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Ankur KUMAR AGGARWAL

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So ware Developer

Par cipant Handbook

Sector
IT - ITeS

Sub-Sector
IT Services
Occupa on
Applica on Development
Reference ID: SSC/Q0501 , Version-2.0
NSQF Level: 5

So ware
Developer
Scan this QR Code to access eBook
Par cipant Handbook

Published by
IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM
Plot No -7 to 10, Sector 126, Noida, UP - 201303
Phone: 0120 4990172
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.sscnasscom.in

All Rights Reserved

First Edi on, August 2022

Copyright CC-BY-SA © 2018

IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM
Plot No -7 to 10, Sector 126, Noida, UP - 201303
Phone: 0120 4990172
E-mail: [email protected]

Disclaimer
The informa on contained herein has been obtained from sources reliable to IT - ITes Sector Skill
Council NASSCOM. IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM disclaims all warran es to the accuracy,
completeness or adequacy of such informa on. IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM shall have no
liability for errors, omissions, or inadequacies, in the informa on contained herein, or for
interpreta ons thereof. Every eﬀort has been made to trace the owners of the copyright material
included in the book. The publishers would be grateful for any omissions brought to their no ce for
acknowledgements in future edi ons of the book. No en ty in IT - ITES Sector Skill Council NASSCOM
shall be responsible for any loss whatsoever, sustained by any person who relies on this material. The
material in this publica on is copyrighted. No parts of this publica on may be reproduced, stored or
distributed in any form or by any means either on paper or electronic media, unless authorized by the
IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM.
So ware Developer

Skilling is building a be er India.

If we have to move India towards
development then Skill Development
should be our mission.

Shri Narendra Modi

Prime Minister of India

iii
Par cipant Handbook

Certiﬁcate

is hereby issued by the

IT-ITES Sector Skills Council NASSCOM

for

Complying to National Occupational Standards of

Job Role/Qualiﬁcation Pack: So ware Developer QP Nos SSC/N0501
NSQF Level 5

Date of Issuance: February 24 ,2022

Authorised Signatory
Valid up to : February 25 , 2025 (IT-ITes Sector Skils Council NASSCOM)
*Valid up to the next review date of the Qualiﬁcation Pack or the
‘Valid up to’ date mentioned above (whichever is earlier)

iv
So ware Developer

Acknowledgements
IT-ITeS Sector Skils Council NASSCOM would like to express its gra tude to all the individuals and
ins tu ons who contributed in diﬀerent ways towards the prepara on of this “Par cipant Handbook”.
Without their contribu on it would not have been completed. Special thanks are extended to those
who collaborated in the prepara on of its diﬀerent modules. Sincere apprecia on is also extended to all
who provided peer review for these modules. The prepara on of this Handbook would not have been
possible without the IT - ITeS support. Industry feedback has been extremely encouraging from
incep on to conclusion and it is with their input that we have tried to bridge the skill gaps exis ng today
in the Industry.
This handbook is dedicated to the aspiring youth who desire to achieve special skills which will be a
lifelong asset for their future endeavours.

v
Par cipant Handbook

About this Book

This Par cipant Handbook is developed to impart training for the skill and knowledge required to work
as an So ware Developer. It is designed based on the Qualifica on Pack SSC/Q0501 under the Na onal
Skill Qualifica on Framework and comprises of the following NOS/ topics:
1. SSC/N0501 Contribute to the design of so ware products and applica ons
2. SSC/N0502 Develop so ware code to specifica on
3. SSC/N9001 Manage your work to meet requirements
4. SSC/N9002 Work effec vely with colleagues
5. SSC/N9003 Maintain a healthy, safe and secure working environment
6. SSC/N9004 Provide data/informa on in standard formats
7. SSC/N9014 Implement & Improve the Gender Sensi vity, PWD (Person/People with Disability)
Sensi vity and Greening
This book is designed considering the technical demand and educa onal background of the
par cipants. Thus, special effort has been made to explain the concepts required for the job mostly
through graphics and illustra ons.

Symbols Used

Key Learning Unit

Summary Notes Exercise
Outcomes Objec ves

vi
So ware Developer

Table of Contents
SI.No Modules and Units Page No

1. IT-ITeS/IT Services Industry – An Introduc on (Bridge Module) 1

Unit 1.1 - Introduc on to IT-ITeS industry and its Various Sub-sectors 3

Unit 1.2 - Career Path for a So ware Developer 13

2. IT Services – An Introduc on (Bridge Module) 23

Unit 2.1 - So ware development & IT Services 25

3. Programming and Algorithms (SSC/N0501 ) 37

Unit 3.1 - So ware Programming & Algorithm Development 39

4. Analysis and Design of So ware Applica ons (SSC/N0501 ) 57

Unit 4.1 - So ware Development Life Cycle 59

Unit 4.2 - Elements of So ware Development Process 75

5. Work Requirement, Tools and So ware (SSC/N0501 ) 80

Unit 5.1 - Program Speciﬁca on and Programming Language 82

Unit 5.2 - Approaches to Develop Applica ons and the Key Processes 96

6. Process of So ware Development (SSC/N0502 ) 108

Unit 6.1 - So ware Development Lifecycle 110

7. Process of Applica on Development (SSC/N0502 ) 120

Unit 7.1 - Quality A ributes of So ware Requirements Speciﬁca on 122

Unit 7.2 - Custom and Rapid Applica on So ware 157

8. Concept of So ware Tes ng (SSC/N0502 ) 174

Unit 8.1 - So ware Tes ng 176

9. Self and Work Management (SSC/ N9001) 194

Unit 9.1 - Importance of Following Work Instruc on and Complying with Company Policies 196

vii
Par cipant Handbook

Table of Contents
SI.No Modules and Units Page No

10. Teamwork and Communica on (SSC/N9002) 210

Unit 10.1 - Team Work and Communica on 212

Unit 10.2 - Team Work 215

11. Managing Health and Safety (SSC/N9003) 222

Unit 11.1 - Occupa onal Health and Safety 224

12. Workplace Data Management (SSC/N9004) 249

Unit 12.1 - Data Management 251

13. Inclusive and environmentally sustainable workplaces (SSC/N9014) 256

Unit 13.1 - Sustainable Prac ces 258

Unit 13.2 - Respect Diversity and Strengthen Prac ces to Promote Equality 271

13. Annexure - QR Code 281

viii
So ware Developer

ix
Par cipant Handbook

1. IT-ITeS/IT Services
Industry – An
Introduc on
Unit 1.1 - Introduc on to IT-ITeS industry and its
Various Sub-sectors
Unit 1.2 - Career Path for a So ware Developer

Bridge Module
1
So ware Developer

Key Learning Outcomes

2
Par cipant Handbook

Unit 1.1 Introduc on to IT-ITeS Industry and its Various

Sub-Sectors

Unit Objec ves

1.1.1 Introduc on to the IT-ITeS industry

Nearly every major global industry relies on informa on technology and the hardware and so ware
associated with the IT industry. The informa on technology industry has developed into one of the most
prosperous in the world. IT has increased produc vity more than any other industry or economic sector,
par cularly in the developed world, and is thus a key driver of global economic growth. This rapidly
expanding industry is dis nguished by economies of scale and insa able consumer and business
demand. "Informa on Technology" is deﬁned by the Informa on Technology Associa on of America
(ITAA) as "all possible aspects of computer-based informa on systems." The IT industry encompasses
everything from computer systems to design, implementa on, research, so ware, and hardware
development.

Enterprise
Intelligence &
Data
Warehousing
Enterprise portals
E-Business
& contest
solu ons
managment

IT Services

Applica on
Migra on &
development &
reengineering
maintenance

QA/Tes ng

Fig 1.1 Features of the IT Industry

As it provides easy access to informa on, the IT industry can serve as a medium for e-governance. The
applica on of informa on technology in the service sector increases opera onal eﬃciency and
transparency. It also serves as a medium for skill development.

3
So ware Developer

1.1.2 ITeS Industry and its Various Sub-sectors

The IT industry has also boosted demand in the Indian educa on sector, par cularly in engineering and
computer science. IT and ITeS industry in India is divided into four major segments: IT services, Business
Process Management (BPM), so ware products and engineering services, and hardware.
The following ﬁgure exhibit the main sub-sectors iden ﬁed as sub-sectors of the IT/ITES sector:

IT Service
• It involves various engagement categories, such as consul ng,
systems integra on, IT outsourcing/managed services/hos ng
services, training, and support/maintenance.

Business Process Management

• It owns and manages the selected processes under deﬁned and
measurable performance metrics.
• This subsector's evolu on represents a shi in the delivery of
business processes from high-cost to low-cost des na ons.
• This shi is facilitated by advancements in informa on and
communica on technologies.

So ware Products
• So ware products are any type of programme or code set that is
commercially available for purchase, lease, rental, or service.
• Packaged so ware revenues typically include fees for ini al and
ongoing right-to-use packaged so ware licenses.

Fig 1.2 Sub-sectors of the IT/ITES Industry

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Par cipant Handbook

As per a recent economic survey, the IT-ITeS sector has added nearly fourteen million jobs per year over
the last four years, and this ﬁgure is expected to rise in the future. The gap between the demand for and
supply of technical manpower is one of the primary reasons for such a phenomenal growth rate. The
sector's high a ri on rate frequently results in a large number of job openings and plenty of
opportuni es in diﬀerent sectors in India.

Fig 1.3 ITeS Sector

Business Process Management (BPM): The BPM industry has emerged as a key driver of growth for
India's so ware and services industries. Oﬀering services such as customer service, technical support,
telemarke ng, online research, and so on, the ITeS-BPM sector has emerged as one of the largest job
creators in the Indian industry. Tes ng or quality assurance, applica on development and maintenance,
and data center opera ons are all outsourced to a third-party vendor/company to lower opera onal
costs and increase eﬃciency. Some of the leading BPM outsourcing service providers include Genpact,
Wipro, TCS, and Infosys.

Excellent communica on Basic knowledge of computers and

skills good typing speed

Capable of searching informa on Listen to the needs of the customer

from the database quickly and act accordingly

Fig 1.4 Skills Required for Business Process Management (BPM)

5
So ware Developer

Engineering Services Outsourcing (ESO): It is one of the largest industrial sectors and is expected to
grow to $40 billion by 2020. Engineering services are typically outsourced for two reasons: cost and
quality. In contrast to the BPM sector, where lower opera onal costs are a major factor in outsourcing
services, ESO focuses on the ability to obtain higher-quality products from a domain-focused company
or third party.
The delivery of engineering services begins with the requirement phase (to build a new product or
technology). The design phase follows the requirement phase, in which engineers analyze the idea or
problem and design solu ons as per the design speciﬁca ons and guidelines. The designed model goes
through the manufacturing or construc on phase before being tested. Standards are crucial
throughout the engineering cycle, as are the engineering results, and engineers communicate with the
client at all stages. Engineers are frequently involved in the product's opera on and support services
a er it has been completed.

Excellent communica on skills Exellent technical skills

Domain Expert

Fig 1.5 Skills Required for Engineering Services Outsourcing (ESO)

Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO): It includes elements of BPM, research, and analysis. A company
involved in knowledge processing would thus be an organiza on whose goals are determined by the
domain knowledge, skills, and experience of the people performing the processes. For example, an
American company may outsource data entry to a BPM ini a ve and select a KPO service provider to
evaluate its applica ons based on a set of criteria/standards.
Work to evaluate and test applica ons would necessitate more skilled labour than data entry. As a
result, a KPO industry encompasses more exper se than a BPO industry, which is more concerned with
size and eﬃciency.

Capable of analyzing the raw

Proﬁcient in retrieving data
data to generate and create
from the web
reports

Exellent theore cal and Possess good wri en and

domain knowledge verbal communica on skills

Fig 1.6 Required skills for Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO)

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Par cipant Handbook

IT Enabled Services

Engineering Services Business Process Knowledge Process Legal Process

Outsourcing (ESO) Management (BPM) Outstanding (KPO) Outsourcing (LPO)

Fig 1.7 IT Enabled Services

Legal Process Outsourcing (LPO): It refers to law firms outsourcing/offshoring various elements of the
legal process to offshore centres in India. In 1995, Bickel & Brewer was the first firm to do legal
outsourcing in India. Six years later, in 2001, GE became the first company to outsource its in-house legal
work to the United States. Documenta on and dra ing (data entry and document management), filing
patent applica ons, infringement studies, and legal research are all common tasks in an LPO firm. A law
degree is required for the majority of the work, but engineers now perform a large por on of the work in
the LPO sector. Engineers performing patent work are in high demand in the intellectual property rights
domain.

Quan ta ve as well as
Good wri en and verbal
qualita ve skills for dra ing
communica on skills
and research work

Fig 1.8 Required skills for Legal Process Outsourcing (LPO)

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

7
So ware Developer

1.1.3 Key Emerging Trends in IT- ITeS industry

The informa on technology industry is booming like never before, and more and more brands are
looking to expand in this area due to the enormous amount of poten al. Informa on technology has a
wide range of applica ons, which is why it has proven to be a valuable key component in the overall
structure that industries now have. With the growing importance of informa on technology, it is cri cal
to understand the key components that make it the revolu onary tool that it is.

Cloud Compu ng
• Cloud compu ng is the go-to solu on for brands looking to improve
and streamline their opera ons in a digital environment.loud
compu ng is the delivery of compu ng services such as servers,
storage, databases, networking, so ware, analy cs, and intelligence
via the Internet ("the cloud") to provide faster innova on, more
ﬂexible resources, and economies of scale.

Mobile Apps
• Brands and industries all over the world are a emp ng to ﬁnd ways to
improve their work by u lizing mobile apps and implemen ng new
resources that can make working on the go more eﬃcient.

Big Data Analy cs

• Big data analy cs enables organiza ons to process their informa on in
a be er way and gain a be er understanding of the areas in which they
need to improve.

Automa on
• Automa on speeds up processes and allows businesses to achieve
their objec ves more eﬃciently.

Con nued...

8
Par cipant Handbook

Ar ficial Intelligence
• While automa on is increasing, ar ficial intelligence is finally seeing
the light of day.
• Several new AI mediums got introduced in recent years and industries
are looking for ways to expand these resources and put their work into
ac on.
• Ar ficial intelligence is now ge ng implemented on a larger scale and
is expected to con nue in the coming years.

Smart Technology
• Homes are becoming smarter as a result of the numerous integrated
devices that work to improve our lives.
• Alexa and other supplementary resources have proven to be extremely
useful in this regard, making homes signiﬁcantly more eﬃcient and
safer in the process.

Iot Networks
• The Internet of Things is a concept in which all digital devices are linked
by a single medium, allowing people to control everything in their
homes.
• More and more brands are realizing that this is the way of the future
and that it is technologically feasible.
• More brands are beginning to incorporate this concept, and the
sta s cs suppor ng this point a est to posi ve growth in this area.

Virtual Reality
• The gaming industry has always grown alongside the ﬁeld of
informa on technology, and virtual reality has taken this one step
further, providing customers with the pinnacle of digital experience.
• Virtual reality gaming has already begun to gain popularity as a result
of new technology that improves the industry's ability to grow.

Augmented Reality
• Augmented reality is another approach to 'ar ﬁcial experiences' to
which people now have access.
• It has improved the way the ﬁeld has been able to develop.
• Augmented reality is seeing a lot more applicability outside of the
gaming industry and is seeing more implementa on than virtual
reality.

Con nued...

9
So ware Developer

Block chain Data

• Blockchains are used to store transac onal data as a digital ledger.
• The informa on stored as signed blocks is linked together to form a
chain of immutable, interconnected data entries.
• Blockchain technology is only now gaining popularity and is being
adopted by industries all over the world for the beneﬁts it provides.

Cyber Security
• The poten al threats that people may face are only increasing with the
evolu on of advanced digital media and technology.
• As a result, cybersecurity has had to expand signiﬁcantly in recent
years to keep up with the rapid economic expansion.
• Industries all over the world recognize the importance of inves ng in
cybersecurity. The ﬁeld is expanding at such a rapid pace.

Predic ve Analy cs Implementa ons

• Predic ve Analy cs is the process of analyzing large amounts of data to
make predic ons about the possible outcomes of a situa on.
• Market analysts see this as a tremendously valuable tool for brands to
determine whether they should be moving in a specific direc on or
not.
• This method of analysis has proven to be extremely efficient, saving
the industry a significant amount of money in the process.

Cloud Migra on
• Cloud migra on is the process of transferring data, applica ons, or
other business elements to a cloud compu ng environment.
• Cloud migra on has proven highly beneﬁcial for businesses that want
to go digital and keep be er records of their data.

Quantum Compu ng Applica ons

• Quantum compu ng is the process of using complex equa ons and
methodologies to perform mul ple complex tasks or process large
amounts of data with equal eﬃciency.
• It has proven to be extremely beneﬁcial for a wide range of industries,
which is why it is experiencing rapid growth.

Con nued...

10
Par cipant Handbook

Open Source Solu ons

• Open Source programs give users access to some of the most crucial
files and frameworks in a program, allowing them to easily modify it.
• As more users gain technological proficiency, giving them the op on to
work with applica ons directly is proving to be extremely beneficial.

Edge Compu ng
• Edge compu ng occurs when large amounts of data are processed
near the network's edge rather than where the data gets generated.
• It helps to enhance the eﬃciency and op miza on of the processing.
• More development mediums are op ng for this type of compu ng
over tradi onal due to its eﬃciency.
• It also demonstrates that more compu ng methods and program
genera on are being developed.

Chatbots
• Chatbots are programs that respond to speciﬁc queries in speciﬁc ways
and assist customers with some of the more basic func ons that they
may require.
• Of course, they are s ll not a complete subs tute for real- me
customer service, which is what has allowed them to remain in
development.

Fig 1.9 Key Emerging Trends in IT- ITeS industry

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

11
So ware Developer

Exercise
I. Answer the following ques ons-
1. List various features of IT industry.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the various sub-sectors of ITeS industry.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the services provided by IT Service Sector.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What do you understand by Business Process Management?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. Diﬀeren ate between KPO and LPO in IT industry.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Discuss key emerging trends in IT industry.
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

II. MCQ/Match the Followings-

1. What are the factors which have an impact when deciding on a BPO Des na on?
a) Reliable Telecommunica on Infrastructure
b) Cost of Labour
c) Strong Regulatory Framework
d) All of the above

III. Fill in the Blanks

1. _______________is one of the largest sectors of the industrial world.
2. Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) involves a component of _______________________.
3. _________________________ that enables the business by improving the quality of service is IT
enabled services.
4. The use of informa on technology in the service sector improves ______________________and
adds to transparency.

12
Par cipant Handbook

Unit 1.2 Career Path for a So ware Developer

Unit Objec ves

1.2.1 So ware Development

"So ware development" refers to a group of computer science ac vi es concerned with the process of
crea ng, designing, deploying, and suppor ng so ware. Surprisingly, the work is not limited to coders
or a development team. As part of their jobs, scien sts, device fabricators, and hardware designers
create code and algorithms. Work done by so ware developers is related to but dis nct from that of
so ware engineers. So ware engineers typically use engineering principles to create so ware for
specific func ons. So ware developers are becoming more involved in the en re so ware
development lifecycle. Another dis nc on is the dis nc on between custom so ware development
and commercial so ware development. Custom so ware development refers to the crea on of
applica ons for specific purposes, typically within organiza ons.
As so ware products, commercial so ware development delivers so ware to a larger group of
consumers. The crea ve minds behind computer programs are known as so ware developers. Some
programmers create applica ons that allow people to perform specific tasks on a computer or other
device. Others create the underlying systems that power devices or control networks.

1.2.2 Roles & Responsibili es of So ware Developers

So ware developers have the following roles and responsibili es:

Design each piece of an

Analyze users’ needs and then Recommend so ware
applica on or system and plan
design, test, and develop upgrades for customers’
how the pieces will work
so ware to meet those needs exis ng programs and systems
together

Create a variety of models and

Ensure that a program Document every aspect of an
diagrams (such as ﬂowcharts)
con nues to func on normally applica on or system as a
that show programmers the
through so ware maintenance reference for future
so ware code needed for an
and tes ng maintenance and upgrades
applica on

Collaborate with other

computer specialists to create
op mum so ware

Fig 1.10 Roles & Responsibili es of So ware Developer

13
So ware Developer

1.2.3 Key Competencies of So ware Developers

Following are the key competencies of so ware developers.

Analy cal skills Communica on skills Crea vity

• Analyse users’ needs and • Able to give clear • To build new computer
then design so ware to instruc ons to others so ware on the basis of
meet those needs working on a project their crea ve ideas
• Explain to their customers
how the so ware works
and answer any ques ons
that arise

Detail-oriented. Interpersonal skills Problem-solving skills

• Able to concentrate and • Able to work well with • Able to solve problems
pay a en on to detail others who contribute to that arise throughout the
designing, developing, and design process.
programming successful
so ware

Fig 1.11 Key Competencies of So ware Developer

1.2.4 Career Opportuni es in So ware Development

Opportuni es in the so ware development ﬁeld are expanding in lockstep with the advancement of
technology. Management posi ons are available for skilled programmers who want to develop
interpersonal rela onships and so skills. A technically proﬁcient communicator has numerous op ons
and can eventually qualify for many roles such as senior developer, team lead, architect, and manager, as
well as move into senior management. The path to the highest-paying senior posi ons can take several
months to several years, depending on a variety of factors. The rate of career path progression is
primarily determined by demonstrated technical ability, internal drive, cri cal thinking, and
communica on skills.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

14
Par cipant Handbook

A typical so ware developer career path:

It is the entry-level or star ng posi on that a developer with li le to no

real-world computer programming experience would have right out of
college or an accelerated course like Woz U So ware Developer.
Typical requirements for a Junior Developer include:
a. The ability to write simple scripts
b. Understanding of the expected applica on lifecycle
c. Basic understanding of database and applica on services, such as
queues and caching
The main dis nc on between a junior and senior developer, however, is
Junior Developer experience.

A so ware developer, also known as a senior so ware developer, is

someone who has mastered the crea on of en re applica ons. The
majority of a so ware developer's career will be spent as a senior
developer.
Typical requirements for a so ware developer include:
a. Having several years of professional programming experience
b. ability to write complex code
So ware Developer or
Senior So ware c. possessing a thorough understanding of databases, applica on
Developer services, and applica on lifecycle development

The lead developer or architect is someone who wants more

responsibility and challenge but does not want to manage a team. They
are also specialized senior developers to whom other programmers
look for guidance. While s ll wri ng code, lead developers typically
coordinate work and implement decisions. Their primary responsibility
is to design complex systems implemented by other developers.
The typical requirements for lead developer posi ons include:
a. Many years of professional programming experience
b. Demonstrates subject ma er exper se
c. Possessing the same technical skills that a senior developer may
have
d. Ability to conceptualize, plan and build so ware to solve complex
problems
Lead developer posi ons are frequently viewed as stepping stones to
mid-level management posi ons, whereas architect is a technical
posi on that is rarely a stepping stone. Technical architects are
Lead Developer or frequently regarded as the pinnacle of the technical career ladder.
Architect

15
So ware Developer

Management is the next logical and tradi onal step in the career of
a so ware developer. Managers have various focuses and
responsibili es, which include:
· Managing large-scale projects
· Managing teams of developers
· Hiring and firing developers
The mid-level manager monitors workflow and produc vity and
reports to a higher-level leader or manager. Their typical func on
is to coordinate the applica on's and project leader's needs with
the development team. This posi on requires excellent
interpersonal skills and the ability to resolve conflicts effec vely. It
also includes removing and adding team members as needed. One
of the major disadvantages of becoming a mid-level manager is
that they may have to fire people. Many people find this to be a
Development Team Lead or psychological and emo onal challenge, but when mastered, it can
So ware Development be a powerful leadership skill.
Manager

The primary dis nc on between a senior and mid-level manager is

that senior management typically supervises the work of other
managers and may be responsible for se ng strategy and
corporate direc on. Senior management posi ons include the
following:
· Director
· Vice President
· Chief Technology Officer
A senior manager's job is to make execu ve-level decisions such as
long-term strategy, goal se ng, and accountability for en re
departments. They must also mo vate and hold their managers
accountable for par cular measurable objec ves. Senior-level
execu ves hire, supervise, and fire mid-level managers and report
only to other senior-level execu ves, such as the CEO or the board
Director or Vice President or of directors.
Chief Technology Officer

Table 1.1 Career Path of So ware Developer

16
Par cipant Handbook

1.2.5 Other Professional Careers Related to So ware

Development
1. Computer and Informa on Research Scien sts - The computer and informa on researchers invent
and design new approaches to compu ng technology, as well as ﬁnd novel applica ons for exis ng
technology. They research and solve complex compu ng problems in business, medicine, science,
and other ﬁelds.
2. Computer and Informa on Systems Managers - Computer and informa on systems managers, also
known as informa on technology (IT) managers or IT project managers, plan, coordinate, and direct
an organiza on's computer-related ac vi es. They assist in determining an organiza on's
informa on technology goals and are in charge of implemen ng computer systems to achieve those
goals.
3. Computer Hardware Engineers - Computer hardware engineers are responsible for the research,
design, development, and tes ng of computer systems and components such as:

Processors Circuit boards Memory devices

Networks Routers

Fig 1.12 Computer Hardware Components

4. Computer Programmers: Computer programmers create and test

code that enables computer applica ons and so ware programme to
work properly. They convert the programme designs created by
so ware developers and engineers into computer-readable
instruc ons.

Fig 1.13 Computer Programmers

17
So ware Developer

5. Computer Network Architects: Computer network architects plan and

construct data communica on networks such as local area networks (LANs),
wide area networks (WANs), and intranets. These networks range from two-
oﬃce connec ons to next-genera on networking capabili es such as a
cloud infrastructure that serves mul ple customers.

Fig 1.14 Computer

Network Architects

6. Computer Support Specialists: Computer support specialists assist and

advise computer users and businesses. These professionals either support
computer networks or provide direct technical assistance to computer users.

Fig 1.15 Computer

Support Specialists

7. Computer Systems Analysts: Computer systems analysts, also known as

systems architects, evaluate and study an organiza on's current computer
systems and procedures and devise solu ons to help the organiza on
operate more eﬃciently and eﬀec vely. They connect business and
informa on technology (IT) by understanding their respec ve needs and
limita ons.

Fig 1.16 Computer

System Analysts

8. Database Administrators: Database administrators (DBAs) store and

organize data such as ﬁnancial informa on and customer shipping records
using specialized so ware. They ensure that data is accessible to users and
protected from unauthorized access.

Fig 1.17 Database

Administrators

9. Informa on Security Analysts: Informa on security analysts devise and

implement security measures to safeguard a company's computer networks
and systems. As the number of cyber-a acks increases, so will their
responsibili es.

Fig 1.18 Informa on

Security Analysts

18
Par cipant Handbook

10. Mathema cians and Sta s cians: Mathema cians and sta s cians analyze
data and use mathema cal and sta s cal techniques to solve real-world
problems in ﬁelds such as business, engineering, healthcare, and others.

Fig 1.19 Mathema cians

and Sta s cians

11. Postsecondary Teachers: They instruct students in a wide variety of academic

and technical subjects beyond the high school level. They may also conduct
research and publish scholarly papers and books.

Fig 1.20 Postsecondary

Teachers

12. Web Developers: Web developers create and design websites. They are in
charge of the site's appearance. They are also in charge of the site's technical
aspects, such as performance and capacity, which are measures of a
website's speed and capacity to handle the traﬃc. Web developers may also
create content for the site.

Fig 1.21 Web

Developers

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

19
So ware Developer

Summary
• The Informa on Technology Associa on of America (ITAA) defines "Informa on Technology" as "all
possible aspects of computer-based informa on systems." Everything from computer systems to
the design, implementa on, study and development of so ware and hardware is included in the IT
industry.
• Economies of scale for the informa on technology industry are high. The marginal cost of each unit
of addi onal so ware or hardware is insignificant compared to the value addi on that results from
it.
• The IT industry can serve as a medium of e-governance, as it assures easy access to informa on. The
use of informa on technology in the service sector improves opera onal efficiency and adds to
transparency. It also serves as a medium of skill forma on.
• Informa on technology services such as tes ng or quality assurance, applica on development, and
maintenance, and data centre opera ons are outsourced to a third-party vendor/company with the
objec ve of reduced opera onal costs and higher efficiency. Genpact, Wipro, TCS, and Infosys are
some of the dominant outsourcing service providers in the BPM field.
• Knowledge of consumer behaviour is an equally desired skill. People working in the BPM sector
should have the pa ence to listen to customer requirements and act accordingly.
• Engineering Services Outsourcing (ESO) is one of the largest sectors of the industrial world and is
es mated to grow to $40 billion by 2020. Cost and quality are the two main reasons why
engineering services are outsourced. Unlike the BPM sector, where lower opera onal cost is a major
factor to outsource services, ESO focuses on the ability to get be er quality products from a domain-
focused company/third party.
• The engineering services require technical skills and good engineering judgment. Hence domain
exper se is a must.
• Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) involves a component of BPM, research, and analysis. A
company involved in knowledge processing would thus be an organiza on where objec ves are
dependent on the domain knowledge, skills, and experience of the people carrying out the
processes.
• “So ware development refers to a set of computer science ac vi es dedicated to the process of
crea ng, designing, deploying and suppor ng so ware.”
• So ware developers are the crea ve minds behind computer programs.
• Developers who supervise a so ware project from the planning stages through implementa on
some mes are called informa on technology (IT) project managers. These workers monitor the
project’s progress to ensure that it meets deadlines, standards, and cost targets. IT project
managers who plan and direct an organiza on’s IT department or IT policies are included in the
profile of computer and informa on systems managers.
• Applica on so ware developers design computer applica ons, such as word processors and
games, for consumers. They may create custom so ware for a specific customer or commercial
so ware to be sold to the general public.
• Developers must be able to give clear instruc ons to others working on a project. They must also
explain to their customers how the so ware works and answer any ques ons that arise.
• Problem-solving skills. Because developers are in charge of so ware from beginning to end, they
must be able to solve problems that arise throughout the design process.

20
Par cipant Handbook

• A so ware developer, or senior so ware developer is someone who has become proﬁcient at
crea ng en re applica ons. Much of a so ware developer’s career path will include spending
several years as a senior-developer.
• A lead developer or architect role is for someone who wants more responsibility and challenge but is
not interested in managing a team.
• Management is the next logical and tradi onal step along the so ware developer career path.
• The main diﬀerence between a senior and mid-level manager is that senior management tends to
oversee the work of other managers and may have some responsibility for se ng strategy and
corporate direc on.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

21
So ware Developer

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks:
1. _______________________ is someone who has become proficient at crea ng en re
applica ons.
2. ______________________ is the next logical and tradi onal step along the so ware developer
career path.
3. Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) involves a component of ________________________.
4. ___________________ who plan and direct an organiza on’s IT department or IT policies are
included in the profile of computer and informa on systems managers.
II. Answer the following ques ons-
1. What do you mean by Systems So ware Developers?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the different phases of so ware development.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. List the important quali es for So ware Developers.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. List the careers related to So ware Developers.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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Unit 1.2 Career Path for a So ware Developer

22
Par cipant Handbook

2. IT Services – An
Introduc on
Unit 2.1 - So ware development & IT Services

Bridge Module
23
So ware Developer

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Collate exis ng documents, language standards, templates, and documenta on tools for
veriﬁca on of queries related to so ware development

24
Par cipant Handbook

UNIT 2.1:So ware Development & IT Services

Unit 2.1
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Explain the importance of the IT So ware services sector
2. List deployment issues of high capital investments, con nuous business availability, turnaround
me, communica on costs, etc. in the establishment of IT-enabled services

2.1.1 Importance of IT So ware Services Sector

Every business, large or small, requires effec ve IT services and systems to increase produc vity. Strong
and dependable IT services enable organiza ons to remain compe ve, whether by hiring in-house
informa on technology experts or maximizing the benefits of outsourcing technical support. As a result,
it is cri cal for organiza ons to stay up to date on the latest technological trends and to focus on
con nuously upda ng their exis ng computer systems.
Informa on technology aids in the development and expansion of the commerce and business sectors,
resul ng in maximum output. The me it takes for various sectors to generate business has been
reduced due to advancements in informa on technology. It provides electronic security, storage of data,
and effec ve communica on.
Clients prefer working with companies that keep up with technological trends. Being acutely aware of
the significance of IT support services, par cularly the major and minor changes in its structure, as well
as its costs and demands, demonstrates dedica on and dependability while ensuring more streamlined
opera ons. IT services and systems encompass a diverse range of problem-solving and crea ve
resources. Every me culously designed and high-tech device impacts significantly on how they carry out
the company's services and internal func ons. The following list enumerates the importance and
benefits of IT support services and scenarios in which informa on technology is intertwined with all of a
company's big and small decisions:

Safety from viruses &

Eﬀec ve Data Improve Decision Solve Complex Comprehensive
other compromising
Management Making Problems Monitoring
So ware

Organize Company Enhanced Online Improved Customer Propel Be er

Manpower & Human Marke ng Strategies Support Branding
Resource Management

Fig 2.1 Importance of IT So ware Services Sector

25
So ware Developer

1. Effec ve Data Management- Businesses keep sensi ve informa on like employee salaries,
earnings, and HR records. As a result, data storage and management are cri cal for any type of
business, and they are a prime example of why IT assistance is required. Incorpora ng competent IT
services into data management necessitates a more in-depth examina on of business
requirements as well as a more in-depth examina on of the company's data landscape. A good
backup strategy for all cri cal informa on and so ware can help a company avoid data breaches.
Designing an effec ve data management strategy requires a highly skilled team with
knowledgeable IT employees to handle and secure a company's valuable data. When this happens,
sensi ve company and employee data are effec vely protected from hackers and other a empts to
expose it.
2. Improve Decision Making - Solid market research is the founda on for sound business decisions.
The process includes video conferences, public comments on social media, industry forums, and
online survey feedback. These procedures aid in the making of be er business decisions and the
formula on of objec ves. Companies can also track growth and development using digital
marke ng technologies like Microso CRM Dynamics and Google Analy cs. On a bigger scale, IT
so ware improves exis ng strategies by providing more precise and advanced op ons for achieving
fundamental objec ves.
3. Solve Complex Problems - Another concrete example of IT support's importance is the
implementa on of advanced and precise solu ons to complex challenges affec ng internal systems
that keep a company running. IT services and systems provide organiza ons with the resources they
need to upgrade hardware such as memory storage, processor speed, and display quality. When
combined with intelligent apps like mind-mapping so ware, collabora ve systems, and an
automated procedure for making work more streamlined and structured, helps industries study and
collate data conveniently, evaluate informa on, and plan scalability. As a result, more viable
solu ons to complex business problems emerge.
4. Safety from Viruses and Other Compromising So ware - The IT support services ensure that the
computer systems are protected against a variety of viruses and other internet threats. It is IT
department's job to put up a combina on of standard an virus management to provide
comprehensive protec on for your devices. The firm will avoid falling prey to the threats of digital
data access and opera ons if they keep their computer systems updated and well-monitored.
5. Comprehensive Monitoring - At every level, it's cri cal to track the performance and progress of a
company's internal opera ons and consumer outreach ac vi es. Improving quality control,
facili es planning and logis cs for organiza ons with manufacturing loca ons, and internal audits
are some of the greatest ways that IT may help execute more refined supervision of a business'
essen al opera ons. For firms that provide online services to customers, comprehensive
monitoring with the help of a competent IT system is also a necessity. This is to ensure that their
services, as well as their clients' security, are not threatened.
6. Organize Company Manpower and Human Resource Management - Paper-based papers are
simply no longer efficient or prac cal, given the availability of more hi-tech and managed record-
keeping alterna ves. An informa on system can be tailored to a company's specific structure and
hiring prac ces, providing yet another example of why IT support is cri cal for start-ups and fast-
growing firms.
7. Enhanced Online Marke ng Strategies - Informa on systems can help marke ng strategy by
facilita ng more accurate market research and collec ng useful data. Finding target audiences,
determining their par cular requirements and desires, and crea ng a promo onal strategy that
en ces them to buy are all part of this process.

26
Par cipant Handbook

8. Improved Customer Support - Using the advantages of outsourcing IT support to implement

technology in customer support systems is another op on. Start-ups have a small workforce,
making it difficult to keep up with the growing volume of ques ons and customer complaints as
their services and audience reach develop. Hiring remote personnel to enhance the company's
exis ng workforce of support agents is doable with a reliable IT system. IT support services are
necessary for any type of business, whether it is a start-up or a well-established enterprise. It is
cri cal to not only maintain the system but also to excel through con nuous updates that can ensure
your company's op mal level of opera ons.
9. Propel Be er Branding - The influence that technical assistance has on developing branding
ini a ves is the last but not least example of why technical support is crucial. When branding is
combined with informa on services and systems, it can be used to improve exis ng marke ng
tac cs as well as help create new ones. IT can help to enhance branding by emphasizing the
uniqueness of a company's product and service offerings.

2.1.2 Applica ons in So ware Development

So ware developers are in charge of the en re so ware development process. They might start by
asking the customer how they intend to use the so ware. They must iden fy the core func onality that
so ware users require. So ware developers must also determine user requirements unrelated to the
so ware's func ons, such as the level of security and performance requirements. They design the
program and then give instruc ons to programmers, who write and test the computer code.
If the program does not work as expected or if testers find it too difficult to use, so ware developers,
return to the design process to fix or improve the program. A developer may perform upgrades and
maintenance on a program a er it has been released to the customer. Developers typically collaborate
closely with computer programmers.
In some companies, however, developers write code rather than giving instruc ons to programmers.
Developers who oversee a so ware project from planning to implementa on are some mes referred to
as informa on technology (IT) project managers. These employees keep track of the project's progress
to ensure that it meets deadlines, standards, and budgetary constraints. The profile of computer and
informa on systems managers includes IT project managers who plan and direct an organiza on's IT
department or IT policies. The following are examples of types of so ware developers:
a. Applica on so ware developers create computer applica ons for consumers, such as word
processors and games. They may develop custom so ware for a specific customer or commercial
so ware for general sale. Some applica on so ware developers design complex databases. They
also develop programs for use on the Internet and within a company's intranet.
b. Systems so ware developers design the systems that keep computers running. These could be
opera ng systems for computers purchased by the general public or systems built specifically for a
company. Systems so ware developers frequently create the system's interface, which allows users
to interact with the computer. System so ware developers create the opera ng systems that power
the majority of today's consumer electronics, including cell phones and automobiles. So ware
development creates applica ons that assist businesses in compe ng in a digital world. According
to IBM, "more than half of companies recognize that effec ve so ware development from idea on
to delivery is cri cal to achieving compe ve advantage.

27
So ware Developer

Web internet applica ons that support everything from email to retail
transac ons deliver new and improved products and services and diﬀeren ate
brands.

Mobile apps that run on smartphones and other mobile devices extend reach,
deliver immediate value and create posi ve user experiences.

Data Science analy cs applica ons help data scien sts discover insights and
opportuni es in big data sets.

Business applica ons core opera onal applica ons that run on opera ng
systems such as Microso Windows, Apple Mac OS, and Linux li produc vity
and streamline opera ons.

