8.

r8 Dependent clauses with no main

clause
In special circumstances, dependent clauses can be used without being attached,
9
to a larger structure. One situation in which an unembedded dependent clause
can occur is in dialog, owing to the influence of ellipsis:
Complex noun phrases
A: You will be careful with that, won't you?
B: Yeah!
A: Cos it costs a lot of monsl. (coNv)
However, similar phenomena occur in texts written in an informal style: GRAMMAR BITES in this chapter
Sneaky, insincere? Depends how it's done. Which bríngs us onto those A Types of noun modification
Americøns. 'Have q nice day.' How exøggerated, how American, we Brits
recoil. (NEws) Þ The different structures used to modifr noun phrases
Notice that the unembedded clause here is part of a passage containing non-
Þ The patterns of use for noun modification âcross the registers
clausal elements, and obyiously imitating a spoken style. B Premodification
Elsewhere, unembedded dependent clauses occur in block language, such as
newspaper headlines: Þ Modifiers that occur in front of the head noun in a noun phrase:
attributive adjectives, noun + noun sequences, and other more
Paris Transport Workers to Strike. (NEws)
specialized structures
Climbing High, but Feeling low. (Nrws)
C Relative clauses
I
o
Major points of Grammar Bite E: Dependent clauses
Þ Dependent clauses are subdivided into finite and non-finite Þ options in the structure of relative clauses, such as the choice between
clauses
(whereas independent clauses are generally finite). different relative pronouns
o Þ Factors that are associated with each option
É Þ Finite dependent clauses include complement, adverbial, relative,
comparative, and other degree clauses.
Þ There are also some clause types of borderline status: e.g. reporting clauses
o Other postmodifier types
and question tags. Þ Modifiers other than relative clauses that occur following the head noun
Þ Non-finite dependent clauses include infinitive clauses, ing-clauses, ed- in a noun phrase: non-finite clauses, prepositional phrases, and appositive
clauses, and verl¡less clauses. noun phrases
Þ In certain circumstances, dependent clauses are used as separate units, like
independent clauses.
E Noun complement clauses
Þ The different kinds of noun complement clauses: that-clauses, to-
infinitive clauses, of + ing-clauses and wh-interrogative clauses
Þ The functions of the different types of noun complement clauses
9.r lntroduction
This example also illustrates that there are different levels of embedding within
noun phrases. That is, postmodifiers of a first-level noun phrase can include
complex noun phrases with pre- and postmodiûcation. For èxample:
The basic noun phrase, which we discussed in Chapter 4, can be expanded with
noun rnodifrers. Premodifiers, like attributive adjectives, occur before the head top-level NP:
noun. Postmodifrers, like relative clauses, occur following the head noun. In
premodifiers head noun postmodifiers
total, noun phrases can be composed of four major components:
determiner * premodifiers * head noun + postmodifiers tncreastng competition for mobile cellular radio services
All noun phrases include a head, while determiners, premodifrers, and
second-level NP (embedded within postmodifer)
postmodifiers are optional. This can be illustrated in the following noun phrases:
premodifiers head noun postmodifiers
determiner remodifiers head (noun) ifiers
industrially advanced countries mobile cellular radio Seryrces which have a small bunch of
frequencies around 900 MHz
a small wooden box that he owned
a market system thaf has no imperfections AJthough we will stop our analysis here, we could go on to break down the noun
the new training college for teachers phrase within the postmodífr.er which have a smilt bunch of
patterns of industrial development in the frequencies around
900 MHz.
United States
As this chapter will show, such complexity of noun modification is not
A pronoun can substitute fbr a noun or a complete noun phrase. As a result, unusual in English. In the following five Grammar Bites, we explore the major
noun phrases can have a pronoun instead of a noun as the head. Pronoun- options for expanding noun phrases in English. In Grammar Bite A, we survey
headed phrases usually do not include a determiner or premodifìers, but they the structures used as noun premodifierJ and postmodifiers, comparing th!
frequency of each type across registers. Then, in
-G.u*-".
may have postmodifiers. Several pronoun-headed phrases are illustrated here: Bite B, ,r. fo.,r, on
types of premodification. In Grammar Bites c, D, and E, we turn to postnominal
determiner premodifiers head (pronoun) postmodifiers modifiers. Relative clauses are the most complex of these because thåre are many
I structural alternatives; these are covered in Grammar Bite c. Then, in Grammar
she Bite D we survey the other structures used as postnominal modifiers and discuss
anyone who is willing to /lsten how sequences of postmodifiers can be used in combination. Finally, in
those who take the trouble to reg¡ster Grammar Bite E we consider a special Çpe of structure that occurs following
the big one in town noun.h-eads: noun complement clauses. we show how noun complement
clauses
are different from relative clauses, and we describe the most .o.rl-on types
of
As the above examples show, noun phrases can be expanded in many ways and noun compler¡ent clauses.
often involve both premodifiers and postmodifiers. As a result, noun phrases are
often structurally complex, especially in written discourse.
For example, the tbllowing sentence is from a newspaper article about
cellular radios. Its main clause structure is very simple: a main verb (is) with two GRAMMAR BITE
noun phrase slots (marked by 1/)-subject (problem) and subject predicative
(competition).
[The latest problern Jbr the governnlent] is lincreasing competition for
Types of noun modification
ttrcItile ct'lhilar rndio services, which have a snall bunch of frequencies
arowtd 900 ùIHz/. (Nnvs) Survey of noun modifier types
However, this sentence is relatively long and complex because the noun phrases
have complex modihcation: There are several different types of premodifiers and postmodifiers. premodifiers
include adjectives, participials, and other nouns:
determiner premodifiers head noun postmodifiers
. adjective as premodifier:
The /atest problem for the government
a special project (cosv)
increasing compet¡t¡on for mobile cellular radio services
which have a small bunch of an internøl memo (Nrws)
frequencies around 900 MHz . participialpremodifiers:
written reøsons (xrws)
 detecting deviccs (;c*) a chance to ilo the right thing (ncr)
. noun as premodifier: The special features of noun complement clauses are described in Grammar
Bite
E.
the äøs strike (cor.rv)
the police reporr (Nrws)
There are also several different types of postmodifier, including both clauses
and phrases. Clausal postmodifiers can be either finite or non-finite. When the 3 Noun phrases w¡th premodifiers and
clauses are finite, tìrey are relative clauses. Non-finite postmodifier clauses have
three different forms: úo-clauses, ing-clauses, and ed-clauses:
p Rostmod¡fiers across reg¡sters
. relative clause as postmodifier: Noun phrases with premodifiers and noun phrases with postmodifiers are
about
a footpath which itisappeøreil in ø løndscape of fielìls and trees (çtct) equally common in English. However, there are large differences across
registers
begíruting stttdents who have hød no previous college science coutses (ncto) in the use of the tfpes of modiûer.
Figure 9.1 shows that the typical Figure 9.1
. to-infinitive clause as postmodifier: case in conversation is to use nouns Distribution of noun phrases
the way to get to our house (coNv)
with
with no modifier at all. In fact, noun premodifiers and postmodifiers
enough money to buy proper food. (r'rcr) phrases are often realized by a
. it¡g-clause as postmodifier: Pronoun instead of a full noun. The 5 € 300
the itnperiotrs man standing uniler the lømppost $tcr)
following text sample from g
conversation illustrates these " *g
rebels advøncing rapidly southwørds (Nvws) =
patterns; all noun phrases are in [], ËË zso
. ed-clause as postmodifier: while the head nouns and pronoun, t
,"o
fury fønned by insensitive press coverage (Ntws) are in bold.
products requireil to support a huge and growing population (rcxo) Text sample l: prcrunps AND sLEEvES 200

Phrasal postmodiñers consist of two main tlpes: prepositional phrases and (coxv)
appositive noun phrases. Adjective phrases can also be postmodifiers, but they A: fTrouble] is [granny] does
150
are less common. [it] ønd [she]'s got floads
. prepositional phrase as postmodifier: of timel. [She] sits there
tloctors at the Johns Hopkins MedicøI Scl¡ool (N¡ws)
and does [them] twice as
r00
compensation for emotionøl dømøge (acn)
fast as [me]. fil - what [I]
like doing, [I] Iike [the
. appositive noun phrase as postmodifier: picturesl.
the Indian caPtain, Mohammeil Azhøruddin (Nnws) B: Yes.
50

. adjective phrase as postmodifiers (not common): A: So ftl don't mind doing

President Bush will reiterate he wønts a sntooth transition and will co- [the pictures]. If [she]'d do 0
operate in [any way possible]. (Nrws) [the sleeves] and [the back] CONV FICT NEWS
- for [me], [I]'d be very
ACAD

[The cxtremely short duration varieties common in lndia] were not used in grateful.
West Africtr. (.rc¡ol) ! bothpre-andpost- I premodifier
B: Yeah.
ff postmodifier I no mod¡fier
Occasionally adverbs can also be premodifiers or Postmodifiers in noun
phrases:
A: Whereas [she] can't stand

. adverb as premodifrer: , loilC [the pictures], cos [it]

B: [It]'s like doing [tapestry].
takes [her] [too much time].
the neørby guards (ncrt) As this excerpt shows, conversation has many noun phrases, but
they are usuaily
. adverb as postmodifier: very short and have concrete referents-specific^people, pl"..r, or things.
a block behind (nut) Pronouns are also extremery common i"
conversation share the same physical situation, and they often share
conversãtion. speakers in a
Noun complement clauses are different from postmodifi.ers in structure and personal
-use
meaning, although they also occur following noun heads. They involve primarily
knowledge about each other ãs we[. As a result, speakers typicarif
noun
special kinds of theú- and to-clauses:
phrases with no modification, knowing that the lisiener wili^have'no trouble
identifring the intended referent.
the idea that he was completely cold and unemotionøl (rrc"r)
 (

In contrast, noun phrases in acadernic writing usuaily have premodifiers or i,

L'
postmoclifìcrs (or both). The following text sample iilustrates these patterns, with I 9.j.2 Postmodifier types across reg¡sters
f) Although
the top-level nouu phrases marked in 1/, a¡d the head nouns marked in bold. þì
rc'lative clauses
often receive Figure 9.3
'fe-rt sample l: cc.rlLtsutNs tvlin cotuut's (,rc,lu) i.
, the most attention in discussions of Prepositional v. other
[Profcssor H.C. Urey] has strggested thcit [rare collisions between the eartlt noun postmodifiers, prepositional postmodification across registers
attd corrrct:s, rccorded as scatters of tektitesl, must have produced [vast lr phrases actually much more
are
quantities oJ' cnergy that wottld have been stfficient to heat up considerably t'
l.'
common (Figure 9.3). prepositional E
Ê
botlt thc rtttrtosplrcre antT the surface lay'ers of the oceutl. phrases as postmodifiers are especially
80
'fhis exccrpt has ouly three non-embedded noun phrases, but two of these have common in news and academic prose.
E
extensive n-rodification. Thesc two noun phrases are listed below, with i
These structures often occur in Ë o
o I 60
extremely dense, embedded
r¡

pren.rodiliers underlined and postmodifiers given in 1/: :, Ê

o
rare' collisions lbcnveen the eorth and contetsl, lrecortled as scatters of sequences. In the following text a 40
tektitas l extract, postmodifiers are in [i with
i
vttst cptantities [of urcrgy] [tlnt would httvc bcen xilicient to heat up
the associated prepositions in bold. 20

consitlcrably both lhe ctntosphere rutd the xrrJirce la1'ers of the oceanl
Top-level noun phrases (i.e. those
I
I which are not part of other noun 0
Such structures are typical of academic prose, where a majority of all noun f CONV FICT NEWS ACAD
¡ phrases) are underlined:
¡rl-rrases have sornc modification. In làct, rnuch of the new information
in I

acaclemic tcxts occurs in the modifiers in nc,un phrases, resulting in a very high lt,
Mortality Iamong stocks Iof Ll other postmodifiers

clerrsity rlf inl<rnnation.

esssl Istored ou tdoors in the [_l prepositionalphrases

It is surprising that prernoclifiers and postmodifÌers have a sirnilar :.

clistribution across rcgisters. lt might be expected that specific registers would l,

rl

tcnd to rely on eitl-rer premodifrers or postmoclifiers. lnstead, we frnd both tlpes

o[ noun moclilìcation to be extremely cornmon in written expository registcrs,
rvhile both t)?es are relativel¡' rare in conversation.

