Q. Define the term allele.

Q. Define the term gene (2)

Gametes have only one set of chromosomes, and so they have only one copy of each
gene.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a biological macromolecule that carries genetic
information in many organisms. DNA is necessary for proteins synthesis, the regulation,
metabolism, and reproduction of the cell.

Q. Describe the structure of a DNA molecule.

It is a double helix; strands contain, bases Adenine (A) and Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C)
and Guanine (G); A joins with T / C joins with G; bases pair up by crosslinks /hydrogen
bonds;
A+T; C+G;

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Chromosomes are long thread of DNA made up of strings of genes. In a diploid cell,
each of a pair of homologous chromosomes carries the same genes in the same position.
A diploid cell therefore has 2 copies of each gene.

• Different forms of a particular gene are called alleles. They may be dominant of
recessive. The genotype of an organism tells us the alleles of genes that it carries

• If 2 heterozygous organisms breed together, we expect a 3:1 ratio of offspring

showing the dominant characteristic to offspring showing the recessive characteristic. If
one parent is heterozygous and the other is homozygous recessive, we expect to see
a 1:1 ratio in the offspring.

Q. Genes and alleles are made of = DNA

Q. State the function of a gene. = codes for a protein;

Q. The ancestors of red and blue cichlid fish were brown.

State how the different body colours of the males first happened. = mutation

Q. Some scientists believe that washing the salts out of the soil using even more water is
a better alternative to genetic engineering. State two problems that could be caused by
washing the soil with extra water.
Leaching of minerals; eutrophication of rivers / lakes; soil erosion;
creation of water shortage; soil becomes infertile / lacks minerals

Q. Suggest two reasons for the difference in life expectancy in two countries
Better health care or medical facilities in developed countries;
more disease in developing countries; better diet in developed countries;
Less food available in developing countries; more wars in developing countries;

Q. (i) Name the process that can give rise to different alleles for wing colour in a
population of moths.= mutation

(ii) Suggest one factor which might increase the rate of mutation
UV light / ionising radiation / X rays / (named radioactive) chemical(s); A nuclear fall out

Inheritance
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to
the next, leading to continuity of the species and variation within it.

Evolution = This gradual change in the species through natural selection over time, in
response to changes in the environment, is a possible mechanism for evolution.

Monohybrid cross and the punnett square

A monohybrid cross involves the crossing of individuals and the examination of one (mono)
character (flower colour, pod shape...) and different (hybrid) traits (red colour, white
colour) in their offspring.

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Punnett square = The Punnett square is a useful tool for predicting the genotypes and
phenotypes of offspring in a genetic cross involving Mendelian traits.

Q. Define the term mutation

Mutation is an unpredictable change in the DNA / genes or chromosome number, as a
result of fault copying when DNA is replicated, faulty separation of chromosomes during cell
division, or exposure to radiation or some chemicals.

Q. Gene mutation = gene mutation a change in base sequence of DNA

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Q. Occasionally, zebras are born that are almost completely black. The change in
appearance is the result of mutation.
(i) State the term that is used to describe the appearance of an organism.
phenotype

There are many different varieties of haemoglobin. The gene for haemoglobin exists as
two alleles, HbA and HbS. People with the genotype HbSHbS have a condition called
sickle cell anaemia.

Q. The parents of people with sickle cell anaemia rarely have this condition.
Explain, using a genetic diagram, how two parents who do not have sickle cell anaemia
may have a child with the condition.
HbA is dominant / HbS is recessive / (both) parents are, carriers / heterozygous
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(e) Sickle cell anaemia is an example of variation in humans. There are many causes of
variation, including nuclear fall-out. Suggest how nuclear fall-out could cause variation
in humans.
Ionising radiation causes increased risk, mutation change to DNA / genes

Q. Haemoglobin is a large protein molecule. The structure of each haemoglobin

molecule is controlled by a gene that has two alleles:
• HbA codes for the normal form of haemoglobin,
• HbS codes for an abnormal form of haemoglobin.
Red blood cells containing only the abnormal form of haemoglobin become a stiff, sickle
shape in conditions of low oxygen concentration. This gives rise to sickle cell anaemia.