Back-end development integra on, database and maintenance coding enable

user-facing applica ons to run smoothly, deliver deeper informa on and enrich
user experiences.

So ware tools enhance the speed, processes, and reliability of applica on

development and improve applica on lifecycle management.

API applica on programming interfaces enable so ware programs to connect

and interact with each other and create new business pla orms and
opportuni es.

Con nued...

28
Par cipant Handbook

Embedded systems so ware embedded in en es that aren’t typically

considered computers, like power plants, cars, or refrigerators, deliver product
innova on as part of the Internet of Things (IoT).

Security applica ons that protect business and mission-cri cal so ware, data,
and other assets from the , viruses, and other forms of a ack strengthen
business resiliency.

Cloud so ware that enables organiza ons to take advantage of the eﬃciencies of
private, public, and hybrid clouds and build cloud-na ve applica ons.

Fig 2.2 Types of Applica ons in So ware Development

2.1.3 IT Enabled Services

IT-enabled services are those that use informa on technology to help businesses by improving the
service quality. ITES is an acronym for "IT Enabled Services." An IT-enabled service has the following
basic structure:

Value Addi on

Tradi onal Service IT enable Service Delivery

Fig 2.3 Business Process Reengineering

Source: h ps://cio-wiki.org/wiki/Informa on_Technology_Enabled_Services_(ITeS)

The most signiﬁcant factor is the added value of IT-enabled services. Customer rela onship
management, improved database, improved look and feel, and so on are examples of value addi ons.
An IT-enabled service produces two types of results:
a. Direct Improved Service
b. Indirect Beneﬁts

29
So ware Developer

Whereas direct benefits are immediately realised, indirect benefits accrue over me and can be very
effec vely harnessed if well planned ahead of me. IT Enabled Services (ITES), also known as web-
enabled services, remote services, or Tele-working, encompass the en re range of opera ons that use
informa on technology to improve the efficiency of an organisa on.
These services provide employment opportuni es in call centres, medical transcrip on, medical billing
and coding, back-office opera ons; revenue claims processing, legal databases, content development,
payrolls, logis cs management, GIS (Geographical Informa on System), HR services, web services, and
other areas.

2.1.4 Keys to IT-enabled Services

The following are the most important IT-enabled services:

Electronic Medical
Call Centers Data Centers
Publishing Transcrip on

Knowledge
GIS Mapping Portals ERP(Enterprise
Management
Resource Planning)
& Archiving

Fig 2.4 Keys to Enabled Services

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

30
Par cipant Handbook

Some of the services oﬀered include:

Document Data Entry and

Medical Transcrip on Data Warehousing
Processing Processing

IT Help Desk Applica on Enterprise Resource Telecommunica on

Services Development Planning Services

Fig 2.5 Services Oﬀered

2.1.5 Opportuni es and Challenges

Changing economic and business condi ons, rapid technological innova on, internet prolifera on, and
globaliza on are all contribu ng to an increasingly compe ve environment. Technology's role has
shi ed from suppor ng to transforming corpora ons. Global corpora ons are increasingly turning to
oﬀshore technology service providers to meet their demand for high-quality, low-cost technology
solu ons. Over a thousand global delivery hubs have been established by Indian IT-enabled service
companies in approximately 80 countries around the world. The opportuni es that exist behind India's
IT-enabled services are as follows:

Increased adop on of Policy support by the

Strong growing demand
technology government

Updated Technology and

Worldwide footprints Cu hroat compe on
Infrastructure

Fig 2.6 Opportuni es in IT/ITeS Enabled Services

31
So ware Developer

IT-enabled services offer a variety of IT processes and services. While the IT sector's growth prospects
are promising, there are numerous implementa on challenges to overcome when establishing IT-
enabled services. It is understandable that, as a company in the IT and ITES industry, they face a wide
range of risks and challenges in its efforts to create and sustain a seamless, successful, sustainable, and
scalable business. Among the difficul es encountered are:

Requirement of huge Con nuous business

High volume undertaking Time reversal
capital investment opportunity

Absence of trained and Absence of guide to Lack of security and

High interac on cost
authen c resources start-ups data privacy

Diﬃcult for smaller

Absence of good and
companies to
strong policies
market themselves

Fig 2.7 Challenges in IT/ITeS Enabled Services

2.1.6 Technologies Involved

There are two types of technologies involved in each service:
a. Enabling technology
b. Communica on
The enabling technologies are those that allow IT enablement. In call centres, for example, they are CTI
(Computer Telephony Integra on), CRM (Customer Rela onship Management), and so on. The
communica ons enable IT services to be delivered via a new channel-telephone, IP, VoIP (Voice over IP:
Voice over Internet Protocol), satellite transmission, and so on. When the right technology and
communica on channels are combined, service quality improves drama cally.

2.1.7 The Deployment Issues

A deployment problem occurs when the incorrect set of files is deployed to the site folder (usually d:
home/site/www-root), or when some files are not deployed at all. Expect a certain set of files to end up
in that folder as a result of deployment, but a failure during deployment results in a different set of files.

32
Par cipant Handbook

Six reasons for applica on deployment failure –

a. Inadequacy of the process - Opera onal resilience entails more than just the ability to recover from
setbacks. It also entails the ability to avoid failure through preventa ve measures. Many businesses
and informa on technology departments lack the opera onal resilience maturity required for
success. Although it is nearly impossible to prevent applica on failures, organiza ons must make
an effort to iden fy, predict, and correct them.
b. The release pipeline is inconsistent - Many organiza ons have a misalignment of so ware
deployment models via their IT systems. Because systems in IT landscapes are typically
interconnected, failures occur as a result.
c. Process complica ons - The variety of toolsets and deployment procedures used by development
and opera onal teams complicates some environments. A large number of tools creates mul ple
tooling domains with embedded manual processes between them, resul ng in process complexity.
Furthermore, there are mes when the provisioning and deployment processes are diametrically
opposed at opposite ends of the release pipeline.
d. Disobedience - During the development and release process, applica on vulnerability scanning
frequently reveals a lack of standardiza on and flexibility. Due to a lack of appropriate governance
measures, development teams fail to conduct appropriate security tes ng, resul ng in these flaws.
In some cases, tes ng is perceived as expensive and me-consuming, leading to a tendency to
minimize effort.
e. A lack of abili es - Every organiza on has its own hero developer or opera ons expert capable of
solving any problem on its own. Over me, processes are built around these individuals, making
them difficult to run when they leave. It is cri cal to have processes that are not only built around
one or two cri cal resources but are also scalable, repeatable, and automated in order to meet the
changing demands of the organiza on.
f. Uncertainty - A lack of proper communica on and interoperability between the demand and
supply sides of IT, development, and opera onal teams results in situa ons where ac ons are taken
in isola on and appear logical but fail when combined end to end. In many organiza ons, the
majority of changes are minor addi ons or altera ons. Unlike major projects, these changes are
frequently subject to less oversight and control.
While growth is strong and the prospects are bright, there are numerous deployment challenges in the
establishment of IT-enabled services.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

33
So ware Developer

High Capital Investments

High Volume Transac ons

Con nuous Business Availability

Time Turnaround

High Communica ons cost

Lack of trained and reliable

resources

Role model/Guide or Help to start-

ups

Fig 2.8 The Deployment Issues

Summary
• Informa on technology aids in the development and expansion of the commerce and business
sectors, resul ng in maximum output. The me it takes for various sectors to generate business has
been reduced due to advancements in informa on technology. It provides electronic security,
storage of data, and effec ve communica on.
• So ware developers are in charge of the en re so ware development process. They might start by
asking the customer how they intend to use the so ware. They must iden fy the core func onality
that so ware users require. So ware developers must also determine user requirements unrelated
to the so ware's func ons, such as the level of security and performance requirements.
• Applica on so ware developers create computer applica ons for consumers, such as word
processors and games. They may develop custom so ware for a specific customer or commercial
so ware for general sale. Some applica on so ware developers design complex databases.
• Systems so ware developers design the systems that keep computers running. These could be
opera ng systems for computers purchased by the general public or systems built specifically for a
company.

34
Par cipant Handbook

• So ware tools enhance the speed, processes, and reliability of applica on development and improve
applica on lifecycle management.
• The most significant factor is the added value of IT-enabled services. Customer rela onship
management, improved database, improved look and feel, and so on are examples of value addi ons.
• IT enabled services provide employment opportuni es in call centres, medical transcrip on, medical
billing and coding, back-office opera ons; revenue claims processing, legal databases, content
development, payrolls, logis cs management, GIS (Geographical Informa on System), HR services,
web services, and other areas.
• Changing economic and business condi ons, rapid technological innova on, internet prolifera on,
and globaliza on are all contribu ng to an increasingly compe ve environment. Technology's role
has shi ed from suppor ng to transforming corpora ons. Global corpora ons are increasingly
turning to offshore technology service providers to meet their demand for high-quality, low-cost
technology solu ons.
• IT-enabled services offer a variety of IT processes and services. While the IT sector's growth prospects
are promising, there are numerous implementa on challenges to overcome when establishing IT-
enabled services.
• The enabling technologies are those that allow IT enablement. In call centres, for example, they are
CTI (Computer Telephony Integra on), CRM (Customer Rela onship Management), and so on. The
communica ons enable IT services to be delivered via a new channel-telephone, IP, VoIP (Voice over
IP: Voice over Internet Protocol), satellite transmission, and so on. When the right technology and
communica on channels are combined, service quality improves drama cally.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

QR Code
Scan the QR Code to watch the related video

youtu.be/5T-cU1J32mc
Unit 2.1 So ware development & IT Services

35
So ware Developer

Exercise
I. Fill in the blanks:

a. _________________ enhance the speed, processes, and reliability of applica on development

and improve applica on lifecycle management.
b. ____________________ aids in the development and expansion of the commerce and business
sectors, resul ng in maximum output.
c. _______________________create computer applica ons for consumers, such as word
processors and games.
d. The ____________________ enable IT services to be delivered via a new channel-telephone, IP,
VoIP, satellite transmission, and so on.
e. _________________________provide employment opportuni es in call centres, medical
transcrip on, medical billing and coding, back-oﬃce opera ons.

II. Answer the following ques ons-

1. What are the Deployment issues in IT industry?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How many technologies are involved in the IT sector?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the keys to IT-Enabled services.
____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain the types of applica on of so ware development.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain the opportuni es and challenges of IT sector.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

36
Par cipant Handbook

3. Programming
and Algorithms
Unit 3.1 - So ware Programming & Algorithm
Development

SSC/N0501
37
So ware Developer

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Implement appropriate standards to assist in performing so ware construc on as per speciﬁca ons
2. Iden fy so ware development needs and changes
3. Design algorithms to solve problems and execute test cases to convert them into code

38
Par cipant Handbook

UNIT 2.1:So ware Programming & Algorithm Development

Unit 3.1
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. List the steps involved in solving computa onal problems
2. List the disadvantages of data ﬂow diagrams
3. Iden fy the process of algorithm development for so ware programming

3.1.1 Appropriate Standards for So ware Construc on as

Per Specifica ons
So ware construc on is the detailed crea on of working, meaningful so ware through a combina on
of coding, verifica on, unit tes ng, integra on tes ng, and debugging. So ware construc on is
strongly intertwined with all other aspects of so ware engineering, especially so ware design and
tes ng. It is due to the fact that the so ware development process entails significant so ware design
and tes ng ac vity. It also uses the output of design as one of the inputs to tes ng, with both design and
tes ng being ac vi es. The precise boundaries between design, construc on, and tes ng (if any) will
vary depending on the so ware life cycle processes used in a project.
Since some of the detailed design work gets done before construc on, the majority of design work is
carried out during the construc on process. As a result, so ware construc on and so ware design are
inextricably linked. Throughout the development process, so ware engineer's unit-test and integrate
their work. Thus, so ware development is inextricably linked to so ware tes ng too. So ware
development typically generates the most configura on items that must be managed in a so ware
project (source files, content, test cases, and so on). As a result, so ware development is inextricably
linked to so ware configura on management.
The following are the basic fundamentals/standards of so ware development:

Minimizing An cipa ng Construc ng for

complexity change veriﬁca on

Reuse Standards in
construc on

Fig 3.1 So ware Construc on Fundamentals

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So ware Developer

1. Minimizing complexity: Most people have a limited ability to retain complex structures and
informa on in their working memories, par cularly over long periods of me. This has a significant
impact on how people communicate their intent to computers, resul ng in one of the most
powerful forces in so ware development: minimizing complexity. The need to reduce complexity
applies to nearly every aspect of so ware development, but it is especially cri cal in so ware
tes ng. So ware development complexity is reduced by emphasizing simple and readable code
crea on over clever code crea on.
2. An cipa ng Change: Most so ware will evolve over me, and the an cipa on of change drives
many aspects of so ware development; changes in the environments in which so ware operates
also have a variety of effects on so ware. An cipa ng change assists so ware engineers in
developing extensible so ware, which allows them to improve a so ware product without
disrup ng its underlying structure. Many specific techniques aid in an cipa ng change.
3. Construc ng for Verifica on: Construc ng for verifica on entails developing so ware in such a
way that flaws can be easily iden fied by so ware engineers wri ng the so ware as well as testers
and users during independent tes ng and opera onal ac vi es. Following coding standards to
support code reviews and unit tes ng, organizing code to support automated tes ng, and limi ng
the use of complex or difficult-to-understand language structures are some of the specific
techniques that support construc ng for verifica on.
4. Reuse: The term "reuse" refers to the use of exis ng assets to solve various problems. Commonly
reused assets in so ware development include libraries, modules, components, source code, and
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) assets. Reuse works best when done methodically, according to a
well-defined, repeatable process. Systema c reuse can lead to significant gains in so ware
produc vity, quality, and cost. Construc on for reuse and construc on with reuse are two closely
related aspects of reuse. The former refers to the crea on of reusable so ware assets, whereas the
la er refers to the reuse of so ware assets in the development of a new solu on. Reuse frequently
crosses project boundaries, which means that reused assets can be built in other projects or
organisa ons.
5. Standards in Construc on: Using external or internal development standards during construc on
aids in mee ng project goals for efficiency, quality, and cost. Allowable programming language
subsets and usage standards, in par cular, are important aids in achieving higher security.
Standards that have a direct impact on construc on issues include
a. Methods of communica on (for example, standards for document formats and contents)
b. Programming languages (for example, java and C++ language standards) *coding standards (for
example, standards for naming conven ons, layout, and indenta on)
c. The pla orms (for example, interface standards for opera ng system calls)
d. Tools (for example, diagramma c nota on standards such as UML (unified modeling language).

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3.1.2 Steps involved in Computa onal Problems

A computa onal problem is one that a computer can solve or one that a computer can answer. Consider
the factoring problem: "Find a nontrivial prime factor of n given a posi ve integer n."
A computa onal problem can be solved step by step by a computer. These problems usually have a well-
deﬁned input, constraints, and condi ons that the output must meet. A computa onal problem can be
thought of as a collec on of instances or cases, each with its own set of solu ons, which may or may not
be empty. For example, in the factoring problem, instances are integers n, and solu ons are prime
numbers p that describes nontrivial prime factors of n.

Fig 3.2 Computa onal Problems

Types of computa onal problems:

A decision problem is one with a yes or no answer. A decision problem is, for
example, "given a number n, is n even?" Some decision problems necessitate
more steps than others. For example, "given a number n, is n prime?" requires
more steps than simply checking a number's parity.

A search problem has a solu on that consists of one or more values that sa sfy a
given condi on. For example, we might want to compute a path on a map from
one geographical loca on to another.

Con nued...

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So ware Developer

A coun ng problem is one in which the solu on is the number of possible

solu ons to a search problem.

An op miza on problem is one in which the solu on is the "best" possible

solu on, with "best" deﬁned in various ways. For example, we might want to ﬁnd
the shortest route from one loca on to another.

Fig 3.3 Types of Computa onal Problems

Data collec on or iden ﬁca on of a data set (numerical, text, audio, video, images, or symbols) and
analysis to discover similari es, diﬀerences, or trends. Abstrac on Filtering out irrelevant informa on
to reduce complexity. This can help to simplify problem-solving and create a general understanding of
the computa onal problem.

Speciﬁca on of an
Problem deﬁni on Development of a model
Algorithm

Checking the correctness of

Designing an Algorithm Analysis of an Algorithm
an Algorithm

Implementa on of an Program tes ng Documenta on

Algorithm

Fig 3.4 Problem Development Steps

3.1.3 So ware Needs and Changes

It is cri cal for businesses because it allows them to stand out from compe tors and become more
compe ve. Enhancing customer experiences, bringing more feature-rich and innova ve products to
market, and making setups safer, more produc ve, and more efficient are all benefits of so ware
development. Digi za on and online informa on storage not only save space but also integrate and
centralize informa on, making it easily accessible to those who need it. It is also simple to safeguard
your data against intruders. As the company expands, so will the pool of data, and efficiently storing this
data will become a priority. In order to con nue providing consistent performance to those who use this
data, businesses must develop and upgrade their digital organiza ons. Data analysis also necessitates

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so ware development. When combined with the right so ware, businesses can use the data collected
from day-to-day tasks to keep track of trends among their clients.
Purpose of so ware development in business:

Promote your business:

The development of so ware propels your company to new heights. It promotes
and spreads the brand by making it visible to everyone and almost anywhere
using a computer or smartphone.

Enhances sales and service:

It is cri cal to understand what customers think about the brand and products. If
businesses want to know their opinion and have them leave a posi ve comment,
they must have an online pla orm that allows customers to easily contact them
and share their thoughts on the products and services.

Direct communica on:

The only thing that can help the businesses have direct communica on with
clients is so ware development. No other strategy can assist them in having
direct communica on with their customers. It is the quickest way to increase
brand awareness.

Improves customer engagement:

Every company wishes to expand its customer base. But how can a company
increase its customer base? The solu on is online marke ng. Businesses must
employ online marke ng strategies. They can increase customer engagement
with the help of a mobile app or website, causing them to return to them rather
than theirr compe tor.

Aids in the promo on of company:

So ware development enables the businesses to conduct on-the-go marke ng
for their company, promo ng products and services at any me and from any
loca on without spending any addi onal money or me. Customers from all
over the world can contact them.

Fig 3.5 Purpose of so ware development in business

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So ware Developer

Tes ng and
Integra on

Implementa on Maintenance

Design Analysis

Planning

Fig 3.6 Important steps in developing so ware

3.1.4 Data ﬂow Diagrams

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical depic on of data flow in an informa on system. It displays
incoming data flow, outgoing data flow, and stored data. The DFD makes no men on of how data flows
through the system. This technique is used for visually represen ng complex and difficult-to-describe
systems and processes. Data flow diagrams depict the flow of data through a process or system. It also
includes data inputs and outputs, data stores, and the different sub processes that data moves through.
DFD uses standardized nota ons and symbols to describe various en es and their rela onships. It is
easier to iden fy flaws in a system when all of its components are visualized. These flaws are then
addressed to create a strong solu on.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Fig 3.7 Data Flow Diagrams

There is a significant dis nc on between DFD and Flowchart. The flowchart depicts the control flow
within programme modules. DFDs depict the data flow in a system at various levels. DFD contains no
control or branch elements.
Types of Data Flow Diagram
Data Flow Diagrams are classified as either logical or physical.
Logical DFD - This type of DFD focuses on the system process and data flow in the system. In a banking
so ware system, for example, how is data moved between different en es.
Physical DFD - This DFD type demonstrates how the data flow is implemented in the system. It is more
specific and closer to comple on.
Components of Data Flow Diagram
Using the following components, DFD can represent the source, des na on, storage, and flow of data.

Data Flow
En ty Process Data store

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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So ware Developer

En es - En es are the source and

Process – Ac vi es, and ac ons taken on
des na on of informa on data. En es
the data are represented by circles or
are represented by a rectangle with their
Round-edged rectangles.
respec ve names.

Data Storage - There are two variants of

Data Flow –Data Flow – The movement
data storage - it can either be
of data is shown by pointed arrows. Data
represented as a rectangle with the
movement is shown from the base of the
absence of both smaller sides or as an
arrow as its source towards the head of
open-sided rectangle with only one side
the arrow as its des na on.
missing.

Fig 3.8 Data Components

Important Concepts Associated with Designing Data Flow Diagrams:

Before going into the details of construc ng a DFD model of a system, let us discuss some important
concepts associated with DFDs.
1. Synchronous and Asynchronous opera ons
If two bubbles are directly connected by a data flow arrow, they are synchronous. It means they run at
the same rate. If two bubbles are connected via a data store, the speed of opera on of the bubbles is
independent. Data generated by the producer bubble is saved in the data store. Before the consumer
bubble consumes any data items, the producer bubble may store them in the data store.
2. Data Defini on
Composite data items can be defined in terms of primi ve data items using the following data defini on
operators:
a. + denotes the composi on of two data items, e.g. a+b represents data a and b.
b. [,] represents selec on, i.e. any one of the data items listed in the brackets can occur. For
example, [a, b] represents either a occurs or b occurs.
c. ( ) the contents inside the bracket represent op onal data that may or may not appear. For
example, a+(b) represents either a occurs or a+b occurs.
d. { } represents itera ve data defini on, for example, {name}5 represents five name data.
{name}* represents zero or more instances of name data.
e. = represents equivalence, for example, a=b+c means that a represents b and c.
f. /* */ anything appearing within /* and */ is considered as a comment.

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A DFD is developed by the following steps:

1. Draw a context-level diagram

• The context-level diagram shows the main sources, sinks, processes,
and the scope of the system under development. The main purpose
of the context-level diagram is to abstract the general sources and
sinks of the data.

2. Decompose the context-level diagram

• In this step, the context-level diagram needs to be decomposed into
a second-level DFD

3. Decompose to an elementary level

• This level of the diagram explains in even greater detail the actual
processes that are occurring in the system. Levelling occurs un l
enough detail is described for the system analyst and the users to
understand the system fully.

Fig 3.9 Steps in Developing a Data Flow Diagram

Levels of Data Flow Diagram

a. Level 0 - It is the highest abstrac on level of DFD, and it depicts the en re informa on system as a
single diagram that conceals all the underlying details. Context level DFDs are another name for
level 0 DFDs.

Online Shopping System

Order Delivery

Customers

Fig 3.10 Level 0 DFD

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So ware Developer

b. Level 1 - The Level 0 DFD is further subdivided into Level 1 DFD. Level 1 DFD depicts the system's
basic modules as well as the data ﬂow between them. Level 1 DFD also men ons fundamental
processes and informa on sources.

Accounts

Order
Stores
Processing

Sales

Customers

Fig 3.11 Level 1 DFD

c. Level 2 - At this level, DFD demonstrates how data flows within the modules men oned in Level 1 at
this level. Unless the desired level of specifica on is achieved, higher-level DFDs can be
transformed into more specific lower-level DFDs with a deeper level of understanding.
As previously stated, the DFD method is a component of object-oriented analysis and is widely used.
The use of DFDs encourages quick and simple project code development. FDs are simple to learn due to
their few simple symbols (once you decide on a par cular DFD model). The syntax for designing DFDs is
straigh orward, relying on English nouns or noun-adjec ve-verb constructs.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Par cipant Handbook

Speciﬁc Processes

• It shows a process, or bubble, as a circle, oval, or rectangle.

• A process or bubble describes a program func on and data flow diagrams provide simple
names and numbers to describe the specific program func on.
• By numbering the process and keeping the process names simple, the systems analyst can
easily and accurately reference the specific process.
• Examples of a process are: Calculate a Monthly Salary, Calculate Interest Rate, and Print a
Report.

Clarity of Flow
• It shows a flow as a curved or straight arrow line.
• On a data flow diagram, the arrow line is labelled to describe data or informa on that is
being moved or processed.
• The point of the arrow line shows the source and the arrow points to the next process,
store, or terminator.
• With the aid of a data flow diagram, a systems analyst can determine if a system has all the
required input data and output data for the process.

Appropriate Data Store

• It shows a store as two parallel lines.
• A store is any type of storage for data or informa on and can refer to any automated
database, file, or manual file system.
• A data flow diagram can aid a systems analyst to determine if the data store has the
required input data to be processed to generate the needed output data or informa on.
• A data flow diagram can assist in determining if the data store is appropriate for the
generated output informa on.

Levels of Data Flow Diagram

• A data flow diagram has many levels that help a systems analyst review a system, process
by process.
• A level 0 data flow diagram is the top-level diagram and consists of only one process.
• The next level of the data flow diagram shows more detail, and as the level goes higher,
more detail is shown.
• This aids the systems analyst to break apart the details easily and determine any problems
that may occur in a system.

Fig 3.12 Advantages of DFD

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So ware Developer

Limita ons of Data Flow Diagram

DFDs for large systems can become clumsy, difficult to translate and read, and me-consuming to
create. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) can be perplexing to programmers, but they are useless without the
necessary detail. Different DFD models use various symbols (circles and rectangles, for example, for
en es).
1. It makes the programmers a li le confusing concerning the system.
2. The biggest drawback of the DFD is that it simply takes a long me to create, so long that the analyst
may not receive support from management to complete it.
3. Physical considera ons are le out.

3.1.5 Algorithm Development for So ware Programming

Algorithm development, debugging, and tes ng are typically carried out using a high-level
programming tool like MATLAB or C/C++. The algorithm is ready for hardware implementa on a er
successful algorithm development and simula ons on test signals. The primary goal of detailed design
is to specify the logic for the various modules described during system design.
Specifying the logic will necessitate the crea on of an algorithm that will carry out the given
specifica ons. Let's look at a few design principles for crea ng algorithms or logic that implement the
given specifica ons. The term "algorithm" is quite broad and covers a wide range of topics.
In the context of so ware, an algorithm is a clear procedure for solving a problem. A procedure is a
finite sequence of well-defined steps or opera ons, each requiring a finite amount of memory and
me to complete. In this defini on, we assume that procedure termina on is a necessary property. We
will now use the terms "procedures," "algorithms, and "logic" interchangeably. When crea ng an
algorithm, several steps must be taken.
A problem statement is the first step in the design of algorithms. The problem for which an algorithm is
being designed must be stated precisely, clearly, and thoroughly by the person responsible for designing
the algorithm. The problem statement for detailed design is derived from the system design. That is,
when the detailed design of a module begins, the problem statement is already available. The next step
is to create a mathema cal model of the problem.
In modelling, the mathema cal structures that are best suited to the problem must be chosen. Looking
at other similar problems that have been solved can be beneficial. Most models are built by taking
models from similar problems and modifying them to fit the current problem. The algorithm's design is
the next step.
The data structure and programme structure are decided during this step. A er the algorithm has been
designed, its correctness must be verified. There is no clear procedure for designing algorithms. Having
such a procedure would be equivalent to automa ng the problem of algorithm development, which is
not possible with current methods. However, some heuris cs or methods can be provided to assist the
designer in designing modules' algorithms.
The stepwise refinement technique is the most commonly used method for designing algorithms or
module logic. The stepwise refinement technique divides the logic design problem into a series of steps,
allowing for gradual development. The procedure begins by conver ng the module specifica ons into
an abstract descrip on of an algorithm containing a few abstract statements. In each step, one or more
statements from the previously developed algorithm are decomposed into more detailed instruc ons.

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Analyze Design

Implement Experiment

Fig 3.13 Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Algorithm:
An algorithm is a set of instruc ons, also known as a "process," that must be followed when solving a
specific problem. While the term is technically not defined, it is almost always associated with
computers because computer-processed algorithms can solve much larger problems much faster than
humans. Because algorithms are used much more frequently in modern compu ng than at any other
me in human history, a field has developed around their design, analysis, and refinement. A strong
mathema cal background is required in the field of algorithm design, with computer science degrees
being par cularly sought-a er qualifica ons. It provides an increasing number of well-paying job
opportuni es as the demand for more (and more sophis cated) algorithms grows.
Conceptual Design of Algorithm:
Algorithms, at their most basic, are simply a set of instruc ons needed to complete a task. For all of
recorded history, the development of algorithms, though they were not generally referred to as such,
has been a popular hobby and a professional pursuit. People established set rou nes for how they
would go about their daily tasks long before the dawn of the modern computer age, o en wri ng down
lists of steps to take to accomplish important goals, reducing the risk of forge ng something important.
This is, in essence, what an algorithm is. Designers approach the development of algorithms for
computa onal purposes in the same way: they start with a problem. They then outline the steps that
would be required to resolve the issue. Finally, they develop a series of mathema cal opera ons to
accomplish those steps.
Algorithm Design:
Crea ng an efficient algorithm to solve a problem in the shortest amount of me and space is an
important aspect of algorithm design. Different approaches can be taken to solve a problem.

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So ware Developer

Some of them may be eﬃcient in terms of me consump on, whereas others may be memory eﬃcient.
However, keep in mind that both me consump on and memory usage cannot be op mized at the
same me. If we need an algorithm to run in less me, we must invest in more memory, and if we need
an algorithm to run in less memory, we must invest in more me.
Problem Development Steps:

Development of a Speciﬁca on of an
Problem deﬁni on
model Algorithm

Checking the
Analysis of an
Designing an Algorithm correctness of an
Algorithm
Algorithm

Implementa on of an
Program tes ng Documenta on
Algorithm

Fig 3.14 Problem Development Steps

Characteris cs of Algorithms:
The main characteris cs of algorithms are as follows –

Algorithms must Algorithms are well-

have a unique ordered with
name unambiguous
opera ons

Algorithms halt in a
Algorithms should
finite amount of me.
have explicitly
Algorithms should not
defined set of
run for infinity, i.e., an
inputs and outputs
algorithm must end at
some point

Fig 3.15 Characteris cs of Algorithms

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Transla on Problems of Algorithm

Translators usually have to deal with six diﬀerent problema c areas in their work, whether they are
transla ng technical documents or a sworn statement. These include lexical-seman c problems;
grammar; syntax; rhetoric; and pragma c and cultural problems. Not to men on administra ve issues,
computer-related problems, and stress.

Lexical-Seman c Problems
• Lexical-seman c problems can be resolved by consul ng dic onaries, glossaries,
terminology banks, and experts. These problems include terminology alterna ves,
neologisms, seman c gaps, contextual synonyms, and antonyms (these aﬀect polysemic
units: synonyms and antonyms are only aimed at an acceptance that depends on the
context to determine which meaning is correct), seman c con guity (a consistency
procedure which works by iden fying seman c features common to two or more terms)
and lexical networks.

Gramma cal Problems

• Gramma cal problems include, for example, ques ons of temporality, aspectuality (the
appearance indicates how the process is represented or the state expressed by the verb
from the point of view of its development, as opposed to me itself), pronouns, and
whether to make explicit the subject pronoun or not.

Syntac cal Problems

• Syntac cal problems may originate in syntac c parallels, the direc on of the passive voice,
the focus (the point of view from which a story is organized), or even rhetorical ﬁgures of
speech, such as a hyperbaton (the inversion of the natural order of speech) or an anaphora
(repe on of a word or segment at the beginning of a line or a phrase).

Rhetorical Problems
• Rhetorical problems are related to the iden ﬁca on and recrea on of ﬁgures of thought
(comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, oxymoron, paradox, etc.) and dic on.

Pragma c Problems: An Example of a Marke ng Transla on

• Pragma c problems arise with the difference in the formal and informal modes of address
using “you”, as well as idioma c phrases, sayings, irony, humor, and sarcasm. These
difficul es can also include other challenges; for example, in the transla on of a marke ng
text from English into French, specifically with the transla on of the personal pronoun
“you”. The translator must decide whether the formal or the informal “you” is more
appropriate, a decision that is not always clear.

Con nued...

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So ware Developer

Cultural Issues: An Example of a Financial Transla on

• Cultural issues may arise from diﬀerences between cultural references, such as names of
food, fes vals and cultural connota ons, in general. The translator will use language
localiza on to correctly adapt the transla on to the culture targeted. A very simple
example is a ﬁnancial transla on which includes dates. If the text is in English, it is most
likely, but not absolutely certain, that 05/06/2015 will mean June 5. However, as everyone
knows, the same sequence in another language refers to May 6.

Fig 3.16 Transla on Problems of Algorithm

The successive refinement process ends when all instruc ons are precise enough to be easily converted
into programming language statements. Both data and instruc ons must be refined during the
refinement process. A rule of thumb for refinement is that the amount of decomposi on in each step
should be manageable and represent one or two design decisions. In general, detailed design is
specified using languages that have formal programming language features like outer structures (like
loops, condi onals, etc.) but a freer format for internal descrip on. It enables the designer to
concentrate on the logic rather than its representa on in the programming language.

Summary
• A development environment, also known as an integrated development environment (IDE), provides
comprehensive so ware development facili es to programmers by integra ng a set of development
tools. A computa onal problem is one that a computer can solve step by step. These problems
typically have a well-defined input, constraints, and condi ons that must be met by the output. A
computa onal problem can be thought of as a collec on of instances or cases, each with its own,
possibly empty, set of solu ons.
• There are several steps that one has to perform while developing an algorithm. The star ng step in
the design of algorithms is a statement of the problem. The problem for which an algorithm is being
devised has to be precisely and clearly stated and properly understood by the person responsible for
designing the algorithm.
• Algorithm development, debugging, and tes ng are typically accomplished with a high-level
programming tool such as MATLAB or C/C++. A er successful algorithm development and
simula ons on test signals, the algorithm is ready for hardware implementa on.
• Appropriate Data Store: A data flow diagram shows a store as two parallel lines. A store is any type of
storage for data or informa on and can refer to any automated database, file, or manual file system. A
data flow diagram can aid a systems analyst to determine if the data store has the required input data
to be processed to generate the needed output data or informa on. A data flow diagram can assist in
determining if the data store is appropriate for the generated output informa on.
• Specific Processes: A data flow diagram shows a process, or bubble, as a circle, oval, or rectangle. A
process or bubble describes a program func on and data flow diagrams provide simple names and
numbers to describe the specific program func on. By numbering the process and keeping the
process names simple, the systems analyst can easily and accurately reference the specific process.
Examples of a process are: Calculate a Monthly Salary, Calculate Interest Rate, and Print a Report.

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Par cipant Handbook

Exercise
Answer the following ques ons-
1. What is the DFD?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of DFD?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain Algorithm Development.
____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain Data Defini on.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. MCQ Ques ons:
i. In a data flow diagram which among the following process is at the most detailed level?
a. Data flows
b. Interface
c. Func onal primi ve
d. Transform descrip on
ii. iWhich of the following model is used to show how data flows through a sequence of processing
steps?
a. Objects models
b. System model
c. Seman c data models
d. Data flow model
iii. Which of the following iden fies data flow in mo on?
a. Circle
b. Arrow
c. Open-embedded box
d. Square

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So ware Developer

6. Fill in the blanks:

a. An ______________is a series of instruc ons, o en referred to as a “process”, which is to
be followed when solving a par cular problem.
b. A __________________shows a process, or bubble, as a circle, oval, or rectangle.
c. Translators usually have to deal with six diﬀerent problema c areas in their work, whether
they are ____________________or a_________________.

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Scan the QR Code to watch the related video

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Unit 3.1 So ware Programming & Algorithm Development

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Par cipant Handbook

4. Analysis and
Design of
So ware
Applica ons
Unit 4.1 - So ware Development Life Cycle
Unit 4.2 - Elements of So ware Development Process

SSC/N0501
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So ware Developer

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Evaluate the various so ware tes ng methodology and iden fy the correct one to deploy
2. Analyse so ware designs for already built products or services

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Par cipant Handbook

UNIT 2.1:So ware Development Life Cycle

Unit 4.1
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Define the So ware Development Life Cycle encompassing Business Requirements Specifica on
(BRS), So ware Requirements Specifica on (SRS), High-Level Design (HLD), and Low-Level Design
(LLD)
2. List the different techniques used for Requirements Analysis

4.1.1 So ware Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

The So ware Development Lifecycle (SDLC) is a framework for defining the steps involved in so ware
development. It describes the detailed plan for developing, deploying, and maintaining so ware. The
SDLC defines the en re development cycle, which includes all tasks involved in gathering requirements
for product maintenance. The goal of SDLC is to deliver a high-quality product that meets the needs of
the customer. The SDLC's phases are as follows: requirement gathering, design, coding, tes ng, and
maintenance. It is cri cal to follow the phases to provide the product systema cally. For example,
so ware must be developed, and a team is formed to work on a specific feature of the product while
being free to do so.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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So ware Developer

4.1.2 SDLC Cycle

The SDLC Cycle represents the so ware development process and is depicted diagramma cally below:

Maintenance

Deployment Requirement

Gathering &
Tes ng
Analysis

Implementa on
Design
& Coding

Fig 4.1 SDLC cycle

4.1.3 Business Requirements Speciﬁca on (BRS)

These are documents that list the business objec ves that the client is a emp ng to achieve, as well as
the key targets and performance expecta ons of the products or system. It also demonstrates how the
client's business requirements are met on a broader level. It is known as a high-level document and is
one of the most widely used and universally accepted specifica on documents. Typically, the Business
Requirement Specifica on (BRS) is created at the beginning of the project life cycle. A business analyst's
BRS document is typically based on the specifica ons of other important stakeholders who will interact
with the final product following a thorough analysis of the client company. The client then goes over the
final draught of the document to ensure that it meets all of the expecta ons of the business
stakeholders.
Product investors, middle and upper management, and business analysts are the primary users of BRS
documents. A Business Requirement Specifica on (BRS) document typically includes the en re scope
of the project, the performance requirements and usability, the purpose of the product, the func ons
of the product, the features of the product, and any other relevant informa on.

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Par cipant Handbook

It is a formal document that It describes the so ware's

outlines the client's various It is the work of a business func onal speciﬁca ons at a
needs. It is derived from the analyst. high level. It is concerned with
client's requirements and aspects of business
interac ons. requirements.

It speciﬁes the customer's

exact desires. The document It employs a wide range of
There are no tables or use cases.
is used from the start to the requirements.
ﬁnish of the project.

The business requirements

Table and diagram references It lists both the stakeholders
in BRS are explained at a
are not permi ed. and the user base.
high level.

The BRS document is obtained

through interac on with
customers and the use of their
feedback on the requirements.

Fig 4.2 Features of Business Requirements Speciﬁca on

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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So ware Developer

Business Requirements:

External Internal & Adapt Enhance

External
• Government • Popula on, • New technology
bodies and their • Inﬂa on and lifestyle, culture
• Informa on and
privacy Interest rates
Communica on
• Financial • Labour and system
Ini a ves energy costs

Compliance External
• Regula ons and •Weather,
Employment pollu on,
• Government Law waste, recycle
and Standards

Fig 4.3 Business Requirements

4.1.4 Business Requirements Process

This is the process of iden fying, analysing, defining, and documen ng the requirements for a
par cular business goal. And it is the process of defining the project's scope clearly and precisely to
assess the meframes and resources needed to complete it. Similar to a CONOPS, business
requirements, also known as stakeholder requirements specifica ons (StRS), describe the
characteris cs of a proposed system from the perspec ve of the system's end user. Methods for
delivering, sa sfying, or mee ng business requirements include products, systems, so ware, and
processes.

