Source, Message and

Channel Factors

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
 The Persuasion Matrix

• Source, message, and channel factors are controllable

elements in the communication model.
• The persuasion matrix helps marketers see how each
controllable element interacts with the consumer’s
response process.
• The matrix has two sets of variables.
• Independent variables are the controllable components
of the communication process
• Dependent variables are the steps a receiver goes
through in being persuaded.
• Marketers can choose the person or source who delivers
the message, the type of message appeal used, and the
channel or medium.

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 The Persuasion Matrix

1. Receiver/comprehension: Can the receiver comprehend the ad?

2. Channel/presentation: Which media vehicles should be used to present the
advertising message?
3. Message/yielding: What type of message will create favorable attitudes or feelings?
4. Source/attention: Who will be effective in getting consumers’ attention?
 Promotional Planning Elements

Promotional Planning

1 2 3 4
Receiver/ Channel/ Message/ Source/
Comprehension presentation yielding attention

Can the Which media What type of Who will be

receiver will increase message will effective in
comprehend presentation? create getting
the ad? favorable consumers’
attitudes? attention?

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Source Factors// Source Attributes and
Receiver Processing Modes

• We use the term source to mean the person involved in communicating a

marketing message, either directly or indirectly.
• A direct source is a spokesperson who delivers a message and/or endorses a
product or service,
• An indirect source, say, a model, doesn’t actually deliver a message but draws
attention to and/or enhances the appearance of the ad.
• Some ads use neither a direct nor an indirect source; the source is the organization
with the message to communicate
• The source may be knowledgeable, popular, and/or physically attractive; typify the
target audience; or have the power to reward or punish the receiver in some
manner.
• Herbert Kelman developed three basic categories of source attributes:
• credibility,
• attractiveness, and
• power.

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Source Factors// Source Attributes and
Receiver Processing Modes

Source Attribute Process

Power Compliance

Attractiveness Identification

Credibility Internalization

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Source Credibility
• Credibility is the extent to which the recipient sees the source as having relevant
knowledge, skill, or experience and trusts the source to give unbiased, objective
information.
• There are two important dimensions to credibility: expertise and trustworthiness.
• The source also has to be extert- knowledge, skill, or experience
• The source also has to be trustworthy—honest, ethical, and believable.
• The influence of a knowledgeable source will be lessened if audience members
think he or she is biased or has underlying personal motives for advocating a
position
• Information from a credible source influences beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or
behavior through a process known as internalization, which occurs when the
receiver adopts the opinion of the credible communicator since he or she believes
information from this source is accurate

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Source Credibility

Knowledge

Source Skill

Expertise

Trustworthy

Information Unbiased

Objective

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Source Expertise
• Companies use a variety of techniques to convey source expertise.
• Sales personnel are trained in the product line, which increases customers’
perceptions of their expertise.
• Marketers of highly technical products recruit sales reps with specialized technical
backgrounds in engineering, computer science, and other areas to ensure their
expertise.
• Spokespeople are often chosen because of their knowledge, experience, and
expertise in a particular product or service area.
• Endorsements from individuals or groups recognized as experts, such as doctors or
dentists, are also common in advertising

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Source Trustworthiness

• Finding celebrities or other figures with trustworthy images is often difficult.

• Many trustworthy public figures hesitate to endorse products because of the
potential impact on their reputation and image.
• Advertisers use various techniques to increase the perception that their sources are
trustworthy.
• Hidden Cameras- to show that consumer is not a paid spokesperson and making a
objective evaluation of the product
• Overheard-conversation-creating a situation in a commercial where a person is
shown overhearing a conversation in which a favorable claims are made about
product.
• Publicity- Information received from sources such as newscasters is often very
influential because these individuals are perceived as unbiased and thus more
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
 Source Attractiveness
A source characteristic frequently used by advertisers is attractiveness,
which encompasses similarity, familiarity, and likability.

Similarity Familiarity Likeability

Resemblance Knowledge of the Affection for the

between the source through source resulting
source and repeated or from physical
recipient of the prolonged appearance,
message exposure behavior, or other
personal traits

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Attractive Models Are Often Used
in Cosmetic Ads

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

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 Source Attractiveness

• Source attractiveness leads to persuasion through a process of identification-whereby the

receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source and thus adopts
similar beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or behavior.
• Maintaining this position depends on the source’s continued support for the position as well
as the receive continued identification with the source.
• If the source changes position, the receiver may also change. Unlike internalization,
identification does not usually integrate information from an attractive source into the
receiver’s belief system

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
 Source Attractiveness

• Applying Similarity Marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by a
message coming from someone with whom they feel a sense of similarity.
• If the communicator and receiver have similar needs, goals, interests, and lifestyles, the
position advocated by the source is better understood and received.
• Similarity is used in various ways in marketing communications. Companies select
salespeople whose characteristics match well with their customers’.
• Similarity is also used by creating a situation where the consumer feels empathy for the
person shown in the commercial. In a slice-of-life commercial
• Marketers like to cast actors in their commercials that consumers will notice, recognize,
identify with, and remember
• Many companies feel that the best way to connect with consumers is by using regular-
looking, everyday people with whom the average person can easily identify.