Q. In some parts of the world, up to 25% of the population have sickle cell trait.
State the advantage of having sickle cell trait.
Resistance to malaria

Q. Discuss whether sickle cell trait is an example of codominance

Both alleles, HbA and HbS, are expressed; both alleles make two different forms of
haemoglobin; if dominant / recessive, then only one form of haemoglobin in heterozygous
people; three phenotypes (not two) / sickle cell trait is a different phenotype from normal and
sickle cell anemia

Q. Explain how natural selection is responsible for the distribution of the allele for the
abnormal form of haemoglobin (HS).

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Q. The eyes of Tribolium species are usually black. A very small number of flour beetles
have white eyes. Explain how this happens and why they are so rare.
Mutation; mutation, rare event; (white) allele is recessive; only expressed in homozygote
recessive ; selection ; disadvantage

Q. Suggest and explain what happens to the seeds when they are exposed to ionising
radiation. = Mutation; change in, gene(s) / DNA

Q. Evolutionary relationships between different species are investigated by examining

DNA. State precisely where DNA is found in a cell.
Chromosome, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, plasmid, nucleolus

Q. Two brothers have to make a difficult decision. One brother, with blood group AB,
has kidney failure and is on dialysis. The healthy brother has agreed to donate one of
his kidneys to his brother. He has to have a blood test. Their father has blood group A
and their mother has blood group B. The brothers have a sister who has blood group O.
Explain how this girl has blood group O when her parents have different blood
groups. You must use the space below for a genetic diagram to help your answer
Use the symbols IA, IB and IO to represent the alleles involved in the inheritance of
blood groups.

(ii) The healthy brother can only donate the kidney to his brother if they both have the
same blood group.
What is the probability that the healthy brother also has blood group AB?

Q. Insects 1 and 2 are more closely related to each other than to insect 3. Explain how
the binomial names indicate that insects 1 and 2 are more closely related.
Either
insects 1 and 2, are in the same genus / have the same generic name ; (both have) Vespula ;
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or
insect 3 is in a different genus ; (its name is) Callicera

Q. Explain how the appearance of the three insects suggests that insects 1 and 2 are
more closely related.
insects 1 and 2
have two pairs of wings ; have antennae that are, long(er) / same shape / thick ; have
small(er) eyes ; have stripes / have a pattern / have similar markings ; any correct reference to
size ; e.g. ‘they have similar size’; similar shape of abdomen

Q. Chrysotoxum cautum is very similar in appearance to Vespula flavopilosa. Explain

how this is an advantage.
Predators mistake Chrysotoxum cautum for V. flavopilosa ; predators recognise, warning
appearance / stripes; frightened of being stung ; do not eat it / do not attack it.

Q. It is thought that Chrysotoxum cautum evolved from an insect that did not have any
stripes. Suggest how these insects became striped
Mutation gives stripes ; some stripey insects were not, eaten by, predators / other animals) ;
survived to, breed; pass on the allele(s) for stripes to next generation; non-stripey insects, did
not survive / became extinct; natural selection ; to selected for / selected against

Q. Explain how boys can have haemophilia when the condition has not previously
existed in their family.
Mutation in DNA in the gene, for blood clotting protein on X chromosome in the mother.
Mother is a carrier; haemophilia is sex linked, shows sex linkage ; the mother’s egg with the
mutant allele fuses with a Y bearing sperm ; e.g. cause of mutation ; ionising radiation /
chemical(s)

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Q. Define the term sex-linked characteristic.
Gene is located on, a sex chromosome/X or Y/X/Y; characteristic is more common in,
males/one sex than the other

Q. The gene responsible for colour vision is located on the X chromosome. There are
two alleles for this gene on the X chromosome:
• XB – normal colour vision
• Xb – colour blindness.
(i) People that are heterozygous for colour blindness are called carriers.
State the genotype of a heterozygous female carrier. = XBXb
Q. There is no gene for colour vision on the male sex chromosome.
State the genotype of a colour-blind male = XbY

Q. Colour blindness is a sex-linked characteristic. Explain why females 4 and 5 are

carriers even though their mother is not a carrier. =
One X chromosome from each parent/an X from father;
mother does not have any colour-blind alleles/father passes on one colour blind allele ;
all female offspring are heterozygous/XBXb

Q. A farmer wanted to identify the genotype of tall pea plants as either homozygous
dominant or heterozygous. He used a homozygous recessive dwarf pea plant to
determine the genotype of the tall pea plants.
State the name of this type of genetic cross. = test cross
Another farmer wants to produce pure-breeding dwarf pea plants.
State the genotypes of both of the parent pea plants the farmer should use.
Give a reason for your choice.
genotypes ........ tt;............
reason = so that no dominant allele is present/all alleles are recessive;
recessive alleles only expressed if no dominant allele present

Q. Explain how a mutation in DNA results in an abnormal enzyme which does not
catalyse the reaction
Change in base sequence of DNA; DNA base sequence, codes for, protein/enzyme;
mRNA; different sequence of amino acids in, protein/enzyme;
mutant enzyme has different, shape; active site of enzyme not complementary to substrate.
enzyme-substrate complexes cannot form

Q. Two tall sunflower plants were crossed. 25% of the offspring produced were dwarf.
Explain how it is possible for two tall parent plants to have this percentage of dwarf
offspring.
The allele for dwarfism is, recessive/t ; both parents are heterozygous, so do not express the
allele;

CODOMINANCE

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Q. Explain what is meant by codominance. You may refer to the genetic diagram in (b)
to help you with your answer.
Sometimes, neither of a pair of alleles is completely dominant or completely recessive.
Instead, they both have an effect on the phenotype. This is called codominance.

Inheritance of A, B, AB and O blood group - an example of codominance

• In humans, there are 4 blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, and O
• Blood type is controlled by 3 alleles: IA, IB, IO (the base letter = I stands for
immunoglobulin)
• IO is recessive, two IO alleles must be present for the person to have type O blood
• IA and IB are codominant but both are dominant to IO. If a person receives an IA allele and
an IB allele, their blood type is type AB, in which characteristics of both A and B antigens are
expressed. Because IO is dominated by both IA and IB alleles, a person with blood group A
could have the genotype IA IO or IA IA. This has implication when having children because, if
both parents carry the IO allele, a child could be born with the genotype IOIO (blood group
O), even though neither of the parents have this phonotype.

Q. Flower colour in M. jalapa is not an example of the inheritance of dominant and

recessive alleles. Explain how the results of the crosses show that these alleles for flower
colour are not dominant or recessive.
phenotype of ACAY (offspring of cross 1) is different from either parent / homozygote
genotype; the phenotype, was intermediate / mixture of two colours ; both alleles are
expressed ; co / incomplete dominance ; offspring of cross 2 gives three phenotypes not two ;
offspring of crosses 3 and 4 both give two phenotypes ; if dominance then cross 3 or 4 would
give one phenotype only

Q. Carnation plants show co-dominance for the anthocyanin gene. There are two
alleles: FA – allele for anthocyanin pigment (red flowers); FN – allele for no
anthocyanin pigment (white flowers). State the genotype of a carnation plant that is
heterozygous for this gene. = FA FN

(ii) Describe the phenotype of a heterozygous carnation plant for this gene.
Pink (flowers)

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Q. Explain what is meant by the term adaptive feature? (3)
Inherited feature that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment. Adaptive
feature increases organism’s fitness, survival and chance of reproducing to leave offspring.
e.g. camouflage/warning signal/scares predators/lure for prey/sexual attractant

Q. Why is it important to prevent the extinction of plant and animal species?

- to maintain the gene pool
- to provide chemicals that may be useful in development of medicines
- the species may be an important part of a food chain
- rare species may provide tourism to supply poor communities with money

Monohybrid cross and the punnett square

Mendel crossed true-breeding plants that differed for a given character.
Pollen from true-breeding pea plants with purple flowers (one trait) was placed on stigmas of
true-breeding plants with white flowers (another trait). The F1 seeds were all purple; the
white flower trait failed to appear at all. Because the purple flower trait completely masks the
white flower trait when true-breeding plants are crossed, the purple flower trait is called
dominant, and the white flower trait is called recessive. The F1 plants were allowed to self-
pollinate. This step was the monohybrid cross. (or the F1 cross). The progeny, called F2,
were examined: roughly 1/4 were white, and 3/4 were purple. All the genetic crosses shown
below will involve examples using pea plants, which can be tall (T) of dwarf (t) – tall is
dominant to dwarf.

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