SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

UNIT CODE: SBL 202 UNIT NAME: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

LECTURER: Ms. Peggy Ngila TEL. NO: 0721730227 Email: [email protected]

JUNE 2020

All copyright to South Eastern Kenya University

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
Course Purpose

The objective of this course is to provide students with knowledge in the key areas of plant
taxonomy specifically in order to be able to explore the origin, classification, identification,
naming and diversification of important rangeland plants while emphasizing on flowering plants.

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the learner should be able to:

1. Identify, classify and name rangeland plants and important families emphasizing on
flowering plants

2. Discuss the uses of important plant morphological and anatomical features of plants used
in taxonomy.

3. Discuss the process of plant collection, storage and importance of herbarium

Course description
Introduction to principles of plant taxonomy. botanical nomenclature. Introduction to
biosystematics and chemotaxonomy. Significance of taxonomy and its relationship with other
botanical disciplines. History of classification and the concept of artificial and natural
classification. Hierarchy of taxonomic ranks of the units of classification. The concept of
character, sources of taxonomic characters. Systems of classification: artificial, phonetic,
phylogenetic, cladistics. Nature and use of botanical keys. Intraspecific variation and isolation.
Nomenclature survey of selected families from the flora of East Africa. Global distribution of
range plants; Adaptations/strategies; Festucoideae; Panicoideae;
Palatability/digestibility/nutritive value of common grasses; Distribution/morphology of
legumes; Role of legumes in Rangelands; Legume/grass/animal symbiosis; Nutritive value of
shrubs; Important non-leguminous browse species; management of woody plants; Livestock
poisoning; Poisonous compounds in plants; Selected plants of medicinal value in livestock
diseases; Shrubs/trees/grasses in soil and water conservation; Range plants in energy/timber
production; Future research in range plants.

Teaching methodologies
Lectures; Group activities/discussions; laboratory demonstrations/practicals, field trips and
excursions

Instruction material/equipment
LCD projector, computers, e-learning materials, Internet, whiteboard

Course assessment
Continuous assessment tests (30%), end of semester examinations (70%).

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

TOPIC 1:INTRODUCTION TO ANGIOSPERMS AND GYMNOSPERMS

By the end of this topic, the learner will be able to;

Define Plant taxonomy
State the importance of plant taxonomy,
Name the three scopes of plant taxonomy,
Understand the importance of plant nomenclature, citation and authority in naming of species

- Plant taxonomy can also be referred to as ‘Plant Systematics’. Just like range management, it

can be described both as an ‘art’ and ‘science’.

- It can generally be described as the study of the ‘identification’, ‘classification’ and
‘nomenclature’ of plant species. It is aimed at producing a system of classification of living
organism (e.g. plants), which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences.
- Plant taxonomy also involves the study and description of the variation that exists among
plants, the cause and consequence of these variations and the use of the data obtained for
identifying the variants and the causes of these variations to produce a system of classification.

Is the study of Plant Taxonomy important?

- The following points describe the importance of the ‘art’ and ‘science’ of plant taxonomy;
1. It provides/gives and inventory of the world of plant flora – currently, it is not clear the
number of plant species in existence. This is because, new plant species are still being
identified, and establishing an accurate number is further made difficult by the many examples
of the same species in different areas being known by different names. However, currently,
the estimated number of plants is around 400,000 species. Furthermore, the number of plants
species under threat is also unclear, but it is estimated at around 20% of plant species are
threatened with extinction e.g. IUCN Red list Brown Mahogany (hard wood) – Lovoa
swynnertonii.
2. It provides a method of identification of plants and communication in plant science – i.e.
universal language of communicating.
3. It produces a coherent and universal system of classification of plants.
4. It demonstrates the evolutionary implication of plant diversity.

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
- All this is aimed at producing a system of classification through the study and understanding
the origin of the plants and tracing the phylogenetic relationships between the plants.

Scope of Plant Taxonomy

- There are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy
1. Identification
2. Nomenclature
3. Classification

1. Identification: it deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical with or similar
to another and already known plant species.
a. It is also the naming of a plant by a reference to an already existing classification.
b. It must be known that identification precedes naming. It is from the different features or
characteristics of a system of identification that a plant species desires its name.

2. Nomenclature: a set of methods, rules, interpretations are considered when naming a

plant (organism). Therefore, when a researcher/scientist interests at a point in the study of these
rules in the course of naming a plant, this exercise is called Nomenclature. Nomenclature deals
with the determination of the correct name of the organisms and is governed by International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

3. Classification: It is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to a

particular plan or system of classification can be viewed in two perspectives, as a process and
also as a concept.

- As a process: is the production of a reasonable/logical system on itself in such that it

allows for easy reference to be made about its components.
- As a concept: Classification is seen as an entity that is made up of many members.
Basically, there are two systems of classification: natural and artificial classifications

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
a. Artificial classification is based on a few convenient characters for the purpose of
identification. Artificial system of classification does not group organism most alike in their
genetic constitution. It has little or no predictive value. It is a special purpose classification
chosen to suite the purpose for which it is designed e.g. plants can be classified on the basis of
habit as trees, shrub or herbs.

b. Natural system of classification: it groups organisms most closely related

phylogenetically and takes genetic constitution of an organism into account. It has predictive
value and is based on total similarities. Now-a-days there are new ways of testing differences
e.g. chromosome, morphology, nutrient requirement.

PLANT NOMENCLATURE

- Why do we need difficult Latin names for plants? Why not use local languages’?
- Vernacular or common names cannot replace scientific names due to the following reasons:
1. Names in common languages are not universal.
2. In most parts of the world, relatively few species have common names in any language.
3. Common names are applied indiscriminately to species or varieties.

- E.g. two or more related plants may be known by the same name or single species may
have two to several common names applied either in the same or different localities. E.g. Mung
Bean (Vigna radiata) – Swahili (Ndengu, Dengu, Pojo). This example shows the inconsistency
of using local names.
- With the rapid increase in the number plants known to man, it has become apparent that
there should be some guiding rules which will have uniformity, consistency and precision in
naming plants. In Botany/ Plants, these rules are governed by ICBN. The rules ensure stability
and accuracy in the application of names.

Binomial System of Nomenclature

- The Binomial System of Nomenclature (BSN) was suggested by Carlous Linnaeus (1753). In
this system, there are two components of scientific names and the scientific name of a plant is a
binary combination of the two components.

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
1. The generic name – given to the genus and always begins with a capital letter.
2. The specific epithet – names the species and in small letter.

- NOTE: The scientific names are ALWAYS italicized in print or underlined when
hand written. - E.g. Cucurbita maxima (pumpkin), Citrullus lanatus (watermelon). Therefore,
Cucurbita and Citrullus are representative of generic names, and maxima and lanatus are
specific epithets.
- According to ICBN, there can be only one group of plant with the generic names e.g.

Tamarindus. Within each genus, there can be only one valid specific epithet which may apply

to different plants e.g. Tamarindus indica (Tamarind), Azadirachta indica (Neem tree),

Cannabis indica, Cannabis sativa, Medicago sativa (Lucerne, legume).

Citation and Authority

- Since every taxon (family, genus or species) is originally described and published by one
or two persons, the name of the persons written after the specific epithet is known as the
authority of that taxon or name.
- The authority of that taxon or name i.e. the author’s name may be written out completely
or it may just be abbreviated.
- E.g. Solanum tuberosum (sweet potato) was first named and described by Carolous
Linnaeus, so Linnaeus becomes the authority for the name and it is written as Solanum
tuberosum L.
- However, when a species is transferred from one genus to another or one rank to another
(variety to species), the name of the original by the name of the original author is placed in
parenthesis and is followed by the name of the person making the change.
- E.g. Medicago polymovpha var. orbicularis was first described by Linnaeus. However,
later on it was raised to the rank of a species by Allioni and thus it became Medicago
orbicularis (L) All.

_____________________________________________________________________________
Assignment I

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
Binomial nomenclature (scientific names of plants) can be a good indicator of specific
characteristics different plant species. Using suitable examples, discuss the validity of this
statement.

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

TOPIC 2: PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

Introduction

- Spermatophytes - these are seed producing plants that reproduce sexually i.e. fertilization
from both the male and female cells.
- The plants are well differentiated into roots, stems and leaves, and their vascular bundles
(transport system of vascular plants consisting of xylem (water from roots to rest of the plant)
and phloem (photosynthates from leaves to other plant parts) tissues) are well developed.
- Spermatophytes can generally be divided into 2 main sub-divisions; (1) gymnosperms and (2)
angiosperms.
- The main differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms are highlighted below;
Gymnosperms (non-flowering) Angiosperms (flowering plants)

- These are woody trees species with cone-like monocotyledons. Seeds of the plants are
appearances. They bear no flowers, not fruits, found enclosed within the fruit wall.
but bear seeds. The seeds are naked i.e. the
seeds are not covered by the fruit wall. - Flowers are reproductive organs and can be
both unisexual and bisexual.
- Reproductive structures are cones, which are
unisexual. - Ovules are enclosed in the ovary.

- Ovules are exposed i.e. not located in ovary. - After fertilization, ovules develop into seeds
inside the fruit.
- After fertilization, ovules develop into naked
seeds.
- Microspores are produced in anthers while
- Microspores and megaspores are produced by megaspores are produced in ovules of the
male and female cones. ovary.

- Pollen falls on the stigma, germinate and the

- Pollen grains fall and germinate directly on pollen tube carries the male gamete to the
the microphyle of the ovules. ovary.

- Fertilization is double
- Fertilization is simple
- Pollination by wind, animals (insects/bats)
- Pollination is by wind alone - Vessels always present
- Xylem vessels contain tracheids
- Consists of herbs, shrubs and trees. They are -Companion cells lacking in the phloem.
divided into 2 classes – dicotyledons and

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-Companion cells present in the phloem

Plant morphology – gymnosperms and angiosperms - External and internal structures of

plants have for a long time been studied together, and collectively known as the study of plant
anatomy. However, beginning in the mid-20th century, plant anatomy evolved to focus
specifically on the internal structure of plants – especially at microscopic level.
- Plant morphology is the study of the various external features (structure and form) (e.g. leaves,
fruits, flowers, stems, roots) of the plant. Generally, plant morphology and anatomy form the
basis of taxonomic description of plants that exist today.

1. ROOTS
- The roots of a vascular plant typically grow underground and are responsible for absorbing
water and nutrients. There are two basic types of roots: taproots (dicotyledons) and fibrous
roots (monocotyledons). A taproot is a single, thick root from which a large network of roots
grows. Plants with fibrous roots have no taproot, just a dense mat of thinner roots. Both fibrous
roots and taproots are covered in root hairs. These tiny protrusions increase the roots surface
area, allowing them to absorb more water and nutrients.

2. STEMS
- The portion of the plant ‘typically’ above ground that holds the leaves and reproductive
structures. Stems are composed of three basic types of tissues: ground, dermal, and vascular.
Ground tissue is any plant tissue that is not dermal or vascular. The dermal tissue is the
outermost layer protecting the interior tissue. The vascular tissue includes the xylem and the
phloem. The xylem is a tube that moves water up the plant, and the phloem is a tube that moves
water and nutrients bidirectionally as needed through the plant. Water is absorbed through the
plant's roots and is transported to the leaves via the xylem. Energy and nutrients produced via
photosynthesis in the leaves are moved in solution down the plant via the phloem.

- There several types of stem/shoot types;

1. Bulbs – these are underground storage short stems, composed mostly of leaves e.g. onion
(Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativa), tulips and daffolids (flowers).
2. Corms – rounded underground storage stem with scaly leaves/membranes. Advantageous
during periods of adverse weather e.g. drought and winter. E.g. Crocus, Gladiolus.
3. Rhizomes – Horizontal underground stems with buds that can start new plants. E.g. ginger
(Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa), bamboo (Arundinaria alpina).
4. Stolon - a prostrate/horizontal stem, found just at or below the surface of the ground, that
produces new plants from buds at its tips or nodes. E.g. Star grass – (Cynodon dactylon).

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5. Tuber – swollen underground stem e.g. potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), white yam
(Dioscorea rotunda), yellow yam (Dioscorea cayenensis).

3. LEAVES
The primary organ of photosynthesis. The most basic form is a flat, green leaf, but there are
many modified types that have evolved to thrive in particular environments e.g. thorny leaves in
arid and semi-arid rangelands, conifer leaves (needle like), and the succulent leaves (aloe).
Leaves are made up of a variety of layers, beginning with the outer-most cuticle and epidermis.
The interior of the leaf is referred to as the mesophyll. Within the mesophyll, there are veins that
are part of the plant's vascular system.

- Leaves can broadly be divided into 2 groups; simple (i.e. the leaf blade is not divided into
leaflets) and compound (leaf divided into discrete/separate leaflets).

- Leaf arrangement – alternate (one leaf per node), opposite (two leaves per node),
whorled (three-four leaves per node).

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- Hairs on leaf (trichomes) – glabrous (smooth without trichomes), glaucous (waxy

coating), viscid (sticky secretions), scabrous (thorny/pricking trichomes).

- Leaf venation – parallel venation (monocots), network venation (dicots)

.
4. FLOWERS
The flowering structure of a plant is referred to as the inflorescence. The inflorescence is the
reproductive structure of the plant, as the flowers hold the male and female components
necessary for fertilization.

Examples of inflorescences - There are a variety of types and structures.

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• Raceme - a simple inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on short stalks of about
equal length at equal distances along an elongated axis and open in succession toward the
apex. Family Brassicaceae E.g. Brassica napus (Rapeseed), Brassica oleracea var.
botrytis (cauliflower), var. italica (broccoli) var. capitata (cabbage).
• Spike – an arrangement of a group of flowers arising from the main stem, without
individual flower stalks (i.e. sessile). E.g. Poaceae (grass) family – Cenchrus ciliaris,
Chloris roxburghiana, Enteropogon macrostachyus.
• Corymb – Racemose inflorescence where the main axis is comparatively short, and the
older lower flowers have a much longer pedicel than the younger upper flowers. All the
flowers originate from different points but are brought to the same level. E.g. Cassia
spectabilis and Cassia siamea.
• Umbel – Racemose inflorescence where the flowers radiate from a common point and
brought to the same level. E.g. onion (Allium cepa), Carrot (Daucus carota), Jerusalem
thorn (Euphorbia milli).
• Capitulum (Head) - is a short dense spike in which the flowers are borne directly on a
broad, flat peduncle, giving the inflorescence the appearance of a single flower. e.g
Acacias - Acacia tortilis, Family Asteraceae - Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Tithonia
diversifolia (Mexican sunflower).
• Panicle - Panicle is essentially a series of attached racemes with the oldest racemes at the
base and the youngest at the apex of the inflorescence. It is a loose and diversely
branched inflorescence. E.g. Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), Panicum coloratum
(White Buffalo grass).
• Cyme - A cyme is an inflorescence which has a characteristic terminal flower – which
blooms first. Additional flowers arise from lateral branches/meristems i.e. in a sympodial
fashion. E.g. family Rubiaceae – Pentas lanceolate, Coffea arabica, Coffea robusta

Floral formulas

- This can simply be described as a shorthand method of recording floral symmetry, number of
parts, connation (fusion) and adnation, insertion and ovary position.
- Floral formulas are useful tools for remembering characteristics of the various angiosperm
families. Their construction requires careful observation of individual flowers and of
variation among the flowers of the same or different individuals.
- A floral formula consists of five (5) symbols indicating from left to right; (1) floral
symmetry, (2) number of sepals, (3) number of petals, (4) number of stamens and (5)
number of carpels.
- Symbol 1 – symmetry of the flower

• * - radial symmetry – divisible into equal halves by two or more planes of symmetry.
• X – bilateral symmetry – divisible into equal halves by only one plane.
• $ - asymmetrical – flower lacking a plane of symmetry, neither radial or bilateral.

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SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
- Symbol 2 – this represents the number of sepals, with ‘K’ representing the calyx. Therefore,
K5 would mean a calyx of five sepals.

- Symbol 3 – the third symbol is the number of petals, with ‘C’ representing the ‘corolla’.
Thus, C5 means a corolla of 5 petals.

- Symbol 4 – the fourth symbol in the floral formula is the number of stamens (androecial
items) with ‘A’ representing androecium. A∞ (the symbol of infinity) indicates numerous
stamens and is used when stamen numbers are more than 12 in a flower. A10 would indicate
10 stamens.

- Symbol 5 – the fifth symbol in a floral formula indicates the number of carpels, with ‘G’
representing ‘gynoecium. Thus, G10 would describe a gynoecium of 10 carpels.

- Example of a basic floral formula: *, K5 C5 A∞ G10 – would represent a flower with a radial
symmetry, 5 sepals in the calyx, 5 petals in the corolla, more than 12 stamens and 10 carpels.
- At the end of the floral formula, a fruit type can be listed – e.g. * K5 C5 A∞ G10, capsule
- Additionally, Connation - fusion of like parts - is indicated by a circle around the number
representing the parts involved. E.g. in a flower with 5 stamens all fused (connate) by the
filaments, the floral part would be represented as A 5 or A (5)
- A plus symbol (+) is used to indicate differentiation among members of any floral part. E.g. a
flower with 5 large stamens alternating with 5 small ones would be recorded as: A5 + 5
- Adnation – fusion of unlike parts e.g. A and G will be indicated by a line connecting the
numbers representing the different floral parts A5 G2 (** arc joining 5 and 2).

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- Variation in the number of floral parts within a taxon is indicated by using a dash (-) to
separate the minimum and maximum numbers. E.g. a taxon that has flowers with either 4 or
6 sepals would be indicated as K 4-6.
- The lack of a particular floral part is indicated by placing a zero (0) in the appropriate
position in the floral formula. E.g. K3 C3 A0 G2 means that the flower has no functional
androecium.
- Position of the ovary – a line below the carpel letter (G2) indicates the superior position of-
the ovary with respect to the other floral parts, while a line above (G2) indicates the inferior
position of the ovary with respect to other floral parts.

FRUITS
A plant’s fruits form from its flowers. Fruits hold the seeds of the plant, and their forms have
evolved for a variety of purposes. Typically, the fruit forms from the plant’s ovary.

Common exceptions are strawberry, pineapples - an accessory (false) fruit – which are not
formed from the plant’s ovary, but from the head of its flower. The “seeds” are in fact the mature
ovaries, and contain the actual seeds of the plant inside of them. Other accessory fruits include
e.g. apples and pears, since much of the flesh fruit is formed from the enlarged hypanthium
(floral cup is a structure where basal portions of the calyx, the corolla, and the stamens form a
cup-shaped tube).

Type Definition Examples

Simple fruit From a single pistil (female part of flower)
Dry Indehiscent At maturity, dry; does not split open
Achene Close-fitting pericarp surrounding a single seed Sunflower
Grain Close-fitting pericap fused to a single seed Corn, wheat
Nut Thick, woody pericarp surrounding a single seed Walnut, Hazelnut

Dry dehiscent At maturity, dry and splits open

Legume Pod that splits along two opposite sides Beans, peas,
Capsule Fruit opening by several splits or pores Cotton
Schizocarp Fruit splitting into 1-seeded segments Sida ciliaris
Fleshy Mostly fleshy at maturity; do not usually split
open
Drupe 1- to 2-seeded; the innermost pericarp layer, stony Plum, Peach

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and enclosing the seed(s)
Berry 1- to many-seeded; no stony innermost layer of Tomato, Grape,
pericarp Orange, Lemon
Aggregate Formed by fusion of several separate pistils of one Raspberry
flower
Multiple Formed by fusion of several separate pistils of Pineapple, Fig,
several grouped flowers Strawberry

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TOPIC 3: GYMNOSPERMS
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION: Some general characteristics
Gymnosperms include the tallest and the most massive and longest living individual plants on
earth. They occur throughout the earth, but form the dominant vegetation in many colder
temperate and arctic regions. They possess needles or scale-like leaves, sometimes flat and large
and evergreen. No vessel elements are found in the xylem, thus easily outcompeted by
angiosperms which have vessels. They also exhibit cones (male - smaller, female – larger) naked
seeds but do not have flowers. Slow to reproduce i.e. up to a year may pass between pollination
and fertilization and seed maturation may require 3 years.

1. Pinaceae (the Pine family)

- Family has 12 genera and approximately 225 species.

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- The have a wide ecological range (extensive geographic range), with the majority of the species
found in the temperate climates – but occur from sub-arctic to tropical zones. This family is
often the component of boreal and montane forests (e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya).
- They are monoecious trees, rarely shrubs, mostly evergreen with a few deciduous taxa.
- The leaves are linear to needle like. The leaves may also contain resin canals, just like in the
wood.
- They have large female cones with numerous, spirally arranged scales, two winged seeds on
each scale. The male cones are smaller in size, with the pollen dispersed by wind. Pollen
usually has two pollen appendages (anthers). The shape of the cones causes air currents to swirl
around them to help catch this pollen.
- In the common genus Pinus, the needles (leaves) appear in bundles. The cone scales are
thickened at the tip and often armed with a prickle.
Socio-economic uses/benefits
• Pines are among the most commercially important of tree species which are most valued for
their timber. E.g. Cedar (Cedrus libani) hard and durable wood, which retains a sweet
fragrance for many years
• Many of the species are used as ornamentals in parks and large gardens.
• Pines are also commercially grown and harvested for Christmas trees.
• Some species have large seeds, called ‘pine nuts’ which are used for cooking and baking.
• Other produces edible seeds that are rich in oils, although they are small and difficult to
gather from most species.
• The soft inner bark is edible and the needles can be used to make tea beverage.
• Highly resinous, useful for its expectorant properties (against coughing), but over
consumption may lead to kidney complications.
• Medicinal value – diuretic i.e. increases the volume of urine produced by promoting the
excretion of salt and water from the kidneys.
• It is a Jewish custom to burn cedar wood to celebrate New year because of its sweet-smelling
fragrance
Examples: Pinus pinaster (cluster pine), Pinus patula (Patula pine), Pinus sylvestris (Scot pine),
Pinus ponderosa (Black jack pine), Tsuga canadensis (hemlock tree), Picea rubra (red spruce),
Picea excelsa (Norway spruce), Picea mariana (black spruce), Cedrus libani (cedar)

2. Cupressaceae (Conifer family, Cypress)

- Family has approximately 25-30 genera and 130 species, mostly shrubs and trees.
- Widely distributed from sea level to mountain peaks – but mostly occur in the temperate
regions. Some taxa are adapted to extreme environments. However, many genera and species of
this family show restricted, relictual (restricted) distributions and many are endangered.

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- Foliage leaves are needle-like and scale-like, arranged alternately, opposite or whorled along
the stem/branches.
- The female cones may have 1-20 seeds/scale – which are arranged in an overlapping pattern.
- Heartwood of many species is resistant to termite damages and fungal decay and is widely used
in contact with soil.
- Genus Juniperus has female cones which are distinctively fleshy fruit-like scales which fuse
together to form a berry. Many junipers have two types of leaves: seedlings have needle-like
leaves and mature plants with tiny, overlapping scale-like leaves.
Socio-economic uses/benefits
• Many species are important timber trees, and are also planted as ornamental.
• Some shrub species are of horticultural value especially junipers.
• A few cypress trees are cultivated to a small extent as Christmas trees.
• The fleshy cones of Juniperus communis are used to flavour gin.
• Calocedrus decurrens is the main wood used to make wooden pencils and clip-boards.
• Redwoods (Sequoiodeae) are the largest and tallest trees in the world.
• Medicinal value – e.g. Juniperus osteosperma – the smoke from burnt leaves/twigs for the
relief of headaches and smoke from burning the branches to treat colds. Burnt branches can
also be used to fumigate houses after illness has occurred there, or after a woman has given
birth.
• Juniperus procera (African juniper) – the Il Chamus of Kenya burn the bark during
ceremonies to create a pleasant aroma in the air.
• Juniperus recurve (Himalayan juniper) – smoke from burning green wood was inhaled to
induce vomiting. Burning the leaves and twigs can also drive mosquitoes and other insects
away.
Examples: Juniperus procera (African juniper), Juniperus communis (Common juniper),
Juniperus recurve (Himalayan juniper), Calocedrus decurrens (Incense Cedar), Sequoia
sempervirens (redwood), Juniper horizontalis (creeping juniper).

3. Ephedraceae (Mormon Tea, Desert Tea, Ma-huang - Chinese) -

Worldwide, there is 1 genus (Ephedra) and about 50 species.
- They are typically woody shrubs, subshrubs or herbs, dioecious, with erect (0.6-1.5 m height),
procumbent (along the ground) and occasionally climbing stems. They are widespread and can
occur in desert environments.
- Its various species can be found in the arid areas of the Northern Hemisphere, including the
deserts of the southwestern US. Seems to grow best at higher altitudes and prefers rocky,
alkaline soil. Needs very little moisture.
- Stems are branching and jointed, bearing pairs of tiny, scale-like leaves, often short-lived.
Terminal stems are thin, green and essentially leafless.

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- The stems contain caffeine and ephedrine (a drug that acts like adrenalin). A tea with stimulant
properties is made by soaking dried stems.
- Instead of flowers they produce small pollen papery cones, at intervals along the stems.
- They produce naked seeds like the pines. They form on a coloured, cup-like structure called a
perianth.
- Therefore, superficially it appears that plants in this family are an evolutionary link between the
conifers and the true flowering plants (angiosperms). However, these are a recently evolved
class of plants, and the fossil record indicates that the flowering plants developed before them.
- The Ephedras are leafless desert shrubs with jointed, green stems forming in whorls at nodes
along the stalk. Unlike other naked seeds, the Ephedras lack resin canals.
- The male cones have 2-8 anthers. The female cones have bracts covering the two maturing
seeds. Socio-economic uses/benefits
• Medicinal value – tea made from soaking dried stems has been used medicinally to treat a
variety of ailments e.g. syphilis, diabetes, and pneumonia.
• The fruit or buds of Ephedra nevadensis are eaten raw and have a very mild sweet taste.
• The stems of most Ephedra species contain the alkaloid ephedrine which is very valuable in
the treatment of asthma and many other respiratory complaints. Ephedrine acts quickly to
reduce swellings of the mucous membranes, dilates the bronchial vessels and has
antispasmodic properties i.e. prevents sudden muscle contractions.
• Mormon tea – good blood purifier
• CAUTION: an overdose can be fatal, causing high blood pressure, racing of the heart,
confusion, muscle numbness, twitching, convolutions and death. Ephedrine is seen as a
performance-boosting herb and is currently a forbidden substance in many sporting events
e.g. athletics.
Examples: Ephedra nevadensis (Mormon tea), Ephedra sinica (Ma-huang), Ephedra sinensis,
Ephedra vulgaris, Ephedra equistina

19
SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
TOPIC 4: ANGIOSPERMS (MONOCOTYLEDONS)
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION: Some general characteristics
Angiosperms (flowering plants) are the most common plants surrounding us – trees, shrubs,
herbs and grasses. Their main feature is producing flowers. The name is derived from the Latin
word “Angi” which means “enclosed” and the Greek word “Sperma” which means “seed”.
Angiosperm is considered the dominant form of plant life. It occupies most of ecological zones
(wide ecological range) and natural landscape.

Flowering plants have scientific classification that is divided into two classes:

a. Class Monocots – commonly known as monocotyledons.

b. Class Dicots – also known as dicotyledons.

1. Gramineae – Poaceae - Grass family – [Floral formula K2 C0 A3 G (2)]

- The 4th largest family with 620 genera, approximately 10, 000 species. Approximately 25%
of the world vegetation belongs to the grass family.
- The edible grains of cultivated grasses (cereals) are the basic foods of civilization, with
Triticum aestivum (wheat), Zea mays (corn, maize) and Oryza sativa (rice) being the most
extensively grown food crops. Other important cereals include Saccharum officinarum
(sugarcane), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Avena sativa (oats),
Pennisetum glaucum (millet) and Secale cereal (rye).
- Among the top 25 food crops.
- Grasses can also be in the form of natural pastures and provide a source of forage for both
wild and domestic herbivores e.g. Cynodon dactylon (Star grass), Chloris gayana (Rhodes
grass), Aristida adoensis, Sporobolus spicatus, Cenchrus ciliaris (African foxtail grass),
Enteropogon macrostachyus (Bush rye grass), Eragrostis superba (Wilman love grass),
Chloris roxburghiana (Horsetail grass), Pennisetum cladestinum (Kikuyu grass),
Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass).
General Characteristics

- Habit - Annual or perennial herbs – herbaceous layer

- Roots - Fibrous and adventitious roots (emerging from another organ apart from the root).
- Stem - Herbaceous; cylindrical; jointed, hollow at internodes. Sometimes, forms rhizome or
runner (stolon).
- Leaves: Sessile (attached directly to the stem without a stalk) with long sheathing base;
alternate; simple; parallel venation.
- Inflorescence - Spike of spikelets or panicles of spikelets. Each spikelet is composed of 2-5
flowers. It is enclosed by a pair of bracts called glumes. Spike of spikelets: The spikelets
form dense clusters in sessile manner on main axis as in wheat.
Panicles of spikelets: The spikelets are arranged on a branched axis-panicle as in oat.
- Flower - Sessile/Pedicellate; bracteate, two bracts palea and lemma enclose flower or floret;
lemma contain bristle like awns; incomplete; unisexual or hermaphrodite.
- Perianth – (outer part of the flower consisting of petals (corolla) and sepals (calyx)).
Represented by two or three scale like lodicules.

20
SBL 202: Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
- Androecium - 3 stamens, sometimes 1,2 or 6.
- Gynoecium - Ovary superior; stigma usually

21
-
Fruits – Caryopsis (dry one seeded fruit)
- Seed – Endospermic i.e. containing endosperm (food store for the developing plant embryo,
containing starch, protein and nutrients).
______________________________________________________________________________

____ Assignment II

The grass family (Poaceae) is of greater importance to humanity than any other family of
flowering plants. Using suitable and specific examples, discuss the validity of this statement.
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Cyperaceae - The Sedge Family [Floral formula K0 C0 A1-3 G (2or3)

- Members of the family Cyperaceae are commonly known as the sedges. Grass-like plants.
The family is one of the 10 largest families of flowering plants with over 5000 species and
108 genera. They grow in every continent except Antarctica.
- They are mostly weeds and adversely affect rangeland, agricultural and forest productivity.
- Distinctive feature – three (3) sided stem.
- Fruit is an achene (nutlets) and the seeds are often triangular shaped.
- Some of their adaptive characteristics; copious (abundant) production of small seeds, early
maturity, germination and survival in a wide range of environments, long life of propagules
in soil or during dispersion, rapid growth, C4 plants (high photosynthetic rate and increased
water use efficiency), resistance to pathogens, accumulation of large food reserves in roots
and rhizomes, structural modifications (thorns, prickles, spines, irritating hairs) that cause
injury and repel animals or herbivores.
- They occur in habitats ranging from marshes to deserts, and dominate many ecosystems,
including tundra and savannah.
- E.g. Cyperus rotundus (Purple nutsedge) – considered among the worst weed because of its
ability to survive, spread and compete, especially in agricultural lands, Cyperus esculentus L.
(Yellow nutsedge), Cyperus papyrus (papyrus reeds).
- Uses: e.g. Cyperus papyrus - very important in ancient Egypt for food, medicine, fibre and
shelter, boat making, cordage, fans, sandals, mattings corkage, boxes, and paper. It was one
of the most favourite plants of Ancient Egypt. Pith of papyrus was recommended for food,
while the starchy rhizomes and lowermost parts of the stem were cut off and consumed raw,
boiled or roasted. They are also chewed, sucked, and spit out, much as sugar cane.
Ornamental in ancient art and craft - handles for mirrors, fans, doors, chairs and various
household furniture; medicinal -ash from burnt papyrus – heals wounds.

3. Juncaceae – The Rushes [ Floral formula K3 C3 A6 G

(3) ] - Family consisting of 8 genera and about 400 species.
- Plants in this family occupy a wide variety of habitats and found in every continent, except
Antarctica.
- Also found in cold temperate and montane regions in wet or damp places.

22
-
- The mature fruit (capsule) is often beaked or pointed, and contains numerous seeds in a
single 3 section chamber.
- High salt tolerance – therefore can be found (occasionally) in saline habitats. These species
usually grow in the salty marshes or badly-drained soils under different climatic conditions.
- Important sources of pasture – salt concentration.
E.g. Juncus oxycarpus - common in Kenya and widespread from 1400-2700 m with no known
major widespread threat (IUCN list – Least Concern). It has been recorded from Cherengani
Hills in Elgeyo Marakwet, Naivasha, Mt. Kenya.
- Often used for basket making and manufacture of chair bottoms.

4. Typhaceae – Cattail Family

- Family has 2 genera (Typhus and Sparganium) with a total of 51 species.
- The general morphology the Typhaceae can be confused with Cyperaceae, Juncaceae and
Poaceae. However, Typhaceae can be distinguished by the presence of monoecious flowers
grouped into very dense cylindric spikes that reach up to 30 cm long, with female flowers
at the apex and male flowers towards the base of the spike. Flowers are greatly reduced.
- Fruit is a drupe.
- Widespread family from the tropical to temperate world. However, absent in Madagascar,
Malaysia and warm Americas.
- They are mostly aquatic (fresh/slightly brackish waters) rhizomatous perennial herbs.
- Play a significant ecological role in many wetlands e.g. soil conservation, habitats for
wildlife.
- However, invasive species e.g. Typha augustifolia are regarded as weeds because of their
ability to colonise and form monospecific stands which reduce the biodiversity of wetland
ecosystems and clog drainage ways. This is because they have an ability to withstand
conditions unfavourable to its competitors (quickly colonize sites, high growth rates, prolific
rhizomes, their broad leaves produce shading effect -limit sunlight)
- The leathery leaves of some species e.g. Typha latifolia (Bulrush) are used as a weaving
material in the manufacture of baskets, chair bottoms and mats. When mature, they also
produce a fluffy material which is commonly used to stuff pillows.
- Medicinal value: pounded roots (applied on wounds, sores), flowers (eaten to treat
diarrhoea), pollen (kidney stones, haemorrhage)

23
-

Floral formula

5. Liliaceae – The Lily family [ Floral formula K3 C3 A6 G (3) ]

- The family is composed of 16 genera and about 635 species. NB: this is not the water lilies
family (Nymphaeaceae)
- Widely distributed mostly in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
Species in this family are perennial herbs, rarely branched with bulbs and contractile roots
which pull the bulbs deeper into the soil through expanding radially and contracting
longitudinally.
- The flowers are often large, bisexual and with radial symmetry.
- Fruit is mostly a capsule; sometimes a berry.
- Uses – ornamental (beautiful flowers), vegetable (human food), and medicinal value.
- Examples: Tulipa gesneriana (garden tulip), Tulipa clusiana (lady tulip) Aloe vera, Allium
cepa (common onion), Alium sativa (garlic).