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
 Source Attractiveness

• Applying Likability Marketers recognize the value of using popular celebrities to endorse
their companies and brands, such as TV and movie stars, athletes, entertainers, musicians,
and other well-known public figures
• There are a number of reasons marketers spend huge sums of money to have celebrities
• Many marketers recognize that celebrities have stopping power
• Another reason for using celebrity endorsers is that they can enhance the target audience’s
perceptions of the product or service in terms of image and/or performance
• A number of factors must be considered when a company decides to use a celebrity
spokesperson, including the dangers of overshadowing the product and being overexposed,
the target audience’s receptivity, and risks to the advertiser

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Risks of Using Celebrities
The celebrity may overshadow
the product being endorsed

The celebrity may be overexposed,

reducing his or her credibility

The target audience may not be

receptive to celebrity endorsers

The celebrity’s behavior may pose

a risk to the company

Return on Investment
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Some Advertisers “Push the Envelope”
With Their Choice of Celebrities

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
 Modes of Celebrity Presentation

Endorsements

Identification Testimonials

Celebrity

Representatives Placements

Dramatizations

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Meaning Movement and the Endorsement Process

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Choosing a Celebrity Endorser
• Advertising and marketing managers take these various factors into account when choosing a celebrity
endorser.
• Among the most important factors are
• the celebrity’s match with the target audience and the product/service or brand,
• the overall image of the celebrity,
• the cost of acquiring the celebrity,
• trustworthiness,
• the risk of controversy, and
• the celebrity’s familiarity and likability among the target audience
• Many companies and their advertising agencies rely on Q-scores
• Applying Likability Decorative Models:
• Research suggests that physically attractive communicators generally have a positive impact and
generate more favorable evaluations of both ads and products
• The gender appropriateness of the model for the product being advertised and his or her relevance
to the product are also important considerations
 Choosing a Celebrity Endorser
• Some models draw attention to the ad but not to the product or message.
• Studies show that an attractive model facilitates recognition of the ad but does not enhance
copy readership or message recall.
• Marketers must also consider whether the use of highly attractive models might negatively
impact advertising effectiveness.
• Some companies have developed marketing campaigns that undermine the traditional
approach to beauty care advertising by telling women, as well as young girls, that they’re
beautiful just the way they are.
• Example-Since 2004, Dove has run the “Campaign for Real Beauty” which is designed to
appeal to everyday women and offer a broader, healthier, and more democratic view of
beauty.
• Source Power
• A source has power when he or she can actually administer rewards and punishments to the
receiver.
 Message Factors
• Marketers must consider not only the content of their persuasive
messages but also how this information will be structured for
presentation and what type of message appeal will be used.
• Advertising, in all media except radio, relies heavily on visual as well as
verbal information.
 Message Structure
Message Structure

•An important aspect of message strategy is knowing the best way to

communicate these points and overcome any opposing viewpoints audience
members may hold.
•Extensive research has been conducted on how the structure of a persuasive
message can influence its effectiveness, including
•order of presentation,
•conclusion drawing,
•message sidedness,
•refutation, and
•verbal versus visual message characteristics.
 Message Structure
Order of Presentation

•Should the most important message points be placed at the beginning of the
message, in the middle, or at the end?
•Research on learning and memory generally indicates that items presented
first and last are remembered better than those presented in the middle
•A communicator’s strongest arguments should be presented early or late in
the message but never in the middle.
•Presenting the strongest arguments at the beginning of the message
assumes a primacy effect is operating, whereby information presented first
is most effective.
•Putting the strong points at the end assumes a recency effect, whereby
the last arguments presented are most persuasive
 Recall and Presentation Order
Recall

Beginning Middle End

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Message Structure
Order of Presentation

•Whether to place the strongest selling points at the beginning or the end of the
message depends on several factors.
•If the target audience is opposed to the communicator’s position, presenting
strong points first can reduce the level of counterargument.
•When the target audience is predisposed toward the communicator’s position or
is highly interested in the issue or product, strong arguments can be saved for the
end of the message
•when a long, detailed message with many arguments is being presented.
•Most effective sales presentations open and close with strong selling points and
bury weaker arguments in the middle.
•For short communications, such as a 15- or 30-second TV or radio commercial,
the order may be less critical.
 Message Structure
Conclusion Drawing

•Marketing communicators must decide whether their messages should

explicitly draw a firm conclusion or allow receivers to draw their own
conclusions
•studies have shown that the effectiveness of conclusion drawing may
depend on the target audience, the type of issue or topic, and the
nature of the situation
•More highly educated people prefer to draw their own conclusions
•the conclusion may be necessary for a less educated audience, who may not
draw any conclusion or may make an incorrect inference from the message.
•Marketers must also consider the audience’s level of involvement in the
topic.
•For highly personal or ego-involving issues, message recipients may want to
make up their own minds
 Message Structure
Conclusion Drawing

•One study found that open-ended ads (without explicit conclusions) were
more effective than closed-ended arguments that did include a specific
conclusion—but only for involved audiences
•Whether to draw a conclusion for the audience also depends on the
complexity of the topic.
•Even a highly educated audience may need assistance if its knowledge
level in a particular area is low.
•Drawing a conclusion in a message may make sure the target audience gets
the point the marketer intended.
•But many advertisers believe that letting customers draw their own
conclusions reinforces the points being made in the message
 Message Structure
Message Sidedness

•A one-sided message mentions only positive attributes or benefits.