(Note
9.3.1 Premodifier types across registers front.)
Ì' ;\cljectivcs arc by far the nrost Figure 9.2
cornmoÌl t1,pe of noun premodifier Frequency of premodifier types
. ^ In academic
information
prose,- prepositional phrases allow a very dense
packaging <
in a text. They ãre -o-r. .o-pu.t than relative clauses. iã, .".rr.,pt,
(Figure 9.2). Acijectives come from across reg¡sters coÌllpare the prepositional phrase fron thÀ beginning of the last *i,h u
maÌlv cliflerent semantic classes, alternative relative clause: "*ur,rpì"
which co\/er numcrous concepts, EE to prepositional phrase postmodifi er
inclucling color, sizc/extent, time/agel È3 70 mortality among sfocks . . .
ircquency, and affective evaluation. ;s
g€ 60
relative clause postmodifier
Chapter 7 describes the use of these EÞ 50 mortality which occurred among
'ai stocks . .
premoditl.ing (attributive) adjectives 540
.

o
')
P.repositional phrases commonry in sequences in academic prose, whicì
in detail. '30 j also adds to the dense packi'g of^occur
informatio.r. Fo. .*o.rrple, the sampre abov
It is more surprising that nouns contains the sequence:
20
are also cxtrenrely comnron as nouÌ1
prernodifìers, especiaìly in the written 10 a large nwnber [of natttral habitats
l
ì [in the centrar part [of the prortince]ll
expositclrv registers. Noun * noun 0 Relative clauses differ from prepositional phrases as
postmodifiers in both tr-rei
sequences ¿ire usecl to express a wide CONV FICT NEWS ACAD communicative function and trreìr registeidistributioil (see
Figure 9.+;. th.y u.,
i.

range o1' r.neanir"rg reìationships in a common in both fiction and news, where they are
f-l norn ffi mg-adjeaive I often uied to ide'tif,, o:
succinct lorm. As a result, nouns as I describe a person:
ì cd-adject¡ve I common adjective
premodifrers are cspecially {ävored as someotrc whom I had never seen before (rrc.r)
a space-saving tlevice in newspaper Ltman ott the platþrnt whose looks I didn,t like (na.)
languagc. We return to a det¿riled discussion of uoun * noun sequences in 9.5
a 2)-yenr-old wotnan who has been missing
a for week (Nr.ws)
1

.J
 Figure 9.4 The substitute pronoun one in academic prose is usually directly anaphoric,
When they are used to characterize
Non-prepositional postmodif ier types substituting for a previously used noun phrase, but the modifier provides new
inanimate objects, relative clauses
across registers
clften link thc object to a person, as descriptive details about that referent:
in l-3 beiow. Further, relative clauses E9 ,' The idea is a strange oze. (acaot)
in fiction antl news typically use Postmodifiers are used more commonly than premodifiers to give the new
dynamic verbs describing actions, in 3.Ë 20
information, since they can be longer and thus provide more descriptive
corltrast to thc static presentation of information:
information associated with €; 1s
A black body is one that Þerfectly absorbs, and then re-emits, aII radiation
prepositional phrirses: o
o 10 fallins uoon it. (ecao)
I orrc of tltose mixcd-trP sahds Indefinite pronouns can also take both prernodifiers and postmodifiers.
which nten will eøt with 5
However, postmodifiers are overwhelmingly more common with this head t1pe.
complete elocilitY irr
All I know is nobody likes her. (ct>Nv)
restaurants (tu:r) 0
CONV FICT NEWS ACAD Unt, this was a surprise to seleral of ¿¡s. (coNr,)
2 tlrc boiling pot oJ grøvy which
feII upotr his foot (rcr) II appositives I ing-clauses
We have tried to inpart something the ntotivations con
3 the 1988 evetú which left her to-clauses relatìve clauses
geologists. (acaot)
l_l I
on the verge of a nervous ed-clauses But today, over thirty years after Basset's book appeared, is there anything
[.¡l
breøkdotvn (Nrws) new to scty about 1931? (ac,to)
All three of these examples relate an Demonstrative pronouns differ from other head types in that they take only
inaninr¿rtc heacl (salrrls, pot, event) to ¿1 person (rnen, his foot, her) and use a postmodifrers. However, each individual pronoun shows a different pattern of
dynanric verb (cnr, Í¿lI, kft).
The other types of clausal postmodifier are less common (although . The pronouns this and these are extremely rare with a modifier.
postntodifring ed-clarrses and appositive noun phrases are relatively common . The pronoun fhaf occasionally takes a postmodifier.
in nervs and ncademic prose). Eacl-r of thcse postmoclifier types is described in . The pronoun those ís extremely common with a postmodifrer, especiaily in
cletail in Gr¿rmmar Bite D.
writing.
when it occurs with a modifier, the demonstrative pronoun rhar usually
9.j.3 Modifiers w¡th different head noun types takes an

? In gener:al, nouns occur freely with premodifiers and postmodifiers, while

o/ prepositional phrase as postmodifi er:
The sintplest coyalent structure is that of diamond. (¡c,,r¡) <i.e. the
pronoulìs rarely occur with modifrcation. However, there arc' notable exceptions structure of diamond>
to this lule. For cxatlple, proper nouns and othc'r naming e-xpressions usually do In contrast, the demonstrative pronoun those-referring to people or things-
not occur rvith a moclifier, since the name itself clearly refers to a speciûc person, takes a variety of postmodifiers to identifz the intended reference:
place, or institution. When proper nouns do occur with a modifier, it is usually
A state rnay have good grounds ì n some special circumstances for coercing
an appositive noun phrase, such as (appositive underlined):
those who have no duty to obey. (¡c¡o)
Ileiko, a l9-y¿ttr-old factory worlccr (rcrvs)
They sat erect, consciorrs of their uniforms, styled like those olthe post-1g43
Voronezh, a dottr citv of 850.000 oeoole in lhe sreat Russian heartlands Pntssian artty. (¡rcr) <: Iike the uniforms of the post-1843 Prussian
(i,rErvs)
army>
Personal pronoutrs (like I, you, she) follc¡w the general rule of rarely This may be smttgly satisfying to those of us who sit on the sidelines. (News)
occurring with a mocliûer. However, other pronoun classes behave differently.
For exarnple, the substitute pronoun orxe, which stands for a noun or noun- ìo Major points of cRnrvlunR BtTE A: Types of noun modification
headed expression, is similar to common noun heads because it freely takes both Þ There are many different tnres of premodifiers and postmodifiers.
prernodiñers and postmodifiers. ln conversation, a modifìer is used to identiff
'which one' is intended (premodifiers and postmodifrers underlined): o Þ Adjectives are the most common premodifier type.
É, >- Nouns are also very common as premodifiers in the written registers.
You knotv the one she ran offwirh. (coNv) Þ Prepositional phrases are by far the most common type of postmodifier.
He's got a lgJIUg_one that he hardly ever wears. (coNv) ¡' Relative clauses are also common.
The ktst one I had was at least four years ago. (corvf) Þ Premodifiers and postmodifiers are distributed in the same way across
registers: rare in conversation, very common in informational writing.
 -.rytt
Þ Dil1èrent types of noirn phrase heacls (e.g. common noun, personai noun + noun Sequence re-phrasing with a postmodifier
pronoun, inclefinite pronoun) are associated with different types of company management the management of a company
rnodilìers. commission sources sources in the commission
elephant boy boy who resembles an elephant

In. fact, such sequences often represent more. than one possibre
. meaning
GRAMMAR BITE relationship- commission soLffces cãuld also be 'sources or åo--ir.ion,,
and
elephant boy could refer to 'a boy who rides on an

F
elephant,.
Premodif ication In the following section, we examine the range oi meanings
that
noun sequences can express. Then, in 9.6, we introduce -more noun +
complex
combinations of premodifiers.