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Par cipant Handbook

Process People Technology

Business Results

Fig 4.4 Business Requirements Process

4.1.5 So ware Requirement Speciﬁca on

The So ware Requirements Specifica on (SRS) is a document that describes the main func onality and
business purpose of a product, the so ware that is to be developed, and how the core func ons of the
so ware are to be performed. It is a summary of a project that includes the features of the technology
as well as the desired business goal. The SRS document is important because it bridges the gap between
what the business will get by documen ng the characteris cs, broad layout, and workflows of the
so ware being developed and what the business wants. So ware Requirements Specifica on (SRS)
serves as the basis of any project because it consists of a framework that each team member will follow.
System analysts are in charge of gathering all necessary informa on from the relevant stakeholders.
They then share the informa on with the other departments. The primary audience for the So ware
Requirement Specifica on is project managers (SRS). SRS contains func onal and non-func onal
requirements. SRS provides a significant advantage in so ware development by reducing frustra on
and non-produc ve me. It also assists team members in working together to ensure that all
requirements are met. Product Requirements Document (PRD) is another name for the So ware
Requirement Specifica on (SRS) (PRD). A proposed so ware that is designed to track an employee's
office me is an example of a So ware Requirement Specifica on (SRS) document. In this case, the
document should include the login module, the employee module, the administrator module, and the
repor ng module.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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So ware Developer

It is created by a system
It speciﬁes the func onal analyst or a system architect.
It is derived from the
and non-func onal Although, in some
Business Requirements
requirements present in the companies, the business
Speciﬁca on (BRS).
so ware. analyst can also create an
SRS.

It describes the technical It describes how the

and func onal speciﬁca on It deals with resources that business func ons when
of the so ware also at a the company provides. using the so ware or
high level. applica on.

It explains the func onal It is a complete

Tables and use cases are requirements and the document describing
included. non-func onal how the system behaves
requirements. when it is developed.

The SRS document is

References for tables
It does not list any of the go en from the Business
and diagrams are
user base or the client. Requirements
included.
Speciﬁca on (BRS).

Fig 4.5 Features of So ware Requirement Speciﬁca on

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Par cipant Handbook

Steps involved in SRS:

System
Engineers

System test Manager

Engineers

So ware
Requirements

System System
Maintenanace Customers
Engineering

Fig 4.6 Steps in SRS

4.1.6 High-Level Design

HLD is an abbrevia on for "general system design," which refers to the overall descrip on and
architecture of the applica on. It describes the system architecture, database design, and a summary of
systems, services, pla orms, and module rela onships. HLD, or high-level design, is a general design
system. It is also known as system or macro-level design. A high-level design includes an overall
descrip on of the system architecture, the design of its database, and a brief descrip on of its services,
systems, pla orms used, and module rela onships. A solu on architect creates the HLD. It essen ally
translates the overall client/business requirements into a high-level solu on. It enters the picture
before the low-level design.

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So ware Developer

HLD describes the

It is a general system of It describes the
overall architecture/
It has a common design that concerns func onali es of
descrip on of a
abbrevia on as HLD. the en re system as a individual modules in
system/ applica on
whole. brief.
as a whole.

The par cipants in a The input criteria in

The solu on One needs to create
high-level design are the case of JLD is SRS
architects create HLD. and implement HLD
the client team, review (So ware Requirement
before the LLD.
team, and design team. Speciﬁca on).

It performs the The output criteria of

conversion of a client/ HLD are the review
business requirement record, func on
into a high - level design, and database
solu on. design.

Fig 4.7 Features of High-Level Design

Fig 4.8 Example of a High-level Design (Disrup ve Architecture)

Image Source: disrup vearchitecture.info

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Par cipant Handbook

4.1.7 Low-level Design

LLD, or low-level design, is essen ally a detailed descrip on of each module. In other words, the LLD
thoroughly describes each module, including the actual logic of each system component. It goes into
great detail with each system speciﬁca on, earning it the moniker detailed/micro-level design. Low-
level design is created and implemented by designers and developers. It can transform a high-level
solu on into a very detailed solu on. As a result, the LLD comes into play only a er the HLD has been
designed and implemented.

It is a detailed form of HLD It comes with a detailed

that includes the design at LLD is also called the design and descrip on of
It has a common
the component level along detailed or micro-level every module associated
abbrevia on as LLD
with the process of design design of a system. with the applica on/
and everything else. system.

It helps in expressing the The par cipants in a low- We only design and
func onal logic of every The developers and level design are the implement LLD once we
module in a system in designers create LLD. opera on teams, design complete the design on
detail. team, and implementers. the higher level.

The input criteria in It performs the The output criteria of

the case of LLD is the conversion of a solu on the LLD are the unit test
reviewed HLD (High of higher level into a plan and the program
Level Design). detailed solu on. speciﬁca on.

Fig 4.9 Key Features of Low Level Design

Fig 4.10 Low level Design Document Sample

Image Source: enterstarcryp ccity.blogspot.com

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So ware Developer

4.1.8 Diﬀerent Techniques Used for Requirements Analysis

There are diﬀerent techniques used for Requirements Analysis. Below is a list of diﬀerent Requirements
Analysis Techniques:

Business process
UML (Uniﬁed
modeling nota on Flowchart technique Data ﬂow diagram
Modeling Language)
(BPMN)

Role Ac vity IDEF (Integrated

Gan Charts Deﬁni on for Gap Analysis
Diagrams (RAD)
Func on Modeling)

Fig 4.11 Techniques used for Requirements Analysis

1. Business process modelling nota on (BPMN)

This method is similar to crea ng process ﬂowcharts, though BPMN has its own symbols and elements.
Graphs for business processes are created using business process modelling and nota on. These graphs
make it easier to understand the business process. BPMN is a well-known process improvement
methodology.

Fig 4.12 Business Process Modelling Nota on (BPMN)

Image Source: processmaker.com

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Par cipant Handbook

2. UML (Uniﬁed Modelling Language)

UML is an integrated set of diagrams used to specify, visualize, build, and document the ar facts of a
so ware system. When developing object-oriented so ware and working with the so ware
development process, UML is a useful technique. UML employs graphical nota ons to represent the
design of a so ware project. UML also aids in the valida on of the so ware's architectural design.

Fig 4.13 UML (Uniﬁed Modelling Language)

(image Source: Microso Support)

3. Flowchart technique
A flowchart depicts the sequen al flow and control logic of a group of related ac vi es and comes in a
variety of formats, including linear, cross-func onal, and top-down. The flowchart can depict system
interac ons, data flows, and so on. Flow charts are simple to understand and can be used by members
of both technical and non-technical teams. The flowchart technique is useful for highligh ng the cri cal
characteris cs of a process.

Lamp doesn't work

NO
Lamp plugged in? Plug in lamp

YES
YES
Bulb burned out? Replace bulb

Repair lamp

Fig 4.14 Example of Flowchart Technique

(Image Source: concept Draw)

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So ware Developer

4. Data ﬂow diagram

This technique is used for visually represen ng complex and difficult-to-describe systems and
processes. Data flow diagrams depict the flow of data through a process or system. It also includes the
data inputs and outputs, data stores, and the various sub processes that data passes through. DFD uses
standardized nota ons and symbols to describe different en es and their rela onships. It is easier to
iden fy flaws in a system when all of its components get visualized. These flaws are then addressed to
create a strong solu on.

Fig 4.15 Data Flow Diagram Template

(Image Source: creately.com)

5. Role Ac vity Diagrams (RAD)

A role-ac vity diagram (RAD) is a rule-oriented process model that represents role-ac vity diagrams.
Role ac vity diagrams are a high-level view of an organiza on's dynamics and role structure. Roles are
used for organizing ac vi es into discrete units of responsibility. Ac vi es are the fundamental
components of a role. An ac vity may be performed in isola on or in conjunc on with other ac vi es
within the role.

Fig 4.16 Role Ac vity Diagrams (RAD)

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Par cipant Handbook

6. Gan Charts
Gant charts are used in project planning because they provide a visual representa on of scheduled
tasks as well as melines. The Gant charts assist in determining what is scheduled to be completed by
which date. All of the project's tasks' start and end dates are visible in a single view.

Fig 4.17 Gan Charts

7. IDEF (Integrated Deﬁni on for Func on Modelling)

The integrated deﬁni on for func on modelling (IDEFM) technique represents the func ons of a
process and their rela onships to child and parent systems with the help of a box. It provides a blueprint
to gain an understanding of an organiza on’s system.

Fig 4.18 IDEF

(Image Source: japaneseclass.jp)

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So ware Developer

8. Gap Analysis
Gap analysis is a technique that helps to analyse the gaps in the performance of a so ware applica on
to determine whether the business requirements are met or not. It also involves the steps that are to be
taken to ensure that all the business requirements are met successfully. Gap denotes the diﬀerence
between the present state and the target state. Gap analysis is also known as need analysis, need
assessment or need-gap analysis.
Gap Analysis Process:

Iden fy Inves gate Decide Implement Analyze Improve

Fig 4.19 Gap Analysis Process

Fig 4.20 Gap Analysis

(Image Source: Template Lab)

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Par cipant Handbook

Summary
• So ware Development Lifecycle (SDLC) is a framework that defines the steps involved in the
development of so ware. It covers the detailed plan for building, deploying, and maintaining the
so ware.
• SDLC defines the complete cycle of development i.e. all the tasks involved in gathering a requirement
for the maintenance of a Product.
• The business analyst and Project Manager set up a mee ng with the customer to gather all the
informa on like what the customer wants to build, who will be the end-user, and what is the purpose
of the product. Before building a product a core understanding or knowledge of the product is very
important.
• The requirement gathered in the SRS document is used as an input, and the so ware architecture
that is used for implemen ng system development is derived.
• In the case of UAT, a replica of the produc on environment is created and the customer along with the
developers does the tes ng. If the customer finds the applica on as expected, then sign-off is
provided by the customer to go live.
• Tes ng starts once the coding is complete and the modules are released for tes ng. In this phase, the
developed so ware is tested thoroughly and any defects found are assigned to developers to get
fixed.
• The low-level design, abbreviated as LLD, is essen ally a detailed descrip on of each module. In other
words, the LLD describes each module in detail by including the actual logic of each system
component.
• High-Level Design (HLD) is an abbrevia on for general system design, which refers to the overall
system design. It describes the applica on's overall descrip on/architecture. It describes the system
architecture, database design, and brief descrip on of systems, services, pla orms.

QR Code
Scan the QR Code to watch the related video

youtu.be/AcnYnRST8Ns
Unit 4.1 So ware Development Life Cycle

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So ware Developer

Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. Explain the importance of documen ng, classifying and priori zing customer queries.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Write a brief note on complaint handling and customer sa sfac on.
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Write a brief note on complaint handling and customer sa sfac on.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. ____________________is a technique that helps to analyse the gaps in the performance of a
so ware applica on to determine whether the business requirements are met or not.
b. The _________________________technique represents the func ons of a process and their
rela onships to child and parent systems with the help of a box.
c. Flowcharts are in diﬀerent formats such as_________, _____________, and_____________.

5. MCQ Ques ons:

i. What is the ﬁrst step in the so ware development lifecycle?
a. System Design
b. Coding
c. System Tes ng
d. Preliminary Inves ga on and Analysis
ii. Which of the following is involved in the system planning and designing phase of the So ware
Development Life Cycle (SDLC)?
a. Sizing
b. Parallel run
c. Speciﬁca on freeze
d. All of the above
iii. Which of the following prototypes does not associated with Prototyping Model?
a. Domain Prototype
b. Ver cal Prototype
c. Horizontal Prototype
d. Diagonal Prototype

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UNIT 2.1:Elements for Measuring So ware Development

Unit 4.2
Process
Processing Industry

Unit Objec ves

At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Classify elements for measuring various aspects of the so ware development process

4.2.1 So ware Development Process

The set of instruc ons in the form of programs that govern the computer system and process the
hardware components is referred to as so ware. A set of ac vi es is used to create a so ware product.
This collec on is known as a so ware process. Designing, programming, documen ng, tes ng, and bug
ﬁxing are all part of the so ware development process. So ware Components: There are three
so ware components: There are three of them: programme, documenta on, and opera ng
procedures.

Program –
A computer program is a list of
instruc ons that tell a computer
what to do.

Documenta on –
Source informa on about the product
contained in design documents, detailed
code comments, etc.

Opera ng Procedures –
Set of step-by-step instruc ons compiled
by an organiza on to help workers carry
out complex rou ne opera ons.

Fig 4.21 So ware Components

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So ware Developer

The following ﬁgure explains four basic key process ac vi es in so ware development process.

So ware Speciﬁca ons

• A detailed descrip on of a so ware system to be developed, including func onal and non-
func onal requirements, is provided in this process.

So ware Development

• In this process, designing, programming, documen ng, tes ng, and bug ﬁxing is done.

So ware Valida on
• This process involves evalua ng so ware products to ensure that they meet both business and
end-user requirements.

So ware Evolu on
• So ware evolu on is the process of crea ng so ware and then upda ng it on a regular basis
for various reasons.

Fig 4.22 Key Process Ac vi es

The following ﬁgure explains the so ware crisis:

Size and Cost – Quality – Delayed Delivery –

Day to day growing complexity So ware products must have So ware takes longer than the
and expecta on out of good quality. es mated me to develop,
so ware. So ware are more which in turn leads to cost
expensive and more complex. shoo ng up.

Fig 4.23 So ware Crisis

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Par cipant Handbook

4.2.2 So ware Measurement Metrix

A so ware metric is a measurable or countable measure of so ware characteris cs. So ware metrics
are useful for a variety of purposes, including measuring so ware performance, planning work items,
calcula ng produc vity, and many others. Many metrics are associated with the so ware development
process. So ware metrics are analogous to the four management func ons: planning, organiza on,
control, and improvement.
So ware metrics are divided into two categories:
1. Product Metrics: These are measurements of various aspects of the so ware product. The
following are the two most important so ware characteris cs:
a. Size and complexity
b. Quality and reliability
These metrics can be computed at various stages of the SDLC.
2. Process Metrics: These are measurements of various aspects of the so ware development
process. Consider the eﬀec veness of fault detec on. They are used to assess the characteris cs of
so ware development methods, techniques, and tools.

Fig 4.24 So ware Metrix

(Image source: h ps://www.javatpoint.com/so ware-engineering-so ware-metrics)

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So ware Developer

Summary
• The set of instruc ons in the form of programs that govern the computer system and process the
hardware components is referred to as so ware. A set of ac vi es is used to create a so ware
product. This collec on is known as a so ware process. Designing, programming, documen ng,
tes ng, and bug fixing are all part of the so ware development process.
• So ware Components: There are three so ware components: There are three of them: program,
documenta on, and opera ng procedures.
• A computer program is a list of instruc ons that tell a computer what to do.
• Source informa on about the product is contained in design documents, detailed code comments,
etc.
• So ware Specifica ons – A detailed descrip on of a so ware system to be developed, including
func onal and non-func onal requirements, is provided in this process.
• So ware Development – In this process, designing, programming, documen ng, tes ng, and bug
fixing are done.
• So ware Valida on – This process involves evalua ng so ware products to ensure that they meet
both business and end-user requirements.
• So ware Evolu on – So ware evolu on is the process of crea ng so ware and then upda ng it on a
regular basis for various reasons.
• A so ware metric is a measurable or countable measure of so ware characteris cs. So ware
metrics are useful for a variety of purposes, including measuring so ware performance, planning
work items, calcula ng produc vity, and many others.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Par cipant Handbook

Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. Describe the Waterfall Model.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is So ware Process Model?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is So ware Development Process?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. _______________, _______________, _________________, _____________, and
____________________are all part of the so ware development process.
b. _________________is a con nuous process of so ware development, and it occurs
concurrently with development.
c. The ﬁrst step to any process is always ________.
d. The _______________________process divides so ware development into ny, sequen al
steps in order to improve the product, project, and design as a whole.
e. _________________refers to the itera ve logical process of developing so ware programs or
applica ons to meet the needs of any business or personal objec ves..

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So ware Developer

5. Work
Requirements,
Tools, and
So ware
Unit 5.1 - Program Speciﬁca on and Programming
Language
Unit 5.2 - Approaches to Develop Applica ons and
the Key Processes

SSC/N0501
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Par cipant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Build database skills including DBMS and data design for the redevelopment process
2. Demonstrate applica on of source coding standards, cke ng tools, and other IT-related
technologies

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So ware Developer

UNIT 2.1:Program Speciﬁca on and Programming Language

Unit 5.1
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss methods to read a detailed program speciﬁca on and implement it using a programming
language

5.1.1 Detailed Program Speciﬁca on and Using a

Programming Language
Program Specifica on - When you get given a project, the program specifica on is the defini on of
what the program should do. This encompasses everything from its data structures, to its various inputs
and outputs. Take inputs for example. Common specs would be whether the input is taken via the
command line or a GUI.
A precise statement of the effects that an individual program must produce. It should clearly state what
the program will do without making any promises about how it will do it. The program specifica on for a
program that is intended to terminate can take the form of an input-output specifica on that describes
the desired mapping from the set of input values to the set of output values. It is not possible to provide
a simple input-output specifica on for cyclic programs that are not intended to terminate; instead,
normal prac ce is to concentrate on the individual func ons performed by the program during its cyclic
opera ons. For both termina ng and cyclic programs, program specifica ons have been wri en in a
variety of nota ons, ranging from a natural language with embedded equa ons and tables to formal
nota ons based on first-order predicate calculus.
For a variety of reasons, the project prototype is important to everyone involved in the project:

For project managers, it func ons as a ‘one source of truth’ document, a place where they can
add all notes rela ng to the func onality

For developers, the requirement is an instruc onal guide of what they are going to
build and why

For clients, the project spec is an agreement on what they can expect from the
ﬁnished product.

For testers, the spec is a clear indica on of how the site should func on, so they don't
have to wonder if something is behaving properly

New team members can be easily brought up to speed on a project, whether they are
client-side or within your own ins tu on. All they have to do is read the speciﬁca ons

Fig 5.1 Reasons for the Project Prototype

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5.1.2 Seven Ways to Write Be er Project Speciﬁca ons

Project speciﬁca ons

Make it a living
Include use cases should be
document
neatly organised

Make it a formal Include statements Know when to write

document on your ra onale one

Involve your team

Fig 5.2 Seven Ways to write a be er Project Speciﬁca ons

1. Include Use Cases - Use cases are important not only for helping a developer understand what
func onality to build but also for refocusing us on the desired outcome of the project. It is not a list
of to-dos for developers; rather, it is a document that explains what needs to be done and why.
Consider it like how the product works but in human language. This is cri cal for connec ng with the
end-user and understanding how they will interact with the product.

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So ware Developer

2. Project Specifica ons should be neatly organized - It should be ensured that the specifica on is
easy to read. Begin with an introduc on and divide the material into logical sec ons. Include a table
of contents so that readers can easily find the sec ons they need in the future.
3. Make it a Living Document - It is unrealis c to expect to finish the requirements at the start of the
project. It will need to be updated regularly as requirements change and develop. Users should
strive to keep it up to date at all mes and ensure that nothing is missing before development
begins. However, as a project manager, users must also ensure that any updates are communicated
to the client. That brings the reader to the next point.
4. Make it a Formal Document - The process of signing off someone’s project specifica on with the
client, in my opinion, should be formally established. During the early stages of a project's planning,
there will be numerous mee ngs, phone calls, and documenta on exchanges. Users don't want
their project specifica ons to become just another document that is read but not fully
comprehended.
It would be recommended that once the user finished wri ng the requirements and one client has
had a chance to review and provide feedback, users create a PDF and send it to the client for
approval. You could also use a service like DocuSign for this. This should alert the client that the
project requirement is the agreed-upon scope of work, and they should follow it. If it needs to be
changed at any point, it can be done so, but the revised version must also be signed off on.
5. Include statements on your ra onale - Projects can be me-consuming – depending on the scope
and project delays, it could take six months or even a year to get started. It is cri cal to keep track of
not only what decisions were made, but also why they were made. Include specifics on why a
par cular path was chosen or why the proposed solu on may be the only one that works for this
project. This will be extremely useful not only during the project but also in the future if you need to
quickly dive in and figure out why certain decisions were made.
6. Know when to write one - This is something you'd like to decide on a case-by-case basis. Joel
Spolsky, the creator of Trello and a so ware developer, wrote nearly two decades ago that any
project requiring more than a week of coding work would suffer without a fully defined spec. I'm
inclined to agree with myself. Users don't need a spec for every project, so make this decision based
on the available meline and budget.
7. Involve your team - The project manager should be in charge of crea ng and owning the project
specifica on, but don't be too strict. Make sure that the team's designers and developers work
together to ensure that the spec is as detailed as possible, with detailed technical informa on when
necessary.

5.1.3 Programming Language

A programming language is a formal language (a set of u erances we can characterize precisely
through algorithmic rules) such that a sentence in the language has a computa onal meaning.
Language or Programming Language in computer science is an ar ﬁcial language used to write a
sequence of instruc ons (a computer program) that can be run by a computer. Similar to natural
languages, such as English, programming languages have a vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. The
languages used to program computers must have simple logical structures, and the rules for their
grammar, spelling, and punctua on must be precise.

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Programming Language Implementa on in most cases, conver ng an object design into code is a simple
process. Classes can be represented in any object-oriented programming language, including C++, Java,
Smalltalk, C#, and Python.
Steps to create a Programming Language:

Become familiar with the Become familiar with the Decide what problem
technology terminology your language is solving

Think of some speciﬁc tasks

Think about the seman cs that someone would want Experiment with syntax
of your language and the to be able to perform with ideas (the text of the
concepts of it your language language)

Decide whether the Write the front end scanner

Write out a formal language will be interpreted and parser or ﬁnd a tool
grammar for the syntax or compiled that helps you with this

Use the parser informa on

Write the executor or
to write the object code or Write many test programs
code generator that will
an intermediate to test the language
bind everything together
representa on

Publish your language,

If your language uses a
Consider how the user will along with the speciﬁca on
standard library, you will
debug their own programs for it and some examples of
want to write it
what you can do in it

Fig 5.3 Steps to create a Programming Language

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1. Become familiar with the technology - You can't create a programming language if you don't know
how to use a computer.

Fig 5.4 Technology

2. Become familiar with the terminology - Compiler writers frequently employ unfamiliar
terminology. Before proceeding, learn about compilers. Make sure everything you need to know.

Fig 5.5 Terminology

(Image Source: wikihow)

3. Decide what problem your language is solving - Is it a domain-speciﬁc problem solver or a general-
purpose language?

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Fig 5.6 Programming Language

(Image Source: wikihow)

4. Think about the seman cs of your language and its concepts of it –

Ÿ Will you allow direct pointer access or not?
Ÿ What data types does your language support?
Ÿ Is it a dynamic or sta c language?
Ÿ What memory model do you have? Are you going to use a garbage collector or manage your
memory manually? (If you use a garbage collector, plan on wri ng one or modifying an exis ng
one to ﬁt your language.)
Ÿ How will you handle concurrency? Are you going to use a simple threading/locking model like
Linda or the actor model, or something more complex? (Because computers now have
mul ple cores.)
Ÿ Are primi ve func ons built into the language, or will everything be pulled from a library?
Ÿ What is your language's paradigm or paradigms? Func onal? Object-oriented? Prototype
(similar to JavaScript)? Aspect-oriented? Template-driven? Alterna vely,
Ÿ How will your language interact with exis ng libraries and languages (primarily C)? This is
cri cal if you're crea ng a domain-speciﬁc language.
Ÿ Finally, some of the answers to these ques ons will be provided by the second step, which will
assist you in answering the next step.

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Fig 5.7 Seman cs of Language and Concepts

(Image Source: wikihow)

5. Think of some speciﬁc tasks that someone would want to be able to perform with your language -
'They may want to direct a robot to follow a line,' for example, or 'they may want to create rela vely
portable desktop programs in it,' or 'they may want to create web applica ons with it.'

Fig 5.8 Tasks to perform with Language

(Image Source: wikihow)

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6. Experiment with syntax ideas (the text of the language) - Keep your content in the context-free
language category or something within it. You will appreciate your parser generator later on.

Fig 5.9 Syntax Ideas

(Image Source: wikihow)

7. Write out a formal grammar for the syntax - Write out a formal grammar for the syntax

Fig 5.10 Formal Grammar

(Image Source: wikihow)

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8. Decide whether the language will be interpreted or compiled –

Fig 5.11 Interpreted or Compiled

(Image Source: wikihow)

9. Write the frontend scanner and parser or ﬁnd a tool that helps you with this - Consider how your
compiler/interpreter will no fy your user of incorrect programs and syntax errors.

Fig 5.12 Fronted Scanner and parser

(Image Source: wikihow)

10. Use the parser informa on to write the object code or an intermediate representa on - AST with
three address codes or its big brother SSA, then create a symbol table to deﬁne your func ons,
global variables, and so on.

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Depending on your language, you may also want to create virtual pointer tables or informa on
tables for your classes (to support reﬂec on or RTTI).

Fig 5.13 Parser Informa on to write the Object code

(Image Source: wikihow)

11. Write the executor or code generator that will bind everything together –

Fig 5.14 executor or code generator

(Image Source: wikihow)

12. Write many test programs to test the language - You want to write programs that emphasize the
constraints of your formal grammar to ensure that your compiler accepts everything within your
deﬁni on and rejects everything outside of it.

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Fig 5.15 Test Programs to Test the Language

(Image Source: wikihow)
13. Consider how the user will debug their programs –

Fig 5.16 Debug the Programs

(Image Source: wikihow)

14. If your language uses a standard library, you will want to write it - Along with a garbage collector
and other run me features if required. In par cular, if you write a compiler, you will require the
code that the opera ng system will execute to begin running the user code (for example, alloca ng
all global variables).

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Fig 5.17 Standard Library

15. Publish your language, along with the speciﬁca on for it and some examples of what you can do
in it - Don't forget to document how to integrate with exis ng libraries and languages, as well as
how to use run me features and/or standard librar

Fig 5.18 Publish Language

(Image Source: wikihow)

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Summary
• Program Specifica on - When you get given a project, the program specifica on is the defini on of
what the program should do. This encompasses everything from its data structures, to its various
inputs and outputs.
• A programming language is a formal language (a set of u erances we can characterize precisely
through algorithmic rules) such that a sentence in the language has a computa onal meaning.
• Language or Programming Language in computer science is an ar ficial language used to write a
sequence of instruc ons (a computer program) that can be run by a computer. Similar to natural
languages, such as English, programming languages have a vocabulary, grammar, and syntax.
• Programming Language Implementa on In most cases, conver ng an object design into code is a
simple process. Classes can be represented in any object-oriented programming language, including
C++, Java, Smalltalk, C#, and Python.
• Become familiar with the terminology - Compiler writers frequently employ unfamiliar terminology.
Before proceeding, learn about compilers. Make sure everything you need to know.
• Publish your language, along with the specifica on for it and some examples of what you can do in
it - Don't forget to document how to integrate with exis ng libraries and languages, as well as how to
use run me features and/or standard libraries.
• Use the parser informa on to write the object code or an intermediate representa on - AST with
three address codes or its big brother SSA, then create a symbol table to define your func ons, global
variables, and so on.
◦ Depending on your language, you may also want to create virtual pointer tables or informa on
tables for your classes (to support reflec on or RTTI).

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. What is Programming Language?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the steps to crea ng a programming language?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Define program specifica ons.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. A programming language is a __________________(a set of u erances we can characterize
precisely through algorithmic rules) such that a sentence in the language has a computa onal
meaning.
b. The ______________is the defini on of what the program should do. This encompasses
everything from its data structures, to its various inputs and outputs..

5. What are the seven ways to write be er project speciﬁca ons?

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Scan the QR Code to watch the related video

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Unit 5.1 Program Speciﬁca on and Programming Language

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UNIT 2.1:Approaches to Develop Applica ons and the Key

Unit 5.2
Processing Industry
Processes

Unit Objec ves

At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss the various so ware engineering approaches to develop applica ons and the key processes

5.2.1 Diﬀerent approaches to So ware Engineering

There are two main techniques for so ware analysis and design:

Func on-Oriented Approach Object-Oriented Approach

Fig 5.19 Approaches to So ware Engineering

1. Func on Oriented Design: The result of focusing emphasis on the program's func on is func on-
oriented design. This is based on the refining method of stepwise refinement. Itera ve procedural
decomposi on is used to perform stepwise refinement. Stepwise refinement is a top-down
approach to program refinement in which a program is refined in a hierarchy of increasing levels of
detail. We begin with a high-level descrip on of the program's func ons. Then, in each stage, we
refine a por on of our high-level descrip on. Elabora on is the process of refinement. The
approach should start with a high-level conceptual model and work its way down to lower-level
specifics. Each module is refined un l the statement level of our programming language is reached.
2. Object-Oriented Design: Object-oriented design is the consequence of focusing a en on on the
data to be modified by the program rather than the func on performed by the program. As a result,
it is opposed to func on-oriented design. Object-oriented design starts with a look at "things" in the
real world. Individually, these en es have characteris cs in terms of their a ributes and behavior.
Objects are self-contained en es that can be easily changed because all state and representa on
informa on is stored within the object. Objects can be distributed and executed sequen ally or
concurrently. Object-oriented technology includes the three keywords –

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Objects
• So ware packages are designed and developed to correspond with real-
world en es, containing all of the data and services required to func on as
their associated en ty messages.

Communica on
• Communica on mechanisms are established that provide the means by
which object work together

Methods
• Methods are services that objects perform to sa sfy the func onal
requirements of the problem domain. Objects request services of the other
objects through messages.

Fig 5.20 Object-oriented technology Keywords

5.2.2 Development Approaches

The method used to create and evolve the product, service, or result during the project life cycle,
such as:

Predic ve

Itera ve

Agile

Incremental

Hybrid

Fig 5.21 Development Approaches

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Predic ve - Predic ve development is a so ware development method in which the model is designed,
implemented, and tested incrementally (piece by piece) un l the product is completed — or all
requirements have been met.
Itera ve - Itera ve development is a so ware development method that divides the process of crea ng
a large applica on into smaller steps. Each "itera on" represents the en re development process and
includes steps for planning, design, development, and tes ng.
Agile - Agile so ware development refers to a set of itera ve so ware development methodologies in
which requirements and solu ons evolve through collabora on between self-organizing cross-
func onal teams.
Incremental - In so ware engineering, incremental development is a process methodology that
emphasizes the importance of taking small steps toward a goal.
Hybrid - The goal of a hybrid method is to be able to deﬁne requirements upfront (planning, budge ng,
etc.) as with a waterfall approach, and then transi on to an agile approach for design, development, and
tes ng. The best of agile and waterfall are combined and made to work together in a hybrid.

5.2.3 Diﬀerent Applica ons of So ware Engineering

The following ﬁgure list diﬀerent applica ons of so ware:

System So ware

Networking and Web Applica ons So ware

Embedded So ware

Reserva on So ware

Business So ware

Entertainment So ware

Ar ﬁcial Intelligence So ware

Scien ﬁc So ware

Fig 5.22 Diﬀerent Applica ons of So ware

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1. System So ware: System so ware is required to manage computer resources and to support
applica on program execu on. This category includes so ware such as opera ng systems,
compilers, editors, and drivers, among others. These are required for a computer to func on.
Opera ng systems are required to connect a program's machine-dependent needs with the
capabili es of the machine on which it runs. Compilers convert programs from high-level to
machine language.
2. Networking and Web Applica ons So ware: Networking so ware provides the necessary support
for computers to communicate with one another and with data storage facili es. When so ware is
running on a network of computers, networking so ware is also used (such as the World Wide
Web). It includes all network management so ware, server so ware, security and encryp on
so ware, and web-development so ware such as HTML, PHP, XML, and so on.
3. Embedded So ware: This type of so ware is embedded in hardware, typically in Read-Only
Memory (ROM), as part of a larger system, and is used to support specific func onality under
control condi ons. So ware used in instrumenta on and control applica ons such as washing
machines, satellites, microwaves, and so on is an example.
4. Reserva on So ware: A reserva on system is primarily used to store and retrieve informa on as
well as conduct transac ons related to air travel, car rentals, hotels, and other ac vi es. They also
offer bus and train reserva ons, though these are not always integrated with the main system.
These are also used in the hotel industry to relay computerized informa on to users, such as making
a reserva on and ensuring that the hotel is not overbooked.
5. Business So ware: This is the most commonly used category of so ware and is used to support
business applica ons. Examples include inventory management so ware, accoun ng so ware,
banking so ware, hospitals, schools, stock exchanges, and so on.
6. Entertainment So ware: Educa on and entertainment so ware is a powerful tool for educa onal
organiza ons, par cularly those that work with young children. Computer games, educa onal
games, transla on so ware, mapping so ware, and other forms of entertainment so ware are
available.
7. Ar ficial Intelligence So ware: This category includes so ware such as expert systems, decision
support systems, pa ern recogni on so ware, ar ficial neural networks, and so on. They involve
complex problems that are unaffected by complex computa ons performed with non-numerical
algorithms.
8. Scien fic So ware: Scien fic and engineering so ware meets a scien fic or engineering user's
need to perform enterprise-specific tasks. Such so ware is wri en for specific applica ons using
field-specific principles, techniques, and formulae. So ware such as MATLAB, AUTOCAD, PSPICE,
ORCAD, and others are examples.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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5.2.4 DBMS
Database Management System (also known as DBMS) is so ware for storing and retrieving users' data
by considering appropriate security measures. It allows users to create their databases as per their
requirements.
It consists of a group of programs that manipulate the database and provide an interface between the
databases. It includes the use of the database and other applica on programs.
The DBMS accepts the request for data from an applica on and instructs the opera ng system to
provide the speciﬁc data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users and other third-party so ware to store
and retrieve data.
Characteris cs of Database Management System:

Self-describing nature of a Insula on between

Provides security and
database system programs and data
removes redundancy
abstrac on

Sharing of data and DBMS allows en es and

Support of mul ple views
mul user transac on rela ons among them to
of the data
processing form tables.

DBMS supports mul -user

It follows the ACID concept
environment that allows
(Atomicity, Consistency,
users to access and
Isola on, and Durability).
manipulate data in parallel.

Fig 5.23 Characteris cs of DBMS

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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5.2.5 Applica ons and uses of DBMS

Following are the applica on and uses of DBMS:
1. Railway Reserva on System
The database is required to keep a record of cket booking, train departure, and arrival status. also if
trains get late then people get to know it through database updates.

Fig 5.24 Railway Reserva on System

2. Library Management System

There are thousands of books in the library so it is very diﬃcult to keep a record of all the books in a
copy or register. So DBMS is used to maintain all the informa on related to booking issue dates,
name of the book, author, and availability of the book.

Fig 5.25 Library Management System

3. Banking
We make thousands of transac ons through banks daily and we can do this without going to the
bank. So how banking has become so easy that by si ng at home we can send or get money through
banks. That is all possible just because of DBMS which manages all the bank transac ons.

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Fig 5.26 Banking

4. Universi es and colleges

Examina ons are done online today and universi es and colleges maintain all these records
through DBMS. Student registra on details, results, courses, and grades all the informa on are
stored in a database.

Fig 5.27 Universi es and Colleges

5. Credit card transac ons

For purchase of credit cards and all the other transac ons are made possible only by DBMS. A credit
card holder knows the importance of their informa on that all are secured through DBMS.

Fig 5.28 Credit card Transac ons

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6. Social Media Sites

We all are on social media websites to share our views and connect with our friends. Daily millions
of users signed up for these social media accounts like Facebook, Twi er, Pinterest, and google plus.
How all the informa on of users is stored and how can connect to other people, yes all this is
feasible on account of DBMS.

Fig 5.29 Social Media Sites

7. Telecommunica ons
Any telecommunica on company cannot even think about its business without DBMS. DBMS is a
must for these companies to store the call details and monthly post-paid bills.

Fig 5.30 Telecommunica ons

8. Finance
Those days have gone far when informa on related to money was stored in registers and files.
Today the me has changed because there are lots of things to do with finance like storing sales,
holding informa on and financial statement management, etc.

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Fig 5.31 Finance

9. Military
The military keeps records of millions of soldiers and it has a huge quan ty of ﬁles that should be
kept secured and safe. As DBMS provides a big security assurance to the military informa on so it is
widely used in militaries. One can easily search for all the informa on about anyone within seconds
with the help of DBMS.

Fig 5.32 Military

10. Online Shopping

Online shopping has become a big trend these days. No one wants to go to the shops and waste his
me. Everyone wants to shop from home. So all products are added and sold only with the help of
DBMS. Purchase informa on, invoice bills, and payment, all of these are done with the help of
DBMS.

Fig 5.33 Online Shopping

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11. Human Resource Management

Big ﬁrms have many workers working under them. The human resource management department
keeps records of each employee’s salary, taxes, and work through DBMS.

Fig 5.34 Human Resource Management

12. Manufacturing
Manufacturing companies make products and sell them on the daily basis. To keep records of all the
details about the products like quan ty, bills, purchase, and supply chain management, DBMS is
used.

Fig 5.35 Manufacturing

13. Airline Reserva on system

Same as the railway reserva on system, the airline also needs DBMS to keep records of ﬂight arrival,
departure, and delay status. So in short, one can say the DBMS is used everywhere around us and we
cannot rely on it without DBMS.

Fig 5.36 Airline Reserva on System

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5.2.5 Applica ons and uses of DBMS

Deployment
Maintenance
& Updates
Tes ng
So ware
Development
Design &
Prototyping
Resource
Planning
Requirement
Analysis Fig 5.37 So ware Development Process

Summary
• Stepwise refinement is a top-down approach to program refinement in which a program is refined in
a hierarchy of increasing levels of detail.
• Online shopping has become a big trend these days. No one wants to go to the shops and waste his
me. Everyone wants to shop from home.
• Any telecommunica on company cannot even think about its business without DBMS. DBMS is a
must for these companies to store the call details and monthly post-paid bills.
• Manufacturing companies make products and sell them on the daily basis. To keep records of all the
details about the products like quan ty, bills, purchase, and supply chain management, DBMS is
used.
• For purchase of credit cards and all the other transac ons are made possible only by DBMS. A credit
card holder knows the importance of their informa on that all are secured through DBMS.
• The database is required to keep a record of cket booking, train departure, and arrival status. also if
trains get late then people get to know it through database updates.
• Database Management System (also known as DBMS) is so ware for storing and retrieving users’
data by considering appropriate security measures. It allows users to create their databases as per
their requirements.
• A reserva on system is primarily used to store and retrieve informa on as well as conduct
transac ons related to air travel, car rentals, hotels, and other ac vi es.
• The DBMS accepts the request for data from an applica on and instructs the opera ng system to
provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users and other third-party so ware to store
and retrieve data.
• Educa on and entertainment so ware is a powerful tool for educa onal organiza ons, par cularly
those that work with young children. Computer games, educa onal games, transla on so ware,
mapping so ware, and other forms of entertainment so ware are available.

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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. Define DBMS.
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain So ware Development Process.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the applica ons and uses of DBMS?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the characteris cs of DBMS?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Fill in the blanks:
a. ________________________so ware is a powerful tool for educa onal organiza ons,
par cularly those that work with young children.
b. The _____________________accepts the request for data from an applica on and instructs
the opera ng system to provide the specific data.
c. Manufacturing companies make products and sell them on the daily basis. To keep records of all
the details about the products like____________, _______________, ______________,
and____________________, DBMS is used.
d. The military keeps records of millions of soldiers and it has a huge quan ty of files that should be
kept_____________________.
e. ____________________is the most commonly used category of so ware and is used to
support business applica ons.

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6. Process of
So ware
Development
Unit 6.1 - So ware Development Process

SSC/N0502
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss best prac ces for documen ng business processes and major func onali es of an
applica on
2. Design tes ng strategies to iden fy and correct seman c errors in programs

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UNIT 2.1:So ware Development Process

Unit 6.1
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. List the phases of the so ware development lifecycle
2. Discuss the diﬀerences between top-down and bo om-up design approaches

6.1.1 So ware Development Process

A process, then, is a series of ac ons carried out in a specific order. A so ware development process is
made up of steps that lead to a finished product. The so ware development process is a series of steps
that must be completed to produce deliverables. The so ware development process, as opposed to the
SDLC, specifies each step that must be completed as part of the deliverables that comprise each phase.
It is a series of steps on a smaller scale.

6.1.2 SDLC Phases

The following table exhibit various phases of SDLC:

• During this phase, all relevant informa on from the customer

is gathered to develop a product that meets their
expecta ons.
• Any ambigui es must be resolved only during this phase.
• The business analyst and Project Manager schedule a mee ng
with the customer to gather all of the necessary informa on,
such as what the customer wants to build, who will be the
end-user, and what the product's purpose is.
Requirement Gathering
• Before developing a product, it is cri cal to have a solid
and Analysis
understanding of the product.

• In this phase, the requirement gathered in the SRS document

is used as an input, and the so ware architecture that is used
for implemen ng system development is derived.

Design
Con nue...

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• Implementa on/Coding starts once the developer gets the

Design document.
• The So ware design is translated into source code. All the
components of the so ware are implemented in this phase.

Implementa on or Coding

• Tes ng starts once the coding is complete and the modules

are released for tes ng. In this phase, the developed so ware
is tested thoroughly and any defects found are assigned to
developers to get ﬁxed.
• Retes ng, and regression tes ng is done ll the point at which
the so ware is as per the customer's expecta on. Testers
refer SRS document to make sure that the so ware is as per
the customer's standard.
Design

• Once the product has been tested, it is either deployed into

produc on or the first UAT (User Acceptance Tes ng) is
performed, depending on the customer's expecta ons.
• In the case of UAT, a replica of the produc on environment is
created, and the customer tests alongside the developers.
• If the customer finds the applica on to be as expected, the
customer signs off on the applica on going live.
Deployment

• Following the deployment of a product in the produc on

environment, the developers are responsible for the
product's maintenance, i.e., if an issue arises that needs to
be resolved or an enhancement is required.

Maintenance

Table 6.1 SDLC Phases

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6.1.3 Top-Down and Bo om-up Design Approaches

Top-down Design Approach
Top-down programming is the inverse of bo om-up programming. It refers to a programming style
where an applica on is built from a high-level descrip on of what it is supposed to do and then broken
down into simpler and simpler pieces un l a level is reached that corresponds to the primi ves of the
programming language to be used.

Breaking problems down into parts allows us to see what needs to be done

New parts will become less complex and thus easier to solve with each reﬁnement step

Some components of the solu on may be reusable

When problems are divided into parts, they can be solved by more than one person

Fig 6.1 Advantages of Top-Down Programming

No ng executable exists un l It tends to generate modules

very late in the development, that are very speciﬁc to the
Top-down programming
so to test what has been applica on that is being
complicates tes ng.
done so far, one must write wri en, thus not very
stubs. reusable.

All decisions made from the

start of the project depend There is a great risk that large
directly or indirectly on the parts of the applica on need
high-level speciﬁca on of the to be rewri en.
applica on.

Fig. 6.2 Disadvantages of Top-Down Programming

Working on Top-down Programming

Top-down programming produces modules based on func onality, typically in the form of func ons or
procedures. Typically, the system's high-level specifica on states func onality. This high-level
descrip on gets refined into a loop of simple func ons or procedures and later refined further. There is a
high risk in this programming style that implementa on details of many data structures must be shared
between modules and thus exposed globally. It encourages other modules to use these implementa on
details, resul ng in unwanted dependencies between different parts of the applica on.

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Fig 6.3 Top-down Design

(Image Source: h ps://www.chegg.com/learn/computer-science/computer-so ware/top-down-design)

Bo om-up Programming
Bo om-up programming is the inverse of top-down programming. It refers to a programming style in
which an applica on is built by star ng with exis ng primi ves of the programming language and
gradually adding more and more complicated features un l the en re applica on is wri en. There are
several advantages to bo om-up programming over top-down programming as follows:
1. Tes ng is simplified because stubs are not required.
2. Test func ons are easier than stubs and are required in the case of an interac ve programming
environment, i.e., Common Lisp or GDB.
3. Bo om-up programming tends to be more general, and thus more reusable than top-down
programming.
4. It can be used to create an applica on-specific language.
5. This type of language is appropriate for implemen ng an en re class of applica ons, not just the
one required for wri ng.
6. It greatly simplifies maintenance, par cularly when adding new features to the applica on.
7. It also allows the developers to postpone the final decision on the applica on's exact func onality.
8. The ability to postpone this decision reduces the likelihood that the client will change his or her
mind between the establishment of the applica on's specifica ons and its implementa on.

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Working on Bo om-up Programming

Bo om-up programming in a language like C or Java consists of crea ng abstract data types from
language primi ves or exis ng abstract data types.

Fig 6.4 Bo om-up Design

(Image Source: h ps://www.guru99.com/integra on-tes ng.html)

Diﬀerences between Top-down Design and Bo om-up Design

SI.No Top-Down Approach Bo om-Up Approach

1. In this approach, We focus on breaking In the bo om-up approach, we solve smaller

up the problem into smaller parts. problems and integrate them as a whole and
complete the solu on.

2. Mainly used by structured programming Mainly used by object-oriented programming

languages such as COBOL, Fortran, C, etc. languages such as C++, C#, Python

3. Each part is programmed separately and Redundancy is minimized by using data

therefore contains redundancy. encapsula on and data hiding.

4. In this, the communica ons are less This module must have communica on.
among modules.

5. It is used in debugging, module It is used in tes ng.

documenta on, etc.

Con nued...

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SI.No Top-Down Approach Bo om-Up Approach

6. In the top-down approach, In the bo om-up approach, the composi on

decomposi on takes place. takes place.

7. This top func on of the system might be Some mes we cannot build a program from
hard to iden fy. the piece we have started.

Fig 6.2 Diﬀerences between Top-down Design and Bo om-up Design

6.1.4 Design Tes ng Strategies

Types of test design techniques are:

Sta c tes ng

• The early-stage tes ng technique is sta c tes ng.

• It is performed without actually running the development product.
• Essen ally, this type of desk-checking is essen al to find defects and errors in the code
itself.
• A pre-deployment check like this is cri cal because it helps eliminate difficul es caused by
code faults and so ware structure flaws.

Structural tes ng

• It is impossible to test so ware successfully without ﬁrst running it.

• Structural tes ng, also known as white-box tes ng, is required to detect and correct faults
and problems that arise during the so ware development process's pre-produc on stage.
• At this point, regression tes ng is used to perform unit tes ng based on the program
structure.
• Most of the me, it's an automated procedure that works within a test automa on
framework to help speed up the development process at this point.
• Developers and QA engineers have complete access to the so ware's structure and data
flows (data flows tes ng), allowing them to trace any changes in the system's behavior
(muta on tes ng) by comparing the results of the tests to earlier itera ons' results
(control flow tes ng).

Con nued...

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Behavioral tes ng

• The final stage of tes ng focuses on the so ware's responses to various ac vi es rather
than the mechanisms underlying these responses.
• In other words, behavioral tes ng, also known as black-box tes ng, entails performing
numerous tests, most of which are manual, to examine the product from the user's
perspec ve.
• To run usability tests, for example, and react to bugs as regular users of the product, QA
engineers usually have some specific informa on about a business or other purposes of
the so ware ('the black box).
• If repe ve ac vi es are required, behavioral tes ng may also include automa on
(regression tests) to eliminate human error.
• For example, to see how the product handles such an ac vity, you may need to fill out 100
registra on forms on the website.

Fig 6.5 Types of Test Design Techniques

The best test strategy is usually the one that works for the speciﬁc project perfectly well. However,
the key principles of developing an eﬀec ve strategy are:

Work with the team, not

Test early, test o en Test early, test o en
against it

Fig 6.6 Key Principles of Developing an Eﬀec ve Strategy

6.1.5 Seman c Errors

Seman c errors are subtler types of mistakes. A seman c error occurs when a statement is syntac cally
correct but does not perform the func on intended by the programmer. Since the construc on follows
the rules of the language, seman c errors are not detected by the compiler or interpreter. A
programming error is caused by a misinterpreta on of the meaning or eﬀect of a programming
language construct.
Causes of Seman c Errors: When access to seman cs or lexical representa ons is interrupted,
seman c errors occur. One method for determining the origins of these errors is to evaluate the
comprehension of words that elicit seman c errors in naming.

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Summary
• The so ware development process is a series of steps that must be completed to produce
deliverables.
• The so ware development process, as opposed to the SDLC, specifies each step that must be
completed as part of the deliverables that comprise each phase. It is a series of steps on a smaller
scale.
• The business analyst and Project Manager set up a mee ng with the customer to gather all the
informa on like what the customer wants to build, who will be the end-user, and what is the purpose
of the product. Before building a product a core understanding or knowledge of the product is very
important.
• Top-down programming is the opposite of bo om-up programming. It refers to a style of
programming where an applica on is constructed star ng with a high-level descrip on of what it is
supposed to do and breaking the specifica on down into simpler and simpler pieces un l a level has
been reached that corresponds to the primi ves of the programming language to be used.
• Bo om-up programming is the opposite of top-down programming. It refers to a style of
programming where an applica on is constructed star ng with exis ng primi ves of the
programming language and construc ng gradually more and more complicated features un l all of
the applica on has been wri en.
• In a language such as C or Java, bo om-up programming takes the form of construc ng abstract data
types from primi ves of the language or exis ng abstract data types.
• Top-down programming tends to generate modules that are based on func onality, usually in the
form of func ons or procedures. Typically, the high-level specifica on of the system states
func onality.
• In the bo om-up approach, we solve smaller problems and integrate them as a whole and complete
the solu on.
• In the top-down approach, decomposi on takes place.
• In the bo om-up approach, the composi on takes place.
• In a language such as C or Java, bo om-up programming takes the form of construc ng abstract data
types from primi ves of the language or exis ng abstract data types.

Notes
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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. Explain So ware Development Process.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are Seman c Errors?
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the Key Principles of Developing an Eﬀec ve Strategy?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe Design Tes ng Strategies.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the advantages of Top-down design and Bo om-up design?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Fill in the blanks:

a. __________________is the opposite of bo om-up programming.
b. In a language such as___________________, bo om-up programming takes the form of
construc ng abstract data types from primi ves of the language or exis ng abstract data types.
c. _________________defines the complete cycle of development i.e. all the tasks involved in
gathering a requirement for the maintenance of a Product.
d. ___________________________is a framework that defines the steps involved in the
development of so ware. It covers the detailed plan for building, deploying, and maintaining
the so ware.
MCQ Ques ons:
So ware is defined as ___________
a. set of programs, documenta on & configura on of data
b. set of programs
c. documenta on and configura on of data
d. None of the men oned

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____________ is a so ware development ac vity that is not a part of so ware processes.

a. Valida on
b. Specifica on
c. Development
d. Dependence
The ac vity that distributes es mated effort across the planned project dura on by alloca ng the effort
to specific so ware developing tasks is ____________
a. Project scheduling
b. Detailed schedule
c. Macroscopic schedule
d. None of the men oned

QR Code
Scan the QR Code to watch the related video

youtu.be/omPz4r2sCAM
Unit 6.1 So ware Development Process

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7. Process of
Applica on
Management
Unit 7.1 - Quality A ributes of So ware
Requirements Speciﬁca on
Unit 7.2 - Custom and Rapid Applica on So ware

SSC/N0502
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Categorize between UML and Object-Oriented Design
2. Evaluate the various so ware tes ng methodology used in applica on development
3. Examine various UML diagrams to determine process suitability

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UNIT 2.1:Quality A ributes of So ware Requirements

Unit 7.1
Speciﬁca onIndustry
Processing

Unit Objec ves

At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. List so ware quality a ributes and characteris cs of a good SRS

7.1.1 So ware Requirements Speciﬁca on

A so ware requirements specifica on (SRS) is a document that specifies what the so ware will do and
how it should func on. It also describes the func onality that the product must have to meet the needs
of all stakeholders (business and users). The SRS is developed in accordance with the agreement
reached between the customer and the contractors. It may contain use cases describing how the user
will interact with the so ware system.
SRS requirements: System engineers must create a variety of requirements throughout the life of an
acquisi on programme. These requirements range from high-level concept-focused to part-specific.

Func onal Performance System Technical

Speciﬁca ons
Requirements Requirements Requirements

Fig 7.1 Requirements for SRS

1. Func onal Requirements: A func onal requirement is simply a task (also known as an ac on or an
ac vity) that must be completed to provide an opera onal capability (or sa sfy an opera onal
requirement). Some opera onal and support func onal requirements can be deduced from the
required opera onal capability. Development, manufacturing, veriﬁca on, deployment, training,
opera ons, support, and disposal are the eight generic func ons that most systems must complete
over their life cycle, according to systems engineering experience. These are referred to as the
"eight primary system func ons." Each must usually be taken into account when iden fying all of
the func onal requirements for a system.
2. Performance Requirements: A performance requirement is a statement that speciﬁes the extent to
which a func on must be carried out, typically in terms of quan ty, accuracy, coverage, meliness,
or readiness. The performance requirements for the opera onal func on and, occasionally, a few
others frequently correlate well with the statement of the required opera onal capability
developed by the Joint Capabili es Integra on and Development System (JCIDS) process. Other
performance requirements usually necessitate extensive systems engineering.

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3. System Technical Requirements: As a result, both allocated and derived requirements are
produced.
a. Allocated Requirements: flow directly from system requirements to system elements.
b. Requirements derived from the design solu on (and so are some mes called design
requirements). They include internal interface constraints between system elements.
4. Specifica ons: A specifica on is a detailed, exact statement of par culars, par cularly one that
specifies materials, dimensions, and workmanship quality for something to be built, installed or
manufactured. The overall goal of a specifica on is to provide a founda on for obtaining a product
or service that will meet a specific need at a reasonable cost and to encourage maximum
reasonable compe on. A specifica on, by defini on, sets limits and, as a result, eliminates or
poten ally eliminates items that are outside the boundaries drawn. A good specifica on should
accomplish the following four goals:

Provide for an equitable award at the lowest possible cost

Allow for a compe ve bid

List reproducible test methods to be used in tes ng for compliance with

speciﬁca ons

Iden fy minimum requirements

Fig.7.2 Goals for Good Speciﬁca on

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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7.1.2 So ware Requirements Speciﬁca on

Quality

Maintainability Func onal

Software requirement
speciﬁcations
Safety Performanace

Reliablity Interface

Fig 7.3 So ware Requirement Speciﬁca ons

Quality Characteris cs of a good SRS

Following are the characteris cs of a good SRS document:
1. Complete - A complete and accurate requirements specifica on must precisely define all the real-
world scenarios that will be encountered, as well as the capability's responses to them. It must not
include situa ons or capabili es that will not be used.
2. Consistent - System func ons and performance levels must be compa ble, and the required quality
features (reliability, safety, security, and so on) must not be incompa ble with the system's u lity.
For example, the only safe aircra is one that has been annotated, does not contain any fuel or other
liquids, and is securely ed down.
3. Correct - The specifica on must define the real-world opera onal environment of the desired
capability, its interface to that environment, and its interac on with that environment. The most
difficult aspect of achieving specifica on correctness is the real-world aspect of requirements. For
new applica ons, the real-world environment is unknown, and for mature applica ons, the real-
world environment is constantly changing. The Y2K problem, which occurred during the transi on
from 1999 to 2000, is an example of the real world exceeding an applica on's specified
requirements.
4. Modifiable - Group the concerns that are related, whereas unrelated must be separated. To be
modifiable, requirements documents must have a logical structure.
5. Ranked - The organiza on and structure of the requirements document establish a ranking of
specifica on statements based on stability and importance. The larger and more complex the
problem addressed by the requirements specifica on, the more difficult it is to create a document
that aids rather than hinders comprehension.

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6. Testable - A requirement specifica on must be wri en in a way that allows it to be tested against
the pass, fail, or quan ta ve assessment criteria derived from the specifica on and reference
informa on. The requirement that a system is "easy" to use is subjec ve and thus untestable.
7. Traceable - Each requirement stated in the SRS document must be uniquely iden fied to ensure
traceability. The use of a consistent and logical scheme for assigning iden fica on to each
specifica on statement within the requirements document aids in uniqueness.
8. Unambiguous - A requirement statement is unambiguous if it can only be interpreted in one way. It
is possibly the most difficult characteris c to achieve through natural language. The use of weak
phrases or poor sentence structure will lead to misunderstandings in the specifica on statement.
9. Valid - To validate a requirements specifica on, all project par cipants, including managers,
engineers, and customer representa ves, must be able to comprehend, analyze, and accept or
reject it. It is the primary reason why the majority of specifica ons are wri en in natural language.
10. Verifiable - Requirement specifica ons at one level of abstrac on must be consistent with those at
another level of abstrac on to be verifiable. The majority, if not all, of these a ributes, are
subjec ve, and determining the quality of a requirements specifica on requires review and
analysis by technical and opera onal experts in the domain addressed by the requirements.

• Correctness
• Completeness
• Consistency
• Testability
• Design independence

Characteris cs of a good • Right level of abstrac on

SRS • Modiﬁability
• Traceability
• Ranking for importance
• Understandable by the customer
• Veriﬁability
• Unambiguousness

Fig 7.4 Characteris cs of a good SRS

Notes
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__________________________________________________________________________________

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Uses of SRS Documents

The following are a few major uses for SRS documents:

Project managers base their The tes ng group needs it to

plans and es mates of The development team needs generate test plans based on
schedule, eﬀort, and it to develop the product the described external
resources on it. behavior.

The maintenance and

product support staﬀ need it The publica ons group writes Customers rely on it to know
to understand what the documents, manuals, etc., what product they can
so ware product is supposed from it. expect.
to do.

The maintenance and

Training personnel can use it
product support staﬀ need it
to help develop educa onal
to understand what the
material for the so ware
so ware product is supposed
product.
to do.

Fig 7.5 Uses of SRS Documents

7.1.3 IEEE Standards for SRS

The requirements document is designed to be simple to write, review, and maintain. It is divided into
sec ons and further into modules or units. It should be noted that the level of detail included in the SRS
is determined by the system type and the process model used for development. For example, if an
external contractor is to develop a system, cri cal system speciﬁca ons must be precise and detailed.
Similarly, when requirements must be ﬂexible and in-house development is used, requirements
documents can be less detailed.
Since the requirements document serves as the founda on for subsequent so ware development
phases, it is cri cal that it be developed in the prescribed manner. Certain guidelines are followed when
preparing SRS for this purpose. These rules are outlined below.

Notes
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__________________________________________________________________________________

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Analysis model: It should be

Cogni ve model: It should be
developed according to the desired
developed independently of the
Func onality: It should be separate behavior of a system. This should
design or implementa on model.
from implementa on. include data and func onal
This model expresses a system as
response of a system to various
perceived by the users.
inputs given to it.

The content and structure of Speciﬁca on: It should be

the speciﬁca on: It should be robust. That is, it should be
ﬂexible enough to tolerant of incompleteness and
accommodate changes. complexity.

Fig 7.6 Rules & Guidelines for SRS Documents

The type of informa on included in SRS is determined by a number of factors, including the type of
so ware being developed and the approach used in its development. The requirements document for
so ware developed using the itera ve development process will be less detailed than that for so ware
developed for cri cal systems. This is due to the fact that specifica ons in these systems must be
extremely detailed and precise. Several standards have been proposed for the development of a
requirements document. The most widely used standard, however, is by IEEE, which serves as a general
framework. This general framework can be tailored to meet the needs of a specific organiza on.
Each SRS follows a specific pa ern; thus, it is cri cal to standardize the structure of the requirements
document to make it easier to understand. This IEEE standard is used for SRS to organize requirements
for various projects, providing various ways of structuring SRS. The first two sec ons of all requirements
documents are the same. The sec ons of this document are as follows.

Introduc on:
• This provides an overview of the en re informa on described in SRS. This involves the purpose
and the scope of SRS, which states the func ons to be performed by the system. In addi on, it
describes deﬁni ons, abbrevia ons, and the acronyms used. The references used in SRS provide
a list of documents that are referenced in the document.

Overall descrip on:

• It determines the factors which affect the requirements of the system. It provides a brief
descrip on of the requirements to be defined in the next sec on called 'specific requirement'. It
comprises the following sub-sec ons.

Con nued...

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Product perspec ve:

• It determines whether the product is an independent product or an integral part of the larger
product. It determines the interface with hardware, so ware, system, and communica on. It
also deﬁnes memory constraints and opera ons u lized by the user.

Product func ons:

• It provides a summary of the func ons to be performed by the so ware. The func ons are
organized in a list so that they are easily understandable by the user.

User characteris cs:

• It determines the general characteris cs of the users.

Constraints:
• It provides the genera1 descrip on of the constraints such as regulatory policies, audit
func ons, reliability requirements, and so on.

Assump on and dependency:

• It provides a list of assump ons and factors that aﬀect the requirements as stated in this
document.

Appor oning of requirements:

• It determines the requirements that can be delayed un l the release of future versions of the
system.

Speciﬁc requirements:
• These determine all requirements in detail so that the designers can design the system by them.
The requirements include a descrip on of every input and output of the system and func ons
performed in response to the input provided. It comprises the following subsec ons.

Con nued...

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External interface:
• It determines the interface of the so ware with other systems, which can include an interface
with the system and so on. The external interface also specifies the interac on of the so ware
with users, hardware, or other so ware. The characteris cs of each user interface of the
so ware product are specified in SRS. For the hardware interface, SRS specifies the logical
characteris cs of each interface among the so ware and hardware components. If the so ware
is to be executed on the exis ng hardware, then characteris cs such as memory restric ons are
also specified.

Func ons:
• It determines the func onal capabili es of the system. For each func onal requirement, the
accep ng and processing of inputs to generate outputs are speciﬁed. This includes validity
checks on inputs, the exact sequence of opera ons, the rela onship of inputs to output, and so
on.

Performance requirements:
• It determines the performance constraints of the so ware system. Performance requirement is
of two types: sta c requirements and dynamic requirements. Sta c requirements (also known
as capacity requirements) do not impose constraints on the execu on characteris cs of the
system. These include requirements like the number of terminals and users to be
supported. Dynamic requirements determine the constraints on the execu on of the behavior
of the system, which includes response me (the me between the start and end of an opera on
under speciﬁed condi ons) and throughput (total amount of work done in a given me).

Logical database of requirements:

• It determines logical requirements to be stored in the database. This includes the type of
informa on used, frequency of usage, data en es and rela onships among them, and so on.

Design constraint:
• It determines all design constraints that are imposed by standards, hardware limita ons, and so
on. Standard compliance determines requirements for the system, which comply with the
speciﬁed standards. These standards can include accoun ng procedures and report formats.
Hardware limita ons imply when the so ware can operate on exis ng hardware or some pre-
determined hardware. This can impose restric ons while developing the so ware design.
Hardware limita ons include hardware conﬁgura on of the machine and opera ng system to be
used.

So ware system a ributes:

• It provides a ributes such as reliability, availability, maintainability, and portability. It is essen al
to describe all these a ributes to verify that they are achieved in the ﬁnal system.

Con nued...

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So ware Developer

Organizing Speciﬁc Requirements:

• It determines the requirements so that they can be properly organized for op mal
understanding. The requirements can be organized based on the mode of opera on, user
classes, objects, features, response, and func onal hierarchy.

Change management process:

• It determines the change management process to iden fy, evaluate, and update SRS to reﬂect
changes in the project scope and requirements.

Change management process:

• It determines the change management process to iden fy, evaluate, and update SRS to reﬂect
changes in the project scope and requirements.

Document approvals:

• These provide informa on about the approvers of the SRS document with the details such as the
approver's name, signature, date, and so on.

Suppor ng informa on:

• It provides informa on such as a table of contents, index, and so on. This is necessary especially
when SRS is prepared for large and complex projects.

Suppor ng informa on:

• It provides informa on such as a table of contents, index, and so on. This is necessary especially
when SRS is prepared for large and complex projects.

So ware Quality A ributes

• Availability: The flight should be available on the specified date and specified me as many
customers are doing reserva ons.
• Correctness: The flight should reach star ng from the correct start terminal and should reach
the correct des na on.
• Maintainability: The administrators and flight chargers should maintain the correct schedules of
flights.
• Usability: The flight schedules should sa sfy a maximum number of customers’ needs.

Fig 7.7 Standard Structure for SRS Documents and its Components

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7.1.4 Structured Design

During structured analysis, the major processing tasks (i.e. func ons) of the system are analyzed, and
data ﬂows among these processing tasks are represented graphically.
The analysis model must achieve these three primary objec ves:
a. A Describe what the customer requires.
b. Establish a basis for the crea on of so ware design.
c. Deﬁne a set of requirements that can be validated on the comple on of so ware.
The structured analysis technique is based on the following essen al underlying principles:
Top-down decomposi on approach
a. Divide and conquer principle, where each func on is decomposed independently
b. Graphical representa on of the analysis results
c. Special nota ons and graphical symbols are used to describe and par on the func onality of a
system.
The following tools are used for Structured Analysis:

Data Flow Diagrams

Structure Charts HIPO Diagram
(DFD)

Structured English Pseudo code Decision table

ER Diagram Data Dic onary Context Diagrams

State Transi on Flowcharts Event Lists

Diagram

Fig 7.8 Tools used for Structured Analysis

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So ware Developer

Data Flow Diagram

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representa on of data flow in a computer system. It can display
incoming data flow, outgoing data flow, and stored data. The DFD makes no men on of how data flows
through the system. There is a significant difference between a data flow diagram and a flowchart. The
flowchart depicts the control flow within the programme modules, whereas DFDs depict the data flow
in a system at various levels. DFD contains no control or branch elements. Data Flow Diagrams are either
Logical or Physical.

Logical DFD - This type of DFD concentrates

Physical DFD - This type of DFD shows how
on the system process, and flow of data in
the data flow is implemented in the system.
the system. For example in a Banking
It is more specific and close to the
so ware system, how data is moved
implementa on.
between different en es.

Fig.7.9 Types of DFD

DFD Components
DFD can represent the Source, des na on, storage, and ﬂow of data using the following set of
components.
Data Flow
En ty Process Data Store

Fig 7.10 DFD Components

Steps in Developing A DFD

A DFD is developed by the following steps:

Draw a context-level diagram: The

context-level diagram shows the
main sources, sinks, processes, Decompose the context-level
and the scope of the system diagram: In this step, the context-
under development. The main level diagram needs to be
purpose of the context-level decomposed into a second-level
diagram is to abstract the general DFD.
sources and sinks of the data.

Decompose to an elementary level:

This level of the diagram explains in
even greater detail the actual
processes that are occurring in the
system. Leveling occurs un l enough
detail is described for the system
analyst and the users to understand
the system fully.

Fig 7.11 DFD Developing Steps

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Structure Charts
A structure chart is a type of chart that is derived from a data ﬂow diagram. It is a more detailed
representa on of the system than DFD. It deconstructs the en re system into the most basic func onal
modules and describes the func ons and sub-func ons of each module in greater detail than DFD. The
structure chart depicts the modules' hierarchical structure.
A speciﬁc task is carried out at each layer. The following table exhibit symbols used in the crea on of
structure charts:

Module - It represents process or subrou ne

or task. A control module branches to more
than one sub-module. Library Modules are re-
usable and invokable from any module.

Condi on - It is represented by a small

diamond at the base of the module. It depicts
that the control module can select any sub-
rou ne based on some condi on.

Jump - An arrow is shown poin ng inside the

module to depict that the control will jump in
the middle of the sub-module.

Table 7.1 Symbols for Structural Chart

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So ware Developer

Loop - A curved arrow represents a loop in the

module. All sub-modules are covered by loop
repeat execu on of the module.

Data ﬂow - A directed arrow with an empty

circle at the end represents data ﬂow.

Control ﬂow - A directed arrow with a ﬁlled

circle at the end represents control ﬂow.

Table 7.1 Symbols for Structural Chart

HIPO Diagram
HIPO (Hierarchical Input Process Output) diagram is a combina on of two organized methods for
system analysis and documenta on. In the year 1970, IBM created the HIPO model.
The HIPO diagram depicts the so ware system's module hierarchy. The HIPO diagram is used by the
analyst to obtain a high-level view of system func ons. It decomposes func ons hierarchically into sub-
func ons. It depicts the func ons that the system performs. HIPO diagrams are useful for
documenta on. Their graphical representa on allows designers and managers to get a visual
representa on of the system structure.

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Online Sales

Authen ca on Inventory Check Payment Process Dispatch Item

Issue Item Item Missing Generate Invoice

Fig 7.12 HIPO Diagram

In contrast to the IPO (Input Process Output) diagram, which depicts the ﬂow of control and data in a
module, HIPO does not provide any data or control ﬂow informa on.

Take authen ca on
creden als to form
user-screen
Click validity of
User Screen creden als User Screen

Call appropriate
module

Fig 7.10 Input Process output

Example
Both parts of the HIPO diagram, the Hierarchical presenta on, and the IPO Chart are used for the
structural design of the so ware program as well as documenta on of the same.
Structured English
Most programmers are oblivious to the big picture of so ware and rely solely on what their managers
tell them to do. Higher so ware management is responsible for providing accurate informa on to
programmers in order for them to develop accurate yet fast code. Other methods that employ graphs or
diagrams may be interpreted differently by different people. As a result, so ware analysts and designers
create tools such as Structured English. It is nothing more than a descrip on of what must be coded and
how to code it. Structured English assists programmers in wri ng error-free code. Other methods that
employ graphs or diagrams may be interpreted differently by different people. Structured English and
Pseudo-Code both a empt to bridge this understanding gap.
Structured English is the structured programming paradigm's use of plain English words.

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It is not the ﬁnal code, but rather a descrip on of what must be coded and how to code it.
Here are some examples of structured programming.
IF-THEN-ELSE,
DO-WHILE-UNTIL
Please Note that the analyst uses the same variable and data name, which are stored in Data Dic onary,
making it much simpler to write and understand the code.
Example
Let’s take the same example of Customer Authen ca on in the online shopping environment. The
procedure to authen cate customers can be wri en in Structured English as:
Enter Customer_Name
SEEK Customer Name in the Customer Name_DB ﬁle
IF Customer_Name is found THEN
Call procedure USER_PASSWORD_AUTHENTICATE()
ELSE
PRINT error message
Call procedure NEW_CUSTOMER_REQUEST()
ENDIF
The code wri en in Structured English is more like day-to-day spoken English. It cannot be implemented
directly as a code of the so ware. Structured English is independent of programming language.
Pseudo-Code
Pseudocode is wri en in the same language as the programming language. It can be thought of as an
augmented programming language, with lots of comments and descrip ons.
Pseudocode avoids variable declara on, but it is wri en using actual programming language constructs
such as C, Fortran, Pascal, and so on.
Structured English contains fewer programming details than pseudo code. It provides a method for
performing the task as if the code were being executed by a computer.
Example
Program to print Fibonacci up to n numbers.
void func on Fibonacci
Get the value of n;
Set value of a to 1;
Set value of b to 1;
Ini alize I to 0
for (i=0; i< n; i++)
{

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if a greater than b
{
Increase b by a;
Print b;
}
else if b greater than a
{
increase a by b;
print a;
}

Advantages Disadvantages

• Conver ng a pseudo-code to a • In the case of pseudo-code, a graphic

programming language is much easier representa on of program logic is not
compared to conver ng a flowchart or available as with flowcharts.
decision table.
• There are no standard rules to follow in
• Compared to a flowchart, it is easier to using pseudo-code. Different
modify the pseudo-code of program programmers use their style of wri ng
logic whenever program modifica ons pseudo-code and hence communica on
are necessary.
• Problems occur due to a lack of
• Wri ng pseudo-code involves much less standardiza on.
me and effort than the equivalent
• For a beginner, it is more difficult to
flowchart.
follow the logic or write the pseudo-
• Pseudo-code is easier to write than code as compared to flowchar ng.
wri ng a program in a programming
language because pseudo-code as a
method has only a few rules to follow.

Fig. 7.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pseudo-Code

Decision Tables
A Decision table is a structured tabular format that represents condi ons and the ac ons that must be
taken to address them. It is an eﬀec ve debugging and error-preven on tool. It assists in grouping
similar informa on into a single table, and then combining tables provides simple and convenient
decision-making. Decision tables are a precise yet compact method of modeling complex logic. Decision
tables, like ﬂowcharts and if-then-else and switch-case statements, associate condi ons with ac ons to
take, but in many cases in a more elegant manner.

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A decision table is a table with rows and columns divided into four quadrants.

Condi ons Condi on Alterna ves

Ac ons Ac on Entries

Fig 7.13 Decision table separated into four quadrants

The condi ons are in the upper le quadrant. The condi on rules of alterna ves are located in the
upper right quadrant.
The ac ons to be taken are in the lower le quadrant, and the ac on rules are in the lower right
quadrant. Decision tables are a precise yet compact method of modeling complex logic.
Decision tables, like if-then-else and switch-case statements, link condi ons to ac ons. However, unlike
tradi onal programming language control structures, decision tables can elegantly associate many
independent condi ons with several ac ons.
Crea ng Decision Table
To create the decision table, the developer must follow basic four steps:

Iden fy all possible Determine ac ons

Create maximum Deﬁne ac on for
condi ons to be for all ien ﬁes
possible rules each rule
addressed condi ons

Fig 7.14 Steps to create Decision Table

Decision Tables should be verified by end-users and can lately be simplified by elimina ng duplicate
rules and ac ons.
Steps to Developing Decision Tables: Explana on
To build decision tables, you need to determine the maximum size of the table, eliminate any impossible
situa ons, inconsistencies, or redundancies, and simplify the table as much as possible. The following
steps provide offer some guidelines for developing decision tables:
I. Determine the number of condi ons that may affect the decision. Combine rows that overlap, for
example, mutually exclusive condi ons. The number of condi ons becomes the number of rows in
the top half of the decision table.
II. Determine the number of possible ac ons that can be taken. This becomes the number of rows in
the lower half of the decision table.

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III. Determine the number of condi on alterna ves for each condi on. In the simplest form of a
decision table, there would be two alterna ves (Y or N) for each condi on. In an extended-entry
table, there may be many alterna ves for each condi on.
IV. Calculate the maximum number of columns in the decision table by mul plying the number of
alterna ves for each condi on. If there were four condi ons and two alterna ves (Y or N) for each
of the condi ons, there would be sixteen possibili es as follows:
Condi on 1: x 2 alterna ves
Condi on 2: x 2 alterna ves
Condi on 3: x 2 alterna ves
Condi on 4: x 2 alterna ves
16 possibili es
V. Fill in the condi on alterna ves. Start with the ﬁrst condi on and divide the number of columns by
the number of alterna ves for that condi on. In the foregoing example, there are sixteen columns
and two alterna ves (Y and N), so sixteen divided by two is eight. Then choose one of the
alterna ves and write Y in all of the eight columns. Finish by wri ng N in the remaining eight
columns as follows:
Condi on 1 YYYYYYYYNNNNNNNN
Repeat this for each condi on using a subset of the table:
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N

N N N N N

Y Y Y Y N N N N

Y Y N N

Y N

Table 7.2 Subset of the table

Con nue the pa ern for each condi on:

Condi on 1 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N N

Condi on 2 Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N

Condi on 3 Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N

Condi on 4 Y N Y N Y N

Table 7.3 (a) Subset of the table

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VI. Complete the table by inser ng an X where rules suggest certain ac ons.
for example:
Condi on 1 Y Y
Condi on 2 Y N
Ac on 1 X X
can be expressed as:
Condi on 1 Y
Condi on 2 --
Ac on 1 X
The dash (-) signifies that condi on 2 can be either Y or N and ac on will s ll be taken.
Check the table for any impossible situa ons, contradic ons, or redundancies.
Rearrange the condi ons and ac ons (or even rules) to make the decision table more
understandable.
VII. Example: No charges are reimbursed to the pa ent un l the deduc ble has been met. A er the
deduc ble has been met, the amount to be reimbursed depends on whether or not the doctor or
hospital is a “Preferred Provider.” For preferred providers, Doctor's office visits are reimbursed at
65% and Hospital visits are reimbursed at 95%. For other providers reimburse 50% for Doctor's
Office visits or 80% for Hospital visits.
VIII.There will be 8 rules. The first condi on (Is the deduc ble met?) has two possible outcomes, yes or
no. The second condi on (Is it a Preferred Provider?) has two possible outcomes, yes or no. The
third condi on (type of visit) has two possible outcomes, Doctor's office visit (D) or a Hospital visit
(H). Two mes two mes two is 8.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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CONDITION 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Deduc on met? Y Y Y Y N N N N

Preferred Y Y N N Y Y N N
Provider?

Type of visit D H D H D H D H

ACTIONS

Reimburse 65% X

Reimburse 95% X

Reimburse 50% X

Reimburse 80% X

No X X X X
Reimbursement

Table 7.4 (b) Table for each condi on

Example
Let us take a simple example of the day-to-day problem with our Internet connec vity. We begin by
iden fying all problems that can arise while star ng the internet and their respec ve possible solu ons.
We list all possible problems under column condi ons and the prospec ve ac ons under column
Ac ons.

Condi ons/Ac ons Rules

Condi ons Shows connected N N N N N N N N

Ping is Working N N Y Y N N Y Y

Opens Website Y N Y N Y N Y N

Ac ons Check network cable X

Check internet router X X X X

Restart Web Browser X

Contact Service Provider X X X X X X

Do no ac on

Table 7.4 Decision Table-In-house Internet Troubleshoo ng

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Decision rules are clearly Mangers can be relieved Consistency in decision-

structured from decision-making making

Communica on is easier Documenta on is easily

between managers and prepared, changed, or Easy to use
analysts updated

Easier to follow a
par cular path down
Easier to draw or modify Facilitate more compact
one column than
compared to ﬂowcharts documenta on
through complex and
lengthy ﬂowcharts

Fig 7.15 Advantages of Decision Tables

Disadvantages of Decision Tables

The various disadvantages of decision tables include:

Impose addi onal Do not depict the Cannot list all the
Not easy translate
burden ﬂow alterna ves

Fig 7.16 Disadvantages of Decision Tables

En ty-Rela onship Model

The En ty-Rela onship (ER) model is a type of database model that is based on the concept of real-world en es
and their rela onships. Real-world scenarios can be mapped onto the ER database model. The ER model
generates a set of en es with a ributes, constraints, and rela onships between them. The ER Model is best
suited for database conceptual design. The ER Model is represented as follows:

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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A ribute A ribute A ribute A ribute

En ty Rela onship En ty

Fig 7.17 (a) En ty-Rela onship Model

ER diagrams to further deﬁne rela onships.

• En ty: An en ty is a physical object or concept about which you want to store data. It can be a
person, place, event, or object that is important to a par cular system. A school system, for
example, may include students, teachers, major courses, subjects, fees, and other items. In ER
diagrams, en es are represented by a rectangle and named with singular nouns.

En ty

Fig 7.17 (b) En ty-Rela onship Model

• Weak En ty: A weak en ty is an en ty that must be deﬁned by a foreign key rela onship with
another en ty as it cannot be uniquely iden ﬁed by its own a ributes alone.

En ty

Fig 7.17 (b) En ty-Rela onship Model

A weak en ty is an en ty that depends on the existence of another en ty. In more technical terms it
can deﬁned as an en ty that cannot be iden ﬁed by its own a ributes. It uses a foreign key
combined with its a ributed to form the primary key. An en ty like order item is a good example for
this. The order item will be meaningless without an order so it depends on the existence of order.

Order Order Item

Fig 7.17 (d) En ty-Rela onship Model

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• A ribute: An a ribute is a property, trait, or characteris c of an en ty, rela onship, or another

a ribute. For example, the a ribute Inventory Item Name is an a ribute of the en ty Inventory
Item. An en ty can have as many a ributes as necessary. Meanwhile, a ributes can also have their
own speciﬁc a ributes. For example, the a ribute “customer address” can have the a ributes
number, street, city, and state. These are called composite a ributes. Note that some top level ER
diagrams do not show a ributes for the sake of simplicity. In those that do, however, a ributes are
represented by oval shapes.

Id Customer Name

Address

Number City
Street

Fig 7.18 A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

• Key a ribute: A key a ribute is the unique, dis nguishing characteris c of the en ty. For example,
an employee's social security number might be the employee's key a ribute.

A ribute

Fig 7.18 (a) Key A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

• Mul -valued a ribute: A mul -valued a ribute can have more than one value. For example, an
employee en ty can have mul ple skill values.

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A ribute

Fig 7.18 (b) Mul -valued A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

It is important to note that this is diﬀerent to an a ribute having its own a ributes. For example, a
teacher en ty can have mul ple subject values.

Teacher Subjects

Fig 7.18 (c) Mul -valued A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

• Derived a ribute: A derived a ribute is based on another a ribute. For example, an employee’s
monthly salary is based on the employee’s annual salary.

A ribute

Fig 7.18 (d) Derived A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

An is a ribute-based on another a ribute. This is found rarely in ER diagrams. For example, for a
circle, the area can be derived from the radius.

Circle

Radius Area

Fig 7.18 (e) Derived A ribute - En ty-Rela onship Model

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• Rela onships: Rela onships illustrate how two en es share informa on in the database
structure

Rela onship

Fig 7.19 Rela onship - En ty-Rela onship Model

A rela onship describes how en es interact. For example, the en ty “carpenter” may be related to
the en ty “table” by the rela onship “builds” or “makes”. Rela onships are represented by
diamond shapes and are labeled using verbs
• Cardinality: Cardinality describes how many instances of one en ty are related to one instance of
another. Cardinality is also closely related to ordinality. It speciﬁes the occurrences of a rela onship,
whereas ordinality speciﬁes whether the rela onship is mandatory or op onal. One account in an
email system, for example, can have mul ple contacts. In this case, the rela onship follows a "one

Fig 7.20 Cardinality

to many" model. In ER diagrams, cardinality is represented using a variety of nota ons.

• Recursive rela onship: In some cases, en es can be self-linked. For example, employees can
supervise other employees.

Fig 7.21 (a) Recursive rela onship

In the below example an employee can be a supervisor and be supervised, so there is a recursive
rela onship.

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Fig 7.21 (b) Recursive rela onship

Benefits of ER Diagrams
1. ER diagrams provide an excellent framework for crea ng and manipula ng databases.
2. They are simple to understand and do not necessitate extensive training to work efficiently and
accurately and designers, regardless of IT proficiency, can use ER diagrams easily to communicate
with developers, customers, and end users. A
3. ER diagrams are easily translatable into rela onal tables, which can be used for quickly crea ng
databases.
4. Furthermore, database developers can use ER diagrams as a blueprint for implemen ng data in
specific so ware applica ons.
5. Finally, ER diagrams can be used to describe the different rela onships and opera ons within an
organiza on.
Data Dic onary
A data dic onary is a centralized collec on of data-related informa on. It saves data meaning and
origin, rela onships with other data, the data format for use, and so on. All names in the data dic onary
have rigorous defini ons to help users and so ware designers. DFD (Data Flow Diagram) so ware
programme model that is expected to be updated whenever DFD is changed or updated.
Requirement of Data Dic onary
While designing and implemen ng so ware, the data is referenced using a data dic onary. A data
dic onary eliminates the possibility of ambiguity. It aids in keeping programmers' and designers' work
synchronized by using the same object reference throughout the programme. The data dic onary
provides centralized documenta on for the en re database system. The data dic onary is used to
validate the DFD.

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Contents
The following informa on should be included in the data dic onary:

Data Flow Data Structure Data Elements

Data Stores Data Processing

Fig 7.22 Data Dic onary

a. Data Flow is speciﬁed as DFDs as studied earlier and represented in algebraic form as described.
Example
Address = House No + (Street / Area) + City + State
Course ID = Course Number + Course Name + Course Level + Course Grades
b. Data Elements consist of Name and descrip ons of Data and Control Items, Internal or External
data stores, etc. with the following details:
1. Primary Name
2. Secondary Name (Alias)
3. Use-case (How and where to use)
4. Content Descrip on (Nota on etc.)
5. Supplementary Informa on (present values, constraints etc.)
It stores the informa on from where the data enters into the system and exists out of the system.
The Data Store may include -
c. Files
1. Internal to so ware.
2. External to so ware but on the same machine.
3. External to so ware and system, located on diﬀerent machine.
d. Tables
1. Naming conven on
2. Indexing property
e. Data Processing
f. There are two types of Data Processing:
• Logical: As the user sees it
• Physical: As so ware sees it

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The Context Diagram

The scope descrip on defines the dis nc on between the system under development and everything
else in the universe. The context diagram graphically depicts this boundary by displaying the
connec ons between the system under development or problem under considera on and the outside
world. The context diagram iden fies the en es outside the system that interact with it in some
way—referred to as terminators or external en es, as well as the flow of data and material between
each external en ty and the system. The context diagram is used as the top-level abstrac on in a data
flow diagram created using structured analysis principles. The context diagram can be included in the
vision and scope document, the SRS, or as part of the system's dataflow model.
Following is a sample of context diagram describing online community system.

Fig 7.24 Content Diagram for Online Community System

(Image Source: h ps://www.modernanalyst.com/Careers/InterviewQues ons/tabid/128/ID/1433/What-is-a-Context-
Diagram-and-what-are-the-beneﬁts-of-crea ng-one.aspx)

State-Transi on Diagram
A state-transi on diagram (STD) is a tool for modeling me-dependent aspects of a system. An STD is a
tool that is used to simulate the sequence of many real- me systems. STD represents me-dependent
behavior. Many complex systems exhibit me-dependent behavior, which refers to the order in which
data is accessed and func ons are performed.
An STD is a way of describing a system's me-dependent behavior. The basic consistency rule is: “A
system's behavior in any state must be the same no ma er by which path the state is arrived at”.

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However, the behaviour of a

A state is an observable mode A speciﬁc STD can only be in system can be described by
of the system's behaviour. one state at any given me. more than one state
transi on diagram.

Fig 7.25 State-Transi on Diagram

Transi on condi ons:

a. internal events or events external to the system
Transi on ac ons:
a. ac ons in response to the events
b. triggering one-shot ac ons
c. synchronizing between different STDs
d. producing control outputs
Drawing STDs:
a. Iden fy observable states of the system
b. Select the states with normal behavior
c. Specify the condi ons that mark a transi on
d. Specify the ac ons to produce the observable behavior in the des na on state for each transi on
e. If the system is complex, par on the diagram in several STD's
A state transi on diagram depic ng the control flow of a chess game is depicted in Figure below. Start is
defined as the ini al state, while 'Black wins', 'Draw', and 'White wins' are the three final states for the
system.

Fig 7.26 A Chess Game State Transi on Diagram – Sample

(Image Source: h ps://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~jdalbey/SWE/Design/STDexamples.html)

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Flowcharts
A flowchart is a useful tool for represen ng the flow of control in a programme. A flowchart is a
graphical representa on of an algorithm that uses symbols to depict the opera ons and decisions that
a computer will make when solving a problem. The instruc ons themselves are wri en within symbols
or boxes using clear statements. These boxes are linked together by solid lines with arrows indica ng
the flow of opera ons in a sequence. Following table exhibit flowchart symbols:

Symbols Descrip on

Terminal Symbol. Terminal symbols are used for two

purposes: to define the star ng (START or BEGIN) point
of the flowchart and to define the ending point (END)
of the flowchart.

Input/output Symbol. Input/output symbols are used

to indicate the logical posi oning of input/output
opera ons. The input opera on is the entry of
computer data and the output opera on is the
displayed output opera on.

Processing Symbol. Processing symbols are used to

indicate the arithme c and data-movement
instruc ons. Therefore, all arithme c processing of
adding, subtrac ng, mul plying, and dividing are
represented with a processing symbol box.

Decision Symbol. Decision symbols have one entry

point and there will be at least two exit points
depending upon the decision taken inside the symbol.
When a condi on is tested, if the condi on is true, the
path for “yes” is followed. If the condi on is false, the
path for “no” is followed.

Flow Lines. Flow lines, which have arrowheads, are

used to indicate the flow of program logic in a
flowchart. These arrows are used to indicate the
direc on of the flow of control. This means these
statements indicate the next statement to be
executed.

Con nued...

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Symbols Descrip on

Connector Symbol. If a ﬂowchart is discon nued at

some point and con nued again in another place, the
connector symbol is used. It is a circle with a number
wri en inside it. If a ﬂowchart is discon nued at some
point, a circle is drawn poin ng away from the chart.
Another circle with the same number inside is placed
where the ﬂowchart is con nued.

Hexagon (Flat). This is the prepara on box. This box

contains the loop-se ng statement, i.e., some
itera ve statement.

Table 7.5 Flowchart Symbols

The following are important ﬂowchart rules and guidelines:

Arrows can be used to

indicate the flow of control Processing logic should flow
Only conven onal flowchart
in the problem. However, from top to bo om and from
symbols should be used.
flow lines should not cross le to right.
each other.

Words in the ﬂowchart symbols If the ﬂowchart becomes

should be common statements Be consistent in using names large and complex then
and easy to understand. These and variables in the connector symbols should be
should be independent of ﬂowchart. used to avoid crossing of ﬂow
programming languages. lines.

Properly labeled connectors

should be used to link the Flowcharts should have start
por ons of the ﬂowchart on and stop points.
diﬀerent pages.

Fig 7.27 Flowchart Rules & Guidelines

Example of a Flowchart
Consider an algorithm for calcula ng the average of n numbers. The ﬂowchart is depicted in the
diagram below. The integer variable n denotes the number of values considered for calcula ng the
average. The count is yet another integer variable that represents the number of values that are
processed at any given me. For storing the values, the number is an integer variable.

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Start

Set Sum=0C=1
Avg=0

If C<3
-
n Avg = sum/3

y Output sum & avg

prompt number End

read number

Sum=sum+number

C=C+1

Fig 7.28 Flowchart to Find the Average of 10 Integer Numbers

The following are some of the beneﬁts of ﬂowcharts:

Synthesis:

• Flowcharts are used as working models in designing new programs and so ware systems.

Documenta on:
• Program documenta on consists of ac vi es, such as collec ng, organizing, storing,
and maintaining all related records of a program.

Coding:
• Flowcharts guide the programmer in wri ng the actual code in a high-level language,
which is supposed to give an error-free program developed expedi ously.

Debugging:

• The errors in a program are detected only a er its execu on on a computer.

• These errors are called bugs and the process of removing these errors is called debugging.
• In the debugging process, a ﬂowchart acts as an important tool in detec ng, loca ng, and
removing bugs from a program.

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Communica on:
• A ﬂowchart is a pictorial representa on of a program. Therefore, it is an excellent
communica on technique to explain the logic of a program to other programmers/ people.

Analysis:

• Eﬀec ve analysis of a logical problem can be easily done with the help of a related ﬂowchart.

Tes ng:
• A ﬂowchart is an important tool in the hands of a programmer, which helps him in designing
the test data for systema c tes ng of programs.

Fig 7.29 Advantages of Flowchart

Disadvantages of flowcharts
The various disadvantages of flowcharts are as follows:
1. Crea ng flowcharts is a me-consuming and laborious process, especially for large, complex
problems.
2. Flowchart redrawing is even more difficult and me-consuming. It is extremely difficult to include
any new steps in the exis ng flowchart, and the only solu on is to redraw the flowchart again.
3. There are no standard guidelines that specify the level of detail that should be included in any
flowchart.
4. Flowcharts become extremely difficult to draw when an algorithm contains complex branches and
loops.
Event Lists
Event lists are lists of external events that occur in the outside world and have an impact on the system,
such as events generated by some terminators. Context diagrams and event lists can be listed in any
order as long as both units are produced and are consistent with one another.
The following are examples of events:
a. Flow – These events occur when some data flows between the external world and the system. For
example, a customer places a reserva on.
b. Temporal – Temporal events take place when an event occurs as a result of some ming. For
example, management requests a weekly report.
c. Control – Control events are a special case of a temporal event, an external s mulus that occurs at
some unpredictable point in me. For example, verifica on of credit cards.
Events are always seen through the eyes of the terminator. Events occur outside of the system, and the
passage of me may cause an event to occur.

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Summary
• The drawing of flowcharts is a very me-consuming process and laborious especially for large,
complex problems.
• Control events are a special case of a temporal event, an external s mulus that occurs at some
unpredictable point in me.
• Debugging. The errors in a program are detected only a er its execu on on a computer. These errors
are called bugs and the process of removing these errors is called debugging. In the debugging
process, a flowchart acts as an important tool in detec ng, loca ng, and removing bugs from a
program.
• Flow Lines. Flow lines, which have arrowheads, are used to indicate the flow of program logic in a
flowchart. These arrows are used to indicate the direc on of the flow of control. This means these
statements indicate the next statement to be executed.
• Data elements consist of Names and descrip ons of Data and Control Items, Internal or External data
stores, etc.
• The data dic onary is the centralized collec on of informa on about data. It stores the meaning and
origin of data, its rela onship with other data, and a format for usage The data dic onary has rigorous
defini ons of all names in order to facilitate user and so ware designers.
• DFD (Data Flow Diagram) model of so ware program and is expected to be updated whenever DFD is
changed or updated.
• To be verifiable, requirement specifica ons at one level of abstrac on must be consistent with those
at another level of abstrac on. Most, if not all, of these a ributes, are subjec ve and a conclusive
assessment of the quality of a requirements specifica on requires review and analysis by technical
and opera onal experts in the domain addressed by the requirements.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. What are the rules for drawing ﬂowcharts?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Pseudo-Code?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the signiﬁcance of SRS.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Write a short note on:
IEEE Standards for SRS
HIPO Diagram
Structural Design
Decision tables
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Fill in the Blanks:
a. ____________________model of so ware program and is expected to be updated whenever
_________ is changed or updated.
b. __________________________is a document that describes what the so ware will do and how it
should perform. It also describes the func onality required by the product to meet the needs of all
stakeholders (business and users).
c. The____________________ is created based on the agreement reached between the customer
and the contractors. It could include use cases for how the user will interact with the so ware
system.
d. _____________________________according to stability and/or importance is established in the
requirements document’s organiza on and structure.

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UNIT 2.1:Custom and Rapid Applica on So ware

Unit 7.2
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss the primary diﬀerences between custom applica on development and rapid applica on
development.

7.2.1 Custom Applica on Development

The process of designing, crea ng, and deploying custom so ware applica ons for speciﬁc users is
known as custom applica on development. Many schools, healthcare providers, and businesses, for
example, create their own custom portals for students, pa ents, and employees to use for a variety of
purposes.
Six beneﬁts of custom applica on development:

Custom so ware is designed speciﬁcally for the company, elimina ng the need to change business
procedures two accommodate a pre-developed so ware product.

The so ware integrates seamlessly into exis ng business so ware system ecosystem, removing
the need to use mul ple applica ons for speciﬁc business func ons.

Users can save money on hardware purchases because the solu on is designed with your
infrastructure in mind and does not include unused features that increase hardware requirements.

Users have complete access to the original development team, allowing any issues to be resolved
quickly and eﬃciently.

Having custom built so ware reduces external tracks do the business because there is much less
incen ve for hackers to try to break into a system used by only one company and no public
documenta on provided to shed light on possible a acks.

The businesses own so ware's intellectual property rights and can con nue to use and improve it
as needed even if the original so ware developer is no longer able to maintain it.

Fig 7.30 Beneﬁts of Custom Applica on Development

Customer So ware Development pros - The most signiﬁcant beneﬁt of custom so ware is that it
includes features that commercial so ware does not. Once implemented, the problems solved by the
custom-designed solu on may be well worth the costs.

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Customer So ware Development Cons - Everyone would do it if implemen ng a custom so ware

solu on was inexpensive and simple. Developing a custom so ware solu on is diﬃcult due to the costs
and risks involved.

Costs
• Crea ng customised so ware necessitates substan al financial
investment. The commissioning company is responsible for all costs
associated with the development process. Some customised solu ons
cost five figures or more.

Risks
It's not uncommon to discover addi onal features and func ons your custom
product should have during the development process. Modiﬁca ons and
revisions incur addi onal costs and development me. Frequent changes
can result in project scope loss and so ware that does not adequately
address your needs.

Fig 7.31 Customer So ware Development Cons

Here are some pointers for choosing a custom so ware development company:

Check out their previous

Get referrals from people Look for developers that
work, focusing on
in your network and use lean, non-buggy
industries served and
industry. code.
project size

Focus on companies
Ensure there is good Nail down who owns
with a history of on- me
two-way communica on the intellectual property
delivery

Ensure they’re crea ng Be clear about post-

Bake in security
an op mal user development support
measures
experience expecta ons

Fig 7.32 Tips for selec ng Custom So ware Development

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5 best prac ces for developing custom so ware:

Deﬁne your Choose the right Make a realis c Conduct

Document the
current process people for the plan with set appropriate
process
and future work milestones tes ng
needs

Fig 7.33 Prac ces for Developing Custom So ware

Customer So ware Development Team Quali es:

Communica on
Skills

Strong Business
Skills
Quali es of a
good custom
so ware
Development
Team
Pricing Structure

Experience and
Tech Skills

Fig 7.34 Quali es of Custom So ware Development Team

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7.2.2 Rapid Applica on Development

Rapid Applica on Development (RAD) is a development model that favors rapid prototyping and
feedback over lengthy development and tes ng cycles. Rapid applica on development allows
developers to make mul ple itera ons and updates to the so ware without having to start from scratch
each me. When it is necessary to create a system that can be modularized in 2-3 months, RAD should
be used. It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for modeling and the budget is large
enough to cover the cost of their services as well as the cost of automated code genera on tools.

Quicker Lower Lower

Quicker delivery Fewer errors
adjustments development cost maintenance costs

Faster release Be er adop on More involvement More usable Be er risk

of versions of new technologies from business so ware control

Less chance of
Happier clients Be er integra ons
catastrophe

Fig 7.35 Beneﬁts of RAD

The following ﬁgure exhibit the four phases of RAD:

Business Process Applica on Tes ng and

Data Modeling
Modeling Modeling Genera on Turnover

Fig 7.36 Four Phases of RAD

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Stage 1: Business Modeling

The RAD model's business modeling step gathers informa on from the company from a variety of
business-related sources. This informa on is then combined into a useful descrip on of how the data
can be used when it is processed, as well as what makes this specific informa on successful for the
industry.
Stage 2: Data Modeling
During the Data Modeling stage, all of the informa on gathered during the Business Modeling phase is
analysed. The informa on is grouped into various groups that can be useful to the company as a result of
the analysis. Each data group's quality is carefully examined and described. During this phase of the RAD
model, a rela onship between these groups and their usefulness as defined in the Business Modeling
step is also established.
Stage 3: Process Modeling
The Process Modeling phase of the RAD model procedure is where all of the informa on groups
gathered during the Data Modeling step are converted into the required usable informa on. Changes
and op miza ons can be made during the Process Modeling stage, and data sets can be further defined.
During this phase, any descrip ons for adding, removing, or changing data objects are also created.
Stage 4: Applica on Genera on
The Applica on Genera on step involves coding all of the informa on gathered and building the system
that will be used to create the prototype. In the following step, the data models are transformed into
actual prototypes that can be tested.
Stage 5: Tes ng and Turnover
The Tes ng and Turnover stage allows for reduced me in the overall tes ng of the prototypes created.
Every model is tested separately to iden fy and adapt the components quickly to create the most
effec ve product. Since most of the elements have already been examined previously, there should not
be any major problems with your prototype.

7.2.3 UML and Object-Oriented Design

Object-Oriented Design:
In recent years, object-oriented (OO) approaches to so ware development have grown in popularity.
Much of the new development is now done with OO techniques and languages. OO systems provide
numerous advantages. An OO model closely represents the problem domain, making designs easier to
create and understand. As requirements change, the objects in a system become less resistant to these
changes, allowing for more easily implemented changes. Inheritance and close associa on of objects in
design to problem domain en es encourage more re-use, i.e., new applica ons can more effec vely
use exis ng modules, reducing development cost and cycle me. Object-oriented approaches are
thought to be more natural, with richer structures for thinking and abstrac on. Common design
pa erns have also been discovered, allowing for higher-level reusability.
The object-oriented design approach differs fundamentally from the func on-oriented design
approach, owing to the different abstrac ons used. It necessitates a new way of thinking and
par oning. It is possible to argue that thinking in object-oriented terms is essen al for producing truly
object-oriented designs.

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Since then, it has become clear that object-oriented development has signiﬁcant advantages over
tradi onal approaches to func on-oriented development. The following are some of the poten al
advantages of object-oriented development:

Faster Development:
• Object-Oriented Development has long been touted as leading to faster development. Many of
the claims of poten ally reduced development me are correct in principle if a bit overstated.

Reuse of Previous work:

• This is the beneﬁt cited most commonly in literature, par cularly in business periodicals. Object-
Oriented Development produces so ware modules that can be plugged into one another, which
allows the crea on of new programs. However, such reuse does not come easily. It takes planning
and investment.

Increased Quality:
• Increases in quality are largely a by-product of this program reuse. If 90% of a new applica on
consists of proven, exis ng components, then only the remaining 10% of the code has to be
tested from scratch. That observa on implies an order-of-magnitude reduc on in defects.

Modular Architecture:
• Object-oriented systems have a natural structure for modular design: objects, subsystems,
framework, and so on. Thus, Object-Oriented Development systems are easier to modify. Object-
Oriented Development systems can be altered in fundamental ways without ever breaking up
since changes are neatly encapsulated. However, nothing in Object-Oriented Development
guarantees or requires that the code produced will be modular. The same level of care in design
and implementa on is required to produce a modular structure in Object-Oriented
Development, as it is for any form of so ware development.

Client/Server Applica ons:

• By their very nature, client/server applica ons involve the transmission of messages back and
forth over a network, and the object-message paradigm of Object-Oriented Development
meshes well with the physical and conceptual architecture of client/server applica ons.

Be er Mapping to the Problem Domain:

• This is a clear winner for Object-Oriented Development, par cularly when the project maps to
the real world. Whether objects represent customers, machinery, banks, sensors, or pieces of
paper, they can provide a clean, self-contained implica on that ﬁts naturally into human thought
processes.

Fig.7.37 Advantages of Object -Oriented Development

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7.2.4 UML (Uniﬁed Modelling Language)

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, building, and
documen ng so ware system ar facts. The Object Management Group (OMG) created UML, and a
draught of the UML 1.0 specifica on was proposed to the OMG in January 1997. OMG is constantly
working to establish a true industry standard.
1. UML is an abbrevia on for Unified Modeling Language.
2. UML is dis nct from other common programming languages such as C++, Java, COBOL, and so on.
3. UML is a graphical language that is used to create so ware blueprints.
4. UML is a general-purpose visual modeling language used to visualize, specify, build, and document
so ware systems.
5. Although UML is commonly used to model so ware systems, it is not limited to this. It is also used to
simulate non-so ware systems. For example, consider the process flows in a manufacturing unit.
6. UML is not a programming language, but UML diagrams can be used to generate code in a variety of
languages. UML is closely related to object-oriented analysis and design. UML has become an OMG
standard a er some standardiza on.
Goals of UML:
A picture is worth a thousand words, and this idiom perfectly describes UML. Object-oriented concepts
predate UML for a long me. There were no standard methodologies in place at the me to organize and
consolidate object-oriented development.
UML entered the picture at that point. There are several goals for developing UML, the most important
of which is to define some general-purpose modeling language that all modelers can use and that is also
simple to understand and use.
UML diagrams are created not only for developers, but also for business users, laypeople, and anyone
else who wants to understand the system. Thus, it should be clear that UML is not a development
method, but rather a process that helps to make a successful system. To summarise, the goal of UML is
to provide a simple modeling mechanism for modeling all possible prac cal systems in today's complex
environment.
UML Building Blocks:
As UML describes the real- me systems, it is very important to make a conceptual model and then
proceed gradually. The conceptual model of UML can be mastered by learning the following three major
elements −
• UML building blocks
• Rules to connect the building blocks
• Common mechanisms of UML

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The building blocks of UML can be deﬁned as –

Things

Rela onships

Diagrams

Fig 7.38 Deﬁning UML

Things are the most important building blocks of UML. Things can be –
• Structural
• Behavioral
• Grouping
• Annota on
UML Diagrams
UML diagrams are the ul mate output of the en re discussion. All the elements, and rela onships are
used to make a complete UML diagram and the diagram represents a system.
The visual eﬀect of the UML diagram is the most important part of the en re process. All the other
elements are used to make it complete.
UML includes the following nine diagrams,

Collabora on
Class diagram Object diagram Use case diagram Sequence diagram
diagram

Ac vity diagram State-chart Deployment Component

diagram diagram diagram

Fig 7.39 UML Diagrams

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1. Class Diagrams
A sta c diagram is the class diagram. It represents an applica on's sta c view. The class diagram is used
not only for visualizing, describing, and documen ng various aspects of a system but is also used to build
executable code for a so ware applica on. A class diagram describes the a ributes and opera ons of a
class as well as the system constraints. Because they are the only UML diagrams that can be mapped
directly to object-oriented languages, class diagrams are widely used in the modelling of object-
oriented systems. A collec on of classes, interfaces, associa ons, collabora ons, and constraints are
depicted in the class diagram.
A structural diagram is another name for it.
Purpose of Class Diagrams
The purpose of a class diagram is to model the sta c view of an applica on. Class diagrams are the only
diagrams that can be directly mapped with object-oriented languages and are thus widely used at the
me of construc on.
UML diagrams like ac vity diagrams, and sequence diagrams can only give the sequence flow of the
applica on; however, the class diagram is a bit different. It is the most popular UML diagram in the coder
community.
The purpose of the class diagram can be summarized as −
• Analysis and design of the sta c view of an applica on.
• Describe the responsibili es of a system.
• Base for component and deployment diagrams.
• Forward and reverse engineering.
Generally, UML diagrams are not directly mapped with any object-oriented programming languages but
the class diagram is an excep on.
The class diagram clearly shows the mapping with object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, etc.
From prac cal experience, a class diagram is generally used for construc on purposes.
In a nutshell, it can be said, class diagrams are used for −
• Describing the sta c view of the system.
• Showing the collabora on among the elements of the sta c view.
• Describing the func onali es performed by the system.
• Construc on of so ware applica ons using object-oriented languages.
2. Object Diagram
Object diagrams are derived from class diagrams, so they are reliant on class diagrams. A class diagram is
represented by an object diagram. The fundamental concepts are similar to class and object diagrams.
Object diagrams also represent a system's sta c view, but this sta c view is a snapshot of the system at a
specific point in me. Object diagrams are used to create an instance of a collec on of objects and their
rela onships.

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Purpose of Object Diagrams

The purpose of a diagram should be understood clearly to implement it prac cally. The purposes of
object diagrams are similar to class diagrams.
The diﬀerence is that a class diagram represents an abstract model consis ng of classes and their
rela onships. However, an object diagram represents an instance at a par cular moment, which is
concrete in nature.
It means the object diagram is closer to the actual system behavior. The purpose is to capture the sta c
view of a system at a par cular moment.
The purpose of the object diagram can be summarized as −
• Forward and reverse engineering.
• Object rela onships of a system
• Sta c view of interac on.
• Understand object behavior and their rela onship from a prac cal perspec ve

Fig 7.40 Object Diagram of an Order Management System

(Image Source: h ps://www.tutorialspoint.com/uml/uml_object_diagram.html)

3. Component Diagram
Component diagrams differ in their nature and behavior.
Component diagrams are used to represent the physical characteris cs of a system. The ques on now
is, what exactly are these physical aspects? Physical aspects are the elements that reside in a node, such
as executables, libraries, files, documents, and so on. Component diagrams are used to depict the
organiza on and rela onships of system components.
These diagrams are also used in the crea on of executable systems.
Purpose of Component Diagrams
Component diagram is a special kind of diagram in UML. The purpose is also different from all other
diagrams discussed so far. It does not describe the func onality of the system but it describes the
components used to make those func onali es.

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Thus from that point of view, component diagrams are used to visualize the physical components in a
system. These components are libraries, packages, ﬁles, etc.
Component diagrams can also be described as a sta c implementa on view of a system. Sta c
implementa on represents the organiza on of the components at a par cular moment.
A single component diagram cannot represent the en re system but a collec on of diagrams is used to
represent the whole.
The purpose of the component diagram can be summarized as −
• Visualize the components of a system.
• Construct executables by using forward and reverse engineering.
• Describe the organiza on and rela onships of the components.

Fig 7.41 Component Diagram of an order management system

(Image Source: h ps://www.tutorialspoint.com/uml/uml_object_diagram.html)

4. Deployment Diagrams
Deployment diagrams are used to depict the topology of a system's physical components, as well as the
loca ons of so ware components. Deployment diagrams are used to describe a system's sta c
deployment view.
Nodes and their rela onships are represented in deployment diagrams.
Purpose of Deployment Diagrams
The term Deployment itself describes the purpose of the diagram. Deployment diagrams are used for
describing the hardware components, where so ware components are deployed. Component
diagrams and deployment diagrams are closely related.
Component diagrams are used to describe the components and deployment diagrams shows how they
are deployed in hardware.

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UML is mainly designed to focus on the so ware ar facts of a system. However, these two diagrams are
special diagrams used to focus on so ware and hardware components.
Most of the UML diagrams are used to handle logical components but deployment diagrams are made
to focus on the hardware topology of a system. Deployment diagrams are used by the system
engineers.
The purpose of deployment diagrams can be described as −
• Visualize the hardware topology of a system.
• Describe the hardware components used to deploy so ware components.

Fig 7.42 Deployment Diagram of an order management system

(Image Source: h ps://www.tutorialspoint.com/uml/uml_deployment_diagram.html)

• Describe the run me processing nodes.

5. Use Case Diagrams
To model a system, the most important aspect is to capture the dynamic behavior. Dynamic behavior
means the behavior of the system when it is running or opera ng.
Only sta c behavior is not suﬃcient to model a system rather dynamic behavior is more important than
sta c behavior. In UML, there are ﬁve diagrams available to model the dynamic nature and use case
diagram is one of them. Now as we have to discuss that the use case diagram is dynamic in nature, there

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should be some internal or external factors for making the interac on.
These internal and external agents are known as actors. A use case diagram consists of actors, use cases
and their rela onships. The diagram is used to model the system/subsystem of an applica on. A single
use case diagram captures a par cular func onality of a system.
Hence to model the en re system, a number of use case diagrams are used.
Purpose of Use Case Diagrams
The purpose of use case diagram is to capture the dynamic aspect of a system. However, this defini on
is too generic to describe the purpose, as other four diagrams (ac vity, sequence, collabora on, and
statechart) also have the same purpose. We will look into some specific purpose, which will dis nguish
it from other four diagrams.
Use case diagrams are used to gather the requirements of a system including internal and external
influences. These requirements are mostly design requirements. Hence, when a system is analyzed to
gather its func onali es, use cases are prepared and actors are iden fied.
When the ini al task is complete, use case diagrams are modeled to present the outside view.
In brief, the purposes of use case diagrams can be said to be as follows −
a. Used to gather the requirements of a system.
b. Used to get an outside view of a system.
c. Iden fy the external and internal factors influencing the system.
d. Shows the interac ons among the requirements are actors.
6. Interac on Diagrams
From the term Interac on, it is clear that the diagram is used to describe some type of interac ons
among the different elements in the model. This interac on is a part of dynamic behavior of the system.
This interac ve behavior is represented in UML by two diagrams known as Sequence diagram and
Collabora on diagram. The basic purposes of both the diagrams are similar.
Sequence diagram emphasizes on me sequence of messages and collabora on diagram emphasizes
on the structural organiza on of the objects that send and receive messages.
Purpose of Interac on Diagrams
The purpose of interac on diagrams is to visualize the interac ve behavior of the system. Visualizing
the interac on is a difficult task. Hence, the solu on is to use different types of models to capture the
different aspects of the interac on.
Sequence and collabora on diagrams are used to capture the dynamic nature but from a different
angle.
The purpose of interac on diagram is −
a. To capture the dynamic behaviour of a system.
b. To describe the message flow in the system.
c. To describe the structural organiza on of the objects.
d. To describe the interac on among objects.

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7. Sequence Diagrams
A sequence diagram simply depicts the interac on between objects in sequen al order i.e. the order in
which these interac ons take place. We can also use the terms event diagrams or event scenarios to
refer to a sequence diagram. Sequence diagrams describe how and in what order the objects in a system
func on. These diagrams are widely used by businessmen and so ware developers to document and
understand requirements for new and exis ng systems.
8. Collabora on Diagram
Unlike a sequence diagram, a collabora on diagram shows the rela onships among the objects.
Sequence diagrams and collabora on diagrams express similar informa on but show it in different
ways.
Because of the format of the collabora on diagram, they tend to be be er suited for analysis ac vi es
(see Ac vity: Use-Case Analysis). Specifically, they tend to be be er suited to depict simpler interac ons
of smaller numbers of objects. However, if the number of objects and messages grows, the diagram
becomes increasingly hard to read. In addi on, it is difficult to show addi onal descrip ve informa on
such as ming, decision points, or other unstructured informa on that can be easily added to the notes
in a sequence diagram. So, here are some use cases that we want to create a collabora on diagram for:
1. Model collabora ons between objects or roles that deliver the func onali es of use cases and
opera ons
2. Model mechanisms within the architectural design of the system
3. Capture interac ons that show the messages passing between objects and roles within the
collabora on
4. Model alterna ve scenarios within use cases or opera ons that involve the collabora on of
different objects and interac ons
5. Support the iden fica on of objects (hence classes) that par cipate in use cases
6. Each message in a collabora on diagram has a sequence number.
7. The top-level message is numbered 1. Messages sent during the same call have the same decimal
prefix but suffixes of 1, 2, etc. according to when they occur.
Nota ons of Collabora on Diagram
Objects
An object is represented by an object symbol showing the name of the object and its class underlined,
separated by a colon:
Object_name : class_name
You can use objects in collabora on diagrams in the following ways:
a. Each object in the collabora on is named and has its class specified
b. Not all classes need to appear
c. There may be more than one object of a class
d. An object’s class can be unspecified. Normally you create a collabora on diagram with objects
first and specify their classes later.
e. The objects can be unnamed, but you should name the against m if you want to discriminate
against different objects of the same class.

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9. State-chart diagram
The name of the diagram itself clarifies the purpose of the diagram and the other details. It describes
the different states of a component in a system. The states are specific to a constant chart of a system.
A state chart diagram describes a state machine. The state machine can be defined as a machine that
defines different states of an object and these states are controlled by The ac vity or internal events.
The ac vity diagram explained in the next chapter, is a special kind of a Statechart diagram. As the
Statechart diagram defines the states, it is used to model the life me of an object.
Purpose of Statechart Diagrams
A Statechart diagram is one of the five UML diagrams used to model the dynamic nature of a system.
They define different states of an object during its life me and these states are changed by events.
Statechartgrams are useful to model reac ve systems. Reac ve systems can be defined as a system that
responds to external or internal events.
The Statechart diagram describes the flow of control from one state to another state. States are defined
as a condi on in which an object exists and it changes when some event is triggered. The most
important purpose of a state chart diagram is to model the life me of an object from crea on to
termina on.
State chart diagrams are also used for forward and reverse engineering of a system. However, the main
purpose is to model the reac ve system.
Following are the main purposes of using state chart diagrams −
1. To model the dynamic aspect of a system.
2. To model the life me of a reac ve system.
3. To describe different states of an object during its life me.
4. Define a state machine to model the states of an object.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Summary
• The process of designing, crea ng, and deploying custom so ware applica ons for specific users is
known as custom applica on development.
• UML was created by the Object Management Group (OMG) and UML 1.0 specifica on dra was
proposed to the OMG in January 1997.
• The basic usage of the ac vity diagram is similar to the other four UML diagrams. The specific usage is
to model the control flow from one ac vity to another. This control flow does not include messages.
• An ac vity diagram is suitable for modeling the ac vity flow of the system. An applica on can have
mul ple systems.
• Ac vity diagrams are mainly used as a flowchart that consists of ac vi es performed by the system.
Ac vity diagrams are not exactly flowcharts as they have some addi onal capabili es.
• The basic purpose of ac vity diagrams is similar to the other four diagrams. It captures the dynamic
behavior of the system. Other four diagrams are used to show the message flow from one object to
another but an ac vity diagram is used to show the message flow from one ac vity to another.
• State chart diagrams are used to model the states and also the events opera ng on the system. When
implemen ng a system, it is very important to clarify different states of an object during its life me
and State chart diagrams are used for this purpose.
• Links connect objects and actors and are instances of associa ons and each link corresponds to an
associa on in the class diagram.
• To model condi ons, we use guards in UML. They are used when we need to restrict the flow of
messages on the pretext of a condi on being met. Guards play an important role in le ng so ware
developers know the constraints a ached to a system or a par cular process.

Notes
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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons
1. What do you understand by UML?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the most important building blocks of UML?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What Are the advantages of Object-Oriented Development?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. How many phases are in RAD?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Fill in the Blanks:
a. ___________________________are used to model the states and also the events opera ng on the
system.
b. ___________________are mainly used as a ﬂowchart that consists of ac vi es performed by the
system.
c. A _________________diagram simply depicts the interac on between objects in sequen al order
i.e. the order in which these interac ons take place
d. An __________________model closely represents the problem domain, which makes it easier to
produce and understand designs.
MCQ Ques ons:
1. UML interfaces are used to:
1. API for all classes
2. Executable logic to reuse across classes
3. Program only in Java
4. Specify required services for types of objects
2. Which of the following UML diagrams has a sta c view?
1. Ac vity
2. Use case
3. State chart
4. Collabora on

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8. Concept of
So ware Tes ng

Unit 8.1 - So ware Tes ng

SSC/N0502
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Key Learning Outcomes

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Unit 8.1 So ware Tes ng

Unit Objec ves

8.1.1 Valida on and Veriﬁca on for So ware Tes ng

Medical Device So ware Produc on So ware

Quality Management So ware for

So ware FDA-Regulated Records

Fig 8.1 Diﬀerent Types of So ware Valida on

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1. Medical Device So ware:

Medical device so ware includes both so ware that is used as a component, part, or accessory of a
medical device and so ware that is a medical device in and of itself.
Products used in: are examples of medical devices that contain so ware that requires valida on.

Diagnosis of Cure, mi ga on, Preven on of Products that So ware for

disease (i.e., treatment, or disease aﬀect the blood and donor
medical imaging treatment of structure or management
so ware, disease (i.e., laser func on of the
arrhythmia so ware, hospital body (i.e.,
detec on bed so ware) pacemaker
so ware) so ware)

Fig 8.2 Medical Device So ware

2. Produc on So ware: So ware and systems used in the manufacture of FDA-regulated products
are referred to as produc on so ware. This group includes:
a. So ware that controls manufacturing equipment (i.e., PLCs, CNCs, inspec on so ware)
b. So ware that manages the manufacturing process (i.e., factor automa on, produc on
monitoring, bill of materials)
c. Laboratory tes ng so ware
d. Labeling so ware
e. Management so ware for the produc on environment (i.e., building management systems)
f. Manufacturing so ware that automates important computa ons
These are not exhaus ve examples; however, FDA Warning Le ers for valida on issues contain
cita ons from these categories.
3. Quality Management So ware: Quality management so ware and systems are used in systems to
ensure the quality of products.
The FDA has issued Warning Le er cita ons for all of the following examples:
a. Product returns or recalls management so ware
b. Complaints so ware
c. Change control so ware
d. Preventa ve maintenance so ware

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e. Inventory control so ware (i.e., ERPs)

f. Document Management so ware
g. Devia on Tracking so ware
h. CAPA so ware
4. So ware for FDA-Regulated Records: So ware for FDA-regulated records is defined as the so ware
used to create, modify, maintain, archive, retrieve, or transmit FDA-required records. According to
the FDA, electronic records must be submi ed.
FDA-regulated records so ware examples include:
• IRB records so ware
• Adverse Event repor ng so ware
• Organ/Tissue Donor records
• Call Center records so ware
• Valida on records
• Prescrip on Order
• Fulfillment so ware
• Clinical Trial Records so ware
5. So ware Verifica on: So ware verifica on is the process of reviewing any so ware to find flaws.
Verifica on is the process of ensuring that so ware meets its objec ves without flaws. It is the
process of determining whether the product developed is correct or not. Document review can
begin as early as the so ware requirement and analysis phase, with the end product being the SRS
document. There are numerous methods for prac cing so ware verifica on, such as peer reviews,
walkthroughs, inspec ons, and so on, that can assist us in the preven on of poten al flaws, which
could lead to so ware failure.
• Verifica on ensures the product being developed is according to design specifica ons.
• Verifica on answers the ques on– “Are we developing this product by firmly following all
design specifica ons?”
• Verifica ons concentrate on the design and system specifica ons.
Methods of Verifica on:
1. Peer Reviews – The peer-review method is the simplest and most informal way of reviewing
documents or programs/so ware during the verifica on process to iden fy flaws. In this method,
we distribute the document or so ware programmes to others and ask them to review them, with
the expecta on that they will provide feedback on the quality of our product as well as iden fy flaws
in the program/document. SRS document verifica on, SDD verifica on, and programme verifica on
are all possible ac vi es for this method. Using this method, the reviewers can also prepare a brief
report on their observa ons or findings.
Advantages:
a) You can expect some good results without spending any significant resources.
b) It is very efficient and significant.

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Disadvantages:
a) If the reviewer is inexperienced, this can lead to poor outcomes.
2. Walk-through – When compared to peer-review, walk-throughs are a more formal and methodical
approach to verifica on. In a walkthrough, the so ware document's author displays the document
to a group of 2 to 7 people. Nothing is demanded of the par cipants in terms of prepara on. The
mee ng's prepara on is the responsibility of the presenter. All par cipants receive a copy of the
document(s). The author introduces the content during the walk-through mee ng to familiarize
them with it, and all a endees are allowed to ask any ques ons they may have.
Advantages:
a) It could assist us in iden fying poten al flaws.
b) It can also be used to collaborate on documents.
Disadvantages:
a) The author may unnecessarily stress some specific aspects of his or her passion while concealing
others.
Inspec ons – Inspec ons are the most structured and formal way of verifica on and are generally
referred to as inspec ons. A group of three to six people is formed, with an unbiased moderator in
charge. Everyone in the group engages openly, ac vely, and according to the guidelines for conduc ng
such a review. Everyone may be allowed to share their points of view, poten al flaws, and cri cal
regions. A er the mee ng, the moderator's essen al sugges ons are included in a final report.
Advantages:
a) It can be very effec ve for finding poten al faults or problems in the documents like SRS, SDD, etc.
b) Cri cal inspec ons may also aid in the detec on of flaws and the improvement of these documents,
thereby preven ng the spread of a flaw across the so ware development life cycle.
Disadvantages:
a) They take me and require discipline.
b) It requires more cost and also needs skilled testers.
c) In the field of so ware tes ng, the phrases verifica on and valida on are some mes
misunderstood. You'll come across (or have come across) a variety of uses and meanings of these
terms, and it's our humble endeavor to separate them as clearly as possible here.

Notes
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Criteria Veriﬁca on Valida on

Deﬁni on The prac ce of reviewing work The process of determining if the

products (rather than the ﬁnal so ware meets stated business
result) from a development phase requirements during or at the end of
to see if they match the phase's the development process.
requirements.

Objec ve To guarantee that the product is To guarantee that the product fits
built by the specifica ons and the needs of the users and that the
requirements. To put it another specifica ons were correct, to begin
way, to ensure that work products with. To put it another way, to show
meet the standards. that the product performs as
expected in its intended se ng.

Ques on Are we building the product right? Are we building the right product?

Evalua on Plans, Requirement Specs, Design The actual product/so ware.

Items Specs, Code, Test Cases

Ac vi es Reviews Tes ng
Walkthroughs
Inspec ons

Table 8.1 Veriﬁca on Vs Valida on

It's completely feasible that a product will pass veriﬁca on yet fail valida on. This can occur when, for
example, a product is created according to speciﬁca ons yet the specs do not sa sfy the user's
demands.
• Trust but Verify
• Verify but also Validate

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8.1.2 So ware Tes ng

So ware Tes ng is the evalua on of the so ware against requirements gathered from users and system
speciﬁca ons. Tes ng is conducted at the phase level in the so ware development life cycle or the
module level in program code. So ware tes ng comprises idea on and Veriﬁca on.
So ware Tes ng Process

Test Case Test

Test cycle
Requirements Test Planning design and environment Test execu on
closure Test
Development setup

Fig 8.4 So ware Tes ng Process

7 Phases of So ware Tes ng

Project Gathering Design Coding or Tes ng Deployment Maintenance

Planning Requirement Implementa
s & Analysis on

Fig 8.5 Phases of So ware Tes ng

Importance of So ware Tes ng

1. Helps in saving money: The beneﬁts of so ware tes ng are numerous. One of the primary reasons
why businesses seek so ware tes ng services is to reduce project costs.
2. Security:
a) It is yet another cri cal reason why so ware tes ng should be avoided.
b) It is regarded as the most vulnerable and sensi ve component. There are numerous instances in
which user informa on and details are stolen and used for personal gain.
c) It is thought to be the reason why people seek out well-tested and dependable products.
d) As a product is tested, the user can be conﬁdent that they will receive a dependable product. The
user's personal informa on is safe. With the help of so ware tes ng, users can receive products
that are free of vulnerabili es.

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3. Quality of the product: The following should be followed to ensure that the specific product comes
to life. Following the needs of the product is a prerequisite because it aids in obtaining the required
results. Products should be useful to the user in some way. It must deliver on its promise of value. As
a result, it must func on completely toive a customer experience. It is also necessary to check the
device's compa bility.
4. Sa sfac on of the customer: The primary goal of the product's owner is to provide the highest level
of customer sa sfac on. Earning the client's trust is not an easy task, especially if the product is
found to be func oning and glitching at the same me. The first impression is crucial, and if you fail
to provide it, users will look for another product that meets all of their needs.
5. Enhancing the development process: Quality Assurance can help you find a wide range of scenarios
and errors for the reproduc on of the error. It is very simple, and the developers must fix it as soon
as possible. Furthermore, so ware testers should collaborate with the development team in
parallel, which helps to accelerate the development process.
6. Easy while adding new features: The older and more interconnected the code, the more difficult it
is to change. Tests mi gate this tendency by allowing developers to confidently add new features.
Changing older parts of your codebase as a new developer can be terrifying, but with tests, you'll at
least know if you've broken anything important. This helps your so ware stand out from the crowd
and beat the compe on.
7. Determining the performance of the so ware: If users discover so ware or applica ons that have
low or reduced performance, it will harm their market reputa on. Users will not put their trust in
anyone. There is a chance that your organiza on's reputa on will suffer. According to experts, it is
not that significant. However, if users release so ware into the market without first tes ng it, and
the so ware's performance falls short of the clients' expecta ons or requirements, convincing
them will be difficult. Thus, so ware tes ng is regarded as a simple op on because it aids in
determining the performance of the so ware.

8.1.3 Components of Test Plan

A test plan describes how tes ng will be carried out. It's a document that defines the goal, scope, and
method of so ware tes ng. It specifies the tes ng tasks and the people who will carry them out, as well
as the test items and features to be tested. It also describes the tes ng environment, as well as the test
design and measurement techniques that will be used. It should be noted that a well-defined test plan is
an agreement between testers and users that describes the role of tes ng in so ware. A comprehensive
test plan enables people who are not members of the test group to understand why product valida on is
required and how it will be carried out. However, if the test plan is incomplete, it may be impossible to
test how the so ware works when installed on different opera ng systems or when used in conjunc on
with other so ware. IEEE specifies some components that should be covered in a test plan to avoid this
problem. The table contains a list of these components.

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Table Components of a Test Plan

Components Purpose

Responsibili es Assigns responsibili es to diﬀerent people and keeps them focused.

Assump ons Avoids any misinterpreta on of schedules.

Test Provides abstract of the en re process and outlines speciﬁc tests. The
tes ng scope, schedule, and dura on are also outlined.

Communica on A communica on plan (who, what, when, how about the people) is
developed.

Risk analysis Iden ﬁes areas that are cri cal for success

Defect repor ng Speciﬁes how a defect should be documented so that it may reoccur
and be retested and ﬁxed.

Environment Describes the data, interfaces, work area, and the technical
environment used in tes ng. All of this is speciﬁed to reduce or
eliminate the misunderstandings and sources of the poten al delay.

Table 8.2 Components of a Test Plan

A carefully developed test plan facilitates effec ve test execu on, proper analysis of errors, and
prepara on of error reports. To develop a test plan, several steps are followed, as listed below.
1. Set objec ves of test plan: It is necessary to understand the purpose of a test plan before
developing one. However, before determining the objec ves of a test plan, the so ware objec ves
must be determined. This is because the objec ves of a test plan are highly dependent on so ware.
For example, if the so ware's goal is to meet all user requirements, a test plan is created to achieve
this goal.
2. Develop a test matrix: A test matrix iden fies the so ware components that will be tested. It also
specifies the tests that must be performed to ensure that these components are in good working
order. The test matrix is also used as a test proof to demonstrate that a test exists for all so ware
components that require tes ng. Furthermore, the test matrix is used to indicate the tes ng
method that will be used to test the en re so ware.
3. Develop test administra ve component: A test plan must be prepared within a specific me frame
for so ware tes ng to begin as soon as possible. The administra ve component of a test plan
specifies the me she and resources (administra ve people involved in the test plan development)
required to execute the test plan. However, if the so ware's implementa on plan (the plan that
describes how the processes in the so ware are carried out) changes, so does the test plan. In this
case, the schedule for carrying out the test plan is also impacted.
4. Write the Test plan: A test plan's components, such as its objec ves, test matrix, and administra ve
component, are documented. All of these documents are then compiled to form a comprehensive
test plan. These documents are divided into two categories: informal and formal.

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Write the Test Plan

Develop test administra ve component

Develop and Test matrix

Set objec ve of test plan

Fig 8.6 Steps involved in a test

All documents are collected and kept informally together. All of the documents were read by the testers
in order to extract the informa on required for so ware tes ng.
In contrast, the important points from the documents are extracted and kept together in a simple
formality for testers to extract cri cal informa on needed during so ware tes ng. A test plan is divided
into several sec ons, which are listed below.
1. Overview: Describes the goals and func ons of the so ware that will be used. It also describes the
objec ves of the test plan, such as defining responsibili es, iden fying the test environment, and
providing a complete list of the sources used to develop the test plan.
2. Test scope: Defines the features and combina ons of features that will be tested. User manuals and
system documenta on are examples of such features. It also specifies which features and
combina ons of features are not to be tested.
3. Test methodologies: Specifies the types of tests required for tes ng features and their
combina ons, such as regression tests and stress tests. It also describes the sources of test data and
how test data can be used to ensure that tes ng is adequate, such as the selec on of boundary or
null values. It also describes the method for iden fying and recording test results.
4. Test phases: Iden fies various types of tests, such as unit tes ng and integra on tes ng, and
provides a brief descrip on of the process used to carry out these tests. Furthermore, it iden fies
the testers who will be performing tes ng and provides a detailed descrip on of the data source
and type to be used. It also describes the procedure for evalua ng test results and the work
products that are started or finished during this phase.
5. Test environment: Iden fies the hardware, so ware, automated tes ng tools, opera ng system,
compilers, and sites needed for tes ng, as well as the necessary staffing and training.
6. Schedule: Describes the tes ng ac vi es in detail and assigns tasks to the appropriate persons. It
also shows the dependencies of tes ng ac vi es as well as the me frames for them.
7. Approvals and distribu on: Lists the people who have given their approval to a test plan and its
findings. It also specifies the people who will get the test plan document(s).

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Test Plan Iden ﬁers:

S.No. Parameter Descrip on

1 Test plan iden ﬁer Unique iden fying reference.

2 Introduc on A brief introduc on about the project and the

document.

3 Test items A test item is a so ware item that is the

applica on under test.

4 Features to be tested A feature that needs to be tested on the test

ware.

5 Features not to be tested Iden fy the features and the reasons for not
including them as part of tes ng.

6 Approach Details about the overall approach to tes ng.

7 Item pass/fail criteria Documented whether a so ware item has

passed or failed its test.

8 Test deliverables The deliverables that are delivered as part of

the tes ng process, such as test plans, test
speciﬁca ons, and test summary reports.

9 Tes ng tasks All tasks for planning and execu ng the tes ng.

10 Environmental needs Deﬁning the environmental requirements such

as hardware, so ware, OS, network
conﬁgura ons, and tools required.

11 Responsibili es Lists the roles and responsibili es of the team

members

12 Staffing and training needs Captures the actual staffing requirements and
any specific skills and training requirements.

13 Schedule States the important project delivery dates and

key milestones.

14 Risks and Mi ga on High-level project risks and assump ons and a

mi gating plan for each iden ﬁed risk.

15 Approvals Captures all approvers of the document, their

tles, and the sign-oﬀ date.

Table 8.3 Test Plan Iden ﬁers

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8.1.4 Test Cases

A test case is a document that contains a set of test data, precondi ons, expected results, and post
condi ons created for a specific test scenario in order to verify compliance with a specific requirement.
Following the applica on of a set of input values, the programme has a final result and exits the system
at some point, also known as the execu on post condi on.
Typical Test Case Parameters:

Test Case
Test case ID Test Scenario Test Steps
Descrip on

Prerequisite Test Data Expected Result Test Parameters

Environment
Actual Result Comments
Informa on

Fig 8.7 Test Case Parameters

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Wri ng Good Test Cases:

a) Write test cases in such a way that you only test one thing at a me, if at all possible. Test cases
should not be overlapping or complicated. Make your test cases as atomic as possible.
b) Make certain that both good and nega ve eventuali es are covered.
c) Language:
i. Write in simple and easy-to-understand language.
ii. Use ac ve voice instead of passive voice: Do this, do that.
iii. Use exact and consistent names (of forms, ﬁelds, etc).
d) Characteris cs of a good test case:
i. Accurate: Exacts the purpose.
ii. Economical: No unnecessary steps or words.
iii. Traceable: Capable of being traced to requirements.
iv. Repeatable: Can be used to perform the test over and over.
v. Reusable: Can be reused if necessary.

8.1.5 Tes ng Approaches

Tests can be conducted based on two approaches -

Func onality tes ng Implementa on tes ng

Fig 8.8 Tes ng Approaches

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Black-box tes ng is when func onality is tested without taking into account the actual implementa on.
White-box tes ng, on the other hand, involves not only tes ng func onality but also analyzing how it is
implemented.
Exhaus ve tests are the preferred method for ﬂawless tes ng. Every possible value between the input
and output values is tested. If the range of values is large, it is impossible to test every value in a real-
world scenario.
Black-box tes ng:
It is done to test the program's func onality. It is also referred to as 'Behavioral' tes ng. In this case, the
tester is given a set of input values and the desired outcomes. If the output matches the desired results
a er providing input, the program is deemed 'ok,' otherwise, it is deemed problema c.

Input Output

Fig 8.9 Black-box tes ng

In this tes ng method, the design and structure of the code are not known to the tester, and tes ng
engineers and end-users conduct this test on the so ware.
Black-box tes ng techniques:
a) Equivalence class - The input is classified into similar groups. If one element of a class passes the test,
the en re class is assumed to pass.
b) Boundary values divide the input into higher and lower-end values. If these values pass the test, it is
assumed that all values between them will also pass.
c) Cause-effect graphing - In both of the preceding methods, only one input value is tested at a me.
Cause (input) – Effect (output) tes ng is a method for tes ng combina ons of input values
systema cally.
d) Pair-wise Tes ng - The behavior of so ware is affected by several variables. Mul ple parameters are
tested for their different values in pairwise tes ng.
e) State-based tes ng entails changing the system's state in response to input. The states and input of
these systems are used to test them.
White-box tes ng: It is conducted to test the program and its implementa on, to improve code
efficiency or structure. It is also known as ‘Structural’ tes ng.

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Input OutPut

Fig 8.10 White-box tes ng

In this tes ng method, the design and structure of the code are known to the tester. Programmers of the
code conduct this test on the code.
White-box tes ng techniques:
a) Control-flow tes ng - Control-flow tes ng is used to create test cases that cover all statements and
branch condi ons. To ensure that all statements are covered, the branch condi ons are tested for
both true and false.
b) Data- flow tes ng focuses on covering all of the data variables included in the mmmmmmm. It
examines where variables were declared and defined, as well as where they were used or changed.
Tes ng Levels:
Tes ng can be defined at various SDLC levels. Tes ng occurs concurrently with so ware development. A
stage is tested, validated, and verified before moving on to the next.
Separate tes ng is performed to ensure that there are no hidden bugs or issues in the so ware.
So ware is tested at several levels –
1. Unit Evalua on
While coding, the programmer tests the unit of the program to see if it is error-free. The white-box
tes ng approach is used for tes ng. Unit tes ng allows developers to ensure that individual program
units are working properly and without errors.
2. Integra on Tes ng
Even if the so ware modules are performing properly on their own, it is necessary to determine
whether they will work correctly when combined. Argument passing and data upda on, etc.
3. System Tes ng
The so ware is compiled as a product and then it is tested as a whole. This can be accomplished using
one or more of the following tests:

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a) Func onality tes ng compares all of the so ware's features against the requirements.
b) Performance tes ng - This test establishes the so ware's efficiency. It evaluates the so ware's
efficiency and average me to complete a task. Load tes ng and stress tes ng are methods of
performance tes ng in which the program is subjected to significant user and data loads in a variety
of environments.
c) Security & Portability - These tests are done when the so ware is meant to work on various
pla orms and accessed by several persons.
4. Acceptance Tes ng is a type of tes ng that is used when the so ware is ready to be handed over to
the customer, it must pass the last step of tes ng, which includes user interac on and response
tes ng. This is significant because, even if the so ware meets all of the user's needs, it may be
rejected if the user dislikes the way it looks or func ons.
a) Alpha tes ng - The developer team does alpha tes ng by pu ng the system through its paces in a
real-world se ng. They are a emp ng to determine how a user would react to a so ware opera on
and how the system should respond to inputs.
b) Beta tes ng - A er the so ware has been thoroughly tested internally, it is given to users for tes ng
purposes solely in their produc on environment. This isn't the finished product yet. Developers
an cipate that at this stage, consumers will bring minor issues that were overlooked to a end.
5. Regression Tes ng
Whenever a so ware product is updated with new code, feature, or func onality, it is tested thoroughly
to detect if there is any nega ve impact of the added code. This is known as regression tes ng.

Notes
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__________________________________________________________________________________

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8.1.6 Tes ng Documenta on

Tes ng documents are prepared at diﬀerent stages –
Before Tes ng
Tes ng starts with test case genera on. The following documents are needed for reference –

Test Strategy Traceability Matrix

SRS Document
document document

• Func onal • This describes • This men ons • This is a

Requirements how far tes ng detail aspects document
document should take of test team, rela ng to the
place before responsibility requirement
releasing the matrix and gathering phase
product. rights/responsi in the SDLC.
bility of test This matrix is
manager and updated as new
test engineer. needs are
received. These
matrices assist
testers in
determining
the source of
the demand.
They can be
followed in
both direc ons.

Fig 8.11 Documents needed before Tes ng

While Being Tested

The following documents may be required while tes ng is started and is being done:

Test case report Test logs

Test descrip on
Test Case document

This document is a This document This document

This document contains test logs
contains list of tests detailed descrip on contains test case
of all test cases and report as a result of for every test case
required to be report
conducted. It procedures to the test.
includes Unit test execute them.
plan, Integra on
test plan, System
test plan and
Acceptance test
plan.

Fig 8.12 Documents required while tes ng

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So ware Developer

A er Tes ng
The following documents may be generated a er tes ng:

Test summary - This test summary is a collec ve analysis of all test reports and logs. It
summarizes and concludes if the so ware is ready to be launched. The so ware is released
under version control system if it is ready to launch.

Summary
• Valida on is the process of determining whether the so ware meets the needs of the users. It
occurs a er the SDLC. Valida on determines whether the so ware meets the specifica ons for
which it was created.
• Valida on guarantees that the product in development meets the needs of the users.
• Medical device so ware includes both so ware that is used as a component, part, or accessory of a
medical device and so ware that is a medical device in and of itself.
• Produc on so ware refers to so ware and systems used in the manufacture of FDA-regulated
products.
• Quality management so ware and systems are used in systems to ensure the quality of products.
• So ware for FDA-regulated records is defined as the so ware used to create, modify, maintain,
archive, retrieve, or transmit FDA-required records.
• So ware verifica on is the process of reviewing any so ware to find flaws. Verifica on is the
process of ensuring that so ware meets its objec ves without flaws. It is the process of determining
whether the product developed is correct or not.
• Inspec ons are the most structured and formal way of verifica on and are generally referred to as
inspec ons. A group of three to six people is formed, with an unbiased moderator in charge.
• So ware Tes ng is the evalua on of the so ware against requirements gathered from users and
system specifica ons.
• Quality Assurance can help you find a wide range of scenarios and errors for the reproduc on of the
error. It is very simple, and the developers must fix it as soon as possible.
• A test case is a document that contains a set of test data, precondi ons, expected results, and post
condi ons that were created for a specific test scenario to verify compliance with a certain
requirement.
• Black-box tes ng is when func onality is tested without taking into account the actual
implementa on.
• White-box tes ng: It is conducted to test the program and its implementa on, to improve code
efficiency or structure. It is also known as ‘Structural’ tes ng.

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Exercise
Answer the following ques ons:
1. What are the techniques of White-box tes ng?
2. What is tes ng documenta on?
3. Describe Tes ng levels.
4. Explain and describe the table of test plan iden fiers.
Fill in the blanks:
a) _________________________is the evalua on of the so ware against requirements gathered
from users and system specifica ons.
b) _____________________________is the simplest and most informal way of reviewing documents
or programs/so ware to iden fy flaws during the verifica on process.
c) __________________is the process of reviewing any so ware to find flaws.
MCQ Ques ons:
a) Which of the following is not part of the Test document?
I. Test Case
II. Requirements Traceability Matrix [RTM]
III. Test strategy
IV. Project Ini a on Note [PIN]
b) Which term is used to define tes ng?
I. Evalua ng deliverable to find errors
II. Finding broken code
III. A stage of all projects
IV. None of the above

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9. Self and Work

Management
Unit 9.1 - Importance of Following Work Instruc on and
Complying with Company Policies

SSC/ N9001
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Define the scope of work
2. Demonstrate effec ve work planning principles
3. Recognize the importance of using me and resources effec vely

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Unit
UNIT9.1
2.1:Importance of Following
Standards Opera Work Instruc
ng Procedures in theonFruits
and
Complying
Processingwith Company Policies
Industry

Unit Objec ves

At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss the role, responsibili es, and limits of the responsibili es
2. Discuss the importance of gathering detailed work requirements and priori zing work areas
3. Iden fy commonly made mistakes in the priori zed work areas
4. Explain the importance of comple ng work accurately

9.1.1 Importance of Comple ng Work Accurately

Relevant data is important in every professional field. Finishing tasks accurately and on me is extremely
essen al in the workplace. When employees finish their work correctly and within the s pulated me,
they directly influence the company's growth, profit and efficiency
Establish and agree work requirements with appropriate people
For a So ware Developer , it is crucial to meet the deadline. The various requirements to be met are:
Ÿ Ac vi es (what is required to be done)
Ÿ Deliverables (output of work)
Ÿ Quan ty (the amount of work to be done)
Ÿ Standards (acceptable performance coupled with compliance and service level agreement)
Ÿ Timing (the s pulated me for comple on of task/s)
A So ware Developer must obtain valuable informa on from:
Ÿ Subject Ma er Expert (SME): SME is the point of contact in case a So ware Developer faces an issue
during opera ons
Ÿ Floor Manager: Manages a team and looks a er the opera ons as well as HR related issues of the
employees under him/her. Associates get placed under a Floor Manager who in most of the cases
become their repor ng person.
Ÿ Process Manager: Process Manager has more than one team under him/her supervision. The profile
is more like an Opera ons Manager who has the en re ops team to look a er. In an organiza on,
there might be five teams under separate Floor Managers. However, these five teams will be looked
a er by the Process Manager.
Ÿ Floor Supports: Floor Supports are coordinators who mainly look a er the smooth coordina on
between various teams. For example, a Floor Support must coordinate with on-floor teams to get a
job done without hassle. Whereas SMEs are only the experts of the opera ons, Floor Supports must
be well-versed with various processes including the core opera ons.

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Ÿ Team Lead (TL): Team Lead is appointed under each Floor Manager to look a er the opera ons.
While the Floor Manager must take care of every issue of the employees under him/her, Team Lead
looks a er the opera ons. Team Leads are o en empowered with the authority of performing HR
related tasks, such as leave approval, grievance handling, etc. However, in most of the organiza ons,
TLs are placed under Floor Manager to help him/her look a er the team.
Ÿ Manager: Manager is one rank higher than the Process Managers. Under one Manager, mul ple
teams, such as Ops Team, Caller Team, Chat Team, and Email Team are allo ed. Manager looks a er
all the aspects of an organiza on including opera ons, HR and Sales.
Ÿ Immediate Seniors: Immediate Seniors are the seniors in the same team. A team is made of Junior
Associates and Senior Associates to maintain a balance. Senior Associates can be the SME as well
(depends on the decision of an organiza on). It is advisable for Junior Associates to consult an SME or
a Senior Associate ﬁrst to mi gate an issue.
It is important for a So ware Developer to s ck to the Service Level Agreements (SLAs).
Ÿ Service level agreement is a crucial element of the service contract.
Ÿ SLA is the me considered to ﬁnish a job as per the contract. For instance, internet service
providers are likely to consider service level agreements where the me range of the net-service
will be considered.
Ÿ SLA consists of two basic components: Mean Time To Recovery (MTTR) and Mean Time Between
Failures (MTBF)
Ÿ Simply, SLA is the nego ated agreement between par es where one group is the customers and
the other is the service provider

Fig 9.1 Team mee ngs or open discussions improve the quality of performance

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Obtain guidance from appropriate people, where necessary

The principal goal of the So ware Developer is to learn from experienced seniors and other employees.
A So ware Developer is aware of his/her job role. Taking help from seniors and experienced
professionals will only help increase the confidence of the So ware Developer .
A So ware Developer must keep these things in mind:
Dos and Don’ts while obtaining guidance from appropriate people
Ÿ When you approach a person, ensure that the company protocol is followed. For example, if an
associate requires some assistance from someone of higher authority, he/she must know the right
person in the hierarchy to approach. Ini ally, a So ware Developer should ask for guidance from the
immediate boss or the Team Lead. If the problem is not resolved, he/ she should seek help from the
manager or someone immediate in the hierarchy.
Ÿ Asking for assistance directly from someone at the top of the hierarchy without addressing the same
to the immediate boss is considered unprofessional too
Ÿ Always carry pens and a notebook to document the main points and try to avoid forge ng things.
Approaching a person for same issue is both annoying and redundant. Importance of keeping
Minutes of Mee ng must be considered. Minutes of Mee ng comprises the gist of the discussion. It
helps keep a wri en documentary of the discussion and may be used as a future point of reference.
Ÿ It is advisable to fix an appointment with the concerned person beforehand, if possible.
Ÿ Behave professionally while you are taking someone’s assistance. Do not interrupt with your
personal opinion. If you want further clarifica on, ask ques ons a er he/she finishes speaking. Raise
your hands and then ask the ques on for clarifica on.
Ÿ Always thank a person a er receiving assistance from them.
Receiving guidance is the first step towards con nuous learning. However, the emphasis is on the
applica on of the learning outcomes at work. A So ware Developer must try to apply the guidance to
increase the quality of work. This helps one grow as a learner and boosts the confidence level.
Ensure work meets the agreed requirements
Ÿ One must learn the importance of pre-planning and preparing an assignment, so that it can be
completed in a very organized manner. The importance and benefits are:
Ÿ Planning helps in making speedy and right decisions by providing a person with adequate guidelines.
Ÿ Planning helps in preparing a person for unexpected situa ons and complex outcomes, thus helping
the person in control the situa on in a be er way.
Ÿ Preparing and planning helps in op mally dividing resources like finances, raw materials, me and
manpower.
Ÿ Preparing and planning helps in defining, iden fying, quan fying goals so that appropriate methods
can be adopted to finish the assignment on me and in an organized manner.

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Work Requirement How to ensure that the requirement is met

Ac vi es • Ensure that you have a clear idea about the work requirements
• Seek guidance from colleagues/seniors concerned persons in
case of doubts
• Follow company policies and processes while planning ac vi es

Deliverables • Deliverables are considered as the output of the work

• Plan in accordance to the meline given to you to complete the
work so that the deliverables are not hampered
• Always measure the required output and devise a process to
achieve the same

Quan ty • Quan ty is the amount of work that needs to be done to a ain

the deliverables
• Don't let the quality be aﬀected due to quan ty and vice versa
• Balance between quality and quan ty must be maintained

Standards • Understand the client requirements as per SLA

• Ensure that you know the acceptable standards of performance
and perform accordingly
• Keep the compliance-parameters in mind and do not violet the
rules while working on a project

Timing • Be aware of the deadline before star ng a work so that you can
plan your work accordingly
• Set small and achievable targets. For example, decide how much
work should be done on the ﬁrst day and achieve it on that very
day
• Do not compromise on the quality to meet the deadline. For
this, you need to plan things before and execute the same.

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Methods Adopted to Gather Requirements and Analyse

• While working as So ware Developer or an entry level employee:
◦ Organize, plan and priori ze the work order and jobs received
◦ Conduct and organize technical assignments in op mal manner
◦ Plan to u lize me and equipment efficiently
◦ Concentrate on tasks and finish them within me limits
◦ Assist in record keeping and proper documenta on
◦ Work on the completed project based on the feedback received
◦ Ask for help from domain experts and seniors if issues arise during work
◦ Organize and plan own work in a way that all the tasks are completed on me and as per
specifica ons
◦ Organize work as per job specifica ons
◦ Organize and plan maintenance and cleaning ac vi es
Requirements of Decision Making
Decisions at workplace must be taken swi ly, based on the best researches, prior experience and data
gathered from relevant field experiences. Such data provide 'Evidence' and help a person in making
suitable decisions.
The requirements of efficient decision making process are given below:
• One must have adequate yet controlled access to accurate and consistent data.
• One must s ck to appropriate processes in analysing data. For example, data analysis based on the
set parameters of the organiza on. Ensure the reliability of the source of the data.
• One must take decisions swi ly, based on the analysis of collected data.
• Apart from analysing the researched data, one must rely on prac cal experiences while taking
decisions
The role and responsibili es of So ware Developer include the following:
• Ability to troubleshoot everyday issues
• Analyse cri cal points in daily tasks through observa on and experience and iden fy control
measures to solve the issue. For example, if you are working on a par cular domain on a regular
basis, know the weaknesses and strengths of the point. Thorough knowledge helps to solve issues
quickly.
• Find smart ways to finish a job
• Decide whether to accept or reject par cular process flow (technical aspects) based on quality
parameters. For example, if process A is fit to achieve a specific goal, it does not mean that process A
should be followed in every case. Consider varied processes to accomplish different goals.
• Take decisions of one's own roles and responsibili es

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Steps involved in the Decision Making Process

The steps involved in the general decision making process are men oned in the diagram below:

2. Gather informa on
1. Iden fy the goal, i.e .
from researches and 3. Iden fy the
what needs to be
ﬁeld experiments alterna ves
decided
(evidences)

4. Gauge all 5. Select the most 6. Take suitable ac ons to

evidences against appropriate alterna ve realize the alterna ve
each alterna ve (with maximum beneﬁt) and take decision

7. Review the decision in

terms of the results
achieved

Fig 9.2 Steps involved in decision making

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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9.1.2 Appropriate Timescales Work Comple on &

Implica ons of not Mee ng the Time-lines
U lize me effec vely
There is a common saying, “Time is Money”. Not only are there mul ple reasons why me
management is significant, but there are also numerous benefits of the same. Implemen ng good me
management skills allows one to complete more work in a shorter period of me, which leads to more
free me, reduced exposure to stress, and improved work quality. Each benefit of me management
enhances another aspect of your life and this goes on in a constant cycle.

Fig 9.3 Time is money

Here, we will discuss several ps for effec ve me management that may enhance your work and you as
an individual.
• Time is Limited: Everyone gets the same amount of me each day, and it's limited, therefore it's
impera ve to make the most of your me if you ever want to be efficient at the workplace.
• Be Decisive: There are many op ons in life to choose from. When you prac ce good me
management, you have more me to breathe; this allows you to control which choices are the best
to make. You're more likely to jump to conclusions and not fully consider the different op ons
when you feel pressed for me and have to make a decision; this leads to poor decision making.
• Accomplish More in Lesser Time: You're able to stay focused on the task at hand by taking control
of your me. This leads to higher efficiency because you never lose momentum. Imagine running a
mile where you stop every 5 seconds; this would cause you to become red very quickly and take
much longer to complete the run.
• Learn More in Shorter Period of Time: When you control your me and work more efficiently,
you're able to learn more and enhance your experience faster. There is a reason some students
graduate before the others, so imagine applying me management throughout your en re career.
You will not only stand out from the rest, but you will gain experience much quicker and be able to
move up in life a lot sooner.

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• Enjoy More Success: Time management is the key to success; it lets you to take control of your life
rather than follow the flow of others. You achieve more, you make be er decisions, and you work
more efficiently; this leads to a more successful life.
• Reduce Stress: One of the main causes of stress is that people get rushed. The phrase "I have so
much to do and so li le me to do it" is spoken with frustra on which leads to stress. With good
me management, you know how much me you have, how long it will take to get your tasks done,
you achieve more, and have more free me. This gives you more me to collect yourself, which
reduces the feeling of being rushed and which in turn leads to less frustra on and stress.
• Higher Quality of Work: We all need some free me to unwind and relax but, unfortunately, many
of us don't get much free me since we're too busy to keep up with our daily ac vi es and work
load. By applying me management skills, you can get more done in a shorter period of me
leading to more free me.
• More Discipline in Life: When you prac ce good me management in your life, you are less likely
to leave work for later. Time management leads to higher efficiency and leads to a disciplined life.

A endance

Discipline

Punctuality

Fig 9.4 The pyramid of eﬀec ve me management

Tips to manage me eﬀec vely:

• Adhering to one's plan
• Keeping a daily To-Do list
• Dividing one's me wisely
• S cking to and respec ng deadlines
• Not was ng me

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9.1.3 Basic Work Ethics to be followed in an Organiza on

Keep immediate work area clean and dy
Keeping one's work area dy and clean carries the following benefits:
• Avoiding accidents at the work area and the corresponding injuries and damages
• Lessening an employee's exposure to Occupa onal Hazards
• Permi ng easy flow of materials
• Enhancing produc vity at work
• Enhancing the employee's control on the various tools and equipment
The work area can be kept dy and clean in the following manner:
A. Keep work area in a dy and organized state
Ÿ Clear Clu er and Spills: Clearing clu er and spills helps prevent Slips, Trips and Falls
Ÿ Control Dust and Debris: Get rid of the debris every day to avoid un dy worksta on.
Ÿ Store tools and equipment appropriately in their designated storage loca ons: CD/DVDs
should be kept in the correct place. Similarly, for any other device like pen drive, which is used
daily to test/ store works, the same step should be taken.
Ÿ Abide By A Wri en Set Of Guidelines: Keeping one's worksta on/desk clean, dy and
organised, one must follow the SOPs (Standard Opera ng Procedures)
Ÿ Store and maintain Personal Protec ve Equipment appropriately: An -glare spectacles,
earmuffs are important for So ware Developer . An -glare goggles help reduce the stress of
looking at the screen for a long me. Ear muffs negate the noise.
B. Keep work area safe
Ÿ Promo ng the prac ce of looking out for signs like “Wet Floor” or “Cleaning under Progress”
Ÿ Promo ng the prac ce of reading Direc ons of Use and MSDS sheet before using any chemical
Ÿ Repor ng each incident of spill (oil, grease, chemical, etc.) to the housekeeping staff with
immediate effect
Ÿ Avoiding Fire and Electrical Hazards
Ÿ Avoiding storage of heavy objects at high and elevated areas
Treat confiden al informa on correctly
As a So ware Developer , one works in projects with confiden al informa on. Even in the SLAs,
upholding confiden ality is a major clause and the viola on of the same leads to termina on.
Every client wants to see that certain informa on is kept confiden al. Informa on leaks can cause a
huge loss and thus, So ware Developer must be cau ous while working. To prevent informa on leaks
which may be implied as security breach, one must install an -spam, an -spyware and an -phishing
tools.

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To understand how to treat conﬁden al informa on,

• Maintain that all the new employees accept and sign the Confiden ality Agreement
• Recognising the relevant organisa onal confiden al informa on and details must be taken into
considera on. These may be in the form of:
◦ Verbally disclosed informa on
◦ Wri en informa on
◦ Slides and Handouts
◦ Visual informa on
◦ E-mail and file documents
◦ Carefully reviewing the NDAs from 3rd Par es
Work in line with organiza on's policies and procedures and Work within the limits of job role
Abiding by compliance is a must. Addi onally, the company or brand image also gets affected due to
work accuracy. A me culous work helps in the development of company image as well as the ethical
views in front of the professional community.
The new joinees will never understand the importance of submi ng precise work if they are unaware
what the expected benchmarks are. So, it is important that trainers of the par cular company lay down
the objec ves to the So ware Developer . One of the best ways to do so is to take the help of “SMART.”
S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Achievable
R – Relevant
T – Timely
1. S - Specific. It stresses on specifying a specific goal rather than a general one. A specific goal will
usually answer the "Why", "What", "Who", "Which" and "Where" ques ons. While carrying on
with the daily responsibili es, the A endant must take care and abide by these 5 ques ons, to
remain clear about his/her goals and if, they are aligned towards the interests of the organisa on.
The operator should not only work to achieve success for oneself, but also for the be erment of
the organiza on as a whole.
2. M - Measurable. It stresses on measuring the progress towards the a ainment of goal. A
measurable goal usually answers the "How many?" and "How much?" ques ons. Whatever
ac vi es the operator should perform daily, his/her achievements must be expressed in volume,
workload or quan ty. This should be reported to the immediate supervisor or the Line Manager,
who would be appraising the A endant at the end of the year. A Daily Work Report (DWR) should
be maintained and emailed to the supervisor daily.
3. A - Accurate & A ainable. Achieving all predefined metrics and abiding by the Service Level
Agreements (SLAs). Every task should be error-free.

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1. R - Relevant and Repor ng Real- me. All ac vi es and achievements, relevant to the job role,
should be reported to the Line Manager, as and when accomplished.
2. T - Timely & Target-oriented. Ac vi es should be priori zed according to long term and short
term goals. Short term goals should be divided into small, achievable, measurable and me-
bound steps. This, in turn, would induce a sense of urgency, promptness and ownership towards
one's du es.

Speciﬁc Measurable Achievable Relevant Time-bound

How will you

What exactly How can the Why is this goal When do you
know when
do you want to goal be important to want to achieve
you've
achieve? accomplished? you? this goal?
achieved it?

Set your target

You will need List the speciﬁc Does this goal date so you can
Good goals
to be able to tasks you will help add to guide your work
area clear and
track daily need to your plans for toward a
deﬁned
progress complete the future? successful
comple on

Fig 9.5 Implementa on of SMART module enhances quality of performance

Brainstorming
There are several ways that can improve the quality and effec veness of brainstorming. They are:
Be a en ve to everyone’s ideas: People pay more a en on to their own ideas; however brainstorming
calls for equal exposure to the thoughts produced by others.
Avoid face-to-face groups: Using face-to-face groups affects assessment apprehension, social loafing,
produc on blocking, and social matching.
Include both individual and group approaches: The process that helps members mix their ideas into the
group is brain wri ng. Here, the members write their ideas on a piece of paper and then pass it along to
others who add their own ideas.
Take breaks: Permit silence sessions during group discussions so that members have me to think things
through.
There is no fixed mescale for work comple on for any profession. The dura on to complete a project
depends en rely on the set rules of a company.
To ensure your work meets the agreed requirements, consider these points:
• Type of the project
• Time period allocated for research

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• The me to acquire relevant data and gather resources

• Outlining the direc on and the flow of work
• Analysing data for crea ng test cases/prototypes
Implica ons of Brainstorming Sessions
Timescale and deadlines are en rely based on the complica ons in a project. Where efficiency of an
employee, technical aspects, and accuracy in work are constantly checked, submi ng the work to the
clients at the designated or promised deadline is also a must. The end date or the deadline of a project is
planned as per rough calcula ons.
In case the work or the project is not delivered on me, there are high chances of the company to bear
the brunt on the stricter side. Some of the implica ons of a missed deadline can be:
• Weaker commitment from burnt out employees
• High-stress level
• Low morale
• Huge penal es imposed by the client
• Loss of revenue for the company
• Loss of opportuni es and potent chances for business growth
• Nega ve effect on the brand reputa on of the company
The most common factor that leads to task inaccuracy at the workplace is a misunderstanding. During
OJT (On-the-Job-Training) in most companies, workers are le at the mercy of employees, who belong
to other departments or different projects. Now, as these employees are in charge of assis ng the new
trainees at work, they provide all necessary informa on to prepare them well for future endeavours.
It is important that the trainers should belong to the department where the employees are placed and
provide precise details. The same goes for the employees who need opening up to their trainers and
leaving behind the inhibi ons to finish their work with precision.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Summary
• Relevant data is important in every professional ﬁeld.
• Implemen ng good me management skills allows one to complete more work in a shorter me,
which leads to more free me, reduced exposure to stress, and improved work quality.
• When you control your me and work more eﬃciently, you're able to learn more and enhance your
experience faster.
• One of the main causes of stress is that people get rushed.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise
State whether the following statements are CORRECT or INCORRECT:
1. A project or a task which is both important and urgent is basically deadline driven. []
2. The end date or the deadline of a project is designed on the basis of certain rough calcula ons. [ ]
3. Proper engagement and open communica on amongst employees make the working process in a
company more eﬀec ve. [ ]
4. Sharing of informa on or upda ng the sec on which you are working with your team members
will help them get a be er idea of your progress. [ ]
Answer the following ques ons:
1. How should one obtain guidance from seniors or supervisors?
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the beneﬁts of me management?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Write a short note on the “Triple Constraint Triangle”.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

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Unit 9.1 Importance of Following Work Instruc on
and Complying with Company Policies

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10. Teamwork and

Communica on
Unit 10.1 - Team Work and Communica on
Unit 10.2 - Team Work

SSC/ N9002
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Par cipant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Explain the methods and mechanisms for eﬀec ve communica on
2. Explain the importance of eﬀec ve collabora on in the workplace

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UNIT10.1
Unit 2.1: Team
Standards
WorkOpera ng Procedures
and Communica on in the Fruits
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Explain the principles of clear communica on
2. Outline the importance of being a good listener and adhering to the commitments

10.1.1 Diﬀerent types of Informa on at Workplace and its

Significance
In all companies, departments like opera ons, management, and recruitment play a great role. This may
be in rela on with finance, opera ons, marke ng or any other department. As there are different teams
present in an office, so are the types of informa on.
Communicate With Colleagues Clearly, Concisely and Accurately
Effec ve communica on allows us to comprehend the problems that our colleagues are facing, and
asking them to portray it clearly. To impart clear and precise informa on, we need to:
Ÿ Spread posi ve a tude
Ÿ Ensure proper understanding regarding strategy and goal accomplishment
Ÿ Ensure that everybody complies with the company’s regulatory bodies
Work in Ways that Show Respect for Colleagues
Ÿ Assis ng, working and asking for help from colleagues to show trust and respect.
Ÿ Increasing the morale for an effec ve teamwork.
Ÿ Increasing open communica on between co-workers.
Ÿ Working with your colleagues to increase produc vity.
Seek guidance from appropriate people to agree the analysis to be performed on the data
Ÿ One’s supervisor is supposed to be one’s mentor at work.
Ÿ Ask ques ons to clarify doubts.
Ÿ Help and guidance must be sought from the supervisor whenever required.
Ask ques ons and seek clarifica ons on work tasks whenever required
A So ware Developer , who has joined a new project, might face issues regarding technical aspects and
process. It is always be er to ask ques ons to clarify doubts rather than brooding quietly with doubts.
There are designated departments for each aspect of an organiza on. For example, HR, transports,
security, opera ons are departments that handle different issues. In case of any doubt regarding HR
policy, one must seek assistance from HR personnel. If an execu ve gets stuck with a technical query, he/
she must approach someone in opera ons.

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Ÿ Ques on/s must be asked to clarify doubt and to narrow down communica on gaps with one’s
supervisor.
Ÿ Obtain and seek clarifica ons on policies and procedures, from the supervisor or other authorized
personnel.
Ÿ Report and iden fy any possible devia ons to appropriate authority.
Ÿ Any doubt/s can approach the supervisors or other authorized personnel, if the Technical Support
Execu ves has doubts about the organiza onal policies and SOPs.
Ÿ Precisely receive informa on and instruc ons from the supervisor related to one’s work.
Ÿ This must be done to get a proper idea about the responsibili es expected by one’s supervisor.
Ÿ Having a proper idea about one’s tasks helps in fulfilling targets successfully.
Ÿ Address the problems efficiently and report if required to immediate supervisor appropriately.
Ÿ Receive instruc ons clearly from superiors and react effec vely on the same.
Effec vely Communicate with Clients
Outsourcing plays instrumental role in genera ng revenue. Mul ple projects run at a me in a company
and each project might have different clients with different requirements and expecta ons. Therefore,
Client communica on is a vital thing to know for a So ware Developer .
Ÿ Communicate and politely, clearly, precisely
Ÿ Empower the client by pu ng adequate value to his / her views
Ÿ Recognize the client as a "Partner" and not just "customer”
Ÿ Stay honest in dealing with customer
Ÿ Keep in touch and update the client on exis ng and upcoming deals and offers
Ÿ Exceed client's expecta ons through impeccable deals and service
Ÿ Nego ate fairly, politely but firmly
Ÿ Know and learn about the client
Ÿ Resolve service issues and concerns promptly
Ÿ Empathize with the client and apologize, in case of grievance and complaint
Review the results of the analysis with appropriate people and Perform modifica ons based on
inputs
The job role of So ware Developer is dependent on the different technical aspects and the technology
changes quite rapidly. To keep up with the pace, execu ves must take vital updates from concerned
people. Seeking and following up for feedback is another way to increase the quality of work.
Good feedback help the organiza on increase the service provided. Moreover, implementa on of good
feedback earns the respect and trust of the clients.
It might happen that there are certain flaws and inaccuracies in the work done that need to be taken
care

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of. Project Manager, Quality Assessor and immediate supervisor like the Team Lead are the most
appropriate persons to review the performance.
A performance report is generated on a weekly or monthly basis. The parameters vary from company to
company on which execu ves are evaluated. The report is then shared with the execu ves.
As a So ware Developer , one should accept the feedback in a posi ve way and work on the areas of
weakness. The main reasons behind review results are men oned below:
Ÿ Introducing the So ware Developer to the process ﬂow so that he/ she gets familiar with the
common or organiza onal prac ces
Ÿ Marking the probable areas of weaknesses. However, the execu ves should view it as a “scope of
improvement” on which he/ she must work on to develop into a stronger professional
The parameters of review are:
Ÿ Grooming (Verbal and Non-verbal)
Ÿ Discipline and Integrity
Ÿ Time Management
Ÿ Team Work (how the execu ve is as a team player)
Ÿ A endance and Absenteeism
Each company maintains a speciﬁc mode of evalua ng performances of the employees. SMART (Star,
Medium, Average, etc.) is used for performance reviews. Star performers are recognized and the
persons who lag behind are equipped with facili es to enhance their performance. The employee
should comprehend the process and requirement of the company and then groom himself/ herself
accordingly. In some cases, SMEs or Subject Ma er Experts are appointed to evaluate the performance
of the employees.

Notes
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UNIT10.2
Unit 2.1: Standards
Team WorkOpera ng Procedures in the Fruits
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Iden fy challenges and pain points related to working distribu on while working in a team
2. Explain the importance of distribu ng and sharing workloads

10.2.1 Importance of Understanding Problems at Workplace

and Providing Support
Carry out commitments they have made to colleagues: Let colleagues know in good me
Certain things, at mes, lead to me constraints. For example, owing to the work pressure, one might
need to stretch work hours. It not only becomes your responsibility but a humane approach to assist
your colleagues when they are stuck at any project.
When you comprehend the perspec ve of your colleagues, you create good communica on and
mutual bonding between yourself and your colleagues.
It isn't essen al that you can do every task that is given to you. There may be mes when you will be
shi ed to another project based on priority. In such cases, it is be er to let your colleagues know what is
happening. This lets your colleagues to find an appropriate replacement that can carry on with the work
you are ini ally supposed to do.
Time Management is about managing your me. It is about making a commitment to be more
organized, uphold your focus and use your me to your advantage.
Iden fy any problem they have working with colleagues and take the ini a ve to solve these
problems
A Problem can be defined as a difficult or unexpected situa on, regarded as unwelcome and needing to
be dealt with and overcome. Problems can take the form of intricate puzzles and riddles.

Notes
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• Iden fy the problem

• Understand everyone's interests

• List the possible solu ons (op ons)

• Evaluate the op ons

• Select an op on or op ons

• Document the plan

• Monitor and evaluate

Fig 10.1 Stages of problem iden ﬁca on and solving

Solving Problems while ensuring health and safety at workplace

• Analyzing the situa on and taking suitable ac ons while dealing with team members
• Analyzing, assessing and deploying the informa on gathered from observa on, experience,
reasoning, or communica on to act efficiently
• Iden fying flaws in so ware, tools and equipment and ways to resolve them on me
• Ensuring mely correc on of errors for reducing rework
Follow the organiza on's policies and procedures for working with colleagues
A So ware Developer must connect and coordinate not only with clients, but with seniors and
supervisors in the organiza on as well. The elements of communica ng effec vely with clients, peers /
colleagues and supervisors are given below:

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Eﬀec vely Listen to your Communicate

communicate with audience reframe eﬀec vely with team
team members and communica on if members, supervisors,
customers needed managers etc.

Deliver the message

Manage Expecta ons
clearly

Write and Speak

Watch your tone
Persuasively

Fig 10.2 Essen al steps of eﬀec ve communica on

A. Coordinate and cooperate with colleagues to achieve work objec ves

• Listen ac vely with minimal barriers
• Build trust, but do not get too casual
• Par cipate and coordinate
• Watch your body language
• Share best prac ces with peers
• Be aware of your tone
• Ask ques ons to clarify
• Discuss task lists, schedules and ac vi es

Notes
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B. Eﬀec vely Communicate with Supervisors

Building
rapport, based The tone of the
on mutual trust communica on
and respect

Thinking before Amicable but

you speak professional
approach

Knowing what
you speak

Fig 10.3 Essen al quali es for a good communica on

Grievance is "a complaint or a strong feeling that one has been treated unfairly" in dic onary terms
A. Follow escala on matrix in case of any grievance
• Before complaining about and expressing grievance, be very clear of the objec ves, i.e. why do you
need to complain and what do you want to accomplish in the long run
• Adhere to the Escala on Matrix for Internal Grievance Resolu on
• Write an email to the designated official at each level of the matrix, according to the guidelines and
formats provided.
• Follow up with the concerned official, if the grievance or complaint is not addressed within the
standard TAT at that escala on level.
• Document all records of emails and phone calls un l the issue is duly addressed and closed.
• If the concerned official, at a certain level, does not address the grievance within the TAT, escalate
and carry forward the issue to the next level.
• Repeat process from 2-6.
• On resolu on of the grievance, phone or email the concerned authority to thank them.

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B. Addressing Worker’s Grievance

• Hold an official yet private mee ng with the worker.
• Acknowledge the grievance and empathize.
• Sustain confiden ality of the en re ma er.
• Invite witnesses, if deemed absolute essen al.
• Depending on the intricacy of the grievance, con nue with further inves ga on.
• Obtain informa on to support your decision.
• Take the final decision.
• Escalate the ma er to the immediately next level, if the worker is not sa sfied with the decision
taken.
C. Addressing Client’s Grievance
• Do not contradict with or avoid the client from talking.
• Listen ac vely and pa ently.
• Apologize and empathize with the client.
• Listen to the grievance / complaint with an open mind.
• Promise that you will get back to him / her with a permanent solu on without delay.
• Keep your promise and respond to the client with a solu on within the standard TAT.
• If you are unable to resolve the problem on your own, escalate the same to your next level.
• Follow up with the concerned officials ll the grievance is addressed and the issue resolved.
• Let the client know over email or phone that his / her grievance has been taken care of.

Summary
• In all companies, departments like opera ons, management, and recruitment play a great role.
• One’s supervisor is supposed to be one’s mentor at work.
• Certain things, at mes, lead to me constraints.
• A So ware Developer must connect and coordinate not only with clients, but with seniors and
supervisors in the organiza on as well.

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Notes
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Exercise
Fill in the blanks
1. ______________ Communica on allows us to understand the problems that our colleagues are
facing.
2. In case of IT companies, _____________ plays instrumental role in genera ng revenue.
3. Seeking and following up for ___________ is another way to improve the quality of work.
4. A Problem can be deﬁned as a diﬃcult or ______________ situa on.
5. The employees can share the informa on through secure _________________.
Answer the following ques ons:
1. Why is it important to know the process of communica on with clients?
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. How can a So ware Developer improve his/ her performance based on review?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

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Unit 10.2 Team Work

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11. Managing Health

and Safety
Unit 11.1 - Occupa onal Health and Safety

SSC/ N9003
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Describe how to maintain a healthy, safe, and secure environment at the workplace

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Unit
UNIT11.1 Occupa onal
2.1: Standards Health
Opera and Safety in the Fruits
ng Procedures
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of complying with organiza onal health, safety, and security policies and
procedures
2. Discuss possible roles and responsibili es that an employee can take up concerning workplace safety
management
3. Evaluate sample organiza onal emergency procedures
4. Iden fy mechanisms to improve workplace health, safety, and security
5. Label appropriate personal protec ve equipment needed for a job role

11.1.1 Occupa onal Health and Safety

Some important points in the opera ons related to repor ng and response related to safety breach
are:
Ÿ Safety breaches in the designated premises are “Incidents” that need to be reported and duly
responded to.
Ÿ Repor ng a safety breach is done by providing an Incident Report.
Ÿ An Incident Report must comprise the following aspects:
◦ The person/s involved (details of the oﬀender/s)
◦ What exactly happened
◦ Number of casual es
◦ Where it happened (loca on of the incident)
◦ When did it happen (Exact me, when the incident took place)
◦ Why it happened (factors that caused the incident; the holes and gaps in the exis ng security
system)
◦ Descrip on, features, peculiar features and condi on of the aﬀected people, vehicles, proper es,
and goods

Notes
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The common format of the Incident Report is given below:

Fig 11.1 Sample incident report form (1)

Notes
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Fig 11.1 Sample incident report form (2)

11.1.2 Fire Safety

Perform Fire Evacua on Steps
The full form of EHS is Environmental Health and Safety. It is a discipline that studies and deploys the
prac cal aspects of environmental protec on and safety at work. Simply, it is what organiza ons and
workshops must do to ensure that their ac ons do not cause harm to anyone.
The EHS commands that there must be speciﬁc escape routes or safety evacua on points. This includes
thorough plans or blueprint of the building which is understandable to anyone.
Each ﬂoor of the workshop or building must have the Safety Evacua on Map. These are mainly
applicable for cases of Fire outbreaks or natural calami es like Earthquake, Flood, etc.
The sequence of an Evacua on situa on is given below:
1. Detec on
2. Decision
3. Alarm
4. Reac on
5. The movement to an area of refuge or an Assembly sta on
6. Transporta on

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Fig 11.2 Fire Escape Plan

Carry out Evacua on of Casualty and Premises Tasks

Briefing and Guidance for Fire Fighters
There are basically three methods with the help of which people can be rescued from a building
engulfed in fire. To ensure on-site recep on, here are two of the important steps that must be taken into
considera on. These come under the best safe carrying and li ing prac ces.
Conven onal Technique
• This is a good method if there is an open area nearby
• The first rescuers will make the vic m sit reach under their armpits and grab their wrist
• The other rescuer will cross the ankle (vic m) and pull up that person's legs on his shoulder
• Finally, on the count of 3, both will li the person up and move out

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What to do during Bomb Threat?

• Don't be panic-stricken and try to keep your calm
• Open the emergency exit gate so as to propagate the evacua on process
• Think ahead and consider places where a bomb can be planted
• Don't assemble in the common assembly area because terrorists want to kill as many people as
possible. The common assembly area is the place where the evacuees assemble and therefore the
possibility of killing a maximum number of people is in the common assembly area. Do not consider
the common assembly area during the evacua on at the me of bomb threat. Always assemble at a
place which is not premeditated.
• Inform the local police immediately
• Evacuate immediately a er receiving a bomb threat and don't wait un l something is found a er
inves ga on
• Document everything and submit the documenta on to the concerned authority
• If anything suspicious comes into sight, barricade it with red ribbon maintaining a diameter of 100
meters. Ensure that no one comes within the boundary. Bring sandbags and put them around the
barricade to minimize the eﬀect of the blast
• Don't try to touch any suspicious object and wait for the police to arrive at the spot to diﬀuse it

Fig 11.3 Proper evacua on procedures during bomb threat

For Fire Outbreak:

The emergency and evacua on procedures are given below:
• A clear passageway must be present to all escape routes
• Signage like escape routes should be clearly marked
• Don’t use the Elevator during a ﬁre
• All people at the workplace must be given brief instruc ons about the posi ons of the escape routes

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• Enough exits and routes must be there for all people to escape
• Emergency ligh ng (Infrared lights for night and blurred vision) must be present
• Emergency doors, that open easily, must be present
• Brief instruc ons must also be given regarding the availability and use of fire ex nguishers
• The workplace must have a safe mee ng point or assembly area for the staff
Correctly demonstrate rescue techniques applied during fire hazard:
A. Responding to Fire
• The Fire Alarm System must be ini ated and an alert must be raised
• The appropriate class of Fire Ex nguisher must be chosen
• A safe evacua on path must be iden fied before dealing with the fire
• Immediate evacua on must be ini ated if the ex nguisher is exhausted and the fire s ll exists
• Call the workplace security or the local emergency services
• Summon the fire-figh ng services at the earliest
• Look out for the nearest emergency exit routes and call out for people, who you can take along with
you
• Always use a staircase and not the elevator
• While opening a door, first touch the door with the back side of your palm
• The P.A.S.S technique must be adopted for ex nguishing the fire
• Always move downstairs and avoid returning to the burning premises, ll the fire-fighters arrive
• As you move out of the building, gather people, whoever you come across
• Stay as far as possible from smoke, because smoke may comprise toxic gases
• Cover your mouth and nose with a damp cloth to protect yourself. If possible, help your colleagues
(those who are with you) to repeat the same
• Keep doors open, a er you open them
• Start moving out of the building and ask your colleagues to do so
• Do not rush
B. Ini ate Evacua on
• Stop your work and move out safely and without spreading panic
• Carry only the most important items like cell phone
• Await instruc ons from the Safety Commi ee
• Leave the workplace from the nearest door bearing an "Exit" sign
• Report to the designated Assembly Area
• Incorporate first aid treatment to anyone in need

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For Natural Calami es / Disasters:

A. Flood and Storms
The emergency and evacua on procedures are:
• Move to the high grounds and help others move before the flood strikes
• Stay alert, avoid panicking and monitor the surroundings with eyes and ears open
• Accumulate disaster supplies like:
◦ Canned, dry, ready-to-eat and packaged food, which do not require refrigera on or cooking
◦ Liquid cash
◦ Drinking water in clean containers
◦ First Aid Kit
◦ Adequate ba eries
◦ Flashlights
◦ Essen al clothing
• Instruct people around you not to drive
• Shut off the Mains Supply (electricity) at the circuit breakers
• Do not walk or swim through the flooded water
• Stay alert for evacua on calls and help people iden fy alternate routes of ge ng there
B. Earthquake
The emergency and evacua on procedures are given below:
• Inform others in the area by raising an alarm if they have not heard it while you are evacua ng
yourself
• Quickly shutdown any hazardous opera ons or processes
• Exit the room
• Take jackets or other relevant clothing material needed for protec on from the weather
• If possible, close windows and doors as you leave, but avoid locking the doors and emergency exit
routes
• Exit the building and walk to the nearest safe exit route.
• Do not run.
• Do not use elevators.
For Accidents:
The emergency and evacua on procedures are:
• Summon emergency medical help by ringing the Safety Commi ee officials or the toll-free number
• One must inform the immediate supervisor about an injury or illness
• Check and examine the site, to gather as much informa on as possible, so that the same can be
provided to the emergency team, once it arrives

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• One must extend help and assistance to others

• If possible, workers may treat themselves to first aid or ask colleagues to do so
The general steps involved in carrying out an evacua on are:
• Stop your work and move out without spreading panic
• Gather and carry only the most important items like cell phone
• Report to the designated Assembly Area
• Leave the workplace through the nearest door bearing an "Exit" sign
• Await instruc ons from the Safety Commi ee
• Incorporate first aid treatment to anyone in need
Evacua on and emergency procedures for the especially abled:
With Impaired Hearing
◦ Turn lights on/off to gain the person’s a en on, or specify direc ons with gestures, or write a
note with evacua on direc ons
• The Visually Impaired
◦ Announce the type of emergency
◦ Offer your arm for help
• People with Prosthe c Limbs, Crutches, Canes, Walkers, etc.
◦ Evacuate these individuals along a route specially designated as injured persons
◦ Accompany and assist to evacua on site if possible
◦ No fy emergency crew of their loca on
◦ Use a sturdy chair, or a wheeled one, to move the person to an enclosed stairwell

11.1.3 Respond to Emergency Situa on

How to Respond to an Emergency Situa on
An Emergency can be deﬁned as “a serious, unexpected, and o en dangerous situa on requiring
immediate ac on.” Responding to an Emergency situa on while working at the site involves the given
steps:
Undertake ﬁrst aid ac vi es in case of any accident, if required and asked to do so
Ÿ First Aid is an emergency care or treatment given to an ill or injured person before regular medical aid
can be acquired
Ÿ Before administering First Aid to a vic m, one must check the category and degree of emergency and
then apply the techniques accordingly
Ÿ Stop and take a look at the scene, and the person before reac ng

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Ÿ Ask yourself the following ques ons:

◦ What is the casualty?
◦ What happened exactly?
◦ What is the category and nature of the emergency?
◦ Is the accident dangerous for the vic m?
◦ Is anyone else available at the place to assist?
Ÿ Do the following if the vic m is conscious and injury is not dangerous:
◦ Ask for the vic m's consent before providing first aid.
◦ Use appropriate PPE, if possible.
◦ Interview the vic m to ask basic medical ques ons, so that accurate informa on may be provided
to the Emergency Medical Team, once it arrives.
◦ Conduct a thorough check for unno ced injuries.
◦ Ensure appropriate care and technique.
Ÿ If the vic m is unconscious, try reviving the person by addressing him / her, rubbing shoulders, hands
or the sole of feet
Ÿ Use the AED and use it, along with Ar ficial Respira on
Report hazards that you are not competent enough to deal with to the relevant person in line with the
organiza onal procedures and alarm others who may get affected
Ÿ As an important part of the emergency management procedure, any workplace must designate a
Safety Commi ee, which comprises liable and senior people from all departments and teams
Ÿ This commi ee would act as the legisla ve body, the authority and the first point of contact for
repor ng any hazard, poten al risks / threats and emergency situa ons in the workplace
Ÿ This commi ee would also be liable to conduct training sessions, safety audits, and drills, to help all
employees prepare themselves for emergency and unprecedented situa ons
Ÿ The list of the commi ee members, their designa ons and job tles, as well as contact numbers,
must be listed and circulated among the employees
Ÿ The Safety Commi ee must comprise important members from the following departments:
◦ Supervisor/Manager/Team Lead from each project
◦ Security Services
◦ Building Opera ons and Maintenance team
◦ Counselling and Psychological Services team
◦ Emergency Medical Services
◦ Recep on/Front Desk
Ÿ This list must be put up for easy display at popular parts of the workplace, in the form of an
Emergency Escala on Matrix and must be updated daily

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Ÿ Furthermore, this list must be mandatorily included in every First Aid kit in the workplace premises,
so that a person trea ng a vic m with first aid techniques may call for addi onal help and report the
accident
Prac ce no Loss for Company Due to Safety Negligence
Ÿ Safety negligence at the workplace or even at home can prove to be lethal to the individual. So to
ensure that there no chances of safety carelessness, companies should follow these aspects:
Ÿ The companies should ensure that the wiring in the workplace is insulated
Ÿ No malfunc oned machinery should be kept with the new or spare ones
Ÿ No sharp objects or equipment are kept on the walkway
Ÿ First aid kit should be kept either at the recep on or in a separate medical supply area
Ÿ There are no open or damaged sockets
Prac ce regular safety drills for being prepared in the event of a fire or natural calamity
Ÿ The first step in this process is to raise the alarm as all companies and workshops do have push-glass
fire alarm system. Breaking the glass and pushing the alarm bu on should be the first step to let the
people know that the building is on fire.
Ÿ On hearing the emergency evacua on alarm, the foremost thing that a person must do is cease and
wind up all ac vi es and look for an exit path.
Ÿ The next should be to find out the place where the fire started.
Ÿ It should be followed by tackling the fire with an appropriate fire ex nguisher.
Ÿ Meanwhile, a person from that workshop or building should call for emergency help services like
ambulance and fire brigade officers.
Ÿ People should take the stairs to get out of the office building instead of using the li .
Ÿ Every company should keep folding wheelchairs so that company employee or even visitors can
transport individuals with severe mobility impairments or health.
Ÿ It is important that all individuals emptying the building should be calm and composed
The method of using a fire ex nguisher is to follow the method: P.A.S.S.
PASS is the acronym for:
Pin (P)
Aim (A)
Squeeze (S)
Sweep (S)
1. To use an ex nguisher in a proper way, the first step is to pull the handle’s pin
2. The next step is to aim the ex nguisher’s nozzle. The direc on should be toward the fire’s base. This
is because the sprayed foam at the top will diminish or ex nguish only the fire at the top. This will
not serve the purpose for which the ex nguisher is used and the burned down flame may spring up
to life if it gets enough oxygen or any combus ble material.

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1. Then in an extremely controlled manner, you need to release the agent. This is done by squeezing
the trigger.
2. You already know that you should direct the nozzle at the ﬁre’s base. You must sweep the
ex nguisher’s nozzle from le to right. Con nue with this process un l you put out the ﬁre as you
need to act fast as most ex nguishers’ discharge me is nearly 10-20 seconds.

• Pull up the pin to break • aiming the nozzle low

the seal in the ﬁre base

PULL AIM

SQUEEZE SWEEP
• squeeze handle • sweep
to release sideways from
ex nguising the base ll
agent the ﬁre is out

Fig 11.4 P.A.S.S technique for ﬁreﬁgh ng

Par cipate in emergency procedures

• Raising Alarm: Fire Alarms may either have a “Break Glass” or a “Pull / Push” mechanism. In case of
the break glass system, the glass sheet must be forcefully hit with a clenched fist. One must con nue
repea ng the process un l the glass breaks. In case of the “Pull / Push” systems, one must break the
glass first and then either pull down or push up the lever to raise the alarm.
• Correct Assembly Point: Proper instruc ons must be given to the workers about the site of and the
direc ons to the correct assembly point in the workplace. Informa on about this must be given
during mock evacua on drills and training sessions as well.
• Safe and efficient evacua on: Suitable evacua on procedures must be adopted for the common
public and for especially abled persons. Specially-abled persons must be helped to evacuate the
place by giving them access to Wheelchairs and other aids.
• Roll call: Once everybody has evacuated the building / workshop and arrived at the Assembly Point,
Roll call or Head Count must be done to ensure that nobody is le behind in the affected area. This
must be done mandatorily to ensure that everybody on the premises is safe.

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• Correct return to work: Evacua on must be conducted in a very streamlined, organized, and
noiseless manner. Likewise, everybody, who had evacuated the workplace, must return to his / her
respec ve loca ons / posi ons / seats, following normal or emergency routes, depending on
whether the situa on has been re-established to normal or not. Once everybody is back in place,
another Roll call is taken.
Demonstrate how to free a person from electrocu on
Electrocu on is injury or death caused due to electric shock. The following steps must be adopted while
freeing a vic m from electrocu on:
• Approach
◦ The ﬁrst step is to approach the spot to ﬁnd out if you run the risk of electrocu on as well
◦ Call for help from a colleague, who is trained in trea ng electrocu on vic ms
◦ Inspect the accident scene to ensure if the source of electrocu on is s ll ac ve
◦ Inspect if the vic m is s ll in contact with the source of shock

Fig 11.5 Approach the vic m and inspect the accident from a safe distance

◦ Detach the main power supply of the area

◦ Dodge any electrical conductors in the surroundings
◦ Touch the vic m only if all power sources have been deac vated

Fig 11.6 Disconnect the source of power

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• In case it is impossible to deac vate the power supply, the vic m must be removed from the
loca on of the live power source.
◦ This should be done by wearing appropriate PPE.

Fig 11.7 Use insulators to approach the vic m of electrocu on

◦ The vic m must not be removed in case of neck or spine injury.

◦ The area must not be crowded so as to allow suﬃcient breathing air.
◦ The vic m's pulses and breathing rate must be checked.
◦ CPR may be provided if required.

Fig 11.8 Perform CPR if required

◦ Never touch the vic m or the surroundings without detaching the main power supply.
◦ Wear appropriate insula ng gloves and shoes in order to protect yourself from electric shocks.

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11.1.4 Emergency Procedure and Repor ng Accident

Follow the organiza on's emergency procedures quickly, efficiently and calmly
Evalua ng the Emergency
Ÿ One must ra onally and cri cally think and assess the severity of the emergency and determine,
what requires to be done on an immediate basis
Ÿ One must remain calm and composed during an emergency situa on since stress during an
emergency complicates things and may confuse a person
Ÿ The emergency dispatcher aims at providing instant and appropriate help based on the nature and
degree of emergency
Ÿ One must look for addi onal help by calling up the emergency toll-free number, which would help
the caller reach an official or 'dispatcher'
Ÿ One must help the dispatcher by answering his / her ques ons and providing the dispatcher with the
precise loca on and nature of the emergency
Ÿ It is suggested that one should call from a GPS equipped phone so that the dispatcher is able to track
the loca on, even if the caller is unable to speak
Ÿ One must be aware of the nature of the emergency, i.e. whether it is a medical, mental health or
behavioral emergency
Ÿ One must evaluate the immediate threats, for example, in case a person is severely injured from a
running machine, the machine must be turned off instantly to prevent others from ge ng hurt as
well
Handling the Emergency
Ÿ Extremely high casual es must be informed to the Occupa onal Health and Safety Commi ee
(OHSC)
Ÿ One must move farther from the emergency spot and help others follow the same
Ÿ Secondary Hazards must be removed or mi gated, at least. For example, a car accident comprises
the risk of a violent explosion and fire outbreak resul ng from spilled fuel
Ÿ One must not feel guilty if nothing can be done to help the others
Ÿ In case nothing can be done to lessen the severity of the situa on, one must provide support to the
others by upli ing them mentally, inquiring about their medical history, no ng events as they occur,
etc. This informa on may prove vital for the emergency response team
Ÿ One must help the other vic ms and take suitable measures to assist the specially abled ones
Ÿ One must refrain from moving a severely injured vic m and provide only the basic first aids
Ÿ Once the emergency team arrives, assist them with all required and relevant informa on
Ÿ A First Aid kit must be used if required
Ÿ One must try reviving a seemingly unconscious vic m by rubbing the chest, pinching the earlobes,
providing Cardiopulmonary Resuscita on (combina on of chest compression and ar ficial
respira on)

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Fig 11.9 Sample form of repor ng accidents

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A. Work safely at all mes, complying with health and safety legisla on, regula ons and other
relevant guidelines
• Ensure that all emergency route maps are on display in the accessible places on all floors of the
building
• Ensure that appropriate Fire Ex nguishers are present on all the floors of the workplace
• Learn and abide by company policy and procedures for dealing with security risks in the
establishment
• Ask your supervisor how you may retrieve PPE and its maintenance and storage
• Stay aware that confined spaces must bear suitable signs, to restrict claustrophobic people from
accessing them
B. Ensure that health and safety instruc ons applicable to the workplace are being followed
• Ligh ng should be sa sfactory in all areas and addi onal bulbs should be kept handy
• While using cu ng tools, the direc on of cu ng should always be away from your body
• Arrange for frequent Safety Drills and Trainings for employees to endorse safety awareness
• Ensure that all manual cu ng tools must be honed in advance because blunt tools may slip and lead
to deep cuts
• Have a clear idea of how much authority and accountability you have to deal with security risks,
including your legal rights and du es
• Learn and abide by company policies and procedures for maintaining security while you work
C. Check the worksite for any possible health and safety hazards
• Employ a Safety Supervisor in the workshop
• Have your employer develop a daily checklist for all areas delegated to suitable employees
• This Safety Supervisor will stay accountable for checking the worksite for poten al health and safety
hazards
D. Follow manufacturers' instruc ons and job specifica ons rela ng to safe use of materials
specifically chemicals and power equipment
• Ensure that all Chemical Solu ons used on display shelves or for Housekeeping purposes must be
used only a er men oning to the relevant MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) or Instruc on
Manuals
• Loosely fi ed clothes must be totally avoided because the loose ends may get caught in powered
machinery and tools and may be lethal
• Ensure that you read the Instruc on Manual thoroughly before using powered tools and
equipment.