•A two-sided message presents good as well as bad points.
•The logic of a two-sided message is that acknowledging a limitation or
short-coming can be a way to enhance credibility and make the message
more effective.
•One-sided messages are most effective when the target audience already
holds a favorable opinion about the topic.
•They also work better with a less educated audience.
•Two-sided messages are more effective when the target audience holds an
opposing opinion or is highly educated.
 Message Structure
Message Sidedness

•Two-sided messages may enhance the credibility of the source.

•A better-educated audience usually knows there are opposing arguments, so
a communicator who presents both sides of an issue is likely to be seen as
less biased and more objective.
•Most advertisers use one-sided messages.
•They are concerned about the negative effects of acknowledging a weakness
in their brand or don’t want to say anything positive about their competitors.
 Message Structure
Message Sidedness

•Refutation In a special type of two-sided message known as a refutational

appeal, the communicator presents both sides of an issue and then refutes
the opposing viewpoint.
•Since refutational appeals tend to “inoculate” the target audience against a
competitor’s counterclaims, they can be more effective than one-sided
messages in making consumers resistant to an opposing message.
•Refutational messages may be useful when marketers wish to build attitudes
that resist change and/or must defend against attacks or criticism of their
products or the company.
 Message Structure
Verbal versus Non-Verbal Message

•the nonverbal, visual elements of an ad are also very important. Many ads
provide minimal amounts of information and rely on visual elements to
communicate.
•Pictures are commonly used in advertising to convey information or
reinforce copy or message claims.
•Both the verbal and visual portions of an ad influence the way the
advertising message is processed.
•Consumers may develop images or impressions based on visual elements
such as an illustration in an ad or the scenes in a TV commercial.
 Message Structure
Verbal versus Non-Verbal Message

•the nonverbal, visual elements of an ad are also very important. Many ads
provide minimal amounts of information and rely on visual elements to
communicate.
•Pictures are commonly used in advertising to convey information or
reinforce copy or message claims.
•Both the verbal and visual portions of an ad influence the way the
advertising message is processed.
•Consumers may develop images or impressions based on visual elements
such as an illustration in an ad or the scenes in a TV commercial.
 Message Appeal Choices

Appeal mostly to the Appeal mostly to the

logical, rational minds feelings and emotions
of consumers of consumers

Appeal to both the logical,

rational minds of consumers and
to their feelings and emotions

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 Message Appeal Options

Comparative Fear Humor

Ads Appeals Appeals

• directly or indirectly • May stress physical • They can attract and

naming competitors in an
danger or threats to
ad hold attention
health
• resulted in greater • They are often the best
attention • May identify social remembered
• recall is higher for threats: disapproval
comparative than or rejection • They put the consumer
noncomparative messages in a positive mood
• May be especially useful
• May backfire if the
for new brands level of threat is too
high
• Often used for brands with
small market share
• Frequently use in political
advertising
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
A Very Direct, Side-By-Side Comparative Ad

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Fear Appeals and Message Acceptance

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Threat Plus Solution Gently Persuades

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 Pros and Cons of Using Humor

Pros Cons
Aids Attention and Does Not Aid Persuasion in
Awareness General

May Aid Retention of the May Harm Recall and

Message Comprehension

Creates a Positive Mood May Harm Complex Copy

and Enhances Persuasion Registration

May Aid Name and Simple Does Not Aid Source

Copy Registration Credibility

May Serve As a Distracter, Is Not Effective in Bringing

Reducing Counterarguing About Sales

May Wear Out Faster Than

Non-humorous Ads
© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Clever Execution of Humor in a Print Ad

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 Creative Directors Opinions
Regarding Use of Humor

Favorable Unfavorable

✓ Creative personnel  Research directors

✓ Radio and television  Direct mail,

newspapers
✓ Consumer non-
durables  Corporate advertising

✓ Business services  Industrial products

✓ Products related to  Goods and services

the humorous play of a sensitive nature

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Creative Directors Opinions
Regarding Use of Humor

Audiences Audiences
Favorable Unfavorable

✓ Younger  Older

✓ Well educated  Less educated

✓ Up-scale  Down-scale

✓ Males  Females

✓ Professional  Semi- or Unskilled

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Self versus External Paced Media

Self-Paced Externally Paced

Media Media

• Newspapers • Radio

• Magazines • Television
Vs.
• Direct Mail

• Internet

© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

The Image of a Magazine Can Enhance an Ad

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© 2003 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin