base of hexadecimal (16).
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1:
Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

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(0.25)10=(4)16
So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.
Octal to other Number System
Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number systems. The
process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding
how conversion is done.
Octal to Decimal Conversion
The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts
from multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And
lastly, we add all those products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.
Example 1: (152.25)8
Step 1:
We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.
(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

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So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125
Octal to Binary Conversion
The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write the
three bits binary code of each octal number digit.
Example 1: (152.25)8
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.
(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2
So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2
Octal to hexadecimal conversion
For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:
1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will
be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros
on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (152.25)8
Step 1:
We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.
(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2
So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2
Step 2:
1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
0 0110 1010.0101 01
On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the last
pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme sides.
0000 0110 1010.0101 0100
2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(0000 0110 1010.0101 0100)2=(6A.54)16
Hexa-decimal to other Number System
Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's
start understanding how conversion is done.

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Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion
The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process
starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional
weights. And lastly, we add all those products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.
Example 1: (152A.25)16
Step 1:
We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the
products of all the bits with its weight.
(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125
So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125
Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to hexadecimal.
We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.
Example 1: (152A.25)16
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.
(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2
So Step 2:
3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010
4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.
(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8
So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112
, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

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Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion
For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:
1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there
will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of
zeros on extreme sides and write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (152A.25)16
Step 1:
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.
(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2
So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2
Step 2:
3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
001 010 100 101 010.001 001 010
4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.
(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8
So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112
Gray Code
The Gray Code is a sequence of binary number systems, which is also known as reflected binary
code. The reason for calling this code as reflected binary code is the first N/2 values compared
with those of the last N/2 values in reverse order. In this code, two consecutive values are
differed by one bit of binary digits. Gray codes are used in the general sequence of hardware-
generated binary numbers. These numbers cause ambiguities or errors when the transition from
one number to its successive is done. This code simply solves this problem by changing only one
bit when the transition is between numbers is done.
The gray code is a very light weighted code because it doesn't depend on the value of the digit
specified by the position. This code is also called a cyclic variable code as the transition of one
value to its successive value carries a change of one bit only.
How to generate Gray code?
The prefix and reflect method are recursively used to generate the Gray code of a number. For
generating gray code:

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1. We find the number of bits required to represent a number.
2. Next, we find the code for 0, i.e., 0000, which is the same as binary.
3. Now, we take the previous code, i.e., 0000, and change the most significant bit of it.
4. We perform this process reclusively until all the codes are not uniquely identified.
5. If by changing the most significant bit, we find the same code obtained previously, then
the second most significant bit will be changed, and so on.

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2.1.6. Register transfer languages
Digital System: An interconnection of hardware modules that do a certain task on the
information.
Registers + Operations performed on the data stored in them = Digital Module
Modules are interconnected with common data and control paths to form a digital computer
system
Register Transfer Language (RTL) :
 a symbolic notation to describe the microoperation transfers among registers
Next steps:
 Define symbols for various types of microoperations,
 Describe the hardware that implements these microoperations

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Micro operations

The microoperations most often encountered in digital computers are classified into four
categories:
 Register transfer microoperations
 Arithmetic microoperations (on numeric data stored in the registers)
 Logic microoperations (bit manipulations on non-numeric data)
 Shift microoperations
Flynn's Classification of Computers
M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the number of
instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously.
The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction stream.
The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.

Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are:
1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)
Flynn's classification of Computers

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2.1.7. Computer Registers
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and
instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are
often termed as Processor registers. A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage
address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters).
The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a
memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of the
next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed.
Following is the list of some of the most common registers used in a basic computer:

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 o The Memory unit has a capacity of 4096 words, and each word contains 16 bits.
o The Data Register (DR) contains 16 bits which hold the operand read from the memory
location.
o The Memory Address Register (MAR) contains 12 bits which hold the address for the
memory location.
o The Program Counter (PC) also contains 12 bits which hold the address of the next
instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is executed.
o The Accumulator (AC) register is a general purpose processing register.
o The instruction read from memory is placed in the Instruction register (IR).
o The Temporary Register (TR) is used for holding the temporary data during the
processing.
o The Input Registers (IR) holds the input characters given by the user.
o The Output Registers (OR) holds the output after processing the input data.
Shift Register
A group of flip flops which is used to store multiple bits of data and the data is moved from one
flip flop to another is known as Shift Register. The bits stored in registers shifted when the clock
pulse is applied within and inside or outside the registers. To form an n-bit shift register, we have
to connect n number of flip flops. So, the number of bits of the binary number is directly
proportional to the number of flip flops. The flip flops are connected in such a way that the first
flip flop's output becomes the input of the other flip flop.
A Shift Register can shift the bits either to the left or to the right. A Shift Register, which shifts
the bit to the left, is known as "Shift left register", and it shifts the bit to the right, known
as "Right left register".
The shift register is classified into the following types:
o Serial In Serial Out
o Serial In Parallel Out
o Parallel In Serial Out
o Parallel In Parallel Out
o Bi-directional Shift Register
o Universal Shift Register

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2.1.8. Computer Instructions
Computer instructions are a set of machine language instructions that a particular processor
understands and executes. A computer performs tasks on the basis of the instruction provided.
An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:
o The Operation code (Opcode) field which specifies the operation to be performed.
o The Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or memory
location.
o The Mode field which specifies how the operand will be located.

A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:

1. Memory - reference instruction
2. Register - reference instruction
3. Input-Output instruction

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 2.2. Operating Systems
2.2.1. Introduction
An Operating System (OS) acts as an interface connecting a computer user with the hardware of
the computer. An operating system falls under the category of system software that performs all
the fundamental tasks like file management, memory handling, process management, handling
the input/output, and governing and managing the peripheral devices like disk drives, networking
hardware, printers, etc.

Some well-liked Operating Systems are Linux, Windows, OS X, Solaris, Chrome OS, etc.

What is operating system?

A program that acts as intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. A
set of programs that coordinates all activities among computer hardware resources. An operating
system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and
controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

In general, operating system is manager of the computer system

Operating system provides two important things

Abstraction

 Hides details of difference hardware configurations

 Applications do not need tailored for each possible device that might be present on a
system

Arbitration

 Manages access to shared hardware resources

 Enables multiple applications to share the same hardware simultaneously

Operating System goals

 Execute user programs and make user problems easier

 Make the computer system convenient to use

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  Use the computer hardware in efficient mannerperating System goals

The layers in systems

 Applications

 Operating system

 Organization -memory, decode unit

 VLSI- logical gates (OR, AND, NOT)

 Transistors – cmos transistors

Figure: System layers

The Three Elements of an OS

 User Interface
o The part of the OS that you interface with.
 Kernel
o The core of the OS. Interacts with the BIOS (at one end), and the UI (at the other
end).
 File Management System
o Organizes and manages files.

2.2.2. Basic elements of computer system

At an upper level of any computer architecture, a computer is supposed to have a processor,

memory and some I/O components, with one or more quantities of each type. These components
are interrelated and connected in a way to achieve the major function of the computer, which is
to execute programs. So, there are four key structural elements of any computer. These are:

 Processor: It controls the processes within the computer and carries out its data
processing functions. When there is only one processor available, it is in combination
termed as the central processing unit (CPU), which you must be familiar with.

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  Main memory: It stores data and programs within it. This memory is typically volatile
and is also called primary memory. This is because when the computer is shut down, the
contents that are within the memory gets lost. In contrast, the contents of disk memory
are kept hold of even when the computer system is turned off which you call as shutting
down of Operating system or computer. Main memory is also termed as real memory.
 I/O modules: This moves the data within the computer to its peripheral external
environment. The external environment supposed to have a variety of devices, including
secondary memory devices (e.g., pen drives, CDs, etc.), communications equipment
(such as LAN cable), terminals, etc.
 System bus: It provides communication between processors, main memory, and I/O
modules.

2.2.3. Operating system Services

An Operating System supplies different kinds of services to both the users and to the programs as
well. It also provides application programs (that run within an Operating system) an environment
to execute it freely. It provides users the services run various programs in a convenient manner.

Here is a list of common services offered by an almost all operating systems:

 User Interface
 Program Execution
 File system manipulation
 Input / Output Operations
 Communication
 Resource Allocation
 Error Detection
 Accounting
 Security and protection

This chapter will give a brief description of what services an operating system usually provides
to users and those programs that are and will be running within it.

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  User Interface of operating system

Usually, Operating system comes in three forms or types. Depending on the interface their types
have been further subdivided. These are:

 Command line interface

 Batch based interface
 Graphical User Interface
 Let's get to know in brief about each of them.

The command line interface (CLI) usually deals with using text commands and a technique for
entering those commands. The batch interface (BI): commands and directives are used to manage
those commands that are entered into files and those files get executed. Another type is the
graphical user interface (GUI): which is a window system with a pointing device (like mouse or
trackball) to point to the I/O, choose from menus driven interface and to make choices viewing
from a number of lists and a keyboard to entry the texts.

 Program Execution in Operating System

The operating system must have the capability to load a program into memory and execute that
program. Furthermore, the program must be able to end its execution, either normally or
abnormally / forcefully.

 File system manipulation

Programs need has to be read and then write them as files and directories. File handling portion
of operating system also allows users to create and delete files by specific name along with
extension, search for a given file and / or list file information. Some programs comprise of
permissions management for allowing or denying access to files or directories based on file
ownership.

 Input / Output Operations

A program which is currently executing may require I/O, which may involve file or other I/O
device. For efficiency and protection, users cannot directly govern the I/O devices. So, the OS
provide a means to do I/O Input / Output operation which means read or write operation with any
file.

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  Communication

Process needs to swap over information with other process. Processes executing on same
computer system or on different computer systems can communicate using operating system
support. Communication between two processes can be done using shared memory or via
message passing.

 Resource Allocation

When multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must need to be allocated to each of them.
Resources can be CPU cycles, main memory storage, file storage and I/O devices. CPU
scheduling routines are used here to establish how best the CPU can be used.

 Error Detection

Errors may occur within CPU, memory hardware, I/O devices and in the user program. For each
type of error, the OS takes adequate action for ensuring correct and consistent computing.

 Accounting

This service of the operating system keeps track of which users are using how much and what
kinds of computer resources have been used for accounting or simply to accumulate usage
statistics.

 Security and protection

Protection includes in ensuring all access to system resources in a controlled manner. For making
a system secure, the user needs to authenticate him or her to the system before using (usually via
login ID and password).

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Operating system Categories

2.2.4. Operating system categories

Category Name
Desktop  Windows
 OS X
 UNIX
 Linux
 Chrome OS

Server  Windows server

 Mac OS X Server
 UNIX
 lINUX

Mobile  Google android

 Apple iOS
 Windows phone

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Desktop operating system

A desktop operating system is a complete operating system that works on desktops, laptops, and
some tablets

The Macintosh operating system has earned a reputation for its ease of use Latest version is OS
X..Chrome OS is a Linux-based operating system designed to work primarily with web apps.

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Server Operating System

Mobile Operating Systems

The operating system on mobile devices and many consumer electronics is called a mobile
operating system and resides on firmware.

Android is an open source, Linux-based mobile operating system designed by Google for
smartphones and tablets.

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iOS, developed by Apple, is a proprietary mobile operating system specifically made for Apple‘s
mobile devices

Windows Phone, developed by Microsoft, is a proprietary mobile operating system that runs on
some smartphones.

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 2.2.5. Operating System Types

1. Single – user single tasking

This type manages the computer so that one user

can effectively do one thing at a time.

Example: DOS

2. Single user multitasking

 A single user can perform many tasks at a time

Example: Windows

3. Multi-user multi-taking

Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit
hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.

Example : Unix , Linux

4. Real time operating System(RTOS)

 Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as

 controlling scientific experiments
 medical imaging systems
 industrial control systems
 some display systems.
 Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
 Real-Time systems may have either hard or soft real-time.

Example : QNX, Vxworks, RTLinux

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5. Embedded system

 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

 Cellular telephones

Issues:

 Limited memory
 Slow processors
 Small display screens.
 Usually most features of typical OS‘s are not included at the expense of the developer.
 Emphasis is on I/O operations.
 Memory Management and Protection features are usually absent.

Example : kontiki os

Distributed Operating System

 Network operating system

 Runs on one computer but allows its processes to access remote resources
 Distributed operating system
 Single OS manages resources on more than one computer

Characteristics of Modern Operating Systems

 microkernel architecture
 multithreading
 symmetric multiprocessing
 distributed operating systems
 object-oriented design

2.2.6. Process Management

During the olden days, computer systems allowed only one program to be executed at one time.
This is why that program had complete power of the system and had access to all or most of the

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system's resources. In contrast, nowadays, current-day computer systems let multiple programs
to be loaded into memory and execute them concurrently. This massive change and development
required rigid control and more compartmentalization in various programs.

The more fused or complex the operating system is, the more it is expected to do on behalf of its
users. Even though its main concern is the execution of user programs, it also requires taking
care of various system tasks which are better left outside the kernel itself. So a system must
consist of a set of processes: operating system processes, executing different system code and
user processes which will be executing user code. In this chapter, you will learn about the
processes that are being used and managed by the operating system.

What is Process?

A process is mainly a program in execution where the execution of a process must progress in
sequential order or based on some priority or algorithms. In other words, it is an entity that
represents the fundamental working that has been assigned to a system.

When a program gets loaded into the memory, it is said to as a process. This processing can be
categorized into four sections. These are:

 Heap
 Stack
 Data
 Text

Process Concept

There's a question which arises while discussing operating systems that involves when to call all
the activities of the CPU. Even on a single-user operating system like Microsoft Windows, a user
may be capable of running more than a few programs at one time like MS Word processor,
different web browser(s) and an e-mail messenger. Even when the user can execute only one
program at a time, the operating system might require maintaining its internal programmed
activities like memory management. In these respects, all such activities are similar, so we call
all of them as 'processes.'

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Again another term - "job" and process are used roughly replacing each other. Much of the
operating - system theory and terminology was developed during a time when the main action of
operating systems was job processing; so the term job became famous gradually. It would be
confusing to avoid the use of commonly accepted terms which include the word job like 'job
scheduling.'

Process state of Operating System

As a process executes, it changes state. The state of a process is defined in part by the current
activity of that process. Each process may be in one of the following states:

 New: In this state, the process is being created.

 Running: In this state, instructions are being executed.
 Waiting: In this state, the process is waiting for the different event to occur like I/O
completion or treatment of a signal.
 Ready: In this state, the process waits to assign a processor.
 Terminated: In this state, the process has finished executing.

Operating System Thread

The process model that has been discussed in previous tutorials described that a process was an
executable program that is having a single thread of control. The majority of the modern
operating systems now offer features enabling a process for containing multiple threads of
control. In this tutorial, there are many concepts associated with multithreaded computer
structures. There are many issues related to multithreaded programming and how it brings effect
on the design of any operating systems. Then you will learn about how the Windows XP and
Linux OS maintain threads at the kernel level.

A thread is a stream of execution throughout the process code having its program counter which
keeps track of lists of instruction to execute next, system registers which bind its current working
variables. Threads are also termed as lightweight process. A thread uses parallelism which
provides a way to improve application performance.

Major Types of Threads

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Let us take an example where a web browser may have one thread to display images or text
while another thread retrieves data from the network. Another example can be a word processor
that may have a thread for displaying the UI or graphics while a new thread for responding to
keystrokes received from the user and another thread is to perform spelling and grammar
checking in the background. In some cases, a single application may be required to perform
several similar tasks.

Advantages / Benefits of Threads in Operating System

The advantages of multithreaded programming can be categorized into four major headings -

 Responsiveness: Multithreading is an interactive concept for an application which may

allow a program to continue running even when a part of it is blocked or is carrying a
lengthy operation, which increases responsiveness to the user.
 Resource sharing: Mostly threads share the memory and the resources of any process to
which they fit in. The advantage of sharing code is that it allows any application to have
multiple different threads of activity inside the same address space.
 Economy: In OS, allocation of memory and resources for process creation seems costly.
Because threads can distribute resources of any process to which they belong, it became
more economical to create and develop context-switch threads.
 Utilization of multiprocessor architectures: The advantages of multithreading can be
greatly amplified in a multiprocessor architecture, where there exist threads which may
run in parallel on diverse processors.
Multithreading Models

All the threads must have a relationship between them (i.e., user threads and kernel threads).
Here is a list which tells the three common ways of establishing this relationship.

 Many-to-One Model: In the many-to-one model plots several user-level threads to a

single kernel thread.
 One-to-One Model: In the one-to-one model maps every particular user thread to a
kernel thread and provides more concurrency compare to many-to-one model.