24
-

25
 TOPIC 5: ANGIOSPERMS (DICOTYLEDONS)
______________________________________________________________________________
____
1. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) – Bean/Pea family

- Cosmopolitan/Diverse family of plants absent only in the Antarctica. Many of its genera are
extremely widespread (mostly tropical and sub-tropical), while others are endemic to single
countries.
- The family has diversified in most major land biomes from arid to wet tropical, grassland and
coastal.
- Fruits in the Fabaceae family are pods – which can be single to many chambered, that vary in
size and shape. They can be woody and herbaceous.
- The family has approximately 700 genera and 17,000 species.

- The Fabaceae family is further divided into 3 major sub-families;

- The major distinguishing character that separates the three (3) sub-families is the shape of the
flowers

26
 a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.

a. Caesalpinioideae (Floral formula: K5/K(5) C5 A10 G1) – Approximately 170 genera

and more than 2000 species. Mainly tropical and subtropical, but several are in temperate
areas. They are trees, shrubs and vines. Flowers are irregular and bisexual with 10 or
fewer stamens with free filaments. Inflorescence a raceme. Temperate species of this
group usually do not fix nitrogen. Most members of the Caesalpinioideae have
zygomorphic (i.e. can only be divided into half from a single plane). E.g. Cassia
spectabilis, Cassia siamea, Senna siamea, Delonix regia, Tamarindus indica

b. Mimosoideae – (Floral formula K(5) C (5) A 5-∞ G1) Approximately 80 genera and
3200 species. Mimosoids are mainly tropical and sub-tropical trees and shrubs, but few
are found in the temperate regions. Flowers are regular and bisexual with many showy
filaments and stamens. Temperate species fix nitrogen. Members of this sub-family have
seed attachments (funiculus) that are very long. E.g. Leucaena leucocephala, Acacias
27
 e.g. Acacia mellifera, Acacia nilotica, Acacia senegal, Acacia xanthophloea, Acacia
nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis chilensis

c. Faboideae – (Floral formula K5 C 2+3 A 9+1 or 10 G1) Largest sub-family with

approximately 500 genera and as many as 14000 species. Mostly tropical and sub-
tropical, but several are in temperate areas. Mostly are herbaceous with some trees and
shrubs. Flowers are irregular and bisexual with 10 stamens and filaments often fused.
Members of this sub-family have a variation of ‘butter-fly shaped’ flowers. Flowers
have petals modified into large upper banner, two side wings and two fused petals that
form the lower keel that encloses the stamens. E.g. Pisum sativum (peas), Cajanus cajan
(pigeon peas), Vigna unguiculate (cowpeas), Phaseolus vulgaris (common beans),
Desmodium uncinatum (silver leaf desmodium)

Examples and economic uses

Woody and herbaceous landscape ornamentals (Cassia spectabilis, Cassia siamea, Delonix
regia, Lupinus perennis); human food crops; rich source of livestock forage – rich in protein
(Desmodium uncinatum, Acacias, Leucaena leucocephala); bee-forage; source of timber
(Prosopis juliflora); source of fuel energy and charcoal – high calorific value (e.g. Prosopis
juliflora, Acacia tortilis), dyes (Caesalpinia), source of gums – gums extrude from the stems
when wounded e.g. Acacia senegal – used to make chewing gums, cosmetics and stabilizing food
products, medicinal (local and traditional medicines – both for livestock and humans), jewellery
– local artisans make jewellery from seeds produced by tropical legumes.

2. Solanaceae (Potato and Tomato family) [Floral formula K(5) C(5) A(5) G(2)

- The Solanaceae family consists of about 98 genera and some 2700 species with a great variety
of habitats, morphology and ecology. Most members of the Solanaceae family are erect or
climbing, annual or perennial herbs, but shrubs and a few trees are not uncommon.
- Leaves vary greatly in shape but are usually simple although sometimes highly lobed;
alternately arranged without stipules. Inflorescence is generally cymose and axillary, but may
also be reduced to a single flower. The flowers are bisexual, usually radially symmetric.
28
- Fruit is usually a berry or a dry capsule.

- Chemistry – Solanaceae are known for having diverse range of alkaloids (alkaloids are
nitrogenous organic substances produced by plants as a secondary metabolite and which have
an intense physiological action on animals even at low dosage). These alkaloids can have both
desirable and toxic effects to humans.
- Solanine – alkaloid with a bitter taste it is found in leaves, fruit and tubers of various
Solanaceae e.g. potato and tomato. Its production is thought to be an adaptive defence strategy
against herbivores. Intoxication from Solanine is characterized by gastrointestinal disorders
(e.g. diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal pain).
- Atropine – very lethal and toxic and found in species e.g. Datura stramonium. Symptoms of
overdose include dry mouth, dilated pupils, ataxia, urinary retention, hallucinations,
convulsions, coma, death. Atropine has a stimulant effect on the central nervous system and
heart.
- Nicotine – produced in large quantities in the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum), but also
found in lower concentrations in other species as Solanum tuberosum (potatoes), Lycopersicon
esculentum (tomato), Capsicum annum (red pepper -large), Capsicum frutescens (red pepper -
small). Its function in a plant is to act as defence against herbivores, as it is an excellent
neurotoxin, in particular against insects. Nicotine has been used for many years as an
insecticide.
NB: Tomato juice and some pepper sprinkled on top - often preferred by travellers to reduce the
frequency of visiting the toilet especially during long flights (aeroplanes).
Examples and economic uses

Members of the Solanaceae family provide a variety of culinary (human food), medicinal and
ornamental values.
As a source of human food, the most important species of this family for the global diet is
Solanum tuberosum (potato), whose carbohydrate-rich tubers have been a staple food in many
regions and is one of the most grown crops today. Additionally, other plants e.g. Lycopersicon
esculentum (tomato), Capsicum annum (pepper), Capsicum frutescens (red pepper) and Solanum
melongena (eggplant) are desirable fruits.
Medicinal - members of Solanaceae family have been prized for their alkaloid content and have
been used throughout history. Important drug plants include Datura stramonium (jimson weed,
angels trumpet, devils trumpet, devils snare), Nicotiana tabacum - herbicide (tobacco), Solanum
incanum – tooth ache (fruit), stomach upsets (roots) (Sodom apple).
Some plants are also a focus of extensive biological studies and research. Species such as
tomato, potato, tobacco and petunia are important experimental organisms in genetics and
molecular biology. Some plant species in the Solanaceae family are also linked to witchcraft
practices e.g. Datura stramonium.

29
3. Euphorbiaceae (Spurge family) [Floral formula ♂ K0C0A1G0, ♀ K0C0A0G (3)]
- Made up of approximately 307 genera and 6900 species. Many of its members (plant species)
are important sources of food, waxes and oils, medicinal value. Diverse plant family, in tropical
regions and abundant in low to medium altitudes. Absent in Antarctica.
- Extraordinary diverse group of monoecious and dioecious herbs, shrubs, vines, sometimes
succulents, cactus-like or trees. Leaves are usually alternate, simple, lobed or compound.
- Flowers are unisexual (plants dioecious or monoecious), actinomorphic, with male and female
flowers usually borne on the same plant. Petals are rarely present. Flowers of Euphorbia are in
cup-shaped clusters called cyathium, each of which seems to be a single female flower,
consisting of a single pistil surrounded by several male flowers, each of which has a single
stamen. These clusters of reduced flowers are enclosed by a whorl of bracts (modified leaves)
that resembles a corolla, or whorl of flower petals.

- Male flowers of the other genera have one to many stamens, free or joined. Female flowers
have three chambered ovaries in a superior position.

- Fruit is a three-chambered capsule. Leaves are usually simple and are alternate (or rarely
opposite or whorled) in arrangement along the stems.

- The stems of many species contain a milky latex – often poisonous.

Examples and economic uses

- Manihot esculenta (cassava) – source of human food/starch (flour, raw, chips/crisps),

vegetable – pounded leaves
- Ricinus communis (castorbean oil) – oil for lubricants, textile dyeing, leather preservation,
coating fabrics, medicinal – e.g. ointments and insecticides, blood coagulation, leaves applied
on head relieve headaches; vegetable oil for cooking.
- Jatropha curcas – oil biodiesel, pounded leaves are medicinal against infections e.g. to heal
sores. - Hevea brasiliensis – rubber tree
30
- Euphorbia tirucalli (fencing), Euphorbia milii – Jerusalem thorn (ornamental/landscaping)
- Croton megalocarpus – leaves medicinal (stomach ache), seeds source of oil, mulching,
timber (termite resistant)
- Euphorbia candelabrum – stem ash (eye infections), milky latex applied topically to treat
wounds and sores.

4. Apocynaceae (The Dogbane/Milkweed/Oleander Family) [Floral formula K(5) C (5) A5 G(2)

- This is a large Family with about 411 genera and 4650 species found mainly in tropical and
sub-tropical regions. It includes many of the most well-known tropical ornamental plants
(Oleander, Frangipani, Allamanda, Mandevilla). It includes trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and stem
succulents.
- Many are large trees with buttress roots found in rainforests. Some are smaller, evergreen or
deciduous trees, shrubs or climbers from other warm areas of the world. Others are found in
temperate regions.
NB: Buttress roots – rainforest have shallow layer of fertile soil, so trees only need shallow
roots to reach the nutrients. However, shallow roots aren’t great for supporting huge rainforest
trees, so many tropical tree species have developed huge ‘buttress roots’. These stretch from the
ground to two meters or more up the trunk, which help anchor the tree to the ground.

- Leaves are simple and undivided, and are either opposite or in rings around the stem.

- The sap of most plants is a ‘milky latex’, which is often of economic importance for medicinal
use, or for the production of rubber. This sap is often toxic.

- Flowers are characterised by a calyx with five parts, either separate or joined to form a tube.
The flowers are in clusters and are often large and showy. They usually have five petals joined
into a tube at the base. There are five stamens joined together.

- The seeds in a capsule has two parts and may be either inside the flower or not. Seeds are very
variable, and may be small with a ‘hairy tuft’ (Nerium, Calatropis) or large and woody
(Allamanda).

Examples and Economic Uses

Ornamentals – Catharanthus roseus Plumera rubra Nerium oleander

31
Calatropis procera - decoction or infusion of the stem and root bark, or the powdered bark in
water is taken to cure diarrhoea, dysentery and intestinal worms. Ground roots -skin infections,
smoke from dried leaves relief for asthma, hair tuft – source of fibre, forage for livestock (small
scale)
Acokanthera schimperi – wood and roots Its sap contains the deadly cardiotoxic glycoside
ouabain. The sap is among the most commonly used in arrow poison.

5. Asteraceae (The Daisy/Sunflower family) [Floral formula K∞ C(5) A(5) G (2)]

Formerly known as Compositae family. One of the largest plant families, with approximately
1528 genera and over 25,000 species. It includes shrubs, perennials and annuals, but not trees or
aquatics. It is one of the most diverse family of angiosperms with a worldwide distribution.

Leaves, Stem and Roots - Leaves are often undivided and spoon-shaped, but they are sometimes
toothed or divided, and they may be prickly (with some thorns). There is often a basal rosette and
there may be leaves on the stem. Stem may be solid or hollow and may be prickly. The roots may
be short and near the surface (e.g. daisy) or there may be a long tap root.

Flowers - the flowers gave this plant family its original name of Compositae. I.e. the flowers are
composite (made up of many individual flowers). These flowers may be regular (disc florets),
with all the petals the same size, or irregular (ray florets), with some petals larger than others.
Often, the disc florets form the central disc of short flowers, and the irregular ray florets form the
outside 'petals' with the larger edge on the outside of the flower head. Inflorescence is a Head
(Capitulum).

E.g. sunflower, the dark centre of the flower is the disk flowers and the outer 'petals' are the
ray flowers. Some members of this family are made up of only disc florets or only ray florets.

Seeds - Each single flower can produce a seed. The flowers sit on a disc surrounded by the
bracts. After pollination, the seeds grow and mature until they are ripe and ready to be dispersed.

32
In some species, the bracts surrounding the flower simply open and allow the seeds to be
dispersed by the wind. In this case, the seed is often attached to its own 'parachute'.

Many members of this plant family do not produce viable seeds. Often, they produce what looks
like a fine seed-head of white fluff, but on examination it will be seen that there is no seed at the
bottom of the 'parachute'. Healthy seeds are easily recognisable - there is a slight bulge to even
the flat-looking viable seeds, and some are fat and rounded. Fruit is an achene.

Examples and economic uses

Lactuca capensis – human food, animal feed (e.g. rabbits), medicinal (malaria, digestion).
Lactuca sativa (lettuce) – vegetable and highly medicinal (anti-oxidant -protection against
cancer)
Helianthus annuus (sunflower) – human food (seeds), vegetable oil, livestock feed (sunflower
cakes), herbal medicine (arthritis, tonsillitis).
Matricaria chamomilla (Chamomile) – Medicinal (highly therapeutic) - teas as a mild, relaxing
sleep aid, treatment for fevers, colds, stomach ailments, and as an anti-inflammatory.
Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower) – livestock feed, agroforestry (restore P in soil).
Bellis perennis (Common daisy) –roots and leaves- ointment – anti-inflammatory, ornamental.
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) – weed

6. Brassicaceae (Mustard/Cabbage family) [Floral formula K4 C4 A4+2 G(2) ]

This family was previously known as Cruciferae. It is a large family with many plants of major
economic importance, including many familiar vegetables, ornamental plants and weeds. Family
is made up pf approximately >400 genera and 4000 species. They are found all over the world,
with most species occurring in the temperate regions and few in the southern hemisphere. They
are mostly annual or perennial herbaceous plants, with a few shrubs.

Leaves, Stem and Roots - Leaves are usually alternate up the stem. Species which are used as
food crops, plants have been selected and bred to maximise the size of the part used - large,
fleshy roots as in Turnips, large leaves as in Cabbages, large flower buds as in Cauliflower and
Broccoli.

Flowers -
Members of
this family are
generally
characterised
by (4) four petalled
flowers in a cross
shape. It is this
arrangement of
flowers that gave this
plant family its
original name
Cruciferae i.e.
33
petals appear in cruciform arrangement. They are usually in clusters or heads, and the flowers
are very often white or yellow, although they may be red, blue, orange, white, pink or mauve,
particularly in species cultivated as ornamentals.

The flowers are bisexual and mostly actinomorphic – occasionally zygomorphic. The fruit is
usually a capsule, the two valves of which separate at maturity, leaving the ovules attached to the
persistent replum (membrane in the middle). The long narrow fruits of this family are called
siliques while the short and broad ones are called silicles.

Seeds – Seed pods of this plant family are also fairly easily identifiable. They are formed of two
chambers joined by a thin membrane, which opens from the bottom. The seed pod may be round
and flat, or it may be long and thin. The flat membrane often remains after the outer surface of
the seed capsule has been shed.
Examples and economic uses

Brassica nigra (black mustard seed) – spices (seeds commercial table mustard), also eaten raw,
medicinaltooth ache, rheumatism, headache. Mustard oil seed repellent, green manure
(agroforestry). Brassica napus (rapeseed) – rapeseed oil – vegetable cooking oil. Therapy in
massage parlours. Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli), botrytis (cauliflower), capitata
(cabbage) sabellica (kales) gongylodes (kohlrabi) and Brassica rapa (turnip) – human food
(vegetables).

7. Rosaceae (The Rose family) [Floral formula K5 C5 A10+5+5 G (5) NB - Pentamerous]

Rosaceae family include herbs, shrubs or trees, which are sometimes rhizomatous, climbing or
thorny. The rose family distribution is cosmopolitan (diverse). The herbaceous species grow in
temperate forests as understorey plants, in salt and fresh water marshes. The Rosaceae is the 19th
largest family of plants and included more than 100 genera and over 3000 species. Plant hairs are
simple and can be present with prickles. Leaves are usually alternate and are simple to palmately
34
or pinnately compound. Stipules i.e. small leaflike appendages to a leaf, typically borne in pairs
at the base of the leaf stalk) are usually present and the flowers are often very showy, bisexual or
infrequently unisexual.

Petals are usually pentamerous, while stamens are usually 15 or more, sometimes 10 or fewer.
Filaments are distinct or basally fused to the nector disk. Carpels (female organs) are 1 to many.
The ovary varies from superior to inferior position, depending on the genus. The styles are
present in the same number as carpels. The fruits are varied can be a follicle (fruit splits
(dehiscent) open on one side e.g. roses), achene (one seeded fruit derived from only one ovule,
smaller than nuts; e.g. almond), pome (core, plus several seeds e.g. apple, pears) or drupe
(fleshy mesocarp surrounds a ‘stone’ e.g. plum), rarely a capsule (dehiscent, splits open to
release seeds). Endosperm is usually absent from the seed.

The stone fruits (i.e. drupes) are less hardy than the pome fruits. They tend to flower earlier,
making them very susceptible to spring frosts. The fruits tend to be soft at maturity and have
much poorer storage life than pome fruits. However, their exquisite/sweet flavours have made
them much admired. Many are consumed dried e.g. apricot.

Examples and economic uses

The Rosaceae family may include well known and beloved species of economic importance
particularly edible temperate zone fruits and ornamentals, but also some timber species and
medicinal plants. The total world production of the edible rosaceous fruits in 2005 based on FAO
statistics is about 113 million tonnes and this translates to around USD 45 billion. Adding the
world value of almonds, cut roses, rose plants and other products suggests that the rosaceous
plants could be worth at least USD 60 billion per annum at farm gate price, with a consumer
value triple this amount to USD 180 billion.

Fresh and processed fruits - Prunus armeniaca (apricot), P. avium (sweet cherry), P. domestica
(plums), P. persica (peaches/nectarine), Malus domestica (apples), Eriobotrya mespilus (loquats),
Pyrus communis (pears), Fragaria ananassa (strawberry), Rubus fruticosus (blackberry).
Fresh and processed nuts - Prunus dulcis (almonds)
Ornamentals – Roses e.g. R. gallica, R. multiflora, R. chinensis; Prunus mume (Japanese
apricot) Timber – Prunus serotina (black cherry) is a prized timber species used for furniture
and panelling due to its beautiful red colour. It is usually the highest and second highest valued
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fine hardwood. Black cherry is cultivated in plantations and breeding programs are underway in
the US. The back has been used medicinally (colds – drying up secretions and mucous, digestive
problems).

8. Verbanaceae (The Verbena Family) [Floral formula K (5) C(5) A(4) G (2)]

It’s a comparatively large family with very diverse habit, composed of about 31 genera and about
1000 species. Traditionally, the family had 75 genera and about 3000 species. Newer
phylogenies have reduced the family to the current 31 genera and moved most of the genera to
the family Lamiaceae. They may be trees, shrubs or herbs – with no general distinctive habit
being peculiar to the family as a whole.

Verbanaceae is a family of mainly tropical flowering plants which are recognized by a

combination of traits, containing trees, shrubs and herbs notable for heads, spikes or clusters of
small flowers, many of which have aromatic smell. Fruits can be a drupe or capsule - are fleshy
or dry, generally with two or four seeds, often dividing into two or four segments.

`
Stems of the shrubs or trees are sometimes characterised by prickles or thorns; stems are usually
square in cross-section (i.e. 4-sided stem). Hairs are simple. Stems are known to produce
essential oils (including terpenoids). The leaves are opposite, occasionally whorled, simple,
sometimes lobed. Flowers are bisexual forming inflorescences – racemes (e.g. Lantana camara),
spikes or heads; which are terminal or axillary.

Examples and economic uses

Good source of timber – e.g. Vitex keniensis (Meru Oak), Tectona grandis (Elgon teak) – good
source of hardwood furniture.

Ornamentals – e.g. Lantana camara (Yellow Sage), also commonly used as a live fence and
landscaping.
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Livestock poisoning – Lantana camara can also be noxious -notorious photosensitizing weeds.
Grazing animals in pastures with sufficient forage will often avoid Lantana camara - perhaps
because of its pungent aroma and taste. Animals unfamiliar to the plant may ingest enough to
affect them. Fifty to ninety percent of animals newly exposed may be affected. Foliage and ripe
berries contain the toxic substances (Lantadene A and B - the major toxins involved in
poisoning) with the toxins being in higher concentrations in the green berries. Species affected
include cattle, sheep and rabbits. The major clinical effect of Lantana toxicity is
photosensitization - the onset of which often takes place in 1 to 2 days after consumption of a
toxic dose (1% or more of animal's live BW).

9. Bignoniaceae (The Bignonia Family) [Floral formula K(5) C(5) A4+1 G(2)]

- This is a family of around 650 species in 120 genera, found mainly in the tropics, particularly
South America. Most species are woody trees, shrubs and even climbers. Very few herbaceous.
- Common genera include; Bignonia, Jacaranda, Spathodoea, Crescentia.
- They are grown for their timber and as ornamental plants, and include many plants frequently
seen by travellers in tropical regions, as many species are used as street trees or in hotel
gardens.

Major characteristics of plants in the family

Leaves, Stem and Roots - Nearly all members of this Family have woody stems. The leaves are
opposite, with no stipules, and are usually pinnately compound. There are often tendrils used for
climbing. The calyx has five lobes, and is sometimes 2-lipped.
Flowers - The flowers are bell or funnel shaped also with five lobes. They grow in clusters and

are usually large and brightly-coloured. There are four stamens. The flowers are bisexual and
inflorescence is either in panicles or cymes.

Seeds - The seedpod forms inside the flower (a superior ovary). The seeds are usually flat with
papery wings, although sometimes there is an indehiscent fleshy fruit containing unwinged seeds
(Kigelia)

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Examples and economic uses
Kigelia africana – making of local brews e.g. Muratina; Medicinal; the fruit can be ground up
and mixed with water to help young men improve their manhood. Commonly rubbed on male
genitals or on women's breasts to make them larger; also to treat skin ailments
Jacaranda mimosifolia – highly ornamental – beautiful and showy purple flowers, fuel wood,
timber, leaf extract or juice can also be applied externally for relief from sores or ulcers.

Crescentia cujete – calabash -traditional utensils; fetching and drinking water, porridge container
Spathodoea nilotica – ornamental – red flowers, bee forage, shade, medicinal against arthritis

S. nilotica (Nandi flame) K. africana (sausage tree) C. cujete (calabash)

10. Amaranthaceae (The Amaranth/Pig weed Family) [Floral formula P(5) A5+5 G(2 or 3)]

- It is a relatively large family of dicotyledonous flowering plants consisting of about 65 genera

and 900 species. The species in this family are mostly herbs (perennial and annuals), though
few species of shrubs and small trees also exist.
- Most of the 900 species of Amaranthaceae are native to tropical and subtropical regions of
Africa, Central America, and South America. The number of Amaranthaceae species declines
as one approaches the northern and southern temperate zones. There are about 100 species of
this family in North America. Many species of Amaranthaceae are considered weeds. They
invade disturbed areas, such as agricultural fields and roadsides.
- Flowers of most species are bisexual, having both the male and female reproductive organs.
The flowers are reduced in size (small), and have a radial symmetry.

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- They arise in a dense inflorescence (spike, cymes) with each flower of the inflorescence
subtended by one or more red bracts (i.e. modified leaves). Flowers produce a lot of nectar and
are insect pollinated, except for genus Amaranthus, a genus with 50 species, whose flowers are
wind pollinated.
- Leaves are simple and non-compound. Fruit – achene, berry or capsule.

- Key feature of many species in Amaranthaceae family is that they have RED inflorescences,
stems, fruits and vegetative parts, due to the presence of betalain pigment.
Examples and economic uses

Amaranthus caudatus – (Love-lies-bleeding) – highly ornamental species (horticultural), red ink.

Grain amaranth are still grown throughout the world and a minor cash crop. Health stores
currently sell amaranth grain, a flour-like substance made from grinding amaranth seeds.
Amaranth grain can be used with wheat to make bread, and can be cooked with water to make a
side dish.
Human food - vegetables rich in iron - Amaranth viridis – (Mchicha – Swahili).
11. Malvaceae (The Mallow/Cotton Family) [Floral formula K (5) C5 A ∞ G(1-∞)]

- The family is composed of approximately 75 genera and 1500 species. Mostly composed
of herbs, shrubs and rarely trees. Cosmopolitan distribution, many found in tropics and sub-
tropics.

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- Diagnostic characteristic: Monadelphous stamens (i.e. filaments united into a tube or
column), palmately veined leaves, pistil with many carpels. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic,
with an epicalyx. Inflorescence is solitary or cyme.
- Leaves are arranged in an alternate arrangement, simple and palmately veined with
stipules. Stellate hairs present on the young plants, with mucilaginous juice.

- Fruit is a capsule or schizocarp. Seed with curved embryo, usually without endosperm
and oily. Members of this family produce complex carbohydrates.
Examples and economic uses

Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) – source of fibre. Cotton seed is further important because it
produces edible oils which can be used for making cooking oils, margarine and soap. Cotton seed
oil cake is also a very nutritious cattle feed. Residue is also used in washing powder, in
preparation of oil cloth and artificial leather.
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra) – fruits are used as a vegetable. Produces a lot of mucilage.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (shoe flower) – widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Cultural
ceremonies -used in the worship of God/Goddess Kali (Hindu tradition), roots used for cough
treatment, flowers can also be dried and used as beverage e.g. Hibiscus tea. Medicinal – tonic
drink, herbal hair oil.
Corchorus olitorius (jute/jew’s mallow, mrenda) – widely cultivated as a vegetable in Western
Kenya.
Sida ovalis – local material used to make brooms.
Adansonia digitata – Baobab (monkey bread) – human food, source of fibre, forage for animals

Hibiscus
rosa-sinensis Tonic drink
Hair oil
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12. Lamiaceae (The Mint Family) [Floral formula K (5) C(5) A 2+2 G(2)]

The family is composed of approximately 200 genera and 3200 species, mostly herbs or shrubs,
found worldwide with great diversity. They occur in a wide variety of habitats, although many
are adapted to drought.
The family Lamiaceae is one of the families (usually) identified on the basis of vegetative
features, a triplet of characters;
1. The Mints have square stems on the new growth – but other families, e.g. Verbanaceae,
also have this feature.
2. Mints have opposite leaves; a trait share by many other families e.g. Verbanaceae

3. Mints have fragrant leaves (also found in other families e.g. Rutaceae; Citrus family,
including Zanthoxylum chalybeum). However, a ‘combinaton’ of these 3 traits identifies
the mints.
The leaves are opposite or whorled, and are simple or occasionally, pinnately compound.
Stipules are absent.
The flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic, often whorled spikes. Ovary is in a superior position,
and develops into 4 one-seeded nutlets – a consistent feature throughout the family.

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Examples and economic uses

Mentha spicata (Spear mint) – edible and medicinal. Leaves and flowers are edible raw/cooked.
A strong flavour, they are also used as salads or added to cooked food. Medicinal herb tea made
from fresh or dried leaves has refreshing taste. Essential oils from leaves and flowers are used to
flavour gums, candy, ice cream, drinks and oral hygiene products (toothpaste, mouth wash).
Ointments.
Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary) – culinary (spices), cosmetic industry (shampoos), medicinal.
Lavandula augustifolia (Lavender) – bee forage (good honey), medicinal (headache, Lavender
tea- digestion, cold, gentle sedative can help with anxiety, stress, insomnia), aromatherapy. Air
fresheners.

13. Rutaceae (The Citrus Family) [Floral formula K5 C5 A10 G (3-5)]

The citrus family is composed of approximately 150 genera and about 1300 species of plants
distributed worldwide, mosty in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Few species occur in the
temperate regions. They are mostly trees, shrubs and herbs.
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Leaves are evergreen mostly compound with an alternate arrangement, mostly aromatic. The
leaves contain glands on the back of the leaf. The leaves and fruits of some plants e.g. gas
plant/burning bush (Dictamnus albus) contains very volatile compounds (essential oils) -thus can
be ignited.
Flowers are bisexual, rarely unisexual, mostly green-yellow or white in colour. The flowers have
a cicular basal disk with nectar glands. Produce good quantities of nector -thus important source
of bee-forage. Inflorescene can be a cyme, raceme or solitary flower.

Woody stems, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid often thorny, gland dotted.
Fruits can be berries, capsule or drupes.
Examples and economic uses

Citrus fruit trees – human food - Citrus reticulata (tangerine), C. limon (lemon), C. paradisi
(grape fruit), C. clementine (clementine), C. sinensis (orange) – rich source of Vitamin C.
Zanthozylum chalybeum (Knob wood) – leaves used to flavor and make tea - substitute for tea
leaves.
Aromatic flowers and nectar production – good source of bee forage for honey (photo above).
Medicinal purposes – colds/cough, aromatherapy, and making perfumes and flavours (icecream).

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14. Convolvulaceae (The Morning Glory Family) [Floral formula K5 C(5) A5 G (2)]

The Convolvulaceae family is composed of approximately 60 genera and 1700 species. It is

dominated by twining and climbing woody or herbaceous plants that are often characterised by
heart-shaped leaves and funnel-shaped flowers.
Plant species in this family mostly occur in the tropics (90%) although some also reach temperate
zones. The greatest species diversity occurs in the Americas and Africa.
Stems are either herbaceous or woody with many species having twinning, climbing or trailing
stems, but others are erect and may reach 2 m. Stems of prostrate (trailing) species may be only
10 cm long. A few species root from the stems e.g. Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato). The
vegetative parts have milky latex that may be inconspicuous or obvious.
Leaves are alternate arranged. Leaf margins are unlobed or divided into palmate or pinnate
divisions.
Flowers are mostly bisexual with inflorescences that are terminal or axillary, and appear as
solitary flowers to complex clusters. Corolla shape varies from rotate to bell-shaped to funnel
shaped. Pollination is mostly by insects.

Majority of the species fruit is a dehiscent capsule, opening with 4-8 valves. Sometimes the
dehiscence is irregular. Less often the fruit is a berry which can be animal dispersed. The seeds
usually number (4) four per fruit, but some can abort (not reach maturity). They are always
large and cannot be dispersed by wind.
Many species have seeds with large empty cells enabling them to float.
Examples and economic uses

Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) – human food rich in starch/carotene and livestock feed (vines)
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Ipomoea tricolor (morning glory flower) - ornamental
Ipomoea kituensis – weed -challenge for established grass stands (engulfs), livestock feed

15. Moraceae (Fig / Mulberry Family) [Floral formula ♂ K4C0A4G0, ♀ K4C0A0G (2)]
The Mulberry Family has approximately 48 genera and 1200 species, distributed worldwide,
mainly in the tropical and subtropical regions. Habit – mostly trees, shrubs and vines.
Important genera in the family include Morus (Mulberry), Ficus (Figs), Artocarpus (Jackfruit,
Breadfruit).
The uniting characteristics of plant species in this family is the that ‘a thick milky latex’ is
produced upon wounding. Latex is released upon wounding as a self-defense mechanism against
herbivory.
The leaves are simple or compound and are generally arranges in an alternate pattern. Some
members in the family Moraceae are characterised by foliar polymorphism. That is several leaf
forms occur on the same plant. In many cases, there is one leaf form on a young/seedling plant
and another on the mature flowering plant. Some stems have spines especially at juvenile stage.

Many Ficus (figs) are hemiepiphytes or strangler plants. Approximately 500 species are
classified as hemiepiphytes. Their seeds are deposited in the tops of rain forest trees usually by
birds. The plants sends down meandering roots that surround the trunk and eventually contact the
ground to form a terrestrial root system. Constriction, shading and root competition will
eventually ‘strangle’ the host tree and the strangler develops into a free standing large tree with a
hollow centre.

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The flowers are unisexual and can be arranged in either flattened heads or spikes.
Plants produce multiple fruits with achenes enclosed by swollen sepals (Morus), receptacles
(Ficus) or sepal and receptacles (Maclura).

Examples and economic uses

Source of food (tropical fruits) – Ficus carica (common fig), Artocarpus altilis (Breadfruit),
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Jackfruit), Morus alba (mulberry), Maclura pomifera (Osage orange)
Source of silk – silkworms feed on mulberry (Morus alba) leaves.
Broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) – ornamental and source of paper (bark). Paper
mulberry has been used as a traditional fibre for making Japanese paper (Washi) used in arts and
decorations such as origami.

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47
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Using suitable examples and illustrations where possible, differentiate between the
following terminologies
a) Actinomorphic and zygomorphic flower (2 marks)
b) Dehiscent and indehiscent fruit (2 marks)
c) Monoecious plant and a dioecious plant (2 marks)

2. Give two reasons why we need Latin names for plants and not the use of local languages
in plant nomenclature (2 marks)
3. Write short notes on citation and authority in plant nomenclature giving examples where
needed (4 marks)
4. Describe the salient features as represented in the following floral formulas
a) K(5) C(5) A(5) G(2) (1 mark)
b) ♂ K0C0A1G0, ♀ K0C0A0G(1-3) (1 mark)
c) K∞ C(5) A(5) G (2) (1 mark)
d) K4 C4 A4+2 G(2) (1 mark)
5. Highlight and briefly discuss the scope of plant taxonomy (5 marks)
6. a. Define spermatophytes (1 mark)
b. highlight the differences between angiosperms and gymnosperms (8 marks)
7. Discuss the listed plant families under the following sub-headings; ecology, salient
features, examples and economic uses
a) Fabaceae
b) Euphorbiaceae
c) Amaranthaceae
d) Brassicaraceae
8. a) Define the term ‘herbarium’ (2 marks)
b) Discuss the importance and uses of a herbarium (18 marks)

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References
1. Crane, P. R., Friis, E. M., & Pedersen, K. R. (1995). The origin and early diversification of
angiosperms. Nature, 374(6517), 27-33.
2. Festschrift, P. (2012). Plant taxonomy: Past, present and future. The Energy and Resources
Institute, TERI
3. Gupta, R. (Ed.). (2012). Plant taxonomy: past, present, and future. The Energy and Resources
Institute (TERI).
4. Judd, W. S., Campbell, C. S., Kellogg, E. A., Stevens, P. F., & Donoghue, M. J. (1999). Plant
systematics: a phylogenetic approach. ecologia mediterranea, 25(2), 215.
5. Kenrick, P. (1999). The family tree flowers. Nature, 402(6760), 358-359.
6. Kokwaro, J. O. (1994). Flowering plant families of East Africa: an introduction to plant
taxonomy. East African Publishers.
7. Parkinson, C. L., Adams, K. L., & Palmer, J. D. (1999). Multigene analyses identify the three
earliest lineages of extant flowering plants. Current Biology, 9(24), 1485-1491.

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