g",r¡ Types of premodifiers

There are l'our n.rajor structural types of premodification in English: 9.5 Mean¡ng relationships expressed by
e general adjective: big piltow, new pants, oficiol negotiatiorts, political isolatiott
. crl-participial nlocìiIìer: rcstrictecl ttrett, intprtt,ed grotvth, Jtxed vohmrc,
noun f noun sequences
cstablislrcd tradition Noun f noun sequences contain onry content words, with
no function word to
. irrg-palticìpial modilìcr JToshing lights, growing problem, cxhutsting task show the meaning relationship between the two parts (see
arso 4.'.3). This
o noun: sl.crff roont, 1tt:ncil case, ntorkct forces, trtttturtttion periocl mea¡s.rhat they present information densely. It urså
m.ais trr.f ,.Ç-r,*vily on
In in Chapter 4, cletermir:ers, genitives, aird nutnerals
aclditicur, as rve shorved
implicit meaning, because the reader must
i;fer the intended togrcJ'ret"tionsl,ip
preccde the head and rnodifìers, and help to specify the reference of noun between the modifying noun and head noun. In fact,
noun + are
phrases.
used to express a bewildering. arrar of logical ";iil.q"ences
relations, i".r"ài;; it Ë rouoørrg
(where the head noun is labèled ñz
Premodifiers concìensed structures. They use fewer words than
ale premodifying .,o,rr,"Nl;,
postn.roclifiers to convey roughly the same information. Most adjectival and . composition (N2 is made from Nl;"n¿iteN2 consists of Nl):
participial premcldilìers cau t¡e re-phrased as a longer, pclstmoditying relative e.g. glass windows : windows ntade
from glass
clause: ntetal seat, plastic beaker, zinc supplentent, protein
granriles, tomato sctuce,
premodifiers relative clause as postmodifier satin dress, egg masses, water supplies,
factiheets
pillow which is big
o purpose (N2 is for the purpose of Nl; N2 is used
for Nl):
a big pillow a
a restr¡cted area an area which is restricted e.g. pencil case : case used pencils
for
a n establ i shed tra d ¡t¡ on a trad¡tion which has been established brandy bottle, patrol car., Easter eggs, picnic ham,
chess board, safety device,
flashing lights lights which are flashing search procedure, worship services, waì
fund, extortion plan
We explainccl in 9.3.I that gencral acìiectives, functigning as attributive ' identity (N2 has the same referent as Nr but classifies
it in terms of diflerent
attributes):
adjectivcs, are the Dlost conìmon f'orm of noun prernodifrers.
Figure 9.2 in 9.3.1 showecl that nouns are also extremely coûìmon as
e.g. women algebraists : wotnen who are algebraists
premodilìcrs, especidly in newsp:rper lauglrage ¿rnd academic prose. Noun * conventionalist judge, men workers, consultant
cardiologist, member country,
noulì seclrrences c:.ìrl rcpresent many clifferent meaning relationships, but there exam papers, grant aid
are lto signals to inclicate which meaning is intencied in any giver.r case. To . content (N2 is about Nl; N2 deals with Nl):
rephrase noun -l- nourl seqlrences as postmr¡difiers recluires a wide range of e.g. algebra text :
function words (different prepositions ¿rnd relat:ve pronouns) together with
a text nbout algebra, probability profiIe : profle
showing probabitity
different verbs. 'l'hrrs consider the range of meaning relationships expressed by market report, sports diary, prescriptíon chart, sttccess
the following noun 'l- ltottn sequences: rates, credit
agreement, intelligence bureau
noun + noun Sequence re-phrasing with a postmodifier objective (Nl is the object of the process described
' in N2, or of the action
plastic trays trays made from plastic perforured by the agent described ¡n NZ),
wash basins basins used for w'ashing e.g. egg production : X prodttces eggs, taxi
clriver : X clrives a taxi
Iaw report report about the law
 u'aste disposrtl, paddy øtltivatiorr, root developtnent, ørrio sellers, corn
9.5.t Premodifying nouns that occur w¡th many
.
farnrcr, contPuter tßers
subjective (Nl is thc subject of the process described in N2; N2 is usually a
P head nouns
il norninalization o1' an intransitive verb): A few premodifying nouns are especialiy productive in that they combine with
e.g. child devclopttcttt: children develop many different head nouns. For example, the noun family is used with a wide
c)' e m ov em en t, ent trt
h: tt f ap p t: ar an c e, nt d tlLtgem b try - o range of head nouns representing many different kinds of semantic relationships:
. time (N2 is f'oun<l or takes place at thc time given by Nl): family affair family barbecue family doctor
e.g. srunntcr contlitiotts : conditions that occur ùtring the sunlnlertittrc family arguînent family car family entertainment
Stnúay school, Chrísttnas rffie family backgrowtd family compctny family friend
. location (N2 is fbr-rnd or takes place at the location given by Nl): In conversation, only a few nouns are productive as premodifiers. The
e.g. corner nrpboord :
a cupboard that is located in the corner combinations that do occur reflect the everyday-life topics of conversation.
roof slates, Paris conference, chttrch sclyare, surJace traction, tunnel trains For example:
car I accident, door, innrance, keys, park, seat, wash
. institution (N2 iclentifies an institution for Nl):
e.g. insuranct: conrpanies : conlPanies for (selling) inst'trance school I book, childretr, clothes, fees, holidays, trips
In contrast, newspaper language makes extensive use ofnoun * noun sequences.
ski club, t:gg industrY
Many of the most productive premodifying nouns identifr major institutions,
. partitive (N2 identifies parts of Nl): especially government, business, and the media. For example:
c.g. cctt legs : legs of a cat government * action, agencies, approval, bonds, control, decision
riJle butt, Jltrnily ntember business I administration, cards, commwúty, dealings, entpire, ideas
. specjalization (Nl identifies an area of specialization for the person or TV + ads, appearance, canleras, channel, crew, dounnentary, licence
occupatiolt given in N2; N2 is animate): some premodifiers that are productive in conversation are also productive in
e.g. fnance clit'ector : director wln specirilizes itt þnance news. However, in news they usually have an institutional meaning. For example:
Edtrcatiott Secretary, gossip columttists, footbøIl fans, estate agent, wûter + authorities, bill, contpanies, industry, levels, privatisation
t nanagc tnefit cottsuhant
The extremely productive use of noun * noun sequences in newspaper language
N4any scquences can be analyzed as belonging to more than one category. results in a very dense presentation of information. These forms save space, since
For exanrple, ttigh irrjury andheart attack covldbe considered as either objective each noun + noun sequence conveys a complex meaning in condensed forrn.
(X injureà the thigh) or location (the injury is located at the thigh)' However, the dense use of these forms can place a heavy burden on readers, who
Iir addition, many noun + noun sequences clo not fi.t neatly into any of the must infer the intended meaning relationship between the modiÛ'ing noun and
above categories. For exanple, the expression ríot police mighf be understood as head noun.
expressi,rg purpose, but there is an additional component of meaning: these are
police to control riots, not police for (creating) riotsl Other noun + noun 9.5.2 Plural nouns as premodifiers
'-rsed
sequenccs exprcss a lange of meaning relationships in addition to the above P Although the singular form is usually used for premodifying nouns, plural nouns
major categories. Iror exarnPle:
can also occur as premodifiers. Typical examples include carpets retailer, cities
noun i noun meaning correspondent, drugs business, trades union, residents association. This pattern is
voice communication communication using voice much more common in British English than in American English.
union assets assets belonging to a union Plural nouns as premodifiers occur especially in newspaper language. A few
¡et streams air streams moving like a jet nouns are commonly found in both American and British English. For example:
bank holiday holiday observed by banks arms + race, scandal, stLpplier, treaty
pressure hose hose able to withstand Pressure sales * force, gain, irrcreases, tax
pressure ratios ratios measuring Pressure
savings ! account, banks, deposits, instittttions
women I candidates, drivers, ministers, voters
However, there is a much larger set of plural nouns used frequently in British
English but rarely in American English. For example:
drugs I administration, ban, business, companies, problem, trade
 jobs -l crisis, ltrss¿s, nnrket other noun phrases illustrate different relationships among the constituents, i
atimals slrclter, csÍeers offce, highwoys department in the following noun phrases with three-word premodifrcãtion:
In aclditiolt to the overall dialect difïerences, there are two factors that are the [[one-time prosperous] [[market] townll
associatcc'l with the use of a plural premoctifying noun. The first is when the noun the [[controversial] [offshore investntent] portfotiosl
premodifier only has a plural form, or has a special meaning associated with the The number of possible meaning relatior.rships increases dran-ratically with eac
piural: additional premodifier. Thus, noun phrases with four-word premodihcation ca
ørnts accorcl, customs oJficer, explosives factory represent many different meaning relationships among constituents. Fc
example, each of the following noun phrases *iih fo.rr-wãrd premodificatio
Horvever, some nouns which have only a plural fbrm do lose the plural ending in
represents a different set of meaning relations:
nourì t- noun c()nsttuctiotts:
scissor kit:k, trouser leg | [[naked], fshameless], fdirect], [brutal] exploitationl
The second tàctor is when the noun modifier itself contains more than one word:
2 [[very [finely grained]l [alltwiat] materiall
3 a [ftotally fcovered]1, [uninsttlated] [[pig] housell
I Af T¿sco's y'otive got Jtfty feet of [lbaked beøns] shelvesl. (coNvt) In I' alÌ four words in the premodification directly modify the head noun.
2 A bit nrcr¿ will be said of particular feanres of the metalinguistic and Thi
type of structuring is very rare, however. As 2 and 3 illustrate, multiple words
I lpo ssible-worlds ] proposalsl. (¡c¡ut) ir
the premodification much more commonly have comple* structur¿
The plural tbrm in these sequences provides a clear signal ofthe structure ofthe relationships among themselves.
complex noun phrase. In writing, some of these premodifiers are hyphenated (as
in 2 above).
Son-re plur:al nouns, such as affairs, relatiorts, resources, rights, and services are 9.6.t order of multiple premodifiers
The
almost alrvays premodified themselves, and retain the plural forrn when used in P Although there are no absolute rules, there are a few ge'eral tendencie
prcmodification: governing the order of words in a prernodification ,.qu..r..i
the Stote I)epartnætrt's [[consulør afføirs] bureaul (Nrut)
Lttltour's chief [[foreign affairs] spokesinanl (nurvs) A Adverb + adjective + head
thc [fcustonter reløtions] depttrtmentl (conr') Adverbs almost always precede adjectives. This is because adverbs
usually modi!
the following adjective rather than the head noun directly. Exampres
include:
a reølU hot day
g"b Noun phrases w¡th multiPle thoroughly satisføctory reply
a rather blunt penknife an extreme'þ vøried oia ¡-*"rrely preasinS
premodifiers exhibition

In ivritten registers, many noun phrases occur with multiple premodifiers.

B Adjective + noun + hgad
However, it is rare for all the words in a premodification sequence to modify the when a noun phrase ìas both an adjective and a noun as premodifiers, the
heacl noun. lìathe¡, premodifying sequences usually have embedded adjective usually precedes the noun. This sequence is most .o*-on
because the
relationships, rvith some words modifying other premodifrers instead of the position closest to the head noun is filled by modifiers that are
more integrated
l.read noun. For example, consider the following noun phrases: with the meaning of the head noun. The foilowing noun phrases illustrate
these
[[quite pale] skinl tendencies:
two [ [nrutuølly perpenìlicular] directiorts l . adjective * noun * head:
Both of these noun phrases show an.adverb (quite and munally) modifring a mature rice grain, thick winter overcoctt, true life stories, bright canvas
bags
f'ollowing adjective (pale and perpendicular) instead of the head noun (skin and . color adjective * noun f
head:
directions). black plastic sheet, black leather jacket, red address book
ln a few cases, the meaning relationships among constituents are truÌy .
arnbiguous. For example, out of context, thc noun phrase two more practical participial adjective * noun * head:
principlas has twr.r distinct intcrpretations: an experienced woman worker, broken bicycle wheels, an increasing
[two more] [practical] principles-í-e.
'two additional principles that are mortgctge burden
practical' This order can sometimes be reversed, especialry with participial
adjectives. This
two [[ntorc] practicall principles-i.e. 'two principles that are more is when the premodi$ring noun modifies the participiaiadjectìve
1ruth.. than the
practical' head noun):
. noun I participial adjective * head noun:
 [inþrntarion processing] activities, [hypothesk testingl process In general, coordinated premodifiers are most common in academic writing.
In most cases, this kind of sequence of premodifiers is hyphenated. In fact, such Ce¡tain adjective * adjective combinations are especially common, often
sequences ma¡, be considered as adjectival compounds (see 7.3.3): referring,to complementary demographic or i.stituti,onal éharacteristics (e.g.
Englísh- eaking world, self-fulfllíng proplrccy, tree-Iined avenues social and cubural, economic and political, mental and physical):
sp > egg-
slnped ball such a strategy assltftrcs <. . .> that it wiII be regitimized by a range of
social anil cultural values. (ncml)
C Adjective + adjective + llead In.fiction' certain adjectives are common as the first member of adjective*
adjective combinations, adding descriptive details about the noun:
A related principle f'or multiple adjectives as premodifiers is that descriptors
tend to prececle classifiers (see 7.6.): black ønd ginger fur (acr)
stronger etxvirorullental regulatiott, any major industrial nøtion
a bløck ønil yellow eel-like fsh (ncr)
this strange and empty country (ncr)
Color adjectives tend to follow other adjectives. For example:
. adjective -l color acljective * head noun: this strange and dreaded group of men (ncr)
dry white grass, clear bh.rc eyes, shabby black clothes
3 Major points of cnervlvl¡R BITE B: premodification
,g Þ There are four major types of noun premodifier: general adjective, ed-
9.6.2 Coordinated premodifiers participial modifier, ing-participial modifier, and noun.
? In one respect, coordinated prernodifiers make the logical relationships among
o
É, > Nouns as premodifiers
_are
especially rich in meaning because they express
wide array of logical relationships.
a

premodifiers explicit, since each part directly modifies the head noun:
> A few nouns, like car, school, goyernment, and TV, are especially productive
black and white cat as premodifiers.
hot and hørdening mud > Plural nouns can also occur as premodifiers, as in ørms race. This pattern
is
arrogarrt and unattractive møn more common in British English.
physical and sexual abuse Þ when noun phrases have murtipre premodifiers, they tend to occur in a
predictable order depending on their grammatical category: e.g. adjective
However:, these structures have their own kinds of indeterminacy. ln most cases,
noun + head noun.
*
premodifiers coordinated with and are used to identifr two distinct attributes
that are qualities of a single referent: Þ coordinated premodifiers (e.g. male and
femare workers) are found
primarily in academic prose.
precise and effective solutions
> coordinated premodifiers are surprisingry complex because their meaning
is
pleasing and effcient surroundings not explicit.
complex and technical lcgislation
With plurai and uncountable heads, however, and-coordinated premodifiers can
also be used to identify two different (mutually exclusive) referents, such as:
spoken and written styles GRAMMAR EITE
nmle and femøle workers
British and American spelling Relative clauses
Thus, precise and effective solutiotts retèrs to solutions that are both precise and
effective. In contrast, spoken and written styles refers to two different kinds of
styles-spoken stylc and written style-rather than to styles that are both spoken 7 Restrictive v. non-restr¡ctive
and rvritten.
Or-coordinated premodifiers can also have two interpretations. In some
g function
cases, either one, or both, ofthe two attributes can be applied to a given referent:
I
Relative clauses are often classified. by their function as either restrictive
racial or religious cohesion or non-
restrictive. Restrictive relative clauses identif, the intended reference
ofthe head
familiar or preplanned activities noun (the whole noun phrase is included in [/):
In other cases, though, the coordinator connects two attributes that are mutually
Richard hit the ball on [the car that was going pasúl. (coNv)
exclusive, so that only one can characterize a given referent:
The relative clause in this sentence has a restrictive function. It pinpoints
dead or dying larvae the
particular 'car' being referred to.
petroleum or coal-based hydrocarbon matrices
 contrast, non-restrictive relative clauses add elaborating, descriptive
In . restrictiveed-clause:
inforlnatiou about a head noun that has already been identifred <¡r is assumed to His is a fury fanned by insensitive I,ress coverøge of homosexuatity and
be linown. For example: the AIDS epidemic. (Nnwst)
He lookatl into [her mailbox, which she never locked]. (ncr') . restrictive ing-clause:
In this example, the particular mailbox is identiûed by the possessive pronoun The Ethiopian army is failing to halt nortl.tern rebels ailvancing rapídty
lrcr, and the non-restrictive relative clause is used to provide additional, southwørds to the capitot. (Newst)
descliptive informa l"ion. . restrictive prepositional phrase:
1n writing, non-restrictive postmoditiers are usualiy separated from the head
noun by , .orrrmo, whiìe no punctuation is used with a restrictive postmodifier. Doctors at the Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore say tha.t
In spoken language, where there are no Punctuation marks, intonation and <. . .> (Nrrvst)
pauses can differentiate restrictive and non-restrictive Postmodifrers. (For the In each case above, the postmodifier is important for identiffing the reference of
ioltorving an¿ìlyses, we have uscd punctuation to identity non-restrictive relative the head noun.
clauses in thc written registers.) However, other postmodiñers do have a non-restrictive function
Overall, analyzitìg the frequency of relative clauses' we find that: occasionall¡ though much less commonly than relative clauses.
. Restrictive relative clauses are much more common than non-restrictive . non-restrictive ed-clauses:
clauses. A converted farm buíIding, donøted by Mr. and Mrs. Tabor, has been
. Newspaper stories tend to use non-restrictive clauses to a Sreater extent than turned into a study room filled with photographs and dßplays. (Nr.ws)
other registers. The distinction between pttblic and priuate latv, espoused in many
'llhe inlbrmation added by non-restrictive clauses is often tangential to the pluralist accounts, is largely bogus. (tc.m)
main point of a tcxt. This is especially the case in news, where non-restrictive . non-restrictive lng-clauses:
claqses are used to add inf-ormation of potential interest but not directly related
Both writirtg and reading are enormously complex skiils, involving the
to the news story. For example, considcr the following sentences from a news coordination of sensory anil cognitive processes. (rc.ro)
article about Ìregotiations for the sale of the fìrm Whyte & Mackay by the
style variatìon is intrinsic to thc novel's satiric-epic picture of victorian
company Brent Walker:
urban society, concentrøting on the capitalist house of Dombey. (,xc,n)
Brent Walker said it expected the buyottt negotintions 'wotild be *ccessftùIy
conrylercd shortly.' tsrent Walker bought Whyte Ú Nlackay front Lonrho
. non-restrictive prepositional phrases:
earlicr this ycar for Í180m in a deøl that includeà four Þ'rench vineyards, The great tall library, with the Book of Kells anil of Robert Emmet,
which are also for sale for as much as fó0ø. (r¡ws) charnted him. (wcr)
In this excerpt, the fact that the French vineyards are for sale does not help the The sale, for a sum not thought to be møterial, ntarks the fnal
reader identify the referent of'vineyards'. hrstead, this is an extra piece of dismemb erm ent of M etro - C ammell Weymann. (Nrw s)

information that might be of interest to some readers. Appositive noun phrases are exceptional-they are usually non-restrictive:
Similar uses of non-restrictive relative clauses arc also common in news . non-restrictive appositive noun phrases:
when the head is a proper nourl:
The rebels, the Tigrayan people,s Liberation Front (TpLF) (Ntws)
Anrcrícan Airlines, which begøn the daily flighæ to Chicago less than a
a Soviet Deputy Defence Minister, General Varrenikov (Nrws)
yeør ago, acutsed the govenmtent of being partly to ùlame' (Nlwst)
both types of eggs (diapause and non-diapause) (xcn)
Iir constructions of this type, the identity of the head noun is well-known.to
readers, and the norr-re$trictive relative clause is used to add newsworthy but
incidental information about that referent.
9.8 Postmodification by relative clauses
g.T.t Restrictive and non-restrictive functions with when discussing relative clauses, we will focus on three key components: the
other postmodifiers head noun, the relativizer, and the gap.
. The head noun is the noun modified by the relative clause.
Altlìough this Grarumar Bite focuses on relative clauses, it is worth noting that
postrnorlifiers other than relative clauses can also be classified by restrictive and
. The relativizer is the word, such as who or that, which introduces the relative
non-restrictive functions. The great majority of other postmodifiers are clause. It refers to the same person or thing as the head noun.
restrictive, including most of the examples you have seen earlier in this . The gap is the location of the missing constituent in the relative clause. All
chirpter. Iror e-xample: relative clauses have a missing constituent, which again corresponds in
meaning to the head noun.
 Thus, consider the relative clause construction: In contrast, the relative adverb where stands for an entire prepositionr
ll the tliantond earrings that Mama *ors n' (þtc't)
phrase that expresses an adverbial of place:
the shop where I bought it
. 'l'lre head noun is ,:nrrings.
i1 Here the relative clause has the meaning of 'I bought it [at the shop]'.
it . The relativizer is thøt, referring to the'earrings'.
To some extent, the choice of relative pronoun is determined by structur
. The gap occurs in the direct object position, after the verb wor¿. The factors iike the position of the gap in the relative clause. The rerativizers tha
tneaning of the relative clause is that'Mama wore [the earrings]'.
,-,r-rderìyir-rg which, and who are the most flexible in their gap positions. As a result, they ar
There are rnany variations possible with relative ciauses, and these are described by far the most frequent forms. The most common use of all three pronouns
in detail in the following sections. The most c¡bvious of these involves the choice with subject gaps:
of relativiz.er (9.S.1). ln addition, relative clauses can occur with different gap . subject gaps:
positions (9.8.2). Relative clauses with adverbial gaps occur with an especially
Do yotr want a cup of tea thøt's been brewing for three ilays? (c.o*v)
wicle range of variants; these are dealt with in a separate section (9.8.3)'
The lowest pressure ratio which will give an acceptable performance is

r 9.8.1 The discourse choice among relativizers

In standard Ënglish, relative clauses can be formed using eight different
relativizers. Five of these are relative pronouns: which, wlrc, whom, whose, and
always chosen (¡c,rot)
There are merchant bankers who finil it convenient to stir up
apprehension (Nmst)
However, all three of these relative pronouns can also be used with other ga
that. The other three relativizers are relative adverbs: where, when, and why. In positions:
the following examples, head nouns are underlined, and relative clauses are in . direct object gaps:
bold:
She cante up with all sorts of things that she would like for the new
The lowest ln'essure ratío which will give øil acceptøble perfotmance is deyelopffient (cowv)
alwttys chosen (,rc,tut)
Ralph trotted ìnto the forest and returned with a wide spray of green whicl
There arc plenty of existíng owners who are alreødy keen to make the
he dumpeil on the fire. (ncr)
move. (Nuu's)
He took an instant dislikc to Leroy, who he attacked twice. (ncrt)
Tlrcre was tt slight, furtive bov whom no one knøw. (ncr')
It was good for tlrc fnns, whose suPport so far this seøson has been ¡ other gaps (circumstance adverbial or complement of preposition):
/anúasfic. (rurvs)
I You have to pay for it in the year that you don't make any profit. (coNv)
tlu cnly wttv thøt I can help Neil. <time adverbial>
WeLt, I can see tlnt tlis is ntay be
(coNv)
2 WelI, that's the only way that this can be assessed. (coNv) <manner
adverbial>
could lead you to the shop wlrcre I bought ir. (ucr)
I 3 <. . .> the mustard pot, which he had been sitting oa. (r.rcrt)
LIe vvcts bont in another age, the age when we played not for a million <complement of preposition>
dollørs ir prize monøy. (Nuws) 4 They are st.ltenlents of a kind øbout which reøders can reailily agree.
Thcre ttrc tnitt'Iy reasons why we møy wish to øutofirate pnrts of the (,tc,ro) <complement of preposition>
decisio n process. (,lcau) 5 <. . .> the guy who I buy the Mega stuff off. (coNvt) <compìement of
ln addition, irr rr-iany cases the relativizer can be omitted (but not with subject preposition>
gaps, cliscussecl ìrelow), resulting in a zero relativizer (represented as in I and
^ In contrast to that, which, and who, the other relativi zerc are rarer. Thev ar
2): restricted to a speciûc gap position:
I Thc next thínq n she knows, she's talking to Daruty. (coNv) . Whotn occurs only with non-subject noun phrase gaps.
2 Gwen gave the little frowning smile ¡
she used when she was putting . Whose occurs onlywith possessive/genitive gaps.
sontething to someone. (t'rcrf) . Where, when, and why occur only with adverbial gaps. The choice of th,
Relative pronouns substitute for a noun phrase in the relative clause (subject, specific relative adverb is determined by the adverbial meaning of the gap
direct object, etc.), while relative adverbs substitute for an adverbial phrase. For where for place/location; when for time; why for reason. These diitinctions arr
example, the relative pronoun whom stands f'or the direct object of the verb knew described in 9.8.3.
in the following structure: . zero occurs only with non-subject gaps in restrictive relative clauses. Thus, i
a slight, furtive boy whom no one knew would be impossible to omit the relative pronoun in a subject-gap relativr
Here the relative clause has the meaning of 'No one knew [the boy]'. clause such as:
 \'lrcre ortt tnerclnnt btutkcrs who lincl it convenient to stir up 9.5 Frequency of relativizers in conversation
npprehensiott. 5000
<conlpurc: "'l'hcre øre rtrcrcltant bankers .find it convenient to stir up o
3 4500
øpprehensiorr.> o 4000
E 3500
or a non-restl'ictive relative clause:
o 3000
Hc instrutt tlislike to Laroy, who he attacked twice' (rrcrf)
took t:tn 2500
<compare: "He took an instßttt dislike to Leroy, he attacked twice'> 2000
Examples 4 allcl 5 ¿rbove also show that when the relative pronoun is part of a 1 500

prepc,sitional phrase, speakers and writers have the choice to put the preposition 1000
tefore the rel¿rtive ptõru.r.r (4) or-to leave it stranded (5). Thus,5 has the s00
0
altemative lorln:
that which who whom whose where when why
5a tlrc gtLy off whom I bought the Mega snif zero

Although pr-escriptive grammarians may consider stranded prepositions

inccrrrect, many Lrsers find that a clause like 5a sounds overly formal or even
incorrect (especially in conversation). Preposition use is discussed further with 9.6 Frequency of relativizers in fiction
adverbial gaps (sec 9.8.3).
! 5000
o
I 4500
Relative pronoun choices
i) 9.8.2
Three relative plonouns stand out as being particularly comûlon in English: rvfto,
=Ê
E
4000

a 3000
3500

y,lticlt, and thnt.'lhe zero relativizer is also relatively coÍìmon. However, Figures
2500
9.5-9.8 shorv that the relative pronouns are used in very different ways across g
2000
registers. For cxan-rple: 1 500
!
. 'I-lutt and zero ore the preterred choices in conversation, although relative 1 000
clauses irrc generally rare in tirat register. 500

. l-'iction is sirlilar to conversation in its prcfèrence for tlutt.