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  Many-to-Many Model: In the many-to-many model, many user-level threads get
mapped to a smaller or equal quantity of kernel threads. The number of kernel threads
might be exact to either a particular application or to a particular machine.

2.2.7. Operating System Scheduling Techniques

CPU scheduling is the foundation or starting concept of multi-programmed operating systems
(OSs). By toggling the CPU with different processes, the operating system can make the
computer and its processing power more productive. In this tutorial, you will learn about the
introductory basic of CPU-scheduling concepts.
What is CPU/ Process Scheduling?
The CPU scheduling is the action done by the process manager to handle the elimination of the
running process within the CPU and the inclusion of another process by certain specific
strategies.

Reason Behind the Use of CPU Scheduling

In a single-processor system, only one job can be processed at a time; rest of the job must wait
until the CPU gets free and can be rescheduled. The aim of multiprogramming is to have some
process to run at all times, for maximizing CPU utilization. The idea is simple. In this case, the
process gets executed until it must wait, normally for the completion of some I/O request.

In a simple operating system, the CPU then just stands idle. All this waiting time is wasted; no
fruitful work can be performed. With multiprogramming, you can use this time to process other
jobs productively.

CPU-I/O Burst Cycle

The success of CPU scheduling varies on an experiential property of processes: Process

execution holds a cycle of CPU execution and Input / Output wait. Processes get to swap
between these two states. Process execution begins with a burst of CPU. That is followed by an
Input / Output burst and goes after by one more CPU burst, then one more Input / Output burst,
and it continues. Eventually, the final or last CPU burst finish with a system request for
terminating execution.

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CPU Schedulers

Whenever the CPU gets idle, the operating system (OS) has to select one of the processes in the
ready queue for execution. The selection process is performed by the short-term scheduler (also
known as CPU scheduler). The scheduler picks up a process from the processes in memory
which are ready to be executed and allocate the CPU with that process.

Preemptive Scheduling

CPU scheduling choices may take place under the following four conditions:

 When a process toggles from the running state to its waiting state

 When a process toggles from the running state to its ready state (an example can be when
an interrupt occurs)

 When a process toggles from the waiting state to its ready state (for example, at the
completion of Input / Output)

 When a process terminates (example when execution ends)

Scheduling Algorithms of Operating System

CPU scheduling treats with the issues of deciding which of the processes in the ready queue
needs to be allocated to the CPU. There are several different CPU scheduling algorithms used
nowadays within an operating system. In this tutorial, you will get to know about some of them.

The most common CPU scheduling Algorithms

1.1 First Come First Serve (FCFS) scheduling

1.2. Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling

1.3 Priority scheduling

1.4 Round Robin (BB) Scheduling

1.5 Multilevel Queue Scheduling

Terminology

Arrival time(AT)

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  The time when the process is entered in to the queue

Burst Time (BT)

 The time that the CPU requires actually to complete the process

Completion Time (CT)

 Turn Around Time(TAT)

Waiting Time (WT)

1. First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

The simplest CPU-scheduling algorithm is the first-come, first-served (FCFS) scheduling

algorithm. With this scheme, the process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU first.
The implementation of the FCFS policy is easily managed with a FIFO queue. When a process
enters the ready queue, its PCB is linked onto the tail of the queue. The code for FCFS
scheduling is simple to write and understand.

On the negative side, the average waiting time under the FCFS policy is often quite long. First-
Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

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Problems of FCFS
 It is non-preemptive algorithm
 Improper process scheduling
 Resource utilization in parallel not possible, which leads to convey effect and hence poor
resource utilization.
Convey effect
 A situation in which the whole OS slows down due to few slow process
FCFS Scheduling Exercise

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2. Shortest Job First scheduling

A different approach to CPU scheduling is the shortest-job-first (SJF) scheduling algorithm. This
algorithm associates with each process the length of the process‘s next CPU burst. When the
CPU is available, it is assigned to the process that has the smallest next CPU burst. If the next
CPU bursts of two processes are the same, FCFS scheduling is used to break the tie.

Shortest Job First scheduling – non preemptive

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Advantages
 Maximum throughput

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  Minimum average WT and TAT
Disadvantage
 Starvation to longer jobs
 It cannot be implementable because burst time of processes can not known ahead
Solution: shortest Job with predicted BT
Predicted techniques
Static
 Process size
 Process type
Dynamic
 Simple averaging
 exponential averaging
3. Priority scheduling
 The SJF algorithm is a special case of the general priority-scheduling algorithm.
 A priority is associated with each process, and the CPU is allocated to the process with
the highest priority. Equal-priority processes are scheduled in FCFS order.
 An SJF algorithm is simply a priority algorithm where the priority (p)is the inverse of the
(predicted) next CPU burst. The larger the CPU burst, the lower the priority, and vice
versa.
 Note that we discuss scheduling in terms of high priority and low priority.
There are two types of priority scheduling
1. Static
 Does not change throughout the execution of the process
2. Dynamic
 Changes at regular intervals of time
Priority
 Preemptive
 Non-preemptive

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Page 140 of 248
Example 2

4. Round Robin (RR) scheduling algorithm

Round Robin algorithm is the most common of all algorithms. It uses quantum time (time
slice). Quantum time :the maximum time in which the CPU can give a process at a single point
of time. Before pause that process and move to another process inside the queue

A time quantum is generally from 10 to 100 milliseconds in length. The ready queue is treated as
a circular queue. Round Robin scheduling algorithm is preemptive. The average waiting time
under the RR policy is often long

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Example 1
Consider the following set of processes that arrive at time 0, with the length of the CPU burst
given in milliseconds:

If we use a time quantum of 4 milliseconds, then process P1 gets the first 4 milliseconds. Since it
requires another 20 milliseconds, it is preempted after the first time quantum, and the CPU is
given to the next process in the queue, process P2. Process P2 does not need 4 milliseconds, so it
quits before its time quantum expires. The CPU is then given to the next process, process P3.
Once each process has received 1 time quantum, the CPU is returned to process P1 for an
additional time quantum. The resulting RR schedule is as follows

Let‘s calculate the average waiting time for this schedule. P1 waits for 6 milliseconds (10 - 4),
P2 waits for 4 milliseconds, and P3 waits for 7 milliseconds. Thus, the average waiting time is
17/3 = 5.66 milliseconds.

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Page 143 of 248
5. Multilevel Queue Scheduling

Another class of scheduling algorithms has been created for situations in which processes are
easily classified into different groups. For example, a common division is made between
foreground (interactive) processes and background (batch) processes.

These two types of processes have different response-time requirements and so may have
different scheduling needs. In addition, foreground processes may have priority (externally
defined) over background processes

Thread Scheduling

Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads.When threads supported, threads

scheduled, not processes.Many-to-one and many-to-many models, thread library schedules user-
level threads to run on LWP.Known as process-contention scope (PCS) since scheduling
competition is within the process.Typically done via priority set by programmer

Kernel thread scheduled onto available CPU is system-contention scope (SCS) – competition
among all threads in system.

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 2.2.8. Inter-process communication (IPC)
Processes executing concurrently in the operating system may be either independent processes or
cooperating processes. A process is independent if it cannot affect or be affected by the other
processes executing in the system. Any process that does not share data with any other process is
independent. A process is cooperating if it can affect or be affected by the other processes
executing in the system. Clearly, any process that shares data with other processes is a
cooperating process.

IPC methods

 File : resource for storing information

 Signal: used in Unix operating system

 socket :provides point to point communication and two way communication between two
processes

 Message queue: it provides asynchronous and communication protocol

 Pipe :the output of each process(stdout) fits directly as input(stdin)

Dead Locks

In a multiprogramming system, numerous processes get competed for a finite number of

resources. Any process requests resources, and as the resources aren't available at that time, the
process goes into a waiting state. At times, a waiting process is not at all able again to change its
state as other waiting processes detain the resources it has requested. That condition is termed as
deadlock. In this chapter, you will learn about this issue briefly in connection with semaphores.

System Model

A system model or structure consists of a fixed number of resources to be circulated among some
opposing processes. The resources are then partitioned into numerous types, each consisting of
some specific quantity of identical instances. Memory space, CPU cycles, directories and files,
I/O devices like keyboards, printers and CD-DVD drives are prime examples of resource types.
When a system has 2 CPUs, then the resource type CPU got two instances.

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Under the standard mode of operation, any process may use a resource in only the below-
mentioned sequence:

1. Request: When the request can't be approved immediately (where the case may be when
another process is utilizing the resource), then the requesting job must remain waited
until it can obtain the resource.

2. Use: The process can run on the resource (like when the resource is a printer, its
job/process is to print on the printer).

 Release: The process releases the resource (like, terminating or exiting any specific
process).

Necessary Conditions and Preventions for Deadlock

A deadlock state can occur when the following four circumstances hold simultaneously within a
system:

 Mutual exclusion: At least there should be one resource that has to be held in a non-
sharable manner; i.e., only a single process at a time can utilize the resource. If other
process demands that resource, the requesting process must be postponed until the
resource gets released.

 Hold and wait: A job must be holding at least one single resource and waiting to obtain
supplementary resources which are currently being held by several other processes.

 No preemption: Resources can't be anticipated; i.e., a resource can get released only
willingly by the process holding it, then after that, the process has completed its task.

 Circular wait: The circular - wait situation implies the hold-and-wait state or condition,
and hence all the four conditions are not completely independent. They are
interconnected among each other.

Methods for Handling Deadlocks

Normally you can deal with the deadlock issues and situations in one of the three ways
mentioned below:

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  You can employ a protocol for preventing or avoiding deadlocks, and ensure that the
system will never go into a deadlock state.

 You can let the system to enter any deadlock condition, detect it, and then recover.

 You can overlook the issue altogether and assume that deadlocks never occur within the
system.

But is recommended to deal with deadlock, from the 1st option

Interprocess Communication (IPC)

In this chapter, you will learn about the various working capabilities of IPC (Inter-process
communication) within an Operating system along with usage. Processes executing concurrently
in the operating system might be either independent processes or cooperating processes. A
process is independent if it cannot be affected by the other processes executing in the system.

Basics of Interprocess Communication

There are numerous reasons for providing an environment or situation which allows process co-
operation:

 Information sharing: Since some users may be interested in the same piece of information
(for example, a shared file), you must provide a situation for allowing concurrent access
to that information.

 Computation speedup: If you want a particular work to run fast, you must break it into
sub-tasks where each of them will get executed in parallel with the other tasks. Note that
such a speed-up can be attained only when the computer has compound or various
processing elements like CPUs or I/O channels.

 Modularity: You may want to build the system in a modular way by dividing the system
functions into split processes or threads.

 Convenience: Even a single user may work on many tasks at a time. For example, a user
may be editing, formatting, printing, and compiling in parallel.

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Working together with multiple processes, require an interprocess communication (IPC) method
which will allow them to exchange data along with various information. There are two primary
models of interprocess communication:

1. shared memory and

2. message passing.

In the shared-memory model, a region of memory which is shared by cooperating processes gets
established. Processes can be then able to exchange information by reading and writing all the
data to the shared region. In the message-passing form, communication takes place by way of
messages exchanged among the cooperating processes.

The two communications models are contrasted in the figure below:

Shared Memory

Interprocess communication (IPC) usually utilizes shared memory that requires communicating
processes for establishing a region of shared memory. Typically, a shared-memory region resides
within the address space of any process creating the shared memory segment. Other processes
that wish for communicating using this shared-memory segment must connect it to their address
space.

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More on Inter Process Shared Memory

Note that, normally what happens, the operating system tries to check one process from
accessing other's process's memory. Shared memory needs that two or more processes agree to
remove this limitation. They can then exchange information via reading and writing data within
the shared areas.

The form of the data and the location gets established by these processes and are not under the
control of the operating system. The processes are also in charge to ensure that they are not
writing to the same old location simultaneously.

2.2.9. Memory Management

In this chapter, you will learn about a variety of ways of managing memory along with its
working phenomenon. The memory management algorithms differ from a primitive bare -
machine technique to different paging and segmentation policies. Each approach has its benefit
and demerits. Selection of a varied memory management technique for a specific system depends
largely on various factors, particularly on the hardware design of the system. Now you will see
many techniques that require hardware support, recent designs that have closely incorporated the
hardware and operating system.

Basic Hardware
Main memory and different registers built inside the processor itself are the only primary storage
that the CPU can have the right to use directly by accessing. There are some machine
instructions which take memory addresses as arguments or values, but none of them take disk
addresses. So, any instructions in implementation and any data which is used by the instructions
should have to be in one of these direct accessing storage devices. When the data are not in
memory, they have to be moved there before the CPL can work on them.

Registers which are built into the CPU are accessible within one single cycle of the CPU clock.
Most CPUs' can interpret those instructions and carry out simple operations on register contents
at the rate of 1 or more process per clock tick. The same may not be said for main memory,
which gets accessed via a transaction on the memory bus.

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Address Binding

Usually, a program inhabits on a disk in a binary executable form of a file. For executing, the
program must be fetched into memory and positioned within a process (list in the queue).
Depending on the usage of memory management, the process may get moved between disk and
memory at the time of its execution. The processes on the disk are then waiting to be brought
into main memory for implementing form the input queue. The normal method is to choose any
one of the processes in the input queue and to load that process into the memory.

As the process gets executed, it is able now to access instructions and data from memory.
Ultimately, the process expires, and its memory space is declared as available/free. Most systems
let user process to exist in any part of the physical memory. Therefore, even if the address space
of the computer begins at 00000, the first address of the user process need not have to be 00000.
This approach can affect the addresses which the user program can use.

Normally, the binding of instructions and data onto memory addresses can be done at any of the
step given below:

 Compile time: Compile time is the phase where the process will reside in memory and
eventually absolute code can be generated.
 Load time: At compile time, when the process will reside in memory, the compiler must
generate relocatable code. In that case, final binding gets delayed until load time.
 Execution time: Execution time is the time that a program or instruction takes for
executing a particular task.

Virtual Memory

In this chapter, you will gather knowledge about what virtual memory is and how they are being
managed within the operating system, along with its working. Virtual memory is a technical
concept that lets the execution of different processes which are not totally in memory. One main
benefit of this method is that programs can be larger than the physical memory.
Also, virtual memory abstracts primary memory into a very large, consistent array of storage that
divides logical memory as viewed by the user from that of physical memory. This technique is
used to free programmers from the anxiety of memory-storage limitations.

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Uses of Virtual Memory

Virtual memory also permits processes for sharing files easily and for implementing shared
memory. Moreover, it offers a well-organized mechanism for process creation. Virtual memory
is not that easy to apply and execute. However, this technique may substantially decrease
performance if it is not utilized carefully.

What is Virtual Address Space (VAS)?

The virtual address space of any process is defined as the logical (or virtual) view of how any
process gets stored in memory. Normally, this view is where a process begins at a certain logical
address — say, addresses location 0—and then exists in contiguous memory. Although, the fact
is physical memory might be structured in the form of page frames arid where the physical page
frames are assigned to a process that may not be adjacent to each other. It depends on to the
memory management unit (MMU) which maps logical pages to physical page frames in
memory.

The Concept of Demand Paging

Think of how an executable program could have loaded from within a disk into its memory. One
choice would be to load the complete program in physical memory at a program at the time of
execution. However, there is a problem with this approach, which you may not at first need the
entire program in memory. So the memory gets occupied unnecessarily.

An alternative way is to load pages only when they are needed/required initially. This method is
termed as demand paging and is commonly utilized in virtual memory systems. Using this
demand-paged virtual memory, pages gets only loaded as they are demanded at the time of
program execution; pages which are never accessed will never load into physical memory.

A demand - paging scheme is similar to a paging system with swapping feature where processes
exist in secondary memory (typically in a disk). As you want to execute any process, you swap it
into memory internally. Rather than swapping the complete process into memory, you can use a
"lazy swapper." A "lazy swapper" in no way swaps a page into memory unnecessarily unless that
page required for execution.

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Hardware Required for the Concept of Demand Paging

The hardware required for supporting demand paging is the same that is required for paging and
swapping:

 Page table: Page table can mark an entry invalid or unacceptable using a valid-invalid bit.
 Secondary memory: Secondary memory retains those pages which are not there in main
memory. The secondary memory is generally a high-speed disk. It is also known as a
swap device, and the segment of disk used for this purpose is termed as swap space.

2.2.10.File system Interface

 For the majority of users, the file system is the most obvious aspect of any operating
system. This provides users the method for storage and access to data as well as programs
of the operating system where all the users of the computer system can use it.

The file system consists of 2 distinct parts:

 a collection of files, that store related data, and

 a directory structure, which organizes and provides information about all the files in the
system.

In this chapter, you will learn about the different file tribute, concepts of file and its storage
along with operations on files.

File Attributes

A file is named, for the ease of its users and is referred by its name. A name is usually a string of
characters like filename.cpp, along with an extension which designates the file format. Some
systems (like Linux) distinguish between uppercase and lowercase characters in names, whereas
other systems don't. When a file is given a name, it becomes independent of the process, the user
and also the system which created it. Let's suppose, one user might make the file filename.cpp,
and another user might be editing that file by deducing its name. The file's owner may write the
file to a compact disk (CD) or send it via an e-mail or copy it across a network, and it could still
be called filename.cpp on the destination system.

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Fundamental Components of a File

A file's attributes vary from one operating system to another but typically consist of these:

 Name: Name is the symbolic file name and is the only information kept in human
readable form.
 Identifier: This unique tag is a number that identifies the file within the file system; it is
in non-human-readable form of the file.
 Type: This information is needed for systems which support different types of files or its
format.
 Location: This information is a pointer to a device which points to the location of the file
on the device where it is stored.
 Size: The current size of the file (which is in bytes, words, etc.) which possibly the
maximum allowed size gets included in this attribute.
 Protection: Access-control information establishes who can do the reading, writing,
executing, etc.
 Date, Time & user identification: This information might be kept for the creation of the
file, its last modification and last used. These data might be useful for in the field of
protection, security, and monitoring its usage.

File Operations

A file is an abstract data type. For defining a file properly, we need to consider the operations
that can be performed on files. The operating system can provide system calls to create, write,
read, reposition, delete, and truncate files. There are six basic file operations within an Operating
system. These are:

 Creating a file: There are two steps necessary for creating a file. First, space in the file
system must be found for the file. We discuss how to allocate space for the file. Second,
an entry for the new file must be made in the directory.
 Writing a file: To write to a file, you make a system call specify about both the name of
the file along with the information to be written to the file.
 Reading a file: To read from a file, you use a system call which specifies the name of the
file and where within memory the next block of the file should be placed.

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  Repositioning inside a file: The directory is then searched for the suitable entry, and the
'current-file-position' pointer is relocating to a given value. Relocating within a file need
not require any actual I/O. This file operation is also termed as 'file seek.'
 Deleting a file: For deleting a file, you have to search the directory for the specific file.
Deleting that file or directory release all file space so that other files can re-use that
space.
 Truncating a file: The user may wish for erasing the contents of a file but keep the
attributes same. Rather than deleting the file and then recreate it, this utility allows all
attributes to remain unchanged — except the file length — and let the user add or edit the
file content.

Input Output Management

The three major jobs of a computer are Input, Output, and Processing. In a lot of cases, the most
important job is Input / Output, and the processing is simply incidental. For example, when you
browse a web page or edit any file, our immediate attention is to read or enter some information,
not for computing an answer. The primary role of the operating system in computer Input /
Output is to manage and organize I/O operations and all I/O devices. In this chapter, you will
learn about the various uses of input output devices concerning the operating system.

Overview of Input / Output system

The controlling of various devices that are connected to the computer is a key concern of
operating-system designers. This is because I/O devices vary so widely in their functionality and
speed (for example a mouse, a hard disk and a CD-ROM), varied methods are required for
controlling them. These methods form the I/O sub-system of the kernel of OS that separates the
rest of the kernel from the complications of managing I/O devices.

I/O Hardware

Computers operate many huge kinds of devices. The general categories of storage devices are
like disks, tapes, transmission devices (like network interface cards, modems) and human
interface devices (like screen, keyboard, etc.).

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A device communicates with the operating system of a computer by transferring signals over
cable or even through the air. The peripheral devices communicate with the machine through a
connection point also called ports— (one example is a serial port). When devices use a set of
wires or cables, that connecting cables are called a "bus." A bus is a collection of wires and a
firmly defined protocol which specifies a set of messages that can be sent on the wires.
Operating System Using, I/O Port
An I/O port usually consists of four different registers. These are (1) status, (2) control, (3) data-
in, and (4) data-out registers.
 The data-in register is read by the host for getting input.
 The data-out register is written by the host for sending output.
 The status register holds bits which can be read by the host.
 The control register is written by the host for starting a command or for changing the
mode of any device.
 The data registers are usually 1 to 4 bytes in size. Some of the controllers have FIFO
chips which hold several bytes of input or output data for expanding the capacity of the
controller beyond the size of the data register.
Polling
The complete protocol used to interact with the host and a controller can be difficult for the OS,
but the necessary handshaking notion is simple. You can express handshaking with an example.
You assume that 2 bits have been used for coordinating the producer - consumer relationship
among the controller and the host. The controller points to its state using the busy bit in the status
register.
The host marks output through a port, with the controller using handshaking like:
1. The host frequently reads the busy bit till that bit gets clear.
2. The host then sets the write, bit in the command register and then writes a byte to the
data-out register.
3. The host then puts the command-ready bit.
4. As the controller notices that the command - ready bit has been set, it sets the busy bit.
5. The controller then reads the command register. It reads the data-out register for getting
the byte and performs the I/O to the device.
6. The controller clears the command - ready bit then clears the error bit within the status
register for indicating that the device I/O succeeded.

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Review questions Operating systems

1. What is an operating system?

A. interface between the hardware and application programs
B. collection of programs that manages hardware resources
C. system service provider to the application programs
D. all of the mentioned
2. What is the main function of the command interpreter?
A. to provide the interface between the API and application program
B. to handle the files in the operating system
C. to get and execute the next user-specified command
D. none of the mentioned
3. To access the services of the operating system, the interface is provided by the _____
A. Library
B. System calls
C. Assembly instructions
D. API
4. CPU scheduling is the basis of ___________
A. multiprogramming operating systems
B. larger memory sized systems
C. multiprocessor systems
D. none of the mentioned
5. Which one of the following is not true?
A. kernel remains in the memory during the entire computer session
B. kernel is made of various modules which can not be loaded in running operating
system
C. kernel is the first part of the operating system to load into memory during
booting
D. kernel is the program that constitutes the central core of the operating system
6. Where is the operating system placed in the memory?
A. either low or high memory (depending on the location of interrupt vector)
B. in the low memory
C. in the high memory
D. none of the mentioned
7. If a process fails, most operating system write the error information to a ______
A. new file
B. another running process
C. log file
D. none of the mentioned
8. Which one of the following is not a real time operating system?
A. RTLinux
B. Palm OS
C. QNX
D. VxWorks

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9. What does OS X has?
A. monolithic kernel with modules
B. microkernel
C. monolithic kernel
D. hybrid kernel
10. In operating system, each process has its own __________
A. open files
B. pending alarms, signals, and signal handlers
C. address space and global variables
D. all of the mentioned
11. In a timeshare operating system, when the time slot assigned to a process is
completed, the process switches from the current state to?
A. Suspended state
B. Terminated state
C. Ready state
D. Blocked state
12. When a process is in a ―Blocked‖ state waiting for some I/O service. When the
service is completed, it goes to the __________
A. Terminated state
B. Suspended state
C. Running state
D. Ready state
13. The FCFS algorithm is particularly troublesome for ____________
A. operating systems
B. multiprocessor systems
C. time sharing systems
D. multiprogramming systems
14. For an effective operating system, when to check for deadlock?
A. every time a resource request is made at fixed time intervals
B. at fixed time intervals
C. every time a resource request is made
D. none of the mentioned
15. A deadlock avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the __________ to ensure
that a circular wait condition can never exist.
A. operating system
B. resources
C. system storage state
D. resource allocation state
16. Swapping _______ be done when a process has pending I/O, or has to execute I/O
operations only into operating system buffers.
A. must never
B. maybe
C. can
D. must

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 17. The main memory accommodates ____________
A. cpu
B. user processes
C. operating system
D. all of the mentioned
18. The operating system is responsible for?
A. bad-block recovery
B. booting from disk
C. disk initialization
D. all of the mentioned
19. To obtain better memory utilization, dynamic loading is used. With dynamic loading,
a routine is not loaded until it is called. For implementing dynamic loading ________
A. special support from operating system is essential
B. special support from hardware is required
C. user programs can implement dynamic loading without any special support
from hardware or operating system
D. special support from both hardware and operating system is essential
20. The _________ presents a uniform device-access interface to the I/O subsystem,
much as system calls provide a standard interface between the application and the
operating system.
A. Device drivers
B. I/O systems
C. Devices
D. Buses
21. In real time operating system ____________
A. process scheduling can be done only once
B. all processes have the same priority
C. kernel is not required
D. a task must be serviced by its deadline period
22. In Unix, which system call creates the new process?
A. create
B. fork
C. new
D. none of the mentioned
Answer sheet (Operating Systems)
1. D 6. A 11. C 16. A 21. D 26. 31. 36. 41. 46.

2. C 7. C 12. D 17. C 22. B 27. 32. 37. 42.B 47.

3. B 8. B 13. C 18. D 23. 28. 33. 38. 43. 48.

4. A 9. D 14. A 19. C 24. 29. 34. 39. 44. 49.

5. B 10. D 15. D 20. A 25. 30. 35. 40. 45 50.

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Part III: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
Module Objective

On completion of the module successfully, students will be able to:

 Define reasoning, knowledge representation and learning techniques of artificial
intelligence
 assess the role of AI in gaining insight into intelligence and perception
 Explain classical examples of artificial intelligence
 Demonstrate characteristics of programs that can be considered "intelligent"
 Describe the use of heuristics in search problems and games
 Determine a variety of ways to represent and retrieve knowledge and information
 Express the fundamentals of artificial intelligence programming techniques in a modern
programming language
 Introduce students for powerful learning algorithms and their applications.
 Define Natural Language processing
3.1. Introduction to AI
Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence Artificial defines
"man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", or ―the ability to learn and solve
problems‖ hence Artificial Intelligence means "a man-made thinking power."
So, we can define Artificial Intelligence (AI) as the branch of computer science by which we can
create intelligent machines which can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make
decisions.
Intelligence is composed of:
Reasoning:
 judgment, making decision, prediction
Learning
 gaining knowledge
Perception
 acquiring, interpreting, selecting and organizing sensor information
Problem Solving
 working through details of problems to reach a solution
Linguistic Intelligence

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  Comprehensive speak and write the verbal and writing language.
3.2. Main goals of Artificial Intelligence
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
 Proving a theorem
 Playing chess
 Plan some surgical operation
 Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
What Contributes to AI?

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer

Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major thrust of AI
is in the development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as
reasoning, learning, and problem solving.
Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent system
3.3. Types of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main
categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow
diagram which explain the types of AI.
1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence(ANI)
Narrow AI also called Weak AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with
intelligence. The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
Example
o Apple Siri
o IBM's Watson supercomputer
o playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site
o self-driving cars

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 o speech recognition
o image recognition.
2. Artificial General Intelligence(AGI)
General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like
a human. The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and
think like a human by its own. Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under
general AI and can perform any task as perfect as a human.
3. Artificial Super Intelligence(ASI)
Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an
outcome of general AI. Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the
ability to think, to reason, solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its
own. Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such
systems in real is still world changing task.

Figure: Types AI
Artificial Intelligence - Based on functionality
1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best
action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.

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 o Google's Alpha Go is also an example of reactive machines.
2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of
time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars
can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other
information to navigate the road.
3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able
to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.
4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

Why AI Now?
One of the greatest innovators in the field of machine learning was John McCarthy, widely
recognized as the "Father of Artificial Intelligence".
In the mid-1950s, McCarthy coined the term "Artificial Intelligence" and defined it as "the
science of making intelligent machines".
The algorithms have been here since then. Why is AI more interesting now?
The answer is:
 Computing power has not been strong enough
 Computer storage has not been large enough
 Big data has not been available
 Fast Internet has not been available
Another strong force is the major investments from big companies (Google, Microsoft,
Facebook, and YouTube) because their datasets became much too big to handle traditionally.

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Application of Artificial Intelligence

Figure: Application of Artificial Intelligence

Interesting Questions
Studying AI raises many interesting questions:
"Can computers think like humans?"
"Can computers be smarter than humans?"
"Can computers take over the world?"

History of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

1950 Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"

1952 Arthur Samuel develops a self-learning program to play checkers

1956 Artificial Intelligence used by John McCarthy in a conference

1957 First programming language for numeric and scientific computing (FORTRAN)

1958 First AI programming language (LISP)

1959 Arthur Samuel used the term Machine Learning

1959 John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the MIT Artificial Intelligence Project

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1. Intelligent Agents
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act in their environment.
The environment may contain other agents.
What are Agent and Environment?
An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment through effectors.
 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin parallel to
the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and various
motors and actuators for effectors.
 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.
Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we
are also agents. Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and
actuators.
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.
Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The
actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an
electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels,
arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

Agent Terminology

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  Performance Measure of Agent: It is the criteria, which determines how successful an
agent is.
 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence of
percepts.
 Percept − It is agent‘s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.
 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.
Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having good sense of
judgment.
Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon what the agent has
perceived. Performing actions with the aim of obtaining useful information is an important part
of rationality.
What is Ideal Rational Agent?
An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected actions to maximize its
performance measure, on the basis of
 Its percept sequences
 Its built-in knowledge base
Rationality of an agent depends on the following
 The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.
 Agent‘s Percept Sequence till now.
 The agent‘s prior knowledge about the environment.
 The actions that the agent can carry out.
A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means the action that causes
the agent to be most successful in the given percept sequence. The problem the agent solves is
characterized by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).
The Structure of Intelligent Agents
Agent‘s structure can be viewed as −
 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
 Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
 Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.

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 3.4. Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the
time. These are given below:
1. Simple Reflex Agent
2. Model-based reflex agent
3. Goal-based agents
4. Utility-based agent
5. Learning agent
Simple Reflex Agents
 They choose actions only based on the current percept.
 They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current precept.
 Their environment is completely observable.
Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action

Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an internal state.
Model − knowledge about ―how the things happen in the world‖.

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Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current state depending on
percept history.
Updating the state requires the information about −
 How the world evolves.
 How the agent‘s actions affect the world.

Goal Based Agents

They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is more flexible than
reflex agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is explicitly modeled, thereby allowing
for modifications.
Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

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Utility Based Agents
They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.
Goals are inadequate when −
 There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.
 Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood of
success against the importance of a goal.
5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or it
has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically through
learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
1. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from
environment
2. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how
well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
3. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
4. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead to new and informative experiences.

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Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to improve
the performance.

3.5. The Nature of Environments

Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to keyboard input,
database, computer file systems and character output on a screen.
In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in rich, unlimited softbots
domains. The simulator has a very detailed, complex environment. The software agent needs to
choose from a long array of actions in real time. A softbot designed to scan the online
preferences of the customer and show interesting items to the customer works in the real as well
as an artificial environment.
The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment, in which one real
and other artificial agents are tested on equal ground. This is a very challenging environment as
it is highly difficult for a software agent to perform as well as a human.
Turing Test
The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with Turing Test.
Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test. Out of the two persons, one
plays the role of the tester. Each of them sits in different rooms. The tester is unaware of who is

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machine and who is a human. He interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both
intelligences, to which he receives typed responses.
This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine machine‘s response from the
human response, then the machine is said to be intelligent.
Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −
 Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly defined, states
of the environment, the environment is discrete (For example, chess); otherwise, it is
continuous (For example, driving).
 Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the complete state of
the environment at each time point from the percepts it is observable; otherwise, it is
only partially observable.
 Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is acting, then it is
static; otherwise, it is dynamic.
 Single agent / Multiple agents − The environment may contain other agents which may
be of the same or different kind as that of the agent.
 Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent‘s sensory apparatus can have access to the
complete state of the environment, then the environment is accessible to that agent.
 Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is completely
determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then the environment is
deterministic; otherwise, it is non-deterministic.
 Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists of the
agent perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just on the episode
itself. Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the previous episodes.
Episodic environments are much simpler because the agent does not need to think
ahead.
Searching and planning
Searching is the universal technique of problem solving in AI. There are some single-player
games such as tile games, Sudoku, crossword, etc. The search algorithms help you to search for a
particular position in such games.

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Single Agent Pathfinding Problems
The games such as 3X3 eight-tile, 4X4 fifteen-tile, and 5X5 twenty four tile puzzles are single-
agent-path-finding challenges. They consist of a matrix of tiles with a blank tile. The player is
required to arrange the tiles by sliding a tile either vertically or horizontally into a blank space
with the aim of accomplishing some objective.
The other examples of single agent pathfinding problems are Travelling Salesman Problem,
Rubik‘s Cube, and Theorem Proving.
Search Terminology
 Problem Space − It is the environment in which the search takes place. (A set of states
and set of operators to change those states)
 Problem Instance − It is Initial state + Goal state.
 Problem Space Graph − It represents problem state. States are shown by nodes and
operators are shown by edges.
 Depth of a problem − Length of a shortest path or shortest sequence of operators from
Initial State to goal state.
 Space Complexity − the maximum number of nodes that are stored in memory.
 Time Complexity − the maximum number of nodes that are created.
 Admissibility − A property of an algorithm to always find an optimal solution.
 Branching Factor − the average number of child nodes in the problem space graph.
 Depth − Length of the shortest path from initial state to goal state.
Brute-Force Search Strategies
They are most simple, as they do not need any domain-specific knowledge. They work fine with
small number of possible states.
Requirements −
 State description
 A set of valid operators
 Initial state
 Goal state description
Breadth-First Search
It starts from the root node, explores the neighboring nodes first and moves towards the next
level neighbors. It generates one tree at a time until the solution is found. It can be implemented
using FIFO queue data structure. This method provides shortest path to the solution.

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If branching factor (average number of child nodes for a given node) = b and depth = d, then
number of nodes at level d = bd.
The total no of nodes created in worst case is b + b2 + b3 + … + bd.
Disadvantage − since each level of nodes is saved for creating next one, it consumes a lot of
memory space. Space requirement to store nodes is exponential.
Its complexity depends on the number of nodes. It can check duplicate nodes.

Depth-First Search
It is implemented in recursion with LIFO stack data structure. It creates the same set of nodes as
Breadth-First method, only in the different order.
As the nodes on the single path are stored in each iteration from root to leaf node, the space
requirement to store nodes is linear. With branching factor b and depth as m, the storage space
is bm.
Disadvantage − this algorithm may not terminate and go on infinitely on one path. The solution
to this issue is to choose a cut-off depth. If the ideal cut-off is d, and if chosen cut-off is lesser
than d, then this algorithm may fail. If chosen cut-off is more than d, then execution time
increases.
Its complexity depends on the number of paths. It cannot check duplicate nodes.

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Bidirectional Search
It searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both meet to identify a
common state.
The path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the goal state. Each search
is done only up to half of the total path.
Uniform Cost Search
Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path to a node. It always expands the least cost node. It
is identical to Breadth First search if each transition has the same cost.
It explores paths in the increasing order of cost.
Disadvantage − There can be multiple long paths with the cost ≤ C*. Uniform Cost search must
explore them all.
Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search
It performs depth-first search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete depth-first search to
level 2, and continues in such way till the solution is found.
It never creates a node until all lower nodes are generated. It only saves a stack of nodes. The
algorithm ends when it finds a solution at depth d. The number of nodes created at depth d is
bd and at depth d-1 is bd-1.

Comparison of Various Algorithms Complexities

Let us see the performance of algorithms based on various criteria –

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Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies
To solve large problems with large number of possible states, problem-specific knowledge needs
to be added to increase the efficiency of search algorithms.
Heuristic Evaluation Functions
They calculate the cost of optimal path between two states. A heuristic function for sliding-tiles
games is computed by counting number of moves that each tile makes from its goal state and
adding these number of moves for all tiles.
Pure Heuristic Search
It expands nodes in the order of their heuristic values. It creates two lists, a closed list for the
already expanded nodes and an open list for the created but unexpanded nodes.
In each iteration, a node with a minimum heuristic value is expanded, all its child nodes are
created and placed in the closed list. Then, the heuristic function is applied to the child nodes and
they are placed in the open list according to their heuristic value. The shorter paths are saved and
the longer ones are disposed.
A * Search
It is best-known form of Best First search. It avoids expanding paths that are already expensive,
but expands most promising paths first.
f(n) = g(n) + h(n), where
 g(n) the cost (so far) to reach the node
 h(n) estimated cost to get from the node to the goal
 f(n) estimated total cost of path through n to goal. It is implemented using priority queue
by increasing f(n).

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Greedy Best First Search
It expands the node that is estimated to be closest to goal. It expands nodes based on f(n) = h(n).
It is implemented using priority queue.
Disadvantage − It can get stuck in loops. It is not optimal.
Local Search Algorithms
They start from a prospective solution and then move to a neighboring solution. They can return
a valid solution even if it is interrupted at any time before they end.
Hill-Climbing Search
It is an iterative algorithm that starts with an arbitrary solution to a problem and attempts to find
a better solution by changing a single element of the solution incrementally. If the change
produces a better solution, an incremental change is taken as a new solution. This process is
repeated until there are no further improvements.
inputs: problem, a problem
local variables: current, a node
neighbor, a node
current <-Make Node(Initial-State[problem])
loop
do neighbor <- a highest_valued successor of current
if Value[neighbor] ≤ Value[current] then
return State[current]
current <- neighbor

end

Disadvantage − this algorithm is neither complete, nor optimal.

Local Beam Search
In this algorithm, it holds k number of states at any given time. At the start, these states are
generated randomly. The successors of these k states are computed with the help of objective
function. If any of these successors is the maximum value of the objective function, then the
algorithm stops. Otherwise the (initial k states and k number of successors of the states = 2k)
states are placed in a pool. The pool is then sorted numerically. The highest k states are selected

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as new initial states. This process continues until a maximum value is reached. Function
BeamSearch (problem, k), returns a solution state.
start with k randomly generated states
loop
generate all successors of all k states
if any of the states = solution, then return the state
else select the k best successors
end

Travelling Salesman Problem

In this algorithm, the objective is to find a low-cost tour that starts from a city, visits all cities en-
route exactly once and ends at the same starting city.
Start
Find out all (n -1)! Possible solutions, where n is the total number of cities.
Determine the minimum cost by finding out the cost of each of these (n -1)! solutions.
Finally, keep the one with the minimum cost.
end

3.6. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning

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Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence
Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.
Example:
1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.
Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:
o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use
any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
3.7. Syntax of propositional logic
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:
a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single
proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.

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Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or
atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example:
a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives: Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or
representing a sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

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Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence
Inference:
In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic from old
logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as
Inference.
Inference rules:
Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied to
derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads to
the desired goal.
In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role. Following
are some terminologies related to inference rules:
o Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It is
a Boolean expression.
o Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition
goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
o Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
o Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P → ¬
Q.
First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence
In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using
propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts,
which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural
language statements. The propositional logic has very limited expressive power. Consider the
following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.
o "Some humans are intelligent", or

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 o "Sachin likes cricket."
To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more powerful
logic, such as first-order logic.
First-Order logic:
 First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an
extension to propositional logic.
 FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise way.
 First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-
order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a more
easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
 First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains facts
like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus,......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any
relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of,......
 As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
o Syntax
o Semantics
Syntax of First-Order logic:
The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write statements in short-
hand notation in FOL.
Basic Elements of First-order logic:
Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

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Atomic sentences:
 Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are
formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
 We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2,… term n).
Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers (Ravi, Ajay).
Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
Complex Sentences:
 Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.
First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:
 Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
 Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together in a
statement.
Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the subject
of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

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Inference in First-Order Logic
Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing sentences.
Before understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic terminologies used in
FOL.
Substitution:
Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs in all
inference systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the presence of quantifiers
in FOL. If we write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant "a" in place of variable "x".
Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the universe.
Equality:
First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences but also
uses another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality symbols which
specify that the two terms refer to the same object.
Example: Brother (John) = Smith.
As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the object
referred by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that two
terms are not the same objects.
Example: ￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.
FOL inference rules for quantifier:
As propositional logic we also have inference rules in first-order logic, so following are some
basic inference rules in FOL:
o Universal Generalization
o Universal Instantiation
o Existential Instantiation
o Existential introduction
3.8. Knowledge Representation
What is Knowledge Representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things,
which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real
world. But how machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation and
reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge representation as following:

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 o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence
which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent
behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real-world problems such
as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it
also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that
it can behave intelligently like a human.
What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:
o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings,
trumpets are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the
knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences
(Here, sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the English
language).
Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and
situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:
Types of knowledge

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Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:
o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.
2. Procedural Knowledge
o It is also known as imperative knowledge.
o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to
do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
3. Meta-knowledge:
o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.
4. Heuristic knowledge:

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 o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.
5. Structural knowledge:
o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping
of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
3.9. The relation between knowledge and intelligence
Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI
agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or
experience about that input.
Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then
how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.
As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot
display intelligent behavior.

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AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:
o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what
components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it
retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory
input. The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning. These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like
humans. These two components are independent with each other but also coupled together. The
planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning.
Approaches to knowledge representation:
There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are given below:

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1. Simple relational knowledge:
o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact
about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.
2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance
and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
Example:

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3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
1. Marcus is a man
2. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;
man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to
do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.
Techniques of knowledge representation
There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
 Logical Representation
 Semantic Network Representation
 Frame Representation
 Production Rules

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 3.10. Machine Learning Basics

What is Machine Learning?

In the real world, we are surrounded by humans who can learn everything from their experiences
with their learning capability, and we have computers or machines which work on our
instructions. But can a machine also learn from experiences or past data like a human does? So
here comes the role of Machine Learning.

Machine Learning is said as a subset of artificial intelligence that is mainly concerned with the
development of algorithms which allow a computer to learn from the data and past experiences
on their own. The term machine learning was first introduced by Arthur Samuel in 1959. We
can define it in a summarized way as:
“Machine learning enables a machine to automatically learn from data, improve performance
from experiences, and predict things without being explicitly programmed”
With the help of sample historical data, which is known as training data, machine learning
algorithms build a mathematical model that helps in making predictions or decisions without
being explicitly programmed. Machine learning brings computer science and statistics together
for creating predictive models. Machine learning constructs or uses the algorithms that learn
from historical data. The more we will provide the information, the higher will be the
performance.

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How does Machine Learning work
A Machine Learning system learns from historical data, builds the prediction models, and
whenever it receives new data, predicts the output for it. The accuracy of predicted output
depends upon the amount of data, as the huge amount of data helps to build a better model which
predicts the output more accurately.
Suppose we have a complex problem, where we need to perform some predictions, so instead of
writing a code for it, we just need to feed the data to generic algorithms, and with the help of
these algorithms, machine builds the logic as per the data and predict the output. Machine
learning has changed our way of thinking about the problem. The below block diagram explains
the working of Machine Learning algorithm.

Features of Machine Learning:

o Machine learning uses data to detect various patterns in a given dataset.
o It can learn from past data and improve automatically.
o It is a data-driven technology.
o Machine learning is much similar to data mining as it also deals with the huge amount of
the data.
Need for Machine Learning
The need for machine learning is increasing day by day. The reason behind the need for machine
learning is that it is capable of doing tasks that are too complex for a person to implement
directly. As a human, we have some limitations as we cannot access the huge amount of data
manually, so for this, we need some computer systems and here comes the machine learning to
make things easy for us.
We can train machine learning algorithms by providing them the huge amount of data and let
them explore the data, construct the models, and predict the required output automatically. The
performance of the machine learning algorithm depends on the amount of data, and it can be

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determined by the cost function. With the help of machine learning, we can save both time and
money.
The importance of machine learning can be easily understood by its uses cases, Currently,
machine learning is used in self-driving cars, cyber fraud detection, face recognition,
and friend suggestion by Facebook, etc. Various top companies such as Netflix and Amazon
have build machine learning models that are using a vast amount of data to analyze the user
interest and recommend product accordingly.
Following are some key points which show the importance of Machine Learning:
o Rapid increment in the production of data
o Solving complex problems, which are difficult for a human
o Decision making in various sector including finance
o Finding hidden patterns and extracting useful information from data.
Classification of Machine Learning
At a broad level, machine learning can be classified into three types:
1. Supervised learning
2. Unsupervised learning
3. Reinforcement learning

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1) Supervised Learning
Supervised learning is a type of machine learning method in which we provide sample labeled
data to the machine learning system in order to train it, and on that basis, it predicts the output.
The system creates a model using labeled data to understand the datasets and learn about each
data, once the training and processing are done then we test the model by providing a sample
data to check whether it is predicting the exact output or not.
The goal of supervised learning is to map input data with the output data. The supervised
learning is based on supervision, and it is the same as when a student learns things in the
supervision of the teacher. The example of supervised learning is spam filtering.
Supervised learning can be grouped further in two categories of algorithms:
o Classification
o Regression
2) Unsupervised Learning
Unsupervised learning is a learning method in which a machine learns without any supervision.
The training is provided to the machine with the set of data that has not been labeled, classified,
or categorized, and the algorithm needs to act on that data without any supervision. The goal of
unsupervised learning is to restructure the input data into new features or a group of objects with
similar patterns.
In unsupervised learning, we don't have a predetermined result. The machine tries to find useful
insights from the huge amount of data. It can be further classifieds into two categories of
algorithms:
o Clustering
o Association
3) Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is a feedback-based learning method, in which a learning agent gets a
reward for each right action and gets a penalty for each wrong action. The agent learns
automatically with these feedbacks and improves its performance. In reinforcement learning, the
agent interacts with the environment and explores it. The goal of an agent is to get the most
reward points, and hence, it improves its performance.
The robotic dog, which automatically learns the movement of his arms, is an example of
Reinforcement learning.

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 3.11. Natural Language Processing (NLP) Basics
Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent
system using a natural language such as English.
Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot to
perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based clinical
expert system, etc.
The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural language‘s
humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −
 Speech
 Written Text
Components of NLP
There are two components of NLP as given −
Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
Understanding involves the following tasks −
 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.
 Analyzing different aspects of the language.
Natural Language Generation (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural language
from some internal representation.
It involves −
 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.
 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful phrases,
setting tone of the sentence.
 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.
The NLU is harder than NLG.
Difficulties in NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.
It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −
 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.
 For example, treating the word ―board‖ as noun or verb?
 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.

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  For example, ―He lifted the beetle with red cap.‖ − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or he
lifted a beetle that had red cap?
 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima
went to Gauri. She said, ―I am tired.‖ − Exactly who is tired? One input can mean
different meanings. Many inputs can mean the same thing.
NLP Terminology
 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.
 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.
 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.
 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves determining the
structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words into
meaningful phrases and sentences.
 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations and
how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretation of the next sentence.
 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.
Steps in NLP
There are general five steps −
 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words. Lexicon
of a language means the collection of words and phrases in a language. Lexical analysis
is dividing the whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and words.
 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence for
grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the words.
The sentence such as ―The school goes to boy‖ is rejected by English syntactic analyzer.

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  Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning from the text.
The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic structures and
objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence such as ―hot ice-
cream‖.
 Discourse Integration − the meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of the
sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the meaning of immediately
succeeding sentence.
 Pragmatic Analysis − during this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it actually
meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world
knowledge.
Robotic Sensing and Manipulation
Robotics is a separate entity in Artificial Intelligence that helps study the creation of intelligent
robots or machines. Robotics combines electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and
computer science & engineering as they have mechanical construction, electrical component and
programmed with programming language. Although, Robotics and Artificial Intelligence both
have different objectives and applications, but most people treat robotics as a subset of Artificial
Intelligence (AI). Robot machines look very similar to humans, and also, they can perform like
humans, if enabled with AI.

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What is a robot?
A robot is a machine that looks like a human, and is capable of performing out of box actions
and replicating certain human movements automatically by means of commands given to it
using programming. Examples: Drug Compounding Robot, Automotive Industry Robots, Order
Picking Robots, Industrial Floor Scrubbers and Sage Automation Gantry Robots, etc.
Components of Robot
Several components construct a robot; these components are as follows:

Figure: Components of a robot

o Actuators: Actuators are the devices that are responsible for moving and controlling a
system or machine. It helps to achieve physical movements by converting energy like
electrical, hydraulic and air, etc. Actuators can create linear as well as rotary motion.
o Power Supply: It is an electrical device that supplies electrical power to an electrical
load. The primary function of the power supply is to convert electrical current to power
the load.
o Electric Motors: These are the devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy and are required for the rotational motion of the machines.

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 o Pneumatic Air Muscles: Air Muscles are soft pneumatic devices that are ideally best
fitted for robotics. They can contract and extend and operate by pressurized air filling a
pneumatic bladder. Whenever air is introduced, it can contract up to 40%.
o Muscles wire: These are made up of nickel-titanium alloy called Nitinol and are very
thin in shape. It can also extend and contract when a specific amount of heat and electric
current is supplied into it. Also, it can be formed and bent into different shapes when it is
in its martensitic form. They can contract by 5% when electrical current passes through
them.
o Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: Piezoelectric motors or Piezo motors are the
electrical devices that receive an electric signal and apply a directional force to an
opposing ceramic plate. It helps a robot to move in the desired direction. These are the
best suited electrical motors for industrial robots.
o Sensor: They provide the ability like see, hear, touch and movement like
humans. Sensors are the devices or machines which help to detect the events or changes
in the environment and send data to the computer processor. These devices are usually
equipped with other electronic devices. Similar to human organs, the electrical sensor
also plays a crucial role in Artificial Intelligence & robotics. AI algorithms control robots
by sensing the environment, and it provides real-time information to computer
processors.
Applications of Robotics
Robotics have different application areas. Some of the important applications domains of
robotics are as follows:
o Robotics in defence sectors: The defence sector is undoubtedly the one of the main parts
of any country. Each country wants their defence system to be strong. Robots help to
approach inaccessible and dangerous zone during war. DRDO has developed a robot
named Daksh to destroy life-threatening objects safely. They help soldiers to remain safe
and deployed by the military in combat scenarios. Besides combat support, robots are
also deployed in anti-submarine operations, fire support, battle damage management,
strike missions, and laying machines.
o Robotics in Medical sectors: Robots also help in various medical fields such as
laparoscopy, neurosurgery, orthopaedic surgery, disinfecting rooms, dispensing
medication, and various other medical domains.

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 o Robotics in Industrial Sector: Robots are used in various industrial manufacturing
industries such as cutting, welding, assembly, disassembly, pick and place for printed
circuit boards, packaging & labelling, palletizing, product inspection & testing, color
coating, drilling, polishing and handling the materials.
Moreover, Robotics technology increases productivity and profitability and reduces
human efforts, resulting from lower physical strain and injury. The industrial robot has
some important advantages, which are as follows:
o Accuracy
o Flexibility
o Reduced labor charge
o Low noise operation
o Fewer production damages
o Increased productivity rate.
o Robotics in Entertainment: Over the last decade, use of robots is continuously getting
increased in entertainment areas. Robots are being employed in entertainment sector,
such as movies, animation, games and cartoons. Robots are very helpful where repetitive
actions are required. A camera-wielding robot helps shoot a movie scene as many times
as needed without getting tired and frustrated. A big-name Disney has launched hundreds
of robots for the film industry.
o Robots in the mining industry: Robotics is very helpful for various mining applications
such as robotic dozing, excavation and haulage, robotic mapping & surveying, robotic
drilling and explosive handling, etc. A mining robot can solely navigate flooded passages
and use cameras and other sensors to detect valuable minerals. Further, robots also help
in excavation to detect gases and other materials and keep humans safe from harm and
injuries. The robot rock climbers are used for space exploration, and underwater drones
are used for ocean exploration.
AI technology used in Robotics
Computer Vision
Robots can also see, and this is possible by one of the popular Artificial Intelligence technologies
named Computer vision. Computer Vision plays a crucial role in all industries like health,
entertainment, medical, military, mining, etc.

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Computer Vision is an important domain of Artificial Intelligence that helps in extracting
meaningful information from images, videos and visual inputs and take action accordingly.
Ethical and Legal Considerations in AI
In broader debate, the terms Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, and their related
ethical considerations (AI/ML Ethics) are often used interchangeably. Given the focus of the WG
on Machine Learning, this document will generally use the terms Machine Learning or ML, and
Machine Learning or ML Ethics, with the intent to refer to the broader set of issues and concerns
encompassed by AI/ML.
 Accuracy
 Bias
 Fairness
 Safety and security
 Privacy
 Transparency
 Accountability
 Human Control and Decision-making
 Environmental Impact & Sustainability

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Review questions
1. Who is the father of Artificial Intelligence?
A. Doug Cutting
B. John McCarthy
C. William S.
D. Rasmus Lerdorf
2. Artificial Intelligence is a way of _____.
A. making a computer
B. a computer-controlled robot
C. software think intelligently
D. All of the above
3. What are the main goals of AI?
A. To Create Expert Systems
B. To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines
C. Both A and B
D. None of the Above
4. A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions associated with human
intelligence.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
C. AI is not associated with human intelligence
D. None of the Above
5. Which of the following areas can contribute to build an intelligent system?
A. Philosophy
B. Biology
C. Sociology
D. All of the above
6. Which of the following areas cannot contribute to build an intelligent system?
A. Neuron science
B. Maths
C. Computer Science
D. Geology

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7. A computer program with AI cannot answer the generic questions it is meant to solve.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
C. AI is not used to answer question
D. None of the Above
8. How many types of AI is there?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
9. Which of the following is not the type of AI?
A. Reactive machines
B. Unlimited memory
C. Theory of mind
D. Self-awareness
10. AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that
_____.
A. It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.
B. It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
C. Both A and B
D. None of the Above
11. Which of the following is an application of AI?
A. Gaming
B. Expert Systems
C. Vision Systems
D. All of the above
12. In which year John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence?
A. 1950
B. 1953
C. 1956
D. 1959

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13. In which university the first demonstration of AI program run?
A. Carnegie Mellon University.
B. Oxford University
C. Cambridge University
D. Stanford University
14. Which of the following is not an application of AI?
A. Intelligent Robots
B. Handwriting Recognition
C. Speech Recognition
D. Content mining
5. Expert Ease was developed under the direction of __________
A. John McCarthy
B. Donald Michie
C. Lofti Zadeh
D. Alan Turing
16. The traditional way to exit and LISP system is to enter __________
A. quit
B. exit
C. bye
D. ok
17. What is Artificial intelligence?
A. Putting your intelligence into Computer
B. Programming with your own intelligence
C. Making a Machine intelligent
D. Playing a Game
18. When a top-level function is entered, the LISP processor do(es)?
A. It reads the function entered
B. It evaluates the function and the function's operands
C. It prints the results returned by the function
D. All of the above

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19. Which of the following, is a component of an expert system?
A. inference engine
B. knowledge base
C. user interface
D. All of the above
20. A process that is repeated, evaluated, and refined is called __________
A. diagnostic
B. descriptive
C. interpretive
D. iterative
21. An application of machine learning is
A. Email filtering
B. Sentimental analysis
C. Face recognition
D. All of the above
Answer sheet
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11.. 12.C 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21.A 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

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Part IV: Formal Language Theory and Compiler
4.1. Introduction to the Theory of Computation

After completing this chapter students will able to:

 Have good understanding with basic information why we learn theory in computer
science.
 Grasp basic knowledge in set theory, subsets, proper subsets, set operation.
 Basic knowledge in function and relation.
 Have good understand graphs and tree.
 Identify the different proofing techniques.
 Will be introduced and able to define what the terms like automata, grammar, language,
string concatenation etc.

Languages

Activity 1.6
 Explain the similarity and difference between natural and formal languages?
 Define the strings?
 What is concatenation?

We are all familiar with the notion of natural languages, such as English. Dictionaries define the
term informally as a system suitable for the expression of certain ideas, facts, or concepts,
including a set of symbols and rules for their manipulation. But, this is not sufficient as a
definition for the study of formal languages. We need a precise definition for the term.
To define language formally, we start with a finite, nonempty set Σ of symbols, called the
alphabet. From the individual symbols we construct strings, which are finite sequences of
symbols from the alphabet. The se of strings is called language. For example, if the alphabet Σ =
{a, b}, then abab and aaabbba are strings on Σ. In this module we will use lowercase letters a, b,
c,…for elements of Σ and the lettrs u, υ, w,…for string names. For example for assigning strings
to a letter will write:

w = abaaa,
to indicate that the string named w has the specific value abaaa.

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Concatenation: the concatenation of two strings w and υ is the string obtained by appending the
symbols of one string for example υ to the right end of another string w, that is, if we have
strings
w=a1a2a3….an and
v=b1b2…bm then the concatenation of w and υ creates a new string, denoted by wv,
wv = a1a2…anb1b2…bm
Reverse: the reverse of a string is obtained by writing the symbols in reverse order; if w is a
string as shown above, then its reverse is: wR = an…a2a1
Length: the length of a string w, denoted by |w|, is the number of symbols in the string.
Empty string: is a string with no symbols at all. It will be denoted by symbol λ (pronounced as
lambda). Note the following simple relations about empty string.
|λ|=0,
λw=wλ=w hold for all w.
Substring: any string of consecutive symbols in some string w is said to be a substring of w. If
w=vu then the substrings υ and u are said to be a prefix and a suffix of w, respectively. For
example, if w = abbab, then {λ, a, ab, abb, abba, abbab} is the set of all prefixes of w, while
bab, ab, b are some of its suffixes. The length of string is added value of its substrings. For
example, if u and υ are strings, then the length of their concatenation is the sum of the individual
lengths, that is, |uv|=|u|+|v|
If w is a string, then wn stands for the string obtained by repeating w n times. As a special case,
we define
w0 = λ for all w.
If Σ is an alphabet, then we use Σ* to denote the set of all possible strings obtained by
concatenating zero or more symbols from Σ. The set Σ* always contains λ. To exclude the empty
string, we define
Σ+ = Σ*- {λ}
While Σ is finite by assumption, Σ* and Σ+ are always infinite since there is no limit on the length
of the strings in these sets.
Any subset L of Σ* is a language over Σ. If you want to emphasize that you are dealing with the
abstract theory of such languages, say "formal language" instead of just "language".

Since by definition, the alphabet Σ is finite, we can enumerate all words (strings) over Σ. That is,
we can order all words (string) by sorting them in a right-infinite sequence. This ordering can be
done in many ways, but the most standard ordering is the alphabetical enumeration. For instance,
for the binary alphabet Σ = {0, 1}, the set Σ* of all words over Σ is sorted by alphabetical
enumeration like this:

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 , 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, ...

Definition 1.5: Let A and B be languages. We define the operations union, concatenation, and
star-closure as follows:

 Union: A ∪ B = {x| x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

 Concatenation: A . B = {xy | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.
 Star-closure: A∗ = {x1x2 . . . xk | k ≥ 0 and each xi ∈ A}.

You are already familiar with the union operation. It simply takes all the strings in both A and B
and lumps them together into one language.

The concatenation operation is a little trickier. It attaches a string from A in front of a string from
B in all possible ways to get the strings in the new language.

The star operation is a bit different from the other two because it applies to a single language
rather than to two different languages. That is, the star operation is a unary operation instead of a
binary operation. It works by attaching any number of strings in A together to get a string in the
new language. Because ―any number‖ includes 0 as a possibility, the empty string is always a
member of A∗, no matter what A is.

Example 1.7
Let the alphabet Σ be the standard 26 letters {a, b, . . . , z}. If A = {good, bad} and
B = {boy, girl}, then

 A ∪ B = {good, bad, boy, girl},

 A . B = {goodboy, goodgirl, badboy, badgirl}, and
 A∗ = {ε, good, bad, goodgood, goodbad, badgood, badbad, goodgoodgood,
goodgoodbad, goodbadgood, goodbadbad, . . . }.

Example 1.8
Let Σ = {a, b}. Then
∑ * = { λ,a,b,aa,ab,bb,aaa,aab,……}
The set:{a,aa,aab} is a language on Σ. Because of it has a finite number of
sentences, we call it a finite language. The set L={ anbn : n≥0} is also a
language on Σ. The strings aabb and aaaabbbb are in the language L, but the
string abb is not in L. This language is infinite. Most interesting languages are
infinite.

Since languages are sets, the operation of sets like union, intersection, and difference of two
languages are immediately defined. The complement of a language is defined with respect to Σ*;
that is, the complement of L is = ∑* - L. The reverse of a language is the set of all string

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reversals, that is, LR ={ wR: w L}. The concatenation of two languages L1 and L2 is the set of
all strings obtained by concatenating any element of L1 with any element of L2; specifically,
L1L2 = {xy : x L1,y L2}
We define Ln as L concatenated with itself n times, with the special cases
L0 = {λ}
L1 = L for every language L.
Finally, we define the star-closure of a language as: L* = L0 L1 L2 . . . and the positive
closure as: L+ = L1 L2 . . .

Example 1.9
If L= { anbn : n≥0} then
The reverse of L is: LR {bnan : n≥0}
4.1.1. Grammars

Activity
 Define Grammar Formally?
 What is linear grammar?

To express languages mathematically, we need a mechanism to describe them. Everyday

language is imprecise and ambiguous, so informal descriptions in English are often inadequate.
The set notation used in Examples 1.3 and 1.4 is more suitable, but limited. As we proceed, we
will learn about several language-definition mechanisms that are useful in different
circumstances. Here we introduce a common and powerful one, the notion of a grammar.

A grammar for the English language tells us whether a particular sentence is well-formed or not.
A typical rule of English grammar is ―a sentence can consist of a noun phrase followed by a
predicate.‖

Definition1.6: A grammar G is defined as a quadruple G = (V, T, S, P),

Where
V is a finite set of objects called variables,
T is a finite set of objects called terminal symbols,
S ∈ V is a special symbol called the start variable,
P is a finite set of productions.
It will be assumed that the sets V and T are nonempty and disjoint. The production rules are the
heart of a grammar; they specify how the grammar transforms one string into another, and

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through this they define a language associated with the grammar. In our discussion we will
assume that all production rules are of the form
x→y
Where x is an element of (V ∪ T)+ and y is in (V ∪ T)*. The productions are applied in the
following manner: Given a string w of the form
w=uxv
We say the production x → y is applicable to this string, and we may use it to replace x with y,
thereby obtaining a new string
z=uyv
This is written as
w z
We say that w derives z or that z is derived from w. Successive strings are derived by applying
the productions of the grammar in arbitrary order. A production can be used whenever it is
applicable, and it can be applied as often as desired. If
w1 w2 . . . wn,
We say that w1 derives wn and write
w1 wn
The * indicates that an unspecified number of steps (including zero) can be taken to derive wn
from w1. By applying the production rules in a different order, a given grammar can normally
generate many strings. The set of all such terminal strings is the language defined or generated
by the grammar.
Definition 1.7: Let G = (V, T, S, P) be a grammar. Then the set
L (G) = {w ∈ T*: S w} is the language generated by G.

If w ∈ L (G), then the sequence S w1 w2 ... wn , is a derivation of the sentence

w. The strings S, w1, w2,…, wn, which contain variables as well as terminals, are called sentential
forms of the derivation.

Example 1.11
Consider the grammar: G = ({S},{a,b},S,P}, with P given by
S→aSb
S→λ then
S aSb aaSbb aabb, so we can write
S aabb
The string aabb is a sentence in the language generated by G, while aaSbb is a sentential form.
A grammar G completely defines L(G), but it may not be easy to get a very explicit description
of the language from the grammar. Here, however, the answer is fairly clear. It is not hard to
conjecture that L(G)={anbn : n 0}

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Example 1.12
Find a grammar that generates the language L= {anbn+1 : n 0}
Solution:
The idea behind the previous example can be extended to this case. All we need to do is generate
an extra b. This can be done with a production S → Ab, with other productions chosen so that A
can derive the language in the previous example. Reasoning in this fashion, we get the grammar
G =({S, A}, {a, b}, S, P), with productions
S→Ab
A→aAb
A→λ

4.1.2. Types of Grammars

There are different types of grammar. In here we are going to see briefly the following two types
 Linear Grammars
 Nonlinear Grammars
Linear Grammars are Grammars that have at most one variable at the right side production of the
grammar. There are different types of linear grammars based on the positions of the variable at
the right side of the production. Nonlinear grammars are grammars that have more than one
variable at the right side of the production.
Example of linear grammar: G=({S},{a,b},S,p) where p is given by
S→aSb
S→λ

Example of nonlinear grammar G=({S},{a,b},S,P) where p is given by

S→SS
S→λ
S→aSb
S→bSa

Regular Grammars
Grammars are often an alternative way of specifying languages. Whenever we define a language
family through an automaton or in some other way, we are interested in knowing what kind of
grammar we can associate with the family.

Right-Linear and Left-Linear Grammars

Definition 1.8: A grammar G =(V, T, S, P) is said to be right-linear if all productions are of the
form
A → xB,
A → x,
where A, B ∈ V, and x ∈ T*.

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Definition 1.9: A grammar is said to be left-linear if all productions are of the form
A → Bx,
or
A → x.
A regular grammar is one that is either right-linear or left-linear. Note that in a regular
grammar, at most one variable appears on the right side of any production. Furthermore, that
variable must consistently be either the rightmost or leftmost symbol of the right side of any
production.

Context-Free Grammars
The productions in a regular grammar are restricted in two ways: The left side must be a single variable,
while the right side has a special form. To create grammars that are more powerful, we must relax some
of these restrictions. By retaining the restriction on the left side, but permitting anything on the right, we
get context-free grammars.
Definition: A grammar G = (V, T, S, P) is said to be context-free if all productions in P have the form
A → x,
Where A ∈ V and x ∈ (V ∪ T)*. A language L is said to be context-free if and only if there is a context
free grammar G such that L= L (G).

4.1.3. Regular Expression and Regular Grammars

After completing this chapter students will able to:
 Understand the primitive regular expressions.
 How to express set of strings with the help of primitive regular expression and
mathematical operators.
 Have good understanding in regular expressions representation for languages.
 Understand the relation between regular languages and regular expression.
 Understand the relation between regular languages and regular grammars
 Can perform easily the conversion between Regular expression to NFA to DFA
 Can perform easily the conversion between Regular grammar to NFA to DFA
 Easily express strings with the help of regular grammars and regular expression
 Use pumping lemma to show non regularity of some languages

In this chapter, we first define regular expressions as a means of representing certain subsets of
strings over and prove that regular sets are precisely those accepted by finite automata or
transition systems. We use pumping lemma for regular sets to prove that certain sets are not
regular. We then discuss closure properties of regular sets. Finally, we give the relation between
regular sets and regular grammars.

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Regular Expressions

 Activity 3.1
1. What are the primitive regular expressions?
2. What are the valid mathematical operator used in regular expression
3. What is regular expression?

We now consider the class of languages obtained by applying union, concatenation, and Kleene
star for finitely many times on the basis elements. These languages are known as regular
languages and the corresponding finite representations are known as regular expressions.
Definition 3.1: Let Σ be an alphabet, a regular expression r over Σ denotes a language L(r) over
Σ. Say that r is a regular expression if r is

1. a for some a in the alphabet Σ,

2. λ,
3. ∅,
4. If r1 and r2 are regular expressions, then (r1 + r2) is a regular expression, with
L((r1 + r2)) = L(r1) ∪ L(r2).
5. If r1 and r2 are regular expressions, then (r1r2) is a regular expression, with
L(r1r2))=L(r1)L(r2).
6. If r is a regular expression, then (r*) is a regular expression, with L((r*)) = (L(r))*.

In items 1 and 2, the regular expressions a and λ represent the languages {a} and { λ },
respectively. In item 3, the regular expression ∅ represents the empty language. In items 4, 5,
and 6, the expressions represent the languages obtained by taking the union or concatenation
of the languages r1 and r2, or the star of the language r, respectively. These symbol a, λ and
are called primitive regular expression.
Definition 3.2: If r is a regular expression, then the language represented by r is denoted by
L(r). Further, a language L is said to be regular if there is a regular expression r such that L =
L(r).
Remark
1. A regular language over an alphabet Σ is the one that can be obtained from the empty set
(∅), {λ}, and {a}, for a Σ, by finitely many applications of union, concatenation and
Kleene star.

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 2. The smallest class of languages over an alphabet Σ which contains Ø, {λ}, and {a} and is
closed with respect to union, concatenation, and Kleene star is the class of all regular
languages over Σ.
Examples 3.1:
1. As we observed earlier that the languages Ø, {λ}, {a}, and all finite sets are regular.
2. {an : n>=0} is regular as it can be represented by the expression a*.
3. Σ *, the set of all strings over an alphabet Σ, is regular. For instance, if Σ = {a1, a2, ..., an},
then Σ* can be represented as (a1 + a2 + ……. + an)*.
4. The set of all strings over {a,b} which contain ab as a substring is regular.
Solution
For instance, the set can be written as
{x {a,b}* | ab is substring of x }
= { yabz | y,z {a,b}* }
= {a,b}*{ab}{a,b}*

Hence, the corresponding regular expression is (a + b)*ab(a + b)*.

5. Express the language L over {0,1} that contains 01 or 10 as sub-string with regular
expression?
Solution
L = { x | 01 is substring of x} { x | 10 is substring of x}
= {y01z | y,z Σ*} {u10v | u,v Σ*}
= Σ*{01} Σ* Σ*{10} Σ*
= {0,1}*{01}{0,1}* {0,1}*{10}{0,1}*
Since, Σ*, {01}, and {10} are regular by the rule that concatenation, union and kleene
operation on regular expression then L regular Language. The regular expression
represent L is given below.
(0+1)*01(0+1)* + (0+1)*10(0+1)*
6. Express with regular expression the set of all strings over {a,b} which do not
contain ab as a substring.
Solution
By analyzing the language one can observe that precisely the language is as follows.
{ bnam : n,m>=0 }
Thus, the regular expression of the language is b*a*.

Definition 3.3: Two regular expressions r1 and r2 are said to be equivalent if they represent the
same language; in which case, we write r1 r2.

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 4.1.4. EQUIVALENCE WITH FINITE AUTOMATA
Regular expressions and finite automata are equivalent in their descriptive power. This fact is
surprising because finite automata and regular expressions superficially appear to be rather
different. However, any regular expression can be converted into a finite automaton that
recognizes the language it describes, and vice versa. Recall that a regular language is one that is
recognized by some finite automaton.

Theorem 3.2: A language is regular if and only if some regular expression describes it. This
theorem has two directions. We state and prove each direction as a separate lemma.

Lemma 3.3: If a language is described by a regular expression, then it is regular.

Proof Idea: Say that we have a regular expression r describing some language L. We show how
to convert r into an NFA recognizing L. by definition, if an NFA recognizes L then L is regular.

Proof: Let‘s convert r into an NFA N. We consider the six cases in the formal definition of
regular expressions.

1. r = a, for some a ∈ Σ. Then L(r) = {a}, and the following NFA recognizes L(r).
a

Figure 3.1: NFA for r = a

Note that this machine fits the definition of an NFA but not that of a DFA because it has
some states with no exiting arrow for each possible input symbol. Of course, we could
have presented an equivalent DFA here; but an NFA is all we need for now, and it is
easier to describe.

2. r = . Then L(r) = { }, and the following NFA recognizes L(r).



Figure 3.2: NFA for r =

3. r = ∅. Then L(r) = ∅, and the following NFA recognizes L(r).

Figure 3.3: NFA for r = ∅

4. r = r1 ∪ r2.

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 M (r1)

r 1
 



r 2

M (r 2)
Figure 3.4: Automaton for L(r1 + r2).
5. r = r1.r2.
M (r1) M (r 2)

r  r 2

Figure 3.5: Automaton for L(r1r2).

6. r = r∗
M (r1) 

 r 


*
Figure 3.6: Automaton for L(r1 ).

Automata

Activity 1.8
 What is automaton?
 Mention and explain the three different types of automata?

Formal language is an abstract of programming language, and automaton is an abstract model of

a digital computer. As such, every automaton includes some essential features of the digital
computer. It has a mechanism for reading input. It will be assumed that the input is a string over
a given alphabet, written on an input file, which the automaton can read but not change. The

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input file is divided into cells, each of which can hold one symbol. The input mechanism can
read the input file from left to right, one symbol at a time. The input mechanism can also detect
the end of the input string (by sensing an end-of-file condition).

The automaton can produce output of some form. It may have a temporary storage device,
consisting of an unlimited number of cells, each capable of holding a single symbol from an
alphabet (not necessarily the same one as the input alphabet). The automaton can read and
change the contents of the storage cells. Finally, the automaton has a control unit, which can be
in any one of a finite number of internal states, and which can change state in some defined
manner. An automaton is assumed to operate in a discrete timeframe. At any given time, the
control unit is in some internal state, and the input mechanism is scanning a particular symbol on
the input file. The internal state of the control unit at the next time step is determined by the next-
state or transition function. This transition function gives the next state in terms of the current
state, the current input symbol, and the information currently in the temporary storage.

During the transition from one time interval to the next, output may be produced or the
information in the temporary storage changed. The term configuration will be used to refer to a
particular state of the control unit, input file, and temporary storage. The transition of the
automaton from one configuration to the next will be called a move. In the coming chapter we
will discuss in detail about automata, but here we are going to introduce to the different types of
automata.

TYPES AUTOMATA

Automata are distinguished by the temporary memory

 Finite Automata: no temporary memory
 Pushdown Automata: stack
 Turing Machines: random access memory

Power of Automata

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FINITE AUTOMATA

Finite automata are good models for computers with an extremely limited amount of memory.
We interact with such computers all the time, as they lie at the heart of various electromechanical
devices. We will take a closer look at finite automata from a mathematical perspective. We will
develop a precise definition of a finite automaton, terminology for describing and manipulating
finite automata, and theoretical results that describe their power and limitations.

Strings, by definition are finite (have only a finite number of symbols). Most languages of
interest are infinite (contain an infinite number of strings) However, in order to work with these
languages, we must be able to specify or describe them in ways that are finite. Finite automata
use to describe these infinite languages. Finite automata are finite collections of states with
transition rules that take you from one state to another.

There are two types of finite automata

 Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA).

 Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA).

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 Figure 2.4: Pictorial representation string processing using Automata

Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA)

Definition 2.1: A Deterministic Finite Automata or DFA is defined by the quintuple

M = (Q,Σ,δ,q0, F), Where
Q is a finite set of internal states,
Σ is a finite set of symbols called the input alphabet,
δ : Q × Σ → Q is a total function called the transition function,
q0 Q is the initial state,
F Q is a set of final states.
A deterministic finite automaton operates in the following manner.
1. At the initial time, it is assumed to be in the initial state q0, with its input mechanism on
the leftmost symbol of the input string. During each move of the automaton, the input
mechanism advances one position to the right, so each move consumes one input symbol.
2. When the end of the string is reached, the string is accepted if the automaton is in one of
its final states. Otherwise the string is rejected.
3. The input mechanism can move only from left to right and reads exactly one symbol on
each step.
4. The transitions from one internal state to another are governed by the transition function
δ. For example, if we have the transition function δ(q0, a) = q1, This means that, if the
DFA is in state (position) q0 and the current input symbol is a, the DFA will go into state
q1 after reading symbol a.
In discussing automata, it is essential to have a clear and intuitive picture to work with. To
visualize and represent finite automata, we use transition graphs (State diagram), in which the
vertices represent states and the edges represent transitions. The labels on the vertices are the
names of the states, while the labels on the edges are the current values of the input symbol.

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 For example, if q0 and q1 are internal states of some machine M, then the graph associated with
M will have one vertex labeled q0 and another labeled q1. An edge (q0,q1) labeled a represents the
transition δ(q0,a) = q1. The initial state will be identified by an incoming unlabeled arrow not
originating at any vertex. Final states are drawn with a double circle.

More formally, if M = (Q, Σ,δ,q0,F) is a deterministic finite automaton, then its associated
transition graph (state diagram) has exactly |Q| vertices, each one labeled with a different qi Q.
For every transition rule δ(qi,a) = qj, the graph has an edge (qi,qj) labeled a. The vertex
associated with q0 is called the initial vertex, while those labeled with qf F are the final
vertices. It is a trivial matter to convert from the (Q, Σ,δ,q0,F) formal definition of a DFA to its
transition graph representation and vice versa.
The deterministic Finite Automat will be present in three features; these representations are:
1. Instantaneous description
2. Transition graph (sate diagram)
3. Transition table

Example 2.1:
Consider a machine given by M1 = ({q0, q1, q2}, {0, 1}, , q0,{ql}), Where the transition
function (δ) (movement) is given by the following instantaneous description.

δ(q0,0) = q0, δ(q0,1) = q1,

δ(q1,0) = q0, δ(q1,1) = q2,
δ(q2,1) = q1,
δ(q2,0) = q2,
Based on the above given movement of the machine we can draw the transition graph and table
as follows.
1 0
1
q 0 q 1
q 2 δ 0 1
0 q0 q0 q1
0 1
q1 q0 q2
q2 q2 q1
Figure 2.5: Transition graph of the three-state finite automaton M1
Using the machine in figure 2.5 above, we can process strings created from {0,1}* in the
following manner.

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Let us take string 1001 from {0,1}*, first the DFA will read the first symbol from the left side of
the string and compute with the function δ(q0,1)=q1 then the next symbol will compute with the
function δ(q1,0)=q0.
The computation will continue until the last symbol, when the string terminates at the final state
in this string case, then the string is accepted otherwise rejected. Here is the whole process for
the whole string 1001
for the first symbol which is 1-------------------δ(q0,1)=q1,
For the second symbol which is 0--------------δ(q1,0)=q0
For the third symbol which is 0 ---------------δ(q0,0)=q0
For the fourth symbol which is 1------------ δ(q0,1)=q1,
When the string ended the machine terminates at q1, so we can say the string 1001 is accepted by
the machine M1 in figure 2.5.
Definition 2.2: The language accepted by a machine M = (Q, Σ,δ, q0,F) is the set of all strings
on Σ accepted by M. In formal notation,
L(M)={w * : δ* (q0,w) F}
Note that we require that δ, and consequently δ*, be total functions. At each step, a unique move
is defined, so that we are justified in calling such an automaton deterministic. A DFA will
process every string in Σ* and either accept it or not accept it. Non acceptance means that the
DFA stops in a non final state, so that
= {w * : δ* (q0,w) F}
Every finite automaton accepts some language. If we consider all possible finite automata, we
get a set of languages associated with them. We will call such a set of languages a family. The
family of languages that is accepted by deterministic finite accepters is called regular language.
Definition 2.3: A language L is called regular if and only if there exists some deterministic finite
accepter M such that L= L(M).
Example 2.3:
Consider the DFA in Figure 2.7.

a a, b

q b q a, b q
0 1 2

Figure 2.7: Transition graph for a language L = {anb:n≥0}.

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In drawing Figure 2.7 we use two labels on a single edge (see δ(q1,a), δ(q1,b) use single edge).
Such multiply labeled edges are shorthand for two or more distinct transitions: The transition is
taken whenever the input symbol matches any of the edge labels.

The automaton in Figure 2.7 remains in its initial state q0 until the first b is encountered. If this is
also the last symbol of the input, then the string is accepted since q1 is final state. If not, the DFA
goes into state q2, from which it can never escape (such sate is called trap state). Here the state
q2 is a trap state. We see clearly from the transitional graph that the automaton accepts all
strings consisting of an arbitrary number of a's, followed by a single b. All other input strings are
rejected. In set notation, the language accepted by the automaton is
L = {anb:n≥0}.

Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)

In contrast to a DFA, where we have a unique next state for a transition from a state on an input
symbol, now we consider a finite automaton with nondeterministic transitions. A transition is
nondeterministic if there are several (possibly zero) next states from a state on an input symbol
or without any input. A transition without input is called as -transition. A nondeterministic
finite automaton is defined in the similar lines of a DFA in which transitions may be
nondeterministic.

Definition 2.4: Formally, a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) is a quintuple

M = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F), where Q, Σ, q0 and F are as in a DFA; whereas, the transition function δ is
as below:

δ : Q × (Σ ∪ { }) → 2Q, power se of Q (pot(Q)) is a function so that, for a given state and an

input symbol (possibly ), δ assigns a set of next states, possibly empty set.

Note that there are three major differences between this definition and the definition of a DFA.
1. In a nondeterministic accepter, the range of δ is in the power set of Q (pot(Q)), 2Q, so that
its value is not a single element of Q but a subset of it. This subset defines the set of all
possible states that can be reached by the transition. If, for instance, the current state is q1,
the symbol a is read, and δ(q1,a) = {q0,q2} : then either q0 or q2 could be the next state of
the NFA.

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 2. We allow λ as the second argument of δ. This means that the NFA can make a transition
without consuming an input symbol. Although we still assume that the input mechanism
can only travel to the right, it is possible that it is stationary on some moves.
3. Finally, in an NFA, the set δ(qi,a) may be empty, meaning that there is no transition
defined for this specific situation.

Like DFA's, nondeterministic accepters can be represented by transition graphs. The vertices are
determined by Q, while an edge (qi,qj) with label is in the graph if and only if δ(qi; ) contains
qj. Note that since may be the empty string, there can be some edges labeled λ.

A string is accepted by an NFA if there is some sequence of possible moves that will put the
machine in a final state at the end of the string. A string is rejected (that is, not accepted) only if
there is no possible sequence of moves by which a final state can be reached. Nondeterminism
can therefore be viewed as involving ―intuitive‖ insight by which the best move can be chosen at
every state (assuming that the NFA wants to accept every string).
Note: If S is a set, then Pot (S) denotes the power set of S (2S), the set of all subsets of S. For a
finite set S of size n, Pot (S) has size 2n.

Example 2.7:
Consider the NFA figure 2.14. The NFA accepts all the words (strings) from {0,1}* that
end with 01. Note that there are two "0" arrows leaving q0, one to itself q0 and the second to q1,
which would be forbidden in a DFA.
0,1

start q 0 q 1
1 q 2
0

PUSHDOWN AUTOMATA

Activity 4.5
1. Define Push down automata formally?
2. What is the language recognized by Pushdown automata?
3. Prove that the language generated by CFG accepts by Pushdown Automata?

In this section we introduce a new type of computational model called pushdown automata.
These automata are like nondeterministic finite automata but have an extra component called a

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stack. The stack provides additional memory beyond the finite amount available in the control.
The stack allows pushdown automata to recognize some nonregular languages.

Pushdown automata are equivalent in power to context-free grammars. This equivalence is

useful because it gives us two options for proving that a language is context free. We can give
either a context-free grammar generating it or a pushdown automaton recognizing it. Certain
languages are more easily described in terms of generators, whereas others are more easily
described by recognizers.
The following figure is a schematic representation of a finite automaton. The control represents
the states and transition function, the tape contains the input string, and the arrow represents the
input head, pointing at the next input symbol to be read.

State
control

a b b a input
Figure 4.10: Schematic of a finite automaton

With the addition of a stack component we obtain a schematic representation of a pushdown

automaton, as shown in the following figure.
State
control

x a b b a input
y
z
stack
Figure 4.11: Schematic of a pushdown automaton

A pushdown automaton (PDA) can write symbols on the stack and read them back later. Writing
a symbol ―pushes down‖ all the other symbols on the stack. At any time the symbol on the top of
the stack can be read and removed. The remaining symbols then move back up. Writing a
symbol on the stack is often referred to as pushing the symbol, and removing a symbol is
referred to as popping it. Note that all access to the stack, for both reading and writing, may be
done only at the top. In other words a stack is a ―last in, first out‖ storage device. If certain
information is written on the stack and additional information is written afterward, the earlier
information becomes inaccessible until the later information is removed.

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Plates on a cafeteria serving counter illustrate a stack. The stack of plates rests on a spring so that
when a new plate is placed on top of the stack, the plates below it move down. The stack on a
pushdown automaton is like a stack of plates, with each plate having a symbol written on it.

A stack is valuable because it can hold an unlimited amount of information. Recall that a finite
automaton is unable to recognize the language {0n1n| n ≥ 0} because it cannot store very large
numbers in its finite memory. A PDA is able to recognize this language because it can use its
stack to store the number of 0s it has seen. Thus the unlimited nature of a stack allows the PDA
to store numbers of unbounded size. The following informal description shows how the
automaton for this language works.

Read symbols from the input. As each 0 is read, push it onto the stack. As soon as 1s are seen,
pop a 0 off the stack for each 1 read. If reading the input is finished exactly when the stack
becomes empty of 0s, accept the input. If the stack becomes empty while 1s remain or if the 1s
are finished while the stack still contains 0s or if any 0s appear in the input following 1s, reject
the input.
As mentioned earlier, pushdown automata may be nondeterministic. Deterministic and
nondeterministic pushdown automata are not equivalent in power.
Nondeterministic pushdown automata recognize certain languages that no deterministic
pushdown automata can recognize. Recall that deterministic and nondeterministic finite
automata do recognize the same class of languages, so the pushdown automata situation is
different. We focus on nondeterministic pushdown automata because these automata are
equivalent in power to context-free grammars.

FORMAL DEFINITION OF A PUSHDOWN AUTOMATON

The formal definition of a pushdown automaton is similar to that of a finite automaton, except
for the stack. The stack is a device containing symbols drawn from some alphabet. The machine
may use different alphabets for its input and its stack, so now we specify both an input alphabet
Σ and a stack alphabet Γ.

At the heart of any formal definition of an automaton is the transition function, which describes
its behavior.The domain of the transition function is Q × {Σ∪ } × {Γ∪ }. Thus the current
state,next input symbol read, and top symbol of the stack determine the next move ofa pushdown
automaton. Either symbol may be , causing the machine to movewithout reading a symbol from
the input or without reading a symbol from thestack.

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For the range of the transition function we need to consider what to allow the automaton to do
when it is in a particular situation. It may enter some new state and possibly write a symbol on
the top of the stack. The function δ can indicate this action by returning a member of Q together
with a member of {Γ∪ }, that is, a member of Q × {Γ∪ }. Because we allow nondeterminism in
this model, a situation may have several legal next moves. The transition function incorporates
nondeterminism in the usual way, by returning a set of members of Q × {Γ∪ }, that is, a member
of P(Q × {Γ∪ }). Putting it all together, our transition function δ takes the form δ: Q × {Σ∪ } ×
{Γ∪ } →P(Q × {Γ∪ }).
Definition4.13: A pushdown automaton is a 7-tuple (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, z0,q0, F), where Q, Σ, Γ, and F
are all finite sets, and
1. Q is the set of states,
2. Σ is the input alphabet,
3. Γ is the stack alphabet,
4. a special pushdown symbol called the initial symbol on the pushdownstore denoted by
Zo.
5. δ: Q × {Σ∪ } × {Γ∪ }→P(Q × {Γ∪ }) is the transition function,
6. q0∈ Q is the start state, and
7. F ⊆ Q is the set of accept states.
A pushdown automaton M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ,z0,q0, F) computes as follows. It accepts input w if w can
be written as w = w1w2 · · · wm, where each wi∈ {Σ∪ } and sequences of states r0, r1, . . . ,rm∈ Q
and strings s0, s1, . . . , sm∈ Γ∗ exist thatsatisfy the following three conditions. The strings
sirepresent the sequence ofstack contents that M has on the accepting branch of the computation.
1. r0 = q0 and s0 = . This condition signifies that M starts out properly, in the start state and
with an empty stack.
2. For i = 0, . . . , m − 1, we have (ri+1,b) ∈ δ(ri, wi+1 , a), where si = at and si+1 = bt for some
a, b∈{Γ∪ } and t∈ Γ∗. This condition states that M moves properly according to the state,
stack, and next input symbol.
3. rm∈ F. This condition states that an accept state occurs at the input end.

Example 2.17
The following is the formal description of the PDA that recognizesthe language {0n1n| n ≥
0}. Let M1 be (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q1, z0, F), where
Q = {q1, q2, q3, q4},
Σ = {0,1},
Γ = {0, z0},
F = {q1, q4}, and

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δ is given by the following table, wherein blank entries signify ∅.

Input: 0 1
Stack: 0 z0 0 z0 0 z0
q1 {(q2,z0)}
q2 {(q2,0)} {(q3, )}
q3 {(q3, )} {(q4, )}
q4

We can also use a state diagram to describe a PDA, as in Figures 4.12. Such diagrams are similar
to the state diagrams used to describe finite automata, modified to show how the PDA uses its
stack when going from state to state. We write ―a,b → c‖ to signify that when the machine is
reading an a from the input, it may replace the symbol b on the top of the stack with a c. Any of
a, b, and c may be . If a is , the machine may make this transition without reading any symbol
from the input. If b is ε, the machine may make this transition without reading and popping any
symbol from the stack. If c is , the machine does not write any symbol on the stack when going
along this transition.
,   z0 0,   0
q 1
q 2

1,0  

q q 3
1,0  
, z0  
4

Figure 2.12: State diagram for the PDA M1 that recognizes {0n1n| n ≥ 0}

4.1.5. Introduction to Turing machines

After completing this chapter students will able to:
 Have good understanding the difference among the different machines (finite, pushdown,
Turing)
 define Turing machine formally
 have clear understanding between the different languages (regular,context-free,context
sensitive language)
 explain the linear bounded automata.

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TURING MACHINES

We turn now to a much more powerful model, first proposed by Alan Turing in 1936, called the
Turing machine. Similar to a finite automaton but with an unlimited and unrestricted memory, a
Turing machine is a much more accurate model of a general-purpose computer. A Turing
machine can do everything that a real computer can do. Nonetheless, even a Turing machine
cannot solve certain problems. In a very real sense, these problems are beyond the theoretical
limits of computation.

The Turing machine model uses an infinite tape as its unlimited memory. It has a tape head that
can read and write symbols and move around on the tape. Initially the tape contains only the
input string and is blank everywhere else. If the machine needs to store information, it may write
this information on the tape. To read the information that it has written, the machine can move its
head back over it. The machine continues computing until it decides to produce an output. The
outputs accept and reject are obtained by entering accepting (final states) and rejecting states. If
it doesn‘t enter an accepting or a rejecting state, it will go on forever, never halting.

Figure 5.1: Schematic of a Turing machine

The following list summarizes the differences between finite automata and Turing machines.
1. A Turing machine can both write on the tape and read from it.
2. The read–write head can move both to the left and to the right.
3. The tape is infinite.

The following table shows a comparison of how a Turing machine differs from Finite
Automaton and Pushdown Automaton.

Machine Stack Data Structure Deterministic

Finite Automata N.A Yes
Pushdown Automata Last in first Out (LIFO) NO
Turing machine Infinite tape Yes

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FORMAL DEFINITION OF A TURING MACHINE

The heart of the definition of a Turing machine is the transition function δ because it tells us how
the machine gets from one step to the next. For a Turing machine, δ takes the form: Q×Γ→
Q×Γ× {L, R}. That is, when the machine is in a certain state q and the head is over a tape square
containing a symbol a, and if δ(q, a) = (r, b, L), the machine writes the symbol b replacing the a,
and goes to state r. The third component is either L or R and indicates whether the head moves to
the left or right after writing. In this case, the L indicates a move to the left.

Definition 5.1: A Turing machine is a 7-tuple, (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, ,F), where Q, Σ, Γ,F are all finite
sets and
1. Q is the set of states,
2. Σ is the input alphabet not containing the blank symbol ,
3. Γ is the tape alphabet, where ∈ Γ and Σ ⊆ Γ, where
4. is blank symbol
5. δ: Q × Γ→ Q × Γ × {L, R} is the transition function,
6. q0∈ Q is the start state, and
7. F Q is the accepting states

A Turing machine M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, F) computes as follows. Initially, M receives its input
w = w1w2 . . . wn∈ Σ* on the leftmost n squares of the tape, and the rest of the tape is blank (i.e.,
filled with blank symbols). The head starts on the leftmost square of the tape. Note that Σ does
not contain the blank symbol, so the first blank appearing on the tape marks the end of the input.
Once M has started, the computation proceeds according to the rules described by the transition
function. If M ever tries to move its head to the left off the left-hand end of the tape, the head
stays in the same place for that move, even though the transition function indicates L. The
computation continues until it enters either the accepting or rejecting states, at which point it
halts. If neither occurs, M goes on forever.

As a Turing machine computes, changes occur in the current state, the current tape contents, and
the current head location. A setting of these three items is called a configuration of the Turing
machine. Configurations often are represented in a special way. For a state q and two strings u
and v over the tape alphabet Γ, we write
uqv for the configuration where the current state is q, the current tape contents is uv, and the
current head location is the first symbol of v. The tape contains only blanks following the last
symbol of v. For example,1011q701111 represents the configuration when the tape is 101101111,

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the current state is q7, and the head is currently on the second 0. Figure 5.2 depicts a Turing
machine with that configuration.

Figure 5.2: A Turing machine with configuration 1011q701111

Here we formalize our intuitive understanding of the way that a Turing machine computes. Say
that configuration C1yields configuration C2 if the Turing machine can legally go from C1 to C2
in a single step. We define this notion formally as follows.
Suppose that we have a, b, and c in Γ, as well as u and v in Γ* and states qi and qj. In that case,
uaqibv and uqjacv are two configurations. Say that
uaqibv yields uqjacv
if in the transition function δ(qi, b) = (qj, c, L). That handles the case where the Turing machine
moves leftward. For a rightward move, say that
uaqibv yields uacqjv
if δ(qi,b) = (qj,c,R).
Special cases occur when the head is at one of the ends of the configuration. For the left-hand
end, the configuration qibv yields qjcv if the transition is left moving (because we prevent the
machine from going off the left-hand end of thetape), and it yields cqjv for the right-moving
transition. For the right-hand end,the configuration uaqi is equivalent to uaqi because we
assume that blanks follow the part of the tape represented in the configuration. Thus we can
handlethis case as before, with the head no longer at the right-hand end.

The start configuration of M on input w is the configuration q0w, which indicates that the
machine is in the start state q0 with its head at the leftmost position on the tape. In an accepting
configuration, the state of the configuration is accepting state. In a rejecting configuration, the
state of the configuration is the non-final states. Accepting and rejecting configurations are
halting configurations and do not yield further configurations. A Turing machine M accepts input
w if a sequence of configurations C1,C2, . . . , Ck exists, where
1. C1 is the start configuration of M on input w,
2. each Ci yields Ci+1, and
3. Ck is an accepting configuration.
The collection of strings that M accepts is the language of M, or the language recognized by M,
denoted L(M).

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As we did for finite and pushdown automata, we can formally describe a particular Turing machine by
specifying each of its seven parts. However, going to that level of detail can be cumbersome for all but
the tiniest Turing machines. Accordingly, we won‘t spend much time giving such descriptions. Mostly
wewill give only higher-level descriptions because they are precise enough for our purposes and are much
easier to understand. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that every higher-level description is
actually just shorthand for its formal counterpart. With patience and care we could describe any of the
Turing machines in this module in complete formal detail.

Representation of Turing Machines

We can describe a Turing machine by employing

(i) Instantaneous descriptions using move-relations (├), (ID)
(ii) Transition table. And
(iii) Transition diagram (transition graph).

4.2. Compiler Design

Activity 4.5
1. What is a compiler?
2. List and Explain steps of Compiler?
3. Why we design compiler?

Implement a small compiler using modern compiler writing tools.

Provide the student with skills and knowledge (such as lexical analysis and parsing)
which are applicable to a broad range of computer science application areas (such as
text editors, information retrieval, etc...).
A compiler translates the code written in one language to some other language without changing
the meaning of the program. It is also expected that a compiler should make the target code
efficient and optimized in terms of time and space. Compiler design principles provide an in-
depth view of translation and optimization process. Compiler design covers basic translation
mechanism and error detection & recovery. It includes lexical, syntax, and semantic analysis as
front end, and code generation and optimization as back-end.

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Computers are a balanced mix of software and hardware. Hardware is just a piece of mechanical
device and its functions are being controlled by a compatible software. Hardware understands
instructions in the form of electronic charge, which is the counterpart of binary language in
software programming. Binary language has only two alphabets, 0 and 1. To instruct, the
hardware codes must be written in binary format, which is simply a series of 1s and 0s. It would
be a difficult and cumbersome task for computer programmers to write such codes, which is why
we have compilers to write such codes.

4.2.1. Language Processing System

We have learnt that any computer system is made of hardware and software. The hardware
understands a language, which humans cannot understand. So, we write programs in high-level
language, which is easier for us to understand and remember. These programs are then fed into a
series of tools and Operating system components to get the desired code that can be used by the
machine. This is known as Language Processing System.

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Figure: A language-processing system

The high-level language is converted into binary language in various phases. A compiler is a
program that converts high-level language to assembly language. Similarly, an assembler is a
program that converts the assembly language to machine-level language.

For example, a typical program using C compiler, is executed on a host machine in the following
manner.

 User writes a program in C language (high-level language).

 The C compiler, compiles the program and translates it to assembly program (low-level
language).

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  An assembler then translates the assembly program into machine code (object).
 A linker tool is used to link all the parts of the program together for execution (executable
machine code).
 A loader loads all of them into memory and then the program is executed.

Before diving straight into the concepts of compilers, we should understand a few other tools that
work closely with compilers.

Preprocessor
A preprocessor, generally considered as a part of compiler, is a tool that produces input for
compilers. It deals with macro-processing, augmentation, file inclusion, language extension, etc.

Interpreter
An interpreter, like a compiler, translates high-level language into low-level machine language.
The difference lies in the way they read the source code or input. A compiler reads the whole
source code at once, creates tokens, checks semantics, generates intermediate code, executes the
whole program and may involve many passes. In contrast, an interpreter reads a statement from
the input, converts it to an intermediate code, executes it, then takes the next statement in
sequence. If an error occurs, an interpreter stops execution and reports it. Whereas a compiler
reads the whole program even if it encounters several errors.

Assembler
An assembler translates assembly language programs into machine code. The output of an
assembler is called an object file, which contains a combination of machine instructions as well
as the data required to place these instructions in memory.

Linker
Linker is a computer program that links and merges various object files together in order to make
an executable file. All these files might have been compiled by separate assemblers. The major
task of a linker is to search and locate referenced module/routines in a program and to determine
the memory location where these codes will be loaded, making the program instruction to have
absolute references.

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Loader
Loader is a part of operating system and is responsible for loading executable files into memory
and execute them. It calculates the size of a program (instructions and data) and creates memory
space for it. It initializes various registers to initiate execution.

Cross-compiler
A compiler that runs on platform (A) and is capable of generating executable code for platform
(B) is called a cross-compiler.

Source-to-source Compiler
A compiler that takes the source code of one programming language and translates it into the
source code of another programming language is called a source-to-source compiler.

4.2.2. The Structure of a Compiler

Up to this point we have treated a compiler as a single box that maps a source program into a
semantically equivalent target program. If we open up this box a little, we see that there are two
parts to this mapping: analysis and synthesis.
Analysis Phase
Known as the front-end of the compiler, the analysis phase of the compiler reads the source
program, divides it into core parts and then checks for lexical, grammar and syntax errors.The
analysis phase generates an intermediate representation of the source program and symbol table,
which should be fed to the Synthesis phase as input.

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Synthesis Phase
Known as the back-end of the compiler, the synthesis phase generates the target program with
the help of intermediate source code representation and symbol table.

A compiler can have many phases and passes.

Pass: A pass refers to the traversal of a compiler through the entire program.

Phase: A phase of a compiler is a distinguishable stage, which takes input from the previous
stage, processes and yields output that can be used as input for the next stage. A pass can have
more than one phase. The compilation process is a sequence of various phases. Each phase takes
input from its previous stage, has its own representation of source program, and feeds its output
to the next phase of the compiler. Let us understand the phases of a compiler.

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Lexical Analysis

The first phase of a compiler is called lexical analysis or scanning. The lexical analyzer reads the
stream of characters making up the source program. And groups the characters into meaningful
sequences called lexemes. For each lexeme, the lexical analyzer produces as output a token of
the form (token-name, attribute-value) that it passes on to the subsequent phase, syntax analysis.
In the token, the first component token-name is an abstract symbol that is used during syntax
analysis, and the second component attribute-value points to an entry in the symbol table for this
token. Information from the symbol-table entry is needed for semantic analysis and code
generation.

For example, suppose a source program contains the assignment statemen

poison=initial + rate*60

The characters in this assignment could be grouped into the following lexemes and mapped into
the following tokens passed on to the syntax analyzer:

1. Position is a lexeme that would be mapped into a token (id, I), where id is an abstract
symbol standing for identifier and 1 point to the symbol table entry for position. The
symbol-table entry for an identifier holds information about the identifier, such as its
name and type.
2. The assignment symbol = is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (=). Since this token
needs no attribute-value, we have omitted the second component. We could have used
any abstract symbol such as assign for the token-name, but for notational convenience we
have chosen to use the lexeme itself as the name of the abstract symbol.
3. Initial is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (id,2), where 2 points to the symbol-table
entry for initial .
4. + is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (+).
5. Rate is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (id,3), where 3 points to the symbol-table
entry for rate.
6. * Is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (*).
7. 60 is a lexeme that is mapped into the token (60).'

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Blanks separating the lexemes would be discarded by the lexical analyzer. Figure below shows
the representation of the assignment statement. After lexical analysis as the sequence of tokens.

Syntax Analysis
The second phase of the compiler is syntax analysis or parsing. The parser uses the first
components of the tokens produced by the lexical analyzer to create a tree-like intermediate
representation that depicts the grammatical structure of the token stream. A typical
representation is a syntax tree in which each interior node represents an operation and the

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children of the node represent the arguments of the operation. A syntax tree for the token stream
is shown as the output of the syntactic analyzer in Fig. above. This tree shows the order in which
the operations in the assignment

poison=initial + rate*60

Are to be performed. The tree has an interior node labeled * with (id,3) as its left child and the
integer 60 as its right child. The node (id,3) represents the identifier rate. The node labeled *
makes it explicit that we must first multiply the value of r a t e by 60. The node labeled +
indicates that we must add the result of this multiplication to the value of initial. The root of the
tree, labeled =, indicates that we must store the result of this addition into the location for the
identifier position. This ordering of operations is consistent with the usual conventions of
arithmetic which tell us that multiplication has higher precedence than addition, and hence that
the multiplication is to be performed before the addition. The subsequent phases of the compiler
use the grammatical structure to help analyze the source program and generate the target
program.

Semantic Analysis
The semantic analyzer uses the syntax tree and the information in the symbol table to check the
source program for semantic consistency with the language definition. It also gathers type
information and saves it in either the syntax tree or the symbol table, for subsequent use during
intermediate-code generation.

An important part of semantic analysis is typing checking, where the compiler checks that each
operator has matching operands. For example, many programming language definitions require
an array index to be an integer; the compiler must report an error if a floating-point number is
used to index an array.

The language specification may permit some type conversions called coercions. For example, a
binary arithmetic operator may be applied to either a pair of integers or to a pair of floating-point
numbers. If the operator is applied to a floating-point number and an integer, the compiler may
convert or coerce the integer into a floating-point number

Semantic analysis checks whether the parse tree constructed follows the rules of language. For
example, assignment of values is between compatible data types, and adding string to an integer.

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Also, the semantic analyzer keeps track of identifiers, their types and expressions; whether
identifiers are declared before use or not etc. The semantic analyzer produces an annotated
syntax tree as an output.

4.2.3. Intermediate Code Generation

In the process of translating a source program into target code, a compiler may construct one or
more intermediate representations, which can have a variety of forms. Syntax trees are a form of
intermediate representation; they are commonly used during syntax and semantic analysis.

After syntax and semantic analysis of the source program, many compilers generate an explicit
low-level or machine-like intermediate representation, which we can think of as a program for an
abstract machine. This intermediate representation should have two important properties:

 it should be easy to produce and

 it should be easy to translate into the target machine.

We consider an intermediate form called three-address code, which consists of a sequence of

assembly-like instructions with three operands per instruction. Each operand can act like a
register. The output of the intermediate code generator in above diagram consists of the three-
address code sequence.
tl = inttofloat(60)
t2 = id3 * tl
t3 = id2 + t2
id1 = t3
There are several points worth noting about three-address instructions. First, each three-address
assignment instruction has at most one operator on the right side. Thus, these instructions fix the
order in which operations are to be done; the multiplication precedes the addition in the source
program.

Code Optimization
The machine-independent code-optimization phase attempts to improve the intermediate code so
that better target code will result. Usually better means faster, but other objectives may be
desired, such as shorter code, or target code that consumes less power. For example, a
straightforward algorithm generates the intermediate code (1.3), using an instruction for each

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operator in the tree representation that comes from the semantic analyzer. A simple intermediate
code generation algorithm followed by code optimization is a reasonable way to generate good
target code. The optimizer can deduce that the conversion of 60 from integer to floating point
can be done once and for all at compile time, so the int to float operation can be eliminated by
replacing the integer 60 by the floating-point number 60.0. Moreover, t3 is used only once to
transmit its value to id1 so the optimizer can transform (1.3) into the shorter sequence

t1 = id3 * 60.0
id1 = id2 + t1
There is a great variation in the amount of code optimization different compilers perform. In
those that do the most, the so-called "optimizing compilers," a significant amount of time is
spent on this phase. There are simple optimizations that significantly improve the running time
of the target program without slowing down compilation too much Code Generation

Code Generation
The code generator takes as input an intermediate representation of the source program and maps
it into the target language. If the target language is machine code, registers or memory locations
are selected for each of the variables used by the program. Then, the intermediate instructions are
translated into sequences of machine instructions that perform the same task. A crucial aspect of
code generation is the judicious assignment of registers to hold variables. For example, using
registers R 1and R2,the intermediate code in (1.4) might get translated into the machine code

LDF R2 , id3
MULF R2 , R2 , #60.0
LDF Rl , id2
ADDF Rl , Rl , R2
STF idl , Rl
The first operand of each instruction specifies a destination. The F in each instruction tells us that
it deals with floating-point numbers. The code in above loads the contents of address id3 into
register R2, then multiplies it with floating-point constant 60.0. The # signifies that 60.0 is to be
treated as an immediate constant. The third instruction moves id2 into register R1 and the fourth
adds to it the value previously computed in register R2. Finally, the value in register R1 is stored
into the address of idl, so the code correctly implements the assignment statement

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 4.2.4. Compiler-Construction Tools
The compiler writer, like any software developer, can profitably use modern software
development environments containing tools such as language editors, debuggers, version
managers, profilers, test harnesses, and so on. In addition to these general software-development
tools, other more specialized tools have been created to help implement various phases of a
compiler.

These tools use specialized languages for specifying and implementing specific components, and
many use quite sophisticated algorithms. The most successful tools are those that hide the details
of the generation algorithm and produce components that can be easily integrated into the
remainder of the compiler. Some commonly used compiler-construction tools include

1. Parser generators that automatically produce syntax analyzers from a grammatical

description of a programming language.
2. Scanner generators that produce lexical analyzers from a regular-expression description
of the tokens of a language.
3. Syntax-directed translation engines that produce collections of routines for walking a
parse tree and generating intermediate code.
4. Code-generator generators that produce a code generator from a collection of rules for
translating each operation of the intermediate language into the machine language for a
target machine.
5. Data-flow analysis engines that facilitate the gathering of information about how values
are transmitted from one part of a program to each other part. Data-flow analysis is a key
part of code optimization.
6. Compiler-construction toolk2ts that provide an integrated set of routines for constructing
various phases of a compiler.
Symbol Table
It is a data-structure maintained throughout all the phases of a compiler. All the identifier's
names along with their types are stored here. The symbol table makes it easier for the compiler to
quickly search the identifier record and retrieve it. The symbol table is also used for scope
management.

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Chapter Review Questions

 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. Assume B is a subset of S and S is universal set, Based on this assumption, which one of
the following is not equal to B
A. B- B. B C. D.B S
2. Which of the following alternative is true about Demorgan‘s Law
A. = ⋂ C. S1 S2 = ⋂
B. . = ⋃ D. = ⋃
3. If we have a relation R in the set C= {0,1,2,. ,. ,. ,20} if our relation is a divides b, so
which statement can be true about R
A. R is symmetric C. R is transitive
B. . R is equivalence D. R is not a Relation
4. If S1 and S2 are two sets. Assume both sets contain same elements, then which of the
following statement can‘t true?
A. S1 S2 B. S2 S1 C. S1 S1 D. S1 S2
5. If a set A={ 0,1,2} then, identify the false statement from the following list
A. 2A B. {0,1,2} 2A C. 2|A|=3 D. {{0,1,2}} 2A
6. When do we say a function is injective?
A. If different element in domain have different images
B. If all element in the range are image of some element in domain
C. If all element in the domain are image of some element in range
D. If different element in range have different domain
7. One of the following cannot true statement about a tree
A. A tree is a connected graph with no circuits or loops.
B. In a tree there is one and only one path between every pair of vertices.
C. A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges.
D. If a disconnected graph with n vertices has n - 1 edge, then it is a tree
8. From the following list of automata which one is the most powerful
A. Finite Automata B. Turing Machine C. Pushdown Automata D. None
9. Sequence of finite symbols, which contain variables as well as terminals, are called ____
A. Strings B. Sentence C. Sentential Form D. Word
10. If we have a grammar in the form of A → Bx, or A → x. where A, B V, x T*
A. Left Linear Grammar C. Right Linear Grammar
B. Simple Grammar D. Context-Free Grammar

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11. Which one of the following languages is represent by the transition graph?
a
a
q0
b q a q q
1 3 4

a b
b b b
q 2

a
A. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that ends with substring abb
B. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that starts with substring bab
C. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that ends with substring bab
D. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that starts with substring ab

12. Which of the following strings accepted by the finite automata in question 1

A. aaababaab C. bbbbabab
B. aaabbbaaabba D. aaabbaabbabb
13. From the following lists of automata, which one is with memory?
A. FA B. DFA C. NFA D. PDA
14. Considering the transition graph below, the language accepted by it is
q 0
a q b q b q
1 3 4

b a a
a, b
q 2

a, b
A. The set of all strings (a, b)* starting with ab
B. Set of all string (a, b)* starting with abb
C. The set of strings contains {abb}
D. set of strings contains (ab, abb}
15. What type of finite automata is the graph in question 4
A. Deterministic C. Nondeterministic
B. Context free D. Derivation tree

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 16. Which of the listed strings below accepted by the following NFA?
1
0 1
q 0
q 1 q 2

0,1 0, 
A. 0110 B. 01001 C. 100100000 D. 000000
Considering the automaton given below and choose the correct answers for Questions 7-9:
0
0,1

a, b 1 a
1 1

q 2

0
17. M is a _____________
A. nondeterministic finite automaton
B. deterministic finite automaton accepting {0,1}*
C. DFA accepting all strings over {0,1} having 3m 0's and 3n 1's, m, n >=1
D. Deterministic finite automaton
18. M accepts
A.01110 B. 10001 C.01010 D. 11111
19. L (M) is equal to
A. {03m 13n| m,n>=0}
B. {03m 13n| m,n>=1}
C. {w| w has 111 as substring}
D. {w| w has 3n 1‘s, n>=1}
20. Which of the following statements are acceptable?
A. Automata is a complex model of digital computer
B. If a Language is accepted by any DFA there is equivalent NFA that accepts it.
C. Many languages may accept by single machine
D. Some regular languages may not have finite automata
21. The regular expression r= b*ab*ab* represents
A. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have exactly two a‘s
B. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have at least two a‘s
C. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have at most two a‘s
D. All are possible answers

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22. The regular expression r=(a+b)*bb(a+b)* represents
A. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have exactly two b‘s
B. All sets of strings from ={a,b} containing the substring bb
C. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have at most two b‘s
D. All sets of strings from ={a,b} that have least two b‘s
23. If you have a grammar G=({A,B},{0,1},A,A 0B, B 0B ,B 01), What is the language
generated by the grammar?
A. 0*01 B.00*01 C. 001 D. 00*01*
24. From the following which regular grammar represent the regular expression r= a*b(a +
b)*
A. A aA/bB/b, B bB/aB/a/b C. A aA/b, B bB/aB/a/b
B. A bB/b, B bB/aB/a/b D. A b, B bB/aB/a/b
25. Which one of the following statement is not true about regular language?
A. If we can draw DFA for a language then it is regular language.
B. A set of strings which represent by regular expression is regular language.
C. A set of strings generated by left linear grammar is regular language.
D. A set of strings generated by a linear grammar is regular language.
26. Which of the following is not regular grammar?
A. A aA/aB/b B. A Aa/Ba/b C. A Aa/aB/b D. A Aa/Ba/bb
27. Which of the following language accepted by the grammar S →aaS1, S1 →aabS|b,
A. aaaab(aab)* B. (aaab)*aab C. (aaaab)*aab D. (aaaab)*ab
28. All set of strings over {a,b} having exactly 3b‘s is represented by the regular
expression
A. a*bbb B. a*ba*ba*b C. ba*ba*b D. a*ba*ba*ba*
29. If L is the set of all strings over {a, b} containing at least one a, then it is not represented
by the regular expression
A. (a) b*a(a + b)* C. (a + b)*a(b + a)*
B. (a + b)*ab* D. (a + b)*a
30. (0*1*)* is the same as
A. (0 + 1)* C. (10)*
B. (01)* D. none

31. Grammar of the programming language is checked at ………. phase of a compiler.

A. Syntax analysis C. Semantic analysis
B. Lexical analysis D. Code generation

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32. Which component is different in the implementation of all types of LR parser?
A. input buffer C. parsing algorithm
B. parsing table D. stack
33. A sequence of replacement of structure names by choices on the right-hand side of
grammar rules is:
A. Derivation C. precedence
B. Parsing D. association
34. All of the following are primary tasks of code generator except
A. Register allocation C. instruction selection
B. Declaration of variables D. instruction ordering
35. Which one of the following is different from the others?
A. quadruples C. Syntax tree
B. triples D. indirect triples
36. Which of the following represents a dynamic semantic error?
A. type mismatch C. illegal character
B. Missing semi-colon D. division by zero
37. Which of the following represents a target Code?
A. Three address code C. Triplets
B. Assembly language D. Syntax tree
38. The process of converting non-deterministic grammar in to deterministic grammar is
called: -
A. left recursion C. left factoring
B. Association D. Precedence
39. All of the following can represent intermediate code except
A. Syntax tree C. lexemes
B. Three address code D. Quadruples
40. The recognizer to syntax analysis is: -
A. Deterministic finite automata C. non-deterministic pushdown automat
B. Non-deterministic finite automata D. deterministic push down automata

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 ANSWER FOR SELF-TEST QUESTIONS (Formal and Compiler)
15. A 29. C
1. B
16. B 30. A
2. D
17. D 31. A
3. C
18. A 32. A
4. D
19. D 33. A
5. C
20. B 34. B
6. A
21. A 35. C
7. D
22. B 36. D
8. B
23. B 37. B
9. C
24. A 38. C
10. A
25. D 39. C
11. C
26. C 40. A
12. C
27. C
13. D
28. D
14. C

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