0
that which who whom whose where when why
. In contr:rst, news shows a much stronger preference for which and wlro, and zero
¡c¿denic plosc strongly prefers which. [,-] non-restrictiue clauses
[_-.j restrict¡ve clauses
ln general, the rclative pronouns that begin with the ietters wlr- are considered to
be literate. In contrast, the pronoun that and the zero relativizer have a
'rrore
more colloquial flavor and are preferred in conversation.
These iegister differences are related to other structural and functional 9.7 Frequency of relativizers in news
consideratiol"rs. F'or example, newspaper texts commonly discuss the actions of
people, re'sulting ir-r a frequent use of relative clalrses wtth who, such as: Io 5000
3 4500
n \I-year-old -wot't't(tt1 wlrc has been míssing for a week (Nrws) c
4000
€
In contr¿tst, ¡cadenric prose focuses on inanimate objects or concePts, resulting E 3500
in a much greatcr use of the relaÍívizer which. o 3000
'lhe choice among relative pronouns is influenced by a number of other 2500
!
factors, includir-rg gap position, and restrictive v. non-restrictive function. In 2000
1 500
general, f/¡ar is usually used only with restrictive relative clauses, whtle which is g
000
used with both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. The foilowing subsections
1

500
consider a numbc'r of these factors for specific sets of alternatives.
0
that which who whom whose where when why
A Whov. whr'cl¡ with human and non-human head nouns zero

Of the tbur most common relativizers (who, which, that, and zero), two-who l: non-restrict¡ve clauses
[_l restrict¡ve clauses

antl which-are most sharply distinguished:

. \{ln occurs almost exclusively after human heads.
Figure 9.8 Frequency of relativizers in academic prose with non-restrictive relative clauses, there is a very strong preference to use who/
5000 whom rather than that or zero
o
ì 4500 Donal Lenihan, who had been nømed as captain, has also withdrawn
o 4000 after injuring a shoulder. (Nrws)
= 3500
This man, whom Elethia never saw, opened a rocarly restcrurctnt.
o 3000 fantoLLs
(nc'rt)
2500
2000 with restrictive relative clauses, that i,s a general-purpose relative pronoun. It
1 500 occurs with animate and inanimate heads, and with gaps in subjãct or non-
1 000 subject position. It is an alternative'r.o whom for animate head nouns and non-
500 subject gaps. The choice of that over whont is especially preferred in informal
0 discourse (like conversation and ûction). It avoids ih. fo.rn"I overtones of whont,
that which who whom whose where when why zero and possibly avoids the choice between who and whom:
There ntight be people that we don,t know ol (coNr,)
i I non-restrictiveclauses I restrìct¡veclauses

She took up with the

first boy that she came near to liking. (rrcr')
with non-subject gaps, it is most common to completely avoid the choice
. \\rhich occÌirs rllost often after inanimate heads.
lmoxg relative pronouns by omitting the relativizer altogether. with human
Especially in the written registers, there is a very strong tendency for a relative head nouns, this alternative is the preferred choice in botÈ spoken and written
clause witlr a human head noun to use wllo rather than which (or that): registers. See F below.
Thcy all seetrrcrl to lw'e relativcs who had been involveil in scønilals in
Londou lrolels. (r'rc'r') D Which v. that ¡n detail
Teant N[illar rider McWilliants, who is still looking for a 500 Grand Prix Tlre relativizerc which and that are similar in their grammatical potential. They
finislu had u constructivc frrish. (r.llrvs) are both grammatical with a wide range of gap positions and with animate
or
inanimate heads. However, there are a numbãr-oi important differences in their
B That and zero with human and non-human head nouns actual patterns of use:
which that
Relative clauses wíth that or zero are flexibie in that they can be used with both
rare with animate heads
inanimate and animate head nouns. In co¡versation, that frcely occurs with common with animate heads, especially in
¿ninrate heads. ln fact, fbr n-rany head nouns relèrring to humans, that is almost conversation or with non-subject gaps
common in non-restrictive relative rare in non-restrictive relative clauses
ûs comr¡on in conversation as who: clauses
all thosc poor pcoplc that died (coNv) usually considered more formal usually considered less formal
thqt ttnn thot I went to thøt fim¿ (ct-rN',') can follow a preposition (e.g. of cãnnot follow a preposition (e.g. *of that)
which)
thnt girl thnt lives down tIrc roød (coNv)
all tlrcsa dtil¿lrcrt tlnt like to go to the librøry QoNv) when that does introduce a non-restrictive clause, it often occurs in a seríes of
These sane heatl nouns also commonly take a zero relativizer in conversation: postmodifiers and is used for special stylistic effect (especially in fiction):
WIn's tlrc ugliest persorr you've ever seen? (coNv) gqzed at the yellow, stained wail [with alr the
I tltought ol',:t girl I used to know cølled loøise. (coNv) \e spots [which dead bugs,
that had once uawled, had leftll. (ncrf)
The level of formality associated with each relative pronoun is an important
C Whom v. who v. úhat with human head nouns factor in their use. with its more formar, academic associations, which is
The relativizers who and whont are both used with animate head nouns, but the preferred in academic prose. In contrast, that has more informal, colloquial
choice betrvcen them is pretty cle¿rr-cut: who is usually used with subject gap associations and is thus preferred in conversation and most contemporary
positions, wltlIe wlrcm is used with non-subjcct gaps: fiction:
. \l,|rc with subject gap: An operator is simply sotnething which turns one vector into ønother.
(acao)
This gentlemtm is the doctor who examined the body. (nc'r)
He said something that she couldn t catch. (ncr)
. u,hont with non-subject gap:
Thq, ltuecl in Anterica and had one child, a girl whom they idolized. (nu)
E Whose v. of which the slippers 7oa losú (coNv)
The relativizer ¡vhose is used to marka possessive relationship between a human that person she was wifå (cowv)
head noun and some other noun phrase: In fiction, zero relativizer occurs both in the quoted speech ofûctionaì
characters
And we olso know that thcre's at least one ctnd maybe two other white and in fictional narrative:
nnles wlrcse nømes we do not know. (rrct) . zero relativizer in fictional speech:
Thus, thc undcrlying meaning of the relative clause in this case, with the gap I do beg yott to consider seriously the points l,ve put to you. (ncr)
incìuded, is: 'We do'not know the males' names'. I. confess I have got plans you may
By extension, u,hose can be used to mark possessive relationships with find a little startling.
(rrcr)
collective organizations, such as corporations, govcrnment agencies, clubs,
societics, and comnrittees:
. zere reiativizer in fictional narrative:
the names his mother hail remembered.
A shippittg group, whose profi* diveil last year by neørþ a third, has told from the past (nc:r)
slnreholtlers to cxpect an even lower resub for 1993. (Nrws) a rather ugly tie his father høil lent him (ucr)
In fact, whose can be used to mark possessive relationships with completely In all registers, the zero relativizer is more likely to be used when the
subject of
inanimate, sometimes abstract, head nouns. 'I'his use is especially common in the relative clause is a personal pronoun. ihir i, because .nori p.ono.rn.
distinguish between subject (nominative) and object forms (e.g.
academic prose: I, *r,'rhr, h, u.
tne, Lts> her, him), and so the presence of a su6ject p.ono..i
A crystal is a trtiece of matter whose boundøries øre nøturally formed unombiguously
marks the beginning of a rerative clause, even witirout the relativizer:
plane surfaces. (acao)
'I'lrcre is a wtt¡' of proceeding in conceptual matters whose methoil is to tlrc only choice we'ye gof (cowrr)
define away any inconvenient dfficulty. (acau) the kind of organisation she lil<es (unrvs)

An altern¿rtive to whose with inanimate head nouns is the phrasc of whích. This the way we acquire knowledge (rc.n>)
alternative is also iargely restricted to acadernic prose:
Sonte of tlte pttrticles cluster into aggregates, ciods or cruntbs, the size p 9.8.3 Relative clauses w¡th adverbial gaps
ilistribut:iort of which determines the soil structure. (,rcrlo) -
T
when relative clauses have adverbial gaps, speakers and writers
'l'his wheel drivcs a sintilar but sntaller wooden-toothed wheel, the other have four choices
for the use of relativizers, as shown ¡eläw. iThe relative clause is
end of which cørries a large open-spoked wheel. (ttcrof) encìosed i' 1/,
and the relativizer is in bold.)
A variant way of introducing a relative clause with oJ'which is to front only the
the time [when I began]
prepositional phrase of which,leaving the rest of the noun phrase to follow it in
its normal position in the relative clause: the time [at which I began]

He joineLi a clining-club of which the motto wøs, The Whole, The Good,
the tinte [that I began at]
and The Beautiful. (rwr) the thnc [that I began] otr the time
II begøn]
Finally, similar meanings can be expressed in two other ways: (l) a relative clause Each of the choices is described beÌow.
with wlúch oy tl'rot and the verl> have, or (2) a postmodifying prepositional phrase
with the preposition with. For example, compare: A Relative adverbs: where, when, why
I He joined a dining-club which had the notto . . . The first option is to use one of the three rerative adverbs
that specificalry mark
2 Hc joinad a tlinirrg-club with the motto . . . adverbial gaps: where for place adverbiars (location or direction),
whe¡ for rime
adverbials, andwhy for reason adverbials. These relative
adverbs r,rb.tit,rt. fo,. on
F Zero relativizer entire adverbial phrase.

Speakers and rvriters olìen omit the reiativizer altogether in restrictive relative
the area where the chapels have closed (c.oNv)
clauses. This alternative is possible in standard English whenever the gap is not in one day when she was at school (rrcr)
subject position. For example: the other reason why the ambulance workers have lost
oaf (Nrws)
tlrc only shiny instnntent he posses.sed (r-rc'r) occasionally where and when are used to mark an abstract .location'
rather than
the way the man used to watch him (rrct) physical l0cations or times. For example, the head
noun bi.t,.;i;;.,"g to a part of
Aitl-rough the zero relativizer is found in all fbur registers, it has colloquial
a
,m.oyie
or story, comrnonly occurs in conversation with both of these
relatlvlzers:
associations and is therefore especially characteristic of conversation and fiction,
In conversation, the relativizer is omitted in about half of the relative clauses that You know the bit where the man jumps inside Whoopie
Goldberg. (r..oNv)
permit this option: Similar uses of where and when are especiaily common in
academic prose:
 tlrc kind of sinnüon where this type of work is helpful (rcx,) It ß not the only way in which ø person can be brought before a
in tli.flìcult cctscs when eccurate estimøtion of diseøse øctivity will have (aca,o) 'ouÍ
irnportant therapeutic hnplications. (xno) Because way as a head noun is so strongly associated with a manner adverbial
The use of relative adverbs is limited because there are many tfpes of adverbial gap, these relative clauses usually occur with both the relativizer
and the
gap that do not have a corresponding relative adverb. For example, there is no preposition omitted. This tendency holds for academic prose as well
as for the
starrclard relative adverb for rnanner adverbials:
*the wøy how I look at it. more colloquial registers. For example:
That's not the way you do thøt. (coNv)
B Preposition + relat¡ve pronoun whicå <. . .> the way the book is useil (acr.o)
The second <lption is to use the relative pronoun which preceded by a preposition
that marks the adverbial element in the relative clause. F<.rr example: ì Major points of cRarvlunR BtrE c: Relative clauses
.g Þ Relative clauses, and other postmodifiers, are classified into two main r¡pes
I the aportntents in which no one lives (rrcr)
by their funcrion: restrictive, helping to identify rhe reference of
2 thc endlcss londscøpe from which the sand is taken (nc'r) o the head
É, noun' and non-restrictive, adding descriptive details about the head
In these constructions, the preposition t relative Pronoun stands for the noun.
>- In general, restrictive reiative clauses are more common than non-rest¡ictive.
adverbial prepositional phrase in the relative ciause. Thus, the relative clause in I > Most other postmodifier types are restrictive, but can occasionally
has the meaning'no one lives in the apartn-rents'. This choice is recommended by be non-
restrictive.
many usage handbooks. Þ Relative clauses have three key components: the heacl noun, the
relativizer,
and the gap.
C Stranded preposition > Tlere are eight different relativizers in English. The most common ones are
A thircl option for adverbial gaps is to leave the preposition stranded in the which, who, and that.
relative clause, marking the site of the gap. The relativizer can be which,that,or Þ In some cases, the relativizer can be omitted altogether, although its meaning
zero with this option (the strandecl preposition is underlinecl): is still implied. This is referred to as the zero ¡elaiivizer.
the onc that oIiJ James used to live in (rrcr) Þ some relatlvizers (such as which and. that) are similar in their potential
uses, but there are differences in their actual patterns of
sonrc oJ'the houses I go ro (corv) use.
> The gap refers to the location of a missing constituent in the relative
clause.
The gap can occur at almost any noun phrase position (e.g.
D Om¡tted preposition object, adverbial).
subject, direct

The last option is to omit the preposition altogether, providing no surface > Relative clauses with adverbial gaps involve special choices
for the relativizer.
marher of the ¿rdverbial gap. The relativizer may also be omitted in these
structures:
I the tinrc that I began Q'rcl)
2 the v,ay I look at ir (cor.rv) GRAMMAR BITE
3 a placc I would like to go (coNv)
In these structures, the preposition has to be inferred from the information in Other postmodif¡er types
the head nt¡un and the main verb of the relative clause. For example, in 3 above,
we can reconstruct the rneaning of an adverbial ro-phrase from the head noun
ploce and the nrain verb go: .9 Postmod¡fication by non-finite
I 'pvould like to go to a place
If the verb had been live instead ofgo, we would have reconstructed a phrase with ir¡:
clauses
I would likc to live in a place The last Grammar Bite concentrated on relative clauses,
which are finite clauses
that modi$r a noun. However, nouns can arso be modified
by non-finite clauses.
E Manner adverbial gaps and way These constructions have non-finite verbs, which are
not inflected fnf t.rrr..
As already mentioned, there is no relative adverb available for relative clauses There are three major types non-finite postmodi$ring .turrr.r,
, ^of
eri-clauses, and úo-clauses..The.first
ìrg_clauses,
with manner adverbial gaps. Instead, these structures almost always use the same two types are arso calãd participl. .lu,rr..,
head noun: way. For example:
and the third is also called an infinitive .rär. o. a ro-infinitive
clarse.
Participle clauses as postmodifiers always have subject
Tlrc1"v, not used to the way that we're used to living (coNv) g.t ;;;;".. They
can often be paraphrased as a relative clausá:
 û letter written by a member of the public (rc'.iu) . In news and academic prose, ed-clauses are considerably more common than
<compare: a lcttcr which has been written by ø member of the public> lrzg-clauses.

young Jitmilics øttending the locøl cliøic (¡¡rvs) . Yost lng-participles and passive verbs occur in participle ciauses rather than
<compare: fauùlies who are attending the local clinic> relative clauses, even when relative crauses could -be used. That is, a
postmodi$ring participle clause is the expected choice whenever an ing-form
Iu contrast, fo-clause postmodifrers can have either subject or non-subject gaps:
or a passive verb occurs in a postmodifring clause.
. subject gap:
lng-participles expressing an abstract relationship (e.g. cottsisting ofl regularly
I ltaven't got Ji'iends to beat him up rhorrglr. (ccwr")
occur in a non-finite clause, even though the corresponding prolressive aspect
<compare: Frientls will beat him up> would not occur in a full relative clause (see 6.5.1):
. non-subject gap: a society consisting of educated people (rcno)
I had tt litttc bit fo enf. (coNv) (direct object: I Ltte a little Ltit> a matter concerning the public interest (tcm)
I'll runcntber which way to go. (corv) (direction adverbial: I can go that initintives involving national and local government authorities (i,,c,tn)
x'ttlt>
compare:
Get angr1,! \lc'vc Ltoth got a lot to be øngry øbout. (rtlc.) (cornplement of \a society which is consisting
preposition: \{¿ arc angry about r't lot) of educated people
)a tnatter which is concerning
the public interest
As these examples silow, iltost non-finite clauses do not have a stated subject. *i,itiatives which øre involving
However, witlì to-clauses the subject is sometimes expressed in a þr-phrase: national and local govetnment
authorities
Rcal\'now is the tinrc for vou to try ønd go. (coNv)
In contrast, ed-clauses can usually be rephrased as a full relative clause with a
passive verb' by inserting which is or sornething sirnilar. so participle
g.g.t Participle clauses as postmodifiers serve the interests of efficiency: they convey the same meaning in fewer
clauses

Y llotlt ¿d-clauses and irtg-clauses can function as postmr:difying participle clauses: Passive verbs do, however, occur in finite rerative clauses wihen tense,
words.
aspect,
. ed-clauses:
or modality are important. These distinctions cannot be marked in a
postmodi$ring participle clause, so a relative claus.. is necessary:
| 'l'trc IIS
),cster(lq, wclconteti a proposal maile by tIrc presíelents of The ntistaken view is that theory refers to ideas which Imve never been
Colombia, l'ent ancl Bolivia. (r'rtws)
tested. (,',r:n>!)
2 It can lse tlerit'cd ttsing the ossLttlxptiorts given øbove. (t'c,',o) I
I Novv 48 sites which could be maintained by local authorities have
. lrg-clauses: identified. (Nr.ws)
beett

3 À trilitary trøvelling down Beach Roøil at high speed struck a youth

jcep
I
crossing the street. (t'tcfi)
4 ltiercst is rrtnv tlcvelopirrg irr tt theoretical approach involving reflection of 9.9.2 lo-clauses
as postmodifiers
tllfven wnvas. (.re,ru)
i
I
P Postmodi4¡ing fo-clauses are more frexibre than participle clauses for two
The vcrbs in cd-clauses correspond to passive verbs in finite relative clauses. t, reasons: they can occur with both subject and no'_ìubj".i gupr, and they can
'fhus, tbr I ancl 2, cqr.rivalent relative clauses would l¡e: I
l occur with an overt subject noun phrase. In the following J*åmples, the head
l^ o proposal that wøs maile by the presidents of Colombiø, Peru and
N:

I
t'.
noun (or pronoun) is underlined, and the fo_clause is in Èold:
ßolivia I . ro-clauses with subject gap:
2tthe Llssunryliotls thøt u'g14þ92 above
?t
i
Its absence was a factor to be taken into øccount (Nr:wst)
In contrast, the verbs in iirg-clauses do not always correspond to fi.nite
;,
il
(note: this is a passive construction equivalent to 'a factor
is to be taken
progressive aspect verbs. ln 3 (above), the verb truvelling dcles have progressive into account'.>
,
nreaning. However, in 4 the verb inyolvhtg does not have a progressive sense.
Thus, the equivalent relative clauses for 3 and 4 would be:
i
t'
. to-clauses with object gaps:
I
Papa dressed in his Sunday suit and hat was a siqht to see. (ncr)
3a A núlitary jcep tlmt was travelling ilown Beach Road at high speed t
t:
<progressive> There is one further tnatter to confess. (s,c.srt)
¡i

4a a theoretical npproach that involves reflection of Alfven waves. (acn) i

I . fo-clauses with adverbial gaps:
(not progressive) t
They'd take a long time to ilry. þoNv)
,
Several patterns are important in the usc' of Postmodifying clauses: {. We shall have to fnd a way to associate numbers with our operators.
. Participle cl¿ruses are especially comrton in ncws and academic prose. ¡
t:
(ac,rot)

f,:
 . fo-clauses witl-r prepositional object gap (and stranded preposition): some other prepositional phrases can be re-phrased as a relative clause with the
She's lntl a lot to put uP wir}. (coNv)
copula be and a prepositional phrase complement:

. docuntents in his possession

to-clauses with an overt subject (introducecl by for):
<contpare the relative clause: docuttents which were in his possession>
Thnt'll be tltc worst thing for us to do. (cc,rv) <object gap> (Nrws)
Thcrc wos rto possible wav for the pilot to øvoiìl ir. (,rc,ru) <manner the car keys on the tøble
adverbial gap> <cotltpare the relative clause: the car keys that were on the table> (,rcm)
Surprisingly, a relatively high proportion of the postmodifiers in
In general, relative clauses with the main verb have, or with the copula åc f
conversation are to-clauses. Their meaning often points to the future: preposition, are rare in comparison with prepositional phrase postmodifiers.
Father's got a lot of thíngs to tell you. (co*) Many occurrences of prepositional phrase postmodifiers, hàwever, have
The ro-ciausc constructions in conversation usually have object or adverbial gap specialized meanings that cannot easily be re-phrased as relative clauses:
positions: the probletns at its ISC Technologies subsiiliary (Nws)
L Well I nrcan this is a horrible thing to say, but <. . .> (coNvt) this list of requiremenús (ac,to)
2 l've got tJyfrto sort out anywny. (cc;xt') the same effect on the final state (lc.xr>)
3 Fridal' at,utirrg I tlitln't hate q-19! ro drink. (corv) Even when a prepositional phrase and a relative clause are both possible,
The rnost comrnon head nouns taking a to-clause have general meanings. prepositional phrase postmodifiers are much more common. However, two
The1. are nouns that arc' especially common in conversation (e.g. thing, tinte, factors favor the choice of a relative clause over a prepositional phrase: the need
wa1,). The common head nouns associated with adverbial gaps cover the three to convey non-restrictive meaning, and the need to convey past tense meaning:
rnajor domains olttime, place, and manner: . relative clauses with non-restrictive meaning.
4 Therc's rrct erutugh time to get it out and defrost ir' (coNv) <time domain) Then he set off for sinton's hottse, which was at the other end of the lane.
5 Bttt it's ccrtøinly a nice Þlace to live. (coNv) <place domain> (rrcr) <with copula t preposition>
6 l-hnt's t1o ltcll/ to talk to Sean! (coNv) <rlanner domain>
He said the residmt, who is in her late 70s, had been very confiLsed.
lvlost postmoctifiing fo-clauses clo not have an overt subject (as in the above
(Nervst) <with copula * preposition>
exan.rples). in these cases, the subject of the postmodifying clause is easily
pretlicted and need not be stated. ln many cases in conversation, the missing with animals like moles, which have tough ønd durable skins, the periods
subjcct ciearly retèrs to the speaker (as in examples l-3 above). For example, I involved are longer. (,rc,rot) <with have>
could be rcstatcd rvith the subject 'me' in a /or-phrase: . relative clauses with past tense meaning.
l¿ \\rcll I nrcnn this is a horríble thíng fonne to søy .. - The lower-income groups also constnned cm.toutlts of iron that were below
Alterr-ratively the subject can be interpreted as a gencric referencc to 'people' or the stanilard. (¡c¡oi)
'anybodv' (as in 4-6 above): DMB and B Restùt, which had a link with a big international agency,
4a Tlrcre's not cttough tinrc for arrybody to get it out and defrost it. went bust recently. (Nrrvst)

g.to.2 Prepositional phrases with of

g¡.r.u Postmodification by prepositional ? o¡91half of all postmodifring prepositional phrases begin with the preposition
phrase olThis is due to the extremely wide range of functiJns for this prepositión.
Many- functions of o/-phrases have been discussed aiready in 4.4 and 4.9.g,
inciuding:
. after quantity nouns: loads of work
9.10.1 Prepositional phrases v. relative clauses . after unit nouns: a piece of cake
ì' As rve explained ir-r 9.3.2, prepositional phrases arc by tàr the most common t)?e . after container nouns: our bottle of champagte
of pcrstmodiher in all registers, although they are especially comnron in news and
acadernic pr:ose.
. after nouns denoting shape: a pile of money
ln some cascs, prepositional phrases can be re-phrased as relative clauses . after species nouns: these kinds of qttestion
witl.r nearly equivalent meaning. Prepositional phrases beginning with wirh often In addition' of phrases can express many more specialized meaning
corrcspond to relative clauses with the main verb l¡øve: relationships. Some of these could be paraphrased as noun * noun sequences:
feedback systen"ts with chøotic behøviour (¡c¡p)
<comPare the relative clause: sl'sfetrl s which have chaotic behaviour>
 of preposit¡onal phrase noun + noun sequence t1 Postmodification by appositive noun
ten English words
ten words of English Gtct)
the color of chocolate (rrcr) the chocolate color p Rhrases
the M¡n¡stry of Defence (r'rews) the Defence MinistrY
Appositive noun phrases have equivalent status with the preceding (head) noun
However,n1anYcxpressionswithofplrrasescannotbeeasilyrephrasedintlris
pËår.. That is, tËe order of head noun phrase * appositive noun phrase can
normatly be reversed to produce an equally grammatical construction with
\'\'ay:
essentially the same meaning:
rvrntrlerJll contrasts of feeling \Naws) (Nrws) : Baker fornler secretary of
former secretary of state Jim Baker lint
a wontail of very strong high moral vølues lNttt's)
state
(¡c'ro)
1'ottr style of interpretaúíon Appositive noun phrases are usually non-restrictive in meaning. They provide
Academic prttse is noteworthy for a large number of noun * ofphrase dËscripti re information about the head noun, but they are not needed- to
identifr
expressions that are used repeateclly. Most of these lexical bundles convey the reierence of the head noun. One exception to this is with nouns that refer to
'
rforrnation in one of the following äreas:
words, phrases, or exPressions:
. phvsical description: the stn'Jnce of the " ' , the shtpe of t'he " ' ' the position of
The word gossip itself actually nteans 'God! kln" (Nms)
thc... Here the appositive is restrictive in function, identifying which'word'.
. existencc or presencc: the presence of tlrc " ' , the existence of a "' Like piçositional phrases, appositive noun phrases are an abbreviated forrn
'theuseof "'
. the "' tt
abstr¿rct qualities: lhctttttttc of tlrc "',thetalue of of port*ädiher. In contrast to rèlàtive clauses, appositive noun phrases inciude
. course of the ' " these postmodifiers are by far most common in
lorrg-term proccsses or events: tlrc developntent of on ' ' ' ' the no ,r"rbs at all. Not surprisingly,
^higheit
(Seel3.6forlclisctrssionoflexicalbuncllesincorrversation.) the registers with the informàtional density. The patterns of use for
appositives include:
. They are most common in news and academic prose'
9.10.3 Prepositional phrases w¡th in and
other
þ' prepos¡t¡ons . In news, appositives usually involve a proper noun with human reference'
. In academic prose, appositives usually provide inforn-ration about a technical
prepositional pl-rrases beginning with lrl are. also moderately comrnon. They term.
.*pi..r., ,r.."r-,irg, that Jovcr ihysical iocation, tir¡e meani'gs, and
logical
In news, with its focus on the actions of human participants, appositive nou¡
relartionshiPs: phrases provide background information about people' Most of these
. physical locittion: constructions include a proper name and a descriptive noun phrase, but these
the rt'tcss in l::,s bedroort (corr') two elements can occur in either order:
tlrc thircl largcst tntckitry Jtrrn in the núdwest (rrcr) . proper noun * descriPtive Phrase:
. tiulc/clurltional rneaning: Dr. lan stjentsward, chief of the world Health orgartisation cancer unit
tlrc lotttcst rotrchtlowit h tlrc history of tlrc school (t'rc'r) (N¡ws)
ttttL¡tlttttttttLL ol lualtlt fu the long tert'l (¡*'rLJ) Vladi¡nir Asltkenazy, one of the world's gre(ttest pianisrs (Ntws)
. nl\)t'c abstr¿ìct mcltrings: . descriptive phrase * proper noun:
thc co-chuirnttis faith in the projecú (N¡vrs) The editor of The Mail on Swtday, Mr Stewart Stevere (Nr:ws)
the rapiclll' tletcriorating tratd ht cashfow (r'rtrvs) the Labour Party's hotrsirtg spokesnnn, Mr. Clive Sole¡ (Nrrvs)
ù rcsLilt¡tl!; clccrc¡se in breeding perfonnance ('rcrc) In academic prose, appositive noun phrases have a wider range of use. In many
pre¡rositio¡aÌ phrases begi¡nilg with /or, ot1, to, or 'tvith are less common than o/ cases, the appositive noun phrase is given in parentheses following the head
or ilr, but thev a¡c also usecl for a wide range of meanings: noun, Appositive noun phrases are commonly used in five ways:
a school for disableel children (coNv) . to provide an explanatory gloss for a technical reference:
the settrch for new solufions ('rc'r'u) the mill (a term introduced by Babbage) (xc'+o)
a ntola on l¡is lr¿ad (co¡v) the optical pr op agatiort directiott ( z- dir ection ) (¡c'ro)
his nu¡st tvotntling ottack on rfte rabloids (¡lws) . to introduce acronyms:
their Jìrst trip to Scotlønd (rurvs) IAS (Institute of Advanced Str¡di¿s) (,tc¡o)
one al4rdt'ctfil)' altraclive onslver to that question \rcno) SLA (Second Løngtnge Acqtúsition) (xr'm)
sr.rrr¡u ¡ll.'usc' wirll garlic (coNr )
 . to introduce short labels for variables, parts of diagrams, etc.: the two qpes of structural relationships that are possible in postmodifier
thc valvcs ort thc pressure side (Vl nnd V2) \¡<tto) complexes: multiple embedding v. multiple modification of a single head noun.
n point P (¡c,r,Ll) NP1 Qhapters) illustrates embedding. The first prepositional phrase in the
postmodifier complex (in this section) directly modifies the head noun chapters,
. to name chemical or mathematical formulas: but the second prepositional phrase (of the reader) is embedded because it
firyalite, F¿:SiO.r (.rc¡u) modifies the noun section. Thus, as Figure 9.9 shows, the head noun chaptershas
lrydrogert chloridc, HCl (,rc,ro) only one postmodifier: a prepositional phrase, which in turn contains a second
. to list items incluclc-d in some class: embedded prepositional phrase.
In contrast, NP2 (aspecfs) illustrates multiple modification of a single head
cssential túúricnts (ntanganese, copper and zinc) (tc¿o)
noun. The prepositional phrase of teaching and learning directly foilows aspects
the varittus li,fe-history events (i.e. oviposition, hatchirry ancl nnturation) and is the frrst postmodifier. That prepositional phrase is then followed by a
(.lr:ao)
relative clause (that have come under...), which functions as the second
postmodifier of aspects.
g.r2 Noun phrases w¡th multiple
9.t2.2 Common types of postmodifier complexes
postmodif iers P In general, three patterns characterize postmodifier complexes:
. The most common t)?e of postmodifier complex is composed of two
g.t2.t Postmodifier complexes prepositional phrases:
Noun phrases olten have multiple postmodifiers, especialìy in academic prose. The nnin difficulties which are posed concern the rendition [of cutturally
We relcr to thc combination of structures following a head noun as the specific German or French termsl [into English]. (rcn:)
postmodifrer cornplex. The structures in a postmodifier complex can represent A socíological description might discttss the tttilisation [of such devices] [for
either a series of forms modifring a single head noun, or embeddings. social purpo ses/. (ac,ro)
For example, the tbllowing sentence has a very simple main clause structure: . When there are two postmodifrers, they are often the same structure:
NPr (with chaptcrs as head) consider NP2 (with ospects as head):
Large clear diagrams [drawn on sugør paper] and [covered with
fT-he chopters in this sectiott of the reader] consicler [various aspects of
transparent fiIml are particularly useful teaching aids. (,xcn) <ed-clauses,
teaching and learning thøt have come under increased official scrutiny
co-ordinated with anà>
by centrøI state agencies in recent yeørsl. {.ac,rut)
It wtts spaciotts with a high ceiling [painteil with cherubs] ønd [decorated
However, bclth NPl and NP2 have postmodifier complexes, resulting in a long
with flowersl. (rrcr) <erl-clauses, co-ordinated wtth and>
and complicated sentencc. As Figure 9.9 shows, these two noun phrases illustrate
At the last election the Labour MP, fMililretl Gordon], [a left-winger] beat
the Liberal Alliance candidate. (NEwst) <appositive noun phrases>
Fisure e.e Postmodifier complexes with multiple embedding v. multiple . The second postmodifrer in a complex is often a relative crause, regardless of
modification
the type of first postmodifier:
(NP = noun phrase, prep - preposition, PP = prepositional phrase, postmod =
Firemen needed police ntpport as they tackled a car [in the driveway] fwhich
postmodifier)
had been set on firel. (Nr.ws) <prepositional phrase * relative clause>
main
Most cotuttries have a written docuntent [known as 'the constitution']
NP1: subject
[which lays down the main rules]. (xc,*,l) <ed-clause f reìative crause)
det N: head PP: postmod Relative clauses are particularly common as the second postmodifier in a
prep NP c-omplex-because they are easily identified as a postmodifer, even when they are
I ___,r_ distant from the noun phrase head. The relativizer provides an overt surface
I det N: head PP: oostmod
lrr'r marker of their postmodifier status.
the chapters in this sect¡on of the reader
long verb phrase ll Major points of cReurvlaR
.sl Þ
BtTE D: Other postmodifier types

direct object
Postmodifiers can be clauses or phrases.
NP2:
>l
verb phrase N: head PP: postmod relative clause: postmod ot Þ In addition to relative clauses (covered in Grammar Bite c), three types of non-
finite clauses can be noun postmodifiers: irg-clauses, ed-clauses, or'rã-clauses.
I

consider various aspects of teaching and learning that have come-.

in recent years
"l >- The verbs in ed-clauses correspond to passive verbs in rerative clauses.
 r- The vcrbs in irg-clauses sometinres correspc.nd to progressive ve¡bs in 2 other semiconductor stocks eased following an industry trade group's reþort
¡elative clauses, but often do not. that its leading indicøtor fell in September. (Nrwst)
;- Postmodifring to-clauses are more tlexiblc than participle clauses; for The relative ciause in example I identifies which 'report' peter is reaching for. It
cxample, they can have subjects that differ from the main clause subject. has a gap in subject position, which corresponds to the head noun report. The
Þ Prepositional phrases are by fàr the most common t¡pe of phrasal -hrrn',
underlying meaning of the relative clause is ìhat 'the report lay behind b,rt
postmocliÊer. thattakes theplace of thereportintherelativeclause. (sincethegapisinsubject
,- 'fhey can express an extremely wide range of meanings. position, omission of that is impossible in l, but it can be omitted in other
Þ Noun phrases c¿in alsc¡ be postmodificrs, called appositive noun phrases. relative clauses; see 9.8.2.)
;- Appositive noun phruses are non-restrictive; they are espccialìy common in In contrast, in example 2 the noun complement clause gives the actual
the rvritten rcgisters. content of the 'report': that 'the trade group's leading indicator fell'. The noun
Þ When a noLu'r phrase has two postmodifiers, they are usually both the same complement clause is complete structurally. It does not include a reference to the
structural type (e.g. both are prepositional phrases). head noun in any way (i.e. it does not have a gap corresponding in meaning to
>- One exception is that relative clauses cortmonly occur foliowing other the head noun). In addition, the complementizer that cannot beomitted in this
structr.rral types of postmodilìer. or any other noun complement clause. Finally, report is one of the few nouns that
can be modified by complement clauses (see 9.14 below for more on head

r
nouns).

GRAMMAR BITE
'fl
.H 9.13.2 Structural types of noun complement clause
Noun complement clauses Ã
.l
:ü
There are two main tlpes of noun complement clause: frnite that-clauses and
non-finite ro-infinitive clauses. In the following examples, the head is unclerlined
lã
1
and the complement clause is in bold:
g.,r3 Noun complement clauses . tåaú-clauses:
There were also nnnors that Foril hail now taken its stake up to the
maxitnum 15 per cent alloweil. (Nrwst)
9.l.3.t Noun complement clauses v. relative clauses These fgres lead to an exÞectatiot't that the main application area would
be in the ofice environments. (rc.xt)
On the surface, noun complement clauses, such as the following, can appear to
be icierrtical to relative clauses with that:
. fo-clauses:
'flrc You'ye becn given Þermission to wear úåern. (coNv)
thú it can be done is irnportnnt. ('rc,rut)
Jht:t
Legal peers renewed their attack on the Govertunent's ÞIans to shake up the
However, noun complement clauses and relative clauses are actually very
legal profession yesterday. (Nr.w s)
ditlèrent structLrres. 'lheir differences arc surnmed up as f-ollows:
Note that while the fo-clauses have missing subjects that can be reconstructed
relative clause noun complement clause from the conteñ, they do not have gaps corresponding to the heads per mission or
function of clause identify reference of head present the content of the head plans.
noun noun or add descriptive In addition, l,g-clauses and øh-clauses sometimes occur as noun
information complement clauses:
structure incomplete, contains a 'gap' complete, no 'gap' . of + ing-clause:
function of that relative pronoun complementizer
omission of that possible with object gaps impossible Hc had no intentio, of singing at anyone,s twenty-first birthday. (ru:r)
types of N modified almost any noun only a few nouns The exchanged prototts have about the same chønce of having the same or
opposite spin o rientatiozs. (rc,,rot)
(Noun compÌe'ment cl¿ruses are similar to verb and adjective complement clauses, . clependent wh-interrogative clause:
discussed in Chapter 10.)
There .çvas no question who was the star. (nc.r)
Conrpare the t-ollowing two sentences, both with the novÍ report as head:
we always come back to the san'te questio, why the ìrevil won't he show
. postmodifying relative clause:
himself. (wcr)
I Peter rcttched out for tlrc u,ell-tlnnnbed reÞcrt thøt løy behind him on the
In addition to the simple pattern noun * wh-clause shown above, there are
cupboard top. (r,rcr')
two other structural options for wh-interrogative clauses. The first uses the
. noluì complemeut clause: preposition o/ followed by a wh-crause. The second uses the preposition as ro
 followed by the wù-clause. This option is used primarily with the øh- (See 10.5, 10.7.1 on that-clauses following verbs and adjectives.)
interrogative word whether. Each structural type of noun complement clause occurs with a different set
. oJ'+ wå-clar.tse: of head nouns. The following sections survey these head nouns and the
associated functions for each type.
But the questiott of who will pøy the multi-million dollør bill is
unansw eretl. ( N¡lvst )
g.t6.t Head nouns complemented by that-clauses
We have only tlrc most general notion of how the
(¡c¡u)
first continents formed.
? That-clauses functioning as noun complements are one of the primary devices
. as to *
rr'l¡-clause: used to mark stance in academic prose. In these constructions, the that-clause
Masters sntl tnen were deeply divided over the substantive issue øs to reports a proposition, while the head noun reports the author's stance toward
whether wotnefl should be employed at all. (rcixof) that proposition. Two main kinds of stance are expressed by the most common
head nouns. The first is an assessment of the certainty of the proposition in the
that-clause. Typical nouns are:
g.t3,.j Restrictive and non-restrictive functions fact, possibility, claim, notion, assumption, hypothesis, rumor
All of the above examples have illustrated restrictive noun complement clauses. For example:
That is the rnost corrrmon function. However, it should be noted that noun But there remained the very troublesome fact that leguminous nops
complement cliruses can bc used in non-restrictive functions, where they serve a required no nitrogenous manure. (,rcrut)
parentheticaI ftlnction:
There is a Þossibility that this morphology represents an ancestral great
I Clitton's sccond allegøtion, thøt there has been collusion between the ape character. (acaut)
security, forces ønìl Protestant para-military groups, is based on a very
The second kind of stance is an indication of the source of the information
few isolatad cases. (Nrws) expressed in the ¿har-clause. Three primary sources and their typical nouns can
2 Tlu' contrary trsstnnption, that common sense will tøke wholþ be distinguished:
indistittguislrable mental events to be dffirent thoughts, strikes me as
linguistic communication claim, report, suggestion, proposal, rernark
rentarkoble. (xcm)
cognitivereasoning assumption,hypothesis,idea,observation,
ln these exarnples, the noun complement clause still names the content of the conclusion
head noun. For exarnple in I, that there høs been collusion . . . is the content of
Clintois second nllegadon. These non-restrictive complement clauses are used personal belief belief, doubt, hope, opinion
when the writer assumes that most readers already kn<¡w the content of the head For example:
noun (e.g. the'allegation' or the'contrary assumption'), but they want to spell it This confornts convenientþ with Maslow's (1970) suggestion that human
out to avoid uncertainty. motivøtion is relateil to a hierarchy of human needs. (acm)
The xtrvey was aimed at testi,xg a hyÞothesis that happiþ-manied couples
tend to rote more conservatively. (ac,tot)
g.14,Head nouns with noun complement The traditional fo]j{ thøt veal cølves should be kept in ø warm
environment is unscientific. (,rcaot)
clauses Many of these head nouns are nominalized equivalents of verbs or adjectives
that can control that-complement clauses (see 9.4-8). Most of these nouns have
Unlilie relative clauses, noun compiement clauses occur with only a small set of
corresponding verbs that also control úhaf-clauses. For example:
head nouns. Many of the head nouns with noun complement clauses express a
stance towards thc proposition in the complement clause. For example, these What's your feeling about his claim that someone's trying to kill him?
head nouns can be used to indicate the certainty ofthe proposition or the source
(ncr)
of tlre inforination: fact, claitn, and report. <compare: The nuns claint that their eggs have never been associated
Noun cornpl.r'mcnt clauses with head nouns that convey stance are especially with an outbreak of food poisoning. (Nrws)>
commorÌ in nevvs ancl academic prose. In conversation and fiction, similar There seents to be an automatic assumÞtion that a single ilivision on ø
functions arc more commonly served by complement clauses following verbs or scale represents a single unit of some kind. (r,cn)
adjectives. L.r many cases, the same roots can be used to control both noun and <compare: She had always idly assumed that there wøs some system. (r,rcr)>
verb complement clauses. For example: The only common head noun derived from an adjective is possibility:
1. . .> there is every hope that this will continue. (rcl":.l) But there remains a Þossibilitv that gregarious Desert Locusts might
I just hoÞe tlnt I've plugged it in propeþ. (cor.rv) become less viable. (¡c,rot)
<compare: It is Þossible that she has just decided to leaye the area. (r,rews)>
 As iÌlustrated by the above examples, noun complement clauses often express Thus compare:
stance in an abstract way, without a clear agent. With verb complement clauses, He chastises Renault for their failure to respond to BMWs challenge.
the subject of the controlling verb mentions a person, so that the stance reported (xrwsl)
by the verl¡ can be attributed directly to that person. ln contrast, the stance He failed to notice that it made Wilson chuckle. (ncr)
conveyed by a controlling head noun is not normally attributed to anyone. For Such an order should be made only where there is evidence of the
example, tlre examples above include head nouns such as possibility, belief, defendant's ability to pay. (NEws)
assLttltption and possiüillf)'. Readers must infer whose attitude towards the
I'ye never been able to determine that for sure. (rrcr)
information is reportetl.
Verb compiernent clauses are preferred in conversation while noun
complement clauses are preferred in academic writing. This distribution 9.14.3 Head nouns complemented by of- * ing-
reflects major differences between the registers in structure and function: ? clauses
conversat¡on academic prose
preference for integrating information
Several ofthe head nouns that take of- * lng-clauses can also take another type of
structure preference for verbal complement clause. (In contrast, there is almost no overlap between the head
structu res in noun phrases nouns taking fftøf-clauses and the head nouns taking ro-clauses.) Thus, the
f unction participants interested in each readers/writers more interested in following head nouns occur with both of * ing-clauses and with fhaf-clauses:
others' feelings and attitudes attitudes towards i nformation
idea, hope, possibility, sign, thought

Conversation tencls to use verb constructions that directly and prominently For example:
attril¡ute stance to participants. Acadernic writing uses noun complement clauses Feynman discusses the ídea of puning a lamp between the two slits to
that tend to give nlore prominence to the information; the stance is illuminøte the electrons. (rctn)
backgrounded anc.l not directly attributecl to the author. <compare: Then a door is opened for the more threatening ideø thøt some
principles are pørt of the løw because of theb morøl appeal. (acm)>
'\rcÞe
9.t4.2 Head nouns complemented by to-infinitive So we have no of finiling here a common reason for rejecting
? clauses checkerb o aril solutions. (rcm)
<compare: There is every hoÞe that thís will continue. (ecaot)>
Unlike rh¡1l-clauses, the head nouns rvith to-clauses do not typically Present a Fewer head nouns can take both an of- t ing-clause construction and a fo-clause,
personal stence. Instead, the nouns commonly taking ro-clauses rcpresent human but they include two of the most common nouns with both constructions-
goals, opportunitits, or lctions: chance and intention:
cluutce, Ltttenryt, e.fJòrt, ability, opportutlity, clecision, pkm, bid Also one increases the chance of revealing similarities between
A second ditlèrence fron-r ¡rhr¿r-clauses is that fo-clauses are especially common in sup etficially distinct obj ects. (rcm)

newspaper langurrge (instead of academic prose). The meanings c¡f the head <compare; BOAC never had a chance to establish commercíøI operations
nouns taking ¿o-clauses frt the purposes of news, with a focus on human goals on any scale. (r,cnl)>
and actions rather than on stance towarcls propositions: This writer has served on review teams and has had every intention of
l,Vc trced to give tlcctttt people a chance to elect a sensible council. (News) giving each proposal a thorough reading. (ncn)
'l-ha lcader's gtmshot: wotntds nre taking thcir toll" contplicating efforts to <compare: Mr. Rawlins announced his intention to leave Sturge at some
time in the future. (r.rews)>
persuøde lút¡t to srtrrender. (Nr,rvs)
Finally, some head nouns can control only of * lng-clauses, such as cost, task, and
Lttst year thc societlÌs conùnittee made n decisiort to relaunch in a bid to problem;
rtttrocl mlre rrclrÜers. (Nnvs)
They presented the move as a contribution by the Government to the huge
Yet the lread nouns taking ro-clauses are similar to those l,aking tlnt-clauses in cost of improving water quality. (srws)
that many of therr are nominalized equivalents of verbs or adjectives controlling
fo-complement clauses (sce 9. 12-15).
It therefore seems logical to begin the task of ilisentangling the
relationship between ffiovement ønd urban structure. (ecto)
. nouÌrs rvith corresponcling verbs * to-clauses:
attctttpt, decision, dcsire, failure, húentíon, permission, plan, proposal,
reþsal, tendency
. nouns with corresp<lnding adjectives * fo-clauses:
ab ili y / ln ab il ity,, t: o t ut itnrcnt, det en nin atio n, w illingn
t r r ess
? 9.14.4 Head nouns
wh-interrogative clauses
complemented by
1()
Wh-interrogative clauses are much less common than the other tlpes of noun
complement clause. They are restricted mostly to occurrence with the head noun
question.
Verb and adjective
The of +
wl¡-clause variant is actually more common than simple wh-
clauses as noun complements, especially in news and academic Prose. Further, it complement cløuses
occurs with a wider range of head nouns. These include nouns referring to:

speech conrmunication questíon, story, explanation, GRAMMAR BITES in this chapter

descriptìon, account, discussion A Types and positions of complement clauses
exemplification example, índication, illustration
problenrs problem, issue Þ The four major and other minor types of complement clauses
cognitive states or processes knowledge, understanding, sense, Þ The grammatical positions of complement clauses: subject, post-
analysis, idea, notion. predicate, and extraposed
For example: g Iñaú-clauses
The ctuestion of how to resolve the feør which so many people have in
Hong Kortg was omitted. (Nrws) Þ The functions of that-clauses in discourse
\le have no knowledge of where it cøme (nuws)
Þ The grammatical patterns of rhør-clauses
/rom. Þ Verbs and adjectives that commonly control fåaf-clauses
Þ Choices with that-clauses: subject v. extraposed position, and omission of
3 Major points of e RervlnneR BlrE E: Noun complement clauses that
o Þ Noun complement clauses can easily be confused with relative clauses.
o Þ They differ in that they are structurally complete (i.e. noun complement c l/Vá-clauses
É cläuses do not have a gap) and the complementizer that cannot be omitted.
Þ There are t\^/o main types of noun complement clause: finite fhaf-clauses Þ The different types of wå-clauses and their functions
ancl non-finite fo-clauses.
Þ Grammatical patterns of wh-clauses
Þ llg-clauses and rvå-clauses can be used as noun complement clauses, but Þ Common verbs controlling øå-clauses
ale less comlnon. Þ Wh-clauses that use whether and if
Þ Noun conrplement clauses occur with only a few abstract head nouns. D Post-predicate infinitive clauses
Þ Each structural type of complement clause occurs with a different set of
head not¡ns. Þ Grammatical patterns of úo-clauses controlled by verbs
Þ TIre head nouns that take rftaú-clauses (e.g. fact, possibility, claim) mark Þ Common verbs controlling fo-clauses
stance. Þ The functions of subject predicative úo-clauses
Þ The heacl nouns that take fo-clauses (e.g. chance, attempt, plan) mark Þ Common adjectives controlling fo-clauses
human goals or lctions.
E More on infinitive clauses
Þ Description of raising in fo-clauses controlled by verbs and adjectives
Þ The use of extraposed and subject position fo-clauses
Þ The choice between raised constructions and extraposed constructions
Þ A summary of to-clause use across registers
F rng-clauses, ellipsis/substitution, and review
Þ Grammatical patterns of ing-clauses
Þ Common verbs and adjectives controlling iøg-clauses
> Ellipsis and substitution in fo-, wh-, and that-clauses
Þ A review of complement clause use across registers