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E. Follow electrical safety measures while working with electrically powered tools & equipment
• Powered tools and equipment must be reviewed for any damage, before and a er every use.
• Damaged switches must be reported to the supervisor and repaired with immediate effect
• Plugs must be checked for missing or faulty prongs / pins.
• The power cord must be assessed carefully for any fraying, faults, cracks or loss of insula on.
F. Ensure safe handling and disposal of waste and debris
• All walkways should be free of clu er and debris, to avoid trips and falls.
• Any spill should be cleared off instantly and 'Wet Floor' or 'Work in Progress' signs should be used in
suitable places.
• Store equipment, Tools and Chemicals should be stored correctly, abiding by all instruc ons
provided in the Instruc on Manual and 'Direc ons for Use'.
Ensure electrical safety compliances and EMI/EMC hygiene requirements are met as per the
guidelines
• The risks associated with the use of electrical equipment are extended to both the user and his / her
surroundings in the workplace. Few of such risks are men oned below:
• Lethal Electrocu on accidents
• Non-fatal electric shocks leading to serious burn injuries
• Non-fatal yet severe shocks leading to damages caused to the internal ssues and vital organs like
the brain and the heart
• Non-fatal yet painful sta c electric shocks
• Falls from cranes, ladders, and scaffolding and resul ng mechanical injuries due to electric shocks
• Explosions and fire outbreaks caused by the sudden igni on of flammable materials
• Health issues like nausea, muscle spasms, unconsciousness, and palpita ons
Iden fy and modify any hazards that you can deal with competently, safely and within the limits of
your authority
Safety
• Opera onal safety
◦ Employee safety
◦ Building and plant safety
◦ Process safety
◦ Accident preven on
◦ Emergency management
◦ Risk management

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• Safety of chemicals and biological materials

◦ Handling
◦ Safety data, documenta on
◦ Storage
◦ Transport
Security
• Personnel
• Products
• Knowledge
• Physical assets
• Informa on (not covering core IT security like data access control, ﬁrewalls, virus Protec on etc.)
Health
• Health protec on at the workplace
◦ Industrial hygiene
◦ Occupa onal medicine
◦ Accident preven on
◦ Noise
◦ Occupa onal toxicology
◦ Stress, mental health
◦ Biosafety
◦ Ergonomics
◦ Radia on protec on
• Health promo on
Environmental Protec on
• Emissions
◦ Into the air
◦ Into the soil
◦ Into the water
• Waste
◦ Avoidance
◦ Disposal
◦ Re-use, recycling

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• Resources, including energy

◦ Change to best alterna ves
◦ Eco-balance
◦ Eﬃcient use
• Remedia on of exis ng contamina on
The management of SHE issues should be organized and clearly communicated. For this reason, it is
ideal to encourage the use of a framework that includes each of the basic steps in a management cycle.

Con nual
Improvement

Redeﬁni on of
Objec ves and Measures

Assessment and
Management Review

Monitoring and
Control

Implementa on

Planning Objec ves

and Measures

Commitment and Policy

Needs and
Values

Fig 11.10 Step-by-step evalua on and implica on of SHE aspects

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11.1.5 Government Agencies for Safety at Workplace

Iden fy and recommend opportuni es for improving health, safety, security to the designated
person
Ÿ Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Study
◦ This technique involves a structured and methodical examina on of an present method /
procedure, thus, in turn, classifying and assessing the associated hazards.
◦ These hazards can be easily recognized in the form of Devia ons in the process parameters
(physical condi ons and elements like flow, temperature, pressure, humidity, etc..
◦ A Devia on is a manner in which the process condi ons stray away from the probable values.
◦ The severity of Devia on can be illustrated with the help of specific and prearranged Guide Words
Ÿ The steps involved in conduc ng HAZOP are:
◦ Segrega ng the en re system or process into components or sec ons
◦ Select a study node or point
◦ Define the predictable outcome or consequence
◦ Choose a process parameter, based on the expected consequence
◦ Use a suitable Guide Word
◦ Find out the Cause behind the devia on
◦ Start with the cause that may lead to the worst possible consequence
◦ Evaluate the devia ons thus detected
◦ Plan and prescribe ac on
◦ Record and document informa on
◦ Repeat the process from B
Common examples of process condi ons / parameters are given below:
◦ Temperature
◦ Pressure
◦ Flow
◦ pH value
◦ Signal
◦ Mixing
◦ Viscosity
◦ Time
◦ Control
◦ Separa on
◦ Addi on

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Ÿ Reduc on
◦ Communica on
◦ Sequence
Crea ng reports with comprehensive informa on is a must for every organisa on. The main idea behind
this is to let the management body of the company as well as HSE to know the hazards at the workplace.
With the help of such reports, the company can examine, pinpoint the risks, and carry on the essen al
improvements within the organisa on. Because of such reports, companies can recognize long-term
risks and short-term risks and achieve remedial ac ons for those risks.
In case of security-related issues or health-related issues, it is always a be er choice to inform your
supervisor or seniors.
A company can func on in a systema c, smooth and successful way if it looks a er the sa sfac on of its
employees. OH & S is one of the safety pla orms where every corpora on has to meet the safety
guidelines.
Three specific ar cles (as per Indian cons tu on) ensure occupa onal safety and health for workers.
Those Ar cles are:
◦ 42
◦ 39(e and f)
◦ 24
Some government agencies that look into the safety and security of individuals at the workplace are
follows:
◦ Labour Departments (for both UT and State)
◦ Ministry of Labour
◦ Government of India
◦ NSCI (Na onal Safety Council of India)
◦ Na onal APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level)
Complete Any Health and Safety Records Legibly and Accurately
1. Health and Safety File
Ÿ These are electronic files that contain all the central safety and health records of the business. The
other informa on kept in this file are given below:
Ÿ Copies of Risk assessments which covers the areas like:
◦ Li ing opera ons
◦ Li ing equipment
◦ Manual Handling opera ons
◦ Fire risk assessments
◦ Lone working
◦ COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) assessments
◦ General risk assessments

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Ÿ Risk of violence and aggression

◦ Display Screen equipment worksta on assessments
Ÿ For Organisa on Health and Safety Risk Assessment, maintenance of risk assessment registers
Ÿ Copies of safety and health policies, guidance and procedures (local)
Ÿ Copy of the organisa on's Health and Safety Codes
Ÿ List of individuals (name) who are given the liability of examining the safety and health issues. They
may be like:
◦ Union Health and Safety Representa ves
◦ Risk assessors
◦ Fire evacua on officers
◦ DSE (Department of Sustainability and Environment) assessors
◦ First Aiders
2. Log-book for Health and Safety
This involves:
Ÿ Risk assessment
Ÿ Training to overcome such situa ons
Ÿ Fire drills
Some other health and safety are:
Ÿ Informa on based on organisa onal mee ng with Area Health and Safety Commi ee
Ÿ Annual safety and health audit checklists and applicable ac on plans
Ÿ Checklists for safety and health induc on
Ÿ Copies of Safety Ma ers like an official newsle er
Ÿ Health and safety training records that have informa on regarding:
◦ Name
◦ Date
◦ Health and safety training's course tle
◦ Response like A ended or Not A ended
◦ Date fixed for So ware Developer training
Ÿ Fire Drill Records
Ÿ Examina on and statutory inspec on reports
Ÿ Material Safety Data Sheets
Ÿ Equipment maintenance and their service provision
Ÿ Record of dates for repeat of test, Portable Electrical Appliance tests and remedial ac on required
Ÿ Details related to emergency procedures

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Summary
• Safety breaches in the designated premises are “Incidents” that need to be reported and duly
responded to.
• The full form of EHS is Environmental Health and Safety.
• The ﬁrst rescuers will make the vic m sit reach under their armpits and grab their wrist.
• Informa on based on organisa onal mee ng with Area Health and Safety Commi ee.
• One must ra onally and cri cally think and assess the severity of the emergency and determine, what
requires to be done on an immediate basis.
• First Aid is an emergency care or treatment given to an ill or injured person before regular medical aid
can be acquired.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise
Choose the correct op on from the list of responses to answer the following ques ons:
1. Find the odd one out in terms of the given statement:
The supervisor or the manager should see and iden fy the type of breach. It is only on the basis of the
severity of the breach the appropriate ac ons can be taken. The ac ons can be like:
a. Dismissal
b. Felicita on
c. Warning
2. An emergency is –
a. Unexpected
b. An cipated
c. Predictable
3. OHSC stands for –
a. Organiza onal Health and Safety Commi ee
b. Occupa onal Health and Safety Community
c. Occupa onal Health and Safety Commi ee
4. Most ﬁre ex nguishers’ discharge me is near -
a. 15-20 seconds
b. 10-20 seconds
c. 30 seconds
5. Which one of the followings is not a P.A.S.S component?
a. Aim
b. Sweep
c. Shot
6. EHS stands for –
a. Environmental Health and Safety
b. Emergency Health Security
c. Emergency Health and Safety
7. Flood is a –
a. Natural phenomenon
b. Ar ﬁcial phenomenon
c. Cosmic phenomenon

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1. During an emergency evacua on, employees should adjourn at –

a. Nearest police sta on
b. Nearest ﬁre sta on
c. Assembly area
2. Nobody should use the ________ during ﬁre.
a. Stair
b. Exit door
c. Elevator
3. As an important part of the emergency management procedure, safety com a _________
Commi ee.
a. Security
b. Safety
c. Health

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Health, Safety, and Accident Repor ng Procedures
Unit 11.1 Occupa onal Health and Safety
and the Importance of These

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12. Workplace Data

Management
Unit 12.1 - Data Management

SSC/ N9004
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Describe how data/informa on can be managed eﬀec vely

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Par cipant Handbook

Unit
UNIT12.1
2.1: Occupa onal
Standards Health
Opera ng and Safety in the Fruits
Procedures
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Discuss data privacy in terms of sharing and retrieving data from diﬀerent sources
2. Discuss the signiﬁcance of providing accurate and up-to-date informa on on me
3. Iden fy the database management tools and the importance of a CRM database

12.1.1 Accurate Data/Informa on from Reliable Sources

Obtain the data/informa on from reliable sources and Check that the data/informa on is accurate,
complete and up-to-date
Before star ng any new process, it is important that a So ware Developer has a proper briefing of the
process. Addi onally, it is also significantly important that he or she is given all the data, required
materials and their sources.
The required informa on involves:
Ÿ Collec ng essen al requirements and analysis of those
Ÿ Any specific implementa on procedure
Ÿ The client/s requirements
Ÿ So ware related to the new process

12.1.2 Templates and Formats Used for Data/Informa on &

their Purpose
Templates are standard formats for documen ng observa ons. The observa on includes various
aspects of the company. The type or the key parameters of the template change depending on the
department. For instance, the template that is used by the transport department of a firm should be
en rely different to that of the technical department which take care of opera ons.
The informa on provided in the template is used for performance examina on.
Different techniques used to obtain data/informa on and how to apply these
Ÿ Case Studies
This method basically maintains that the informa on that is collected is based on the experience of
the clients.

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Ÿ Focus Groups
This data or informa on method is reliant on group discussions with in-depth topic assessment. This
can be about marke ng tac cs, evolu onary aspects related to data, their sources, and searches,
codes, programming languages or even any form of bugs.

12.1.3 Process of Carrying out Rule-Based Analysis on Data/

Informa on
The rule-based study prac cally involves decision-making process or condi onal branching. It is a design
of methodology produc on whose basis lies in so ware factors - analysis of techniques to make
appropriate decisions for a new project.
In this rule, we will find the presence of three or more condi ons like pseudo codes or if statement. The
performance requirement is the accommoda on of rule engine solu on.
Process of Applica on
1. Select the input variables
As there are many variables present in a new project, crea on of a matrix is essen al between
methodologies and factors. We can see the presence of factors in methodologies.
2. Bad Sub Rules
There are certain types of factors that cannot be connected with other types of factors. If they are
combined, this step cannot lead to the crea on of bad sub rules. In this case, two rule categories are
recognised. They are:
Ÿ System rules with high requirement stability, low complexity and small size system
Ÿ System rules with low requirement stability, medium complexity and size system
3. Variable Reduc on
These factors are iden fied but their elimina on doesn't make any impact. These generally comprise
applica on domain and project type.
4. Category Merge
For methodology iden fica on, forma on of many categories takes place and its founda on can be on
project type.
5. Hypothe cal Examples
We can see the beginning of hypothe cal example sets if we look at extreme cases. The rule-based
analysis is based on the acknowledgment of factors like less complexity, high requirement stability, and
small size.
Who to Go To In The Event Of Inaccurate Data/Informa on and How to Report This
In an organiza on, the hierarchy usually involves a singular/group of power at the top with succeeding
levels of power beneath them. This is the leading mode of organiza on among large organiza ons; most
corpora ons, governments, and organized religions are hierarchical organiza ons with different levels
of management and power or authority.

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Par cipant Handbook

12.1.4 Signiﬁcance of providing Accurate and up-to-date

Informa on on Time
Check the accuracy of work, involving colleagues and the formats in which you need to provide it
Every project has a s pulated meline. A project commences with se ng a goal followed by other
aspects like developing, tes ng, and quality analysis and final deployment.
Set-up Goals
Every stage has its own format where informa on has to be filled in precisely. A project goal template
must be implemented and details must be filled in regularly. A sample format is given below:

Fig 12.1 Project goal template

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Summary
• Before star ng any new process, it is important that a So ware Developer has a proper brieﬁng of the
process.
• The rule-based study prac cally involves decision-making process or condi onal branching.
• Every project has a s pulated meline.
• Every stage has its own format where informa on has to be ﬁlled in precisely.

Notes
__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise
1. It is important to provide the execu ve with speciﬁc _____________ procedure.
a. Deadline
b. Implementa on
c. Comment
2. The full form of OSI is _____________.
a. Open Source Ini a ve
b. Outsourcing Solu ons Inc.
c. Open Switching Interval
3. One of the templates used for informa on or data is _____________.
a. So ware Architecture Design
b. Rela ve Theory
c. Hardware design
4. ___________________ method is dependent on group discussions with in-depth topic explora on.
a. Discussion
b. Focus group
c. Coding Theory

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Unit 12.1 Data Management

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So ware Developer

13. Inclusive and

Environmentally
Sustainable
Workplaces
Unit 13.1 - Sustainable Prac ces
Unit 13.2 - Respect Diversity and Strengthen Prac ces to
Promote Equality

SSC/ N9014
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Par cipant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Illustrate sustainable prac ces in the workplace for energy eﬃciency and waste management
2. Apply diﬀerent approaches to maintain gender equality and increase inclusiveness for PwD

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UNIT13.1
Unit 2.1: Sustainable
Standards Opera ng Procedures in the Fruits
Prac ces
Processing Industry
Unit Objec ves
At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Describe diﬀerent approaches for eﬃcient energy resource u liza on and waste management
2. Describe the importance of following diversity policies

13.1.1 Op mize Usage of Electricity/Energy, Materials, and

Water
Greenery within and around the office premises and other corporate environments helps not only to
enhance the décor of the workplace, but also has a posi ve impact on the produc vity of the
employees. Greenery helps people to concentrate on work, creates posi ve vibes among the workers
and the visitors.
Apart from the introduc on of greenery, conserva on of energy and op miza on of usage are equally
important. There are certain essen al tools and equipment that are used in every workplace, which
require electricity. For example, air condi oner, light, fan, computer, coffee vending machine are such
electrical gadgets or appliances which are extensively used in the offices. Similarly, steady water supply
in the washroom is another important requirement. Op mized usage of all these essen al energy or
commodi es is absolutely significant to conserve energy and create an eco-friendly work environment.
What does greenery do?
Ÿ Plants in workplaces purify the air; they reduce the concentra on of CO2 (Carbon dioxide gas) and
other vola le organic compounds, keeping the air fresh and healthy
Ÿ External vegeta on moderates heat in and around office block in the summer me, pulling down
heat stress and decreasing the necessity for air-condi oning
Ÿ Green roofs and facades proliferate insula on or the absorp on capacity of heat, plumme ng
hea ng and cooling expenses
Ÿ Plants in and around office buildings release water vapour which moistens the air, dipping headaches
Ÿ ‘Green views’ also boost focus, and aid quicker recovery from stress
Ÿ Green environments encourage people to undertake ac vi es such as a lunch me walk, keeping
staff alert and healthy. Long periods of si ng adversely affect health
Plan the implementa on of energy efficient systems
Here are some simple energy management ideas one can implement in the work sta on.
Ÿ Do not use ar ficial ligh ng in offices when natural light is sufficient
Ÿ Open draperies and raise shades whenever adequate light from windows is available
Ÿ Use energy-saving fluorescent lights and lamps

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Ÿ Switch off lights and appliances in unoccupied office spaces or unused rooms such as conference
room. Switch on the lights and ACs/ fans during the conference
Ÿ Turn off the bathroom's fan and lights whenever they are not occupied
Ÿ Install the light sensors to remind and educate office users about wasted light
Ÿ Use rechargeable ba eries for calculators and other office devices
Ÿ Turn off computers that are not used, and u lize computers’ energy/power management tools (i.e.
sleep mode, hibernate mode, screen saver)
Ÿ Reduce the use of ligh ng during night cleaning
Ÿ Keep office doors and windows closed if hea ng and air condi oning is on
Ÿ Switch off HVAC systems in offices when they are not in use
Ÿ Ensure thermostats are correctly adjusted
Ÿ Purchase and use high-efficiency office equipment and devices
Ÿ Set up a self-adult system for the office energy consump on
Ini a ves towards efficient use of natural resources and energy, reduc on and preven on of
pollu on
These are some measurements that help op mize the usage of energy in the workplace. However,
another important aspect of op mizing the usage of energy and other materials is proper maintenance.
Organiza ons should prepare a checklist to measure and maintain energy and material conserva on.
Following is a sample checklist for the energy and material conserva on module at workplaces.

Category Checklist Items

Energy management Establishment of energy management organiza on, and employee

educa on

Energy conserva on targets and investment budget se ng

Grasp status of implementa on of energy conserva on

Measurements and recording of monthly usage (electricity, gas,

oil, and water)
Prepara on of sta s cs, including graphs showing diﬀerences
from previous month or year
Grasp of energy intensity (MJ/m2/year)

Establishment of management standards

Heat source and heat- Temperature control for chilled water, cooling water, and hot
conveying equipment water
Adjustment of the ﬂow rate and pressure of pumps and fans

Con nue...

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Category Checklist Items

Heat source and heat- Steam leakage and insula on management

conveying equipment
Management of air ra o and exhaust gas of combus on
equipment
Control of steam pressure and blow-down

Cooling water quality control (electrical conduc vity)

Control of opening of valves and dampers (e.g. automa c valves)

Grasp of energy intensity (MJ/m2/year)

Air-condi oning and Proper temperature se ng

ven la on equipment
Turning oﬀ air-condi oning for rooms not in use or unoccupied

Adjustment of appropriate outside air intake volume

Review of opera ng hours

Eﬀec ve opera on of total heat exchanger (e.g. Rosunai)

Local cooling and local exhaust

Indoor air quality control (e.g. CO2)

Installa on of (manual or automa c) inverter device to ven la on

fans

Suspending either of the opera on of a 4-pipe air condi oning

system, if used

Control of ven la on in car parking space (CO concentra on

control)

Water supply/drainage and Control of supplied water ﬂow and pressure

sanita on equipment
Water saving measures (e.g. water-saving top and automa c
ﬂashing)

Change temperature and pressure se ng on the heat source

equipment depending on the season

Opera on with intervals in hot water supply circula on pump

U liza on of rain water and well water

Management of kitchen equipment (e.g. cooking and washing

machines)
Con nue...

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Par cipant Handbook

Category Checklist Items

Management of electric Op miza on of demand

power receiving and
transforming facili es Usage control

Voltage adjustments
Power factor management

Air-condi oning and Op mum illumina on control

ven la on equipment
Switching oﬀ lights when they are not necessary (use of daylight)

Cleaning of ligh ng ﬁxtures and change to more energy-saving

ﬁxtures

Replace incandescent lamps to ﬂuorescent lamps

Adop on of energy-saving FFE (furniture, ﬁxture, and equipment)

Indoor air quality control (e.g. CO2)

Opera on & management of Opera on

eleva ng machines
Adop on of inverter control

Adop on of human mo on sensors to escalator

Opera on with intervals in hot water supply circula on pump

Buildings Blocking of solar radia on on the windows (e.g. shading curtains

and light-shielding ﬁlms)

Blocking of solar radia on on the roof (heat reﬂec on coa ng)

Others Maintain the place around the condensing units for air-
condi oning and chillers

U liza on of heat from hot spring

Installa on of boilers using waste materials as fuel

U liza on of solar heat

Wind, solar, and small hydro power genera on

Use late-night electricity

Co-genera on

Table 13.1 Energy and material conserva on checklist

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Various energy op ons including renewable and non-renewable

Renewable Energy is an eternal energy source that does not get depleted on exploita on and fetch nil or
minimal waste product. Such sources of energy get naturally replenished on a human mescale. The
Interna onal Energy Agency (IEA), a Paris-based autonomous authority on Environmental and
Sustainable Development, explains:
"Renewable Energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various
forms, it derives directly from the Sun, or from Heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the
defini on is Electricity and Heat generated from Solar, Wind, Ocean, Hydropower, Biomass, Geothermal
Resources, Biofuels and Hydrogen derived from Renewable Resources."
Wind Energy: Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or wind power) describes the process
by which wind is used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kine c energy in the wind into
mechanical power. A generator can convert mechanical power into electricity.
Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and from thermos,
meaning heat) is energy made by heat inside the Earth's crust. Although the Sun does heat the surface of
the Earth, the heat from inside the Earth is not caused by the Sun.
Solar Energy: Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy.
Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available.
Bio Energy: Bioenergy is renewable energy created from natural, biological sources. Modern technology
even makes landfills or waste zones poten al bioenergy resources. It can be used to be a sustainable
power source, providing heat, gas, and fuel.
Hydropower Energy: Hydropower, or hydro-energy, is a form of renewable energy that uses the water
stored in dams, as well as flowing in rivers to create electricity in hydropower plants. The rota ng blades
spin a generator that converts the mechanical energy of the spinning turbine into electrical energy.

Fig 13.1 Renewable energy sources

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Renewables do not emit greenhouse gases in energy genera on processes, making them the cleanest,
most viable solu on to prevent environmental degrada on. Compared to conven onal energy sources
such as coal, gas, oil and nuclear - reserves of which are finite - clean energies originate and adapt to
natural cycles. This makes them an essen al element in a sustainable energy system that allows
development today without risking that of future genera ons.
Electricity first aid emergency procedures
The first aid kit should provide basic equipment for administering first aid for injuries including:
• Cuts, scratches, punctures, grazes and splinters
• Muscular sprains and strains
• Minor burns
• Amputa ons and/or major bleeding wounds
• Broken bones
• Eye injuries
• Shock
One should develop and implement first aid procedures to ensure that workers have a clear
understanding of first aid in their workplace. The procedure should cover:
• The type of first aid kits and where they are located
• The loca on of first aid facili es such as first aid rooms
• Who is responsible for the first aid kits and facili es and how frequently they should be checked and
maintained
• How to establish and maintain appropriate communica on systems (including equipment and
procedures) to ensure rapid emergency communica on with first aiders
• The communica on equipment and systems to be used when first aid is required (especially for
remote and isolated workers). These procedures should contain informa on about how to locate
the communica on equipment, which is responsible for the equipment and how it should be
maintained
• The work areas and shi s that have been allocated to each first aider. These procedures should
contain the names and contact details of each first aider
• Arrangements to ensure first aiders receive appropriate training
• Arrangements for ensuring that workers receive appropriate informa on, instruc on and training
in rela on to first aid
• Seeking informa on when a worker commences work about any first aid needs that may require
specific treatment in a medical emergency, such as severe allergies. Informa on about a worker’s
health must be kept confiden al and only provided to first aiders with the worker’s consent
• How to report injuries and illnesses that may occur in the workplace

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• Prac ces to avoid exposure to blood and body substances

• What to do when a worker or other person is too injured or ill to stay at work, for example if they
require assistance with transport to a medical service, home or somewhere else where they can rest
and recover
• Access to debrieﬁng or counselling services to support ﬁrst aiders and workers a er a serious
workplace incident
Here the steps to free a person from electrocu on.

Switch oﬀ the main power.

Don't touch the person who is electrocuted.

Try to remove the person from the electrical

source with the help of non-conduc ng objects
like s ck, cardboard, bamboo, etc.

Lay the person in this posi on.

Table 13.2 Steps to save a person from electrocu on

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13.1.2 Segregate Recyclable, Non-Recyclable and Hazardous

Waste
Hazard is defined as a factor, which may cause harm to people and proper es alike, like electricity,
inflammable products, explosive material, corrosive chemical, using heavy ladders at workplace etc.
Simply put, a Hazard is simply a condi on or a set of circumstances that present a poten al for harm. Risk
is defined as the likeliness or the chance that a hazard can actually cause harm to somebody. For
example, smokers of cigare es run the risk of developing Cancer. The poten al or imminent danger that
Risks and Hazards expose the concerned premises to, is known as Threat. For example, a person, who
has the poten al of blowing up a building, is a threat to that building and its inhabitants.
The steps involved in Risk Management are:

Iden fying Hazards

Assessing the Risks

Controlling and mi ga ng
Risks

Fig 13.3 Risk management matrix

The most common waste materials procured in a workplace can be categorized in the following:

• Liquid Waste
◦ Sludge, dirty water, organic liquids, waste water a er washing
• Solid Waste
◦ Industrial slag, plas cs waste, wood waste, paper waste, metals, and glass
• Organic Waste
◦ Biodegradable food waste, animal waste, vegetable waste, garden waste, ro en meat of
animals can be deposited at Landﬁlls or converted into Manure and Biogas

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• Recyclable Waste
◦ Paper, metals, wood, organic waste etc. can be recycled
◦ Must be placed in appropriate Recycling Bin and treated according to the nature of the waste
◦ For example, organic waste can be converted into manure and Biogas
• Hazardous Waste
◦ Such waste may be ﬂammable, corrosive, radioac ve, toxic etc.
◦ These can poten ally harm the environment and must be placed in clearly and legibly labelled
bins for appropriate treatment and disposal

Fig 13.4 Waste segrega on and disposal bins

Hazards and poten al risks / threats can be iden ﬁed and then reported to supervisors or other
authorized persons in the following ways:

Verbal report to
Filling up and presen ng Discussing the issue at a
supervisor or authorized
a Hazard Report form staﬀ mee ng
persons

Fig 13.5 Flowchart of repor ng poten al hazrd

Iden fica on of hazard implies the job is half done. In order to take adequate precau onary measures
against hazards, one needs to iden fy the hazards commonly found in the workplace. The common
methods of hazard iden fica on are:
• Job Hazard Analysis (JHA)
◦ This is a popular technique to iden fy the perils associated with specific tasks in a job role, in
order to lessen the risk of injuries to employees.
◦ The steps involved in successfully conduc ng JHA are:

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A. Divide the en re job role into small tasks or steps

Let us understand the concept with the help of an example, where JHA is being conducted on corporate
work such as Customer Care Execu ve.StepsHazards AssociatedRecommenda ons
Handling tools and equipment of the trade
Working with common electrical appliances of the workspace
Stress factor of the job role

Steps Hazards Associated Recommenda ons

1. Handling tools and
equipment of the trade

2. Working with common

electrical appliances of the
workspace

3. Stress factor of the job

role

Table 13.3 JHA checklist for hazard iden ﬁca on

B. Spot out the hazards associated with each step by asking ques ons like:
• What can go wrong with this task?
• What would be the consequences if the task went wrong?
• How could the task go wrong?
• What are the other contribu ng factors?
• What are the chances that this hazard will take place?
C. Review and discuss the scope of the hazards with the employees, who would actually do the tasks on
hand
D. Find out strategies and ways to mi gate or avoid the hazards
E. Review and revise the JHA periodically
• Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Study
◦ This technique involves a structured and systema c examina on of an exis ng method /
procedure, thus, in turn, iden fying and assessing the associated hazards.
◦ These hazards can be easily iden fied in the form of Devia ons in the process parameters
(physical condi ons and elements like flow, pressure, temperature, humidity, etc.
◦ The severity of Devia on can be illustrated with the help of specific and predetermined Guide
Words.
◦ A Devia on is a manner in which the process condi ons stray away from the expected values.

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Guide Word + Process Condi on / Parameter = Devia on.

For example, No + Signal = No Signal

• The steps involved in conduc ng HAZOP are:

◦ Segrega ng the en re system or process into sec ons or components
◦ Select a study node or point
◦ Deﬁne the expected outcome or consequence
◦ Choose a process parameter, based on the expected consequence
◦ Implement a suitable Guide Word
◦ Determine the Cause behind the devia on
◦ Start with the cause that may lead to the worst possible consequence
◦ Assess the devia ons thus detected
◦ Devise and prescribe ac on
◦ Record and document informa on
◦ Repeat the process from B

Common examples of Guide Words and their meanings are:

Guide Word Meaning Example

No (Not, None) None of the desired No ﬂow of gas through the gas
consequence is achieved cu ng nozzle due to
accumulated dirt
More (Higher than, More of) Quan ta ve increase in a More heat generated and
certain process parameter higher temperature achieved
than expected, during sawing
opera ons
Less (Lesser than, Less of) Quan ta ve reduc on in a Lower pressure than expected
certain process parameter
As well as (In addi on to) All the design inten ons are All valves closed at the same
achieved and an addi onal me
ac vity takes place
Reverse The logical opposite of the The Power Drill con nues
design inten on takes place drilling even a er shu ng
down the power supply
Other Than An unexpected ac vity takes Presence of liquid fuel in Gas
place Cylinder

Fig 13.4 Guide Words and their interpreta on

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The 3 Rs of waste op miza on

• Resource Op miza on - Raw materials must be used to the fullest, so that minimal waste is
procured while conver ng the raw materials into ﬁnished products.
• Recycling of Scrap Material - Scraps, when created, must immediately be incorporated in the
manufacturing process, so that they get reused completely as raw material.
• Enhanced Quality Control - This can be implemented by minimizing the number of rejects per batch.
This is easily achievable with a higher frequency of careful inspec on, accompanied with constant
monitoring.
• Exchange of Waste - Some wastes cannot be completely eliminated from the manufacturing
process. Such waste can be eﬀec vely managed via Waste Exchange techniques, where the waste
procured in a certain process becomes the raw material of another, and vice versa.

Recycle

Reduce Reuse

Fig 13.6 3Rs of waste op miza on

Notes
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• Landﬁll
◦ Waste, that cannot be recycled, is deposited and a layer of soil is added on top of it
• Incinera on
◦ Involves controlled combus on of waste
◦ 90% volume of waste gets reduced and converted into incombus ble, light-weight materials
like ash, gases and heat
◦ Gases are released into the environment while the heat is u lized in power genera on
• Biogas Genera on
◦ Organic waste are biodegradable and can be converted into Biogas in Biogas Plants, with the
help of certain fungi and bacteria
◦ The residue, a er genera on of Biogas, is used as Manure
• Manure Genera on and Compos ng
◦ Organic waste are o en le buried under soil beds
◦ They decompose into rich manure, full of nutrients and minerals
• Vermicompos ng
◦ Involves the degrada on of organic waste into manure, with the help of worms
◦ The worms feed on the organic waste and convert them into manure

Notes
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Unit 13.1 Sustainable Prac ces

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UNIT13.2
Unit 2.1: Respect
Standards Opera and
Diversity ng Procedures
Strengthenin the ces
Prac Fruits
to
Processing
Promote Industry
Equality

Unit Objec ves

At the end of this unit, the trainee will be able to:
1. Iden fy stereotypes and prejudices associated with people with disabili es and the nega ve
consequences of prejudice and stereotypes
2. Discuss the importance of promo ng, sharing, and implemen ng gender equality and PwD
sensi vity guidelines at the organiza onal level

13.2.1 Concept of Gender, Gender Equality and Gender

Discrimina on
Policies and procedures about gender inclusivity, equality and sustainability while working with
colleagues
The Cons tu on of India applies uniformly to equality of opportunity for all ci zens (including every
legal ci zen of India, whether they are the disabled) in ma ers rela ng to employment or healthy or
disabled. Under the Cons tu on the appointment to any office under the State. As a ma er of fact, the
employees of an organiza on cons tute of major diversity. They come from different region, with
different cultural and religious beliefs. However, the employer should provide equal opportunity to each
and every employee, irrespec ve of gender, culture, religion. Par cularly, the Indian Government has
taken several measurements to ensure gender equality in the workplace. To establish women's right in
the workplace, the government has passed bills. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Preven on, Prohibi on and Redressal) Act, 2013 is a legisla ve act in India that seeks to protect women
from sexual harassment at their place of work. It was passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the
Indian Parliament) on 3 September 2012. It was passed by the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the
Indian Parliament) on 26 February 2013.
The major features of the policy include:
Ÿ The Act defines sexual harassment at the work place and creates a mechanism for redressing
complaints. It also provides safeguards against false or malicious charges.
Ÿ The Act also covers concepts of 'quid pro quo harassment' and 'hos le work environment' as forms
of sexual harassment if it occurs in connec on with an act or behaviour of sexual harassment.
Ÿ The defini on of "aggrieved woman", who will get protec on under the Act is extremely wide to
cover all women, irrespec ve of her age or employment status, whether in the organised or
unorganised sectors, public or private and covers clients, customers and domes c workers as well.
Ÿ An employer has been defined as any person who is responsible for management, supervision, and
control of the workplace and includes persons who formulate and administer policies of such an
organisa on under Sec on 2(g).

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Ÿ While the "workplace" in the Vishaka Guidelines is confined to the tradi onal office set-up where
there is a clear employer-employee rela onship, the Act goes much further to include organisa ons,
department, office, branch unit etc. in the public and private sector, organized and unorganized,
hospitals, nursing homes, educa onal ins tu ons, sports ins tutes, stadiums, sports complex and
any place visited by the employee during the course of employment including the transporta on.
Even non-tradi onal workplaces which involve tele-commu ng will get covered under this law.
Ÿ The Commi ee is required to complete the inquiry within a me period of 90 days. On comple on of
the inquiry, the report will be sent to the employer or the District Officer, as the case may be, they are
mandated to take ac on on the report within 60 days.
Ÿ Every employer is required to cons tute an Internal Complaints Commi ee at each office or branch
with 10 or more employees. The District Officer is required to cons tute a Local Complaints
Commi ee at each district, and if required at the block level.
Ÿ The Complaints Commi ees have the powers of civil courts for gathering evidence.
Ÿ The Complaints Commi ees are required to provide for concilia on before ini a ng an inquiry, if
requested by the complainant.
Ÿ The inquiry process under the Act should be confiden al and the Act lays down a penalty of Rs 5000
on the person who has breached confiden ality.
Ÿ The Act requires employers to conduct educa on and sensi sa on programmes and develop
policies against sexual harassment, among other obliga ons. The objec ve of Awareness Building
can be achieved through Banners and Poster displayed in the premises, eLearning courses for the
employees, managers and Internal Commi ee members, Classroom training sessions,
Communica on of Organiza onal Sexual Harassment Policy through emails, eLearning or Classroom
Training. It is recommended that the eLearning or Classroom Training be delivered in the primary
communica on language of the employee.
Ÿ Penal es have been prescribed for employers. Non-compliance with the provisions of the Act shall
be punishable with a fine of up to Rs.50, 000/-. Repeated viola ons may lead to higher penal es and
cancella on of licence or deregistra on to conduct business.
Ÿ Government can order an officer to inspect workplace and records related to sexual harassment in
any organisa on.
Ÿ Under the Act, which also covers students in schools and colleges as well as pa ents in hospitals,
employers and local authori es will have to set up grievance commi ees to inves gate all
complaints. Employers who fail to comply will be punished with a fine of up to 50,000 rupees.

Notes
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13.2.2 Organiza on's Redressal Mechanisms

Inclusive tools and prac ces of communica on to acknowledge/validate, share and promote the cause
of gender parity at workplace
Women's safety and its issues are discussed and debated all around the globe. S ll every year the
number of reports on sexual harassment is increasing at an alarming rate. Therefore, a certain company
must take good care of women employees to ensure their safety.
So, a company must inform women about the various facili es that they are going to provide them.
Some of the basic facili es include the following.
1. Transporta on facili es:
Transporta on plays a huge role in ensuring women safety. Ensuring that the women will be
accompanied by trusted drivers will help enhance women's safety. Be transparent about the
security that you may provide during night trips. Every woman must be aware of the various
safeguards that the company may provide.
2. Repor ng Abuse:
The management must be prompt in its decision making whenever there is a mishap. The ways of
repor ng abuse must be made clear to the woman to ensure speedy remedy.
3. Maternity-related grievance:
Employers are required to inform women in wri ng, electronically about the maternity benefits
available under the Maternity Benefit Act upon their joining the workforce
The law allows women employees to work from home in addi on to the maternity benefit period if
the nature of work allows that
4. CCTV Cameras
Ensure that every sta on is equipped with CCTV cameras which are nowadays the most vital
component for inves ga ng sexual harassment cases.
5. Security Guards
Ensure that adequate amount of security guards are sta oned at strategic places so that any threat
to women's safety can be nullified. Ensure that the women are informed about the various places
where the security guards are present.
6. Women's Helpline:
Share a leaflet containing the Women's helpline number/s and other important contacts.
7. Chain locks/latches
Provide women with chain locks and latches so that their luggage can be properly and securely kept
and to avoid any form of the .
8. Smoke Detector:
Inform the women about the loca on of smoke detectors inside the premises.
Providing these basic ameni es will ensure that the women enjoy comfortable accommoda on
without any fear.

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All forms of gender discrimina on, violence and inequality

The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Preven on, Prohibi on and Redressal) Act, 2013
prescribes a system for inves ga ng and redressing complaints against sexual harassment of women at
the workplace. It also provides safeguards against false or malicious charges.
The major provisions of the Act lay down the following responsibili es for employers, to ensure a safe
working environment for women:
• Display penal consequences of sexual harassment
• Organize workshops and sensi za on programs
• Formulate an internal policy, charter, resolu on, declara on
• Form an 'Internal Complaints Commi ee' (ICC) where the number of employees is more than ten
• Provide necessary facili es to the commi ees
• Secure a endance of witnesses/respondent
• Monitor mely submission of commi ee reports
• Assist the woman in pursuing a criminal case if she so chooses
• Maintain confiden ality of the inquiry process. The Act lays down a penalty of Rs 5,000 (US$68) on
the person who has breached confiden ality
• With sexual harassment being a crime, employers are obligated to report offenses
To tackle the problem of sexual harassment at workplace, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs, through a
no fica on dated July 31, 2018, amended the Companies (Accounts) Rules 2014. The no fica on
makes it mandatory for private companies to disclose their compliance with the Act in their directors'
annual report.
Furthermore, the Act places responsibility on the appropriate state government to no fy the district
officer for se ng up a Local Complaints Commi ee (LCC).
HR managers are on the front lines when it comes to changing cultural a tudes about sexual
harassment.
Below are some best prac ces that HRs can develop to ensure safe work environment for women:
• Update the official employee handbook that outlines the procedure that will take place when sexual
harassment is being experienced at work. Include an unequivocal statement that sexual harassment
will not be tolerated
• Give out a clear, simple, and easy-to-understand descrip on of what cons tutes harassing
behaviour or conduct, including examples of the types of behaviours that are considered harassing
at the workplace
• Implement training for all to include more focus on gender iden ty and sexual orienta on, and
emphasize gender neutrality regarding who may experience sexual harassment
• Sensi ze male employees and reinforce confidence among women to come forward and file
complaints
• Stay updated on employment law changes where their employees live or work. HRs must also u lize
professional associa ons, legal counsel and online resources to ensure that the company is
compliant and aware of exis ng and upcoming legisla ve changes related to employee rights

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Use internal & external communica on to colleagues

It is o en said that one's behaviour is the mirror to one's character. Indeed, your behaviour speaks a lot
about the kind of person you are. Your educa onal degrees hold li le importance if you are not a well-
mannered person. You need to conduct well in almost every situa on whether you appear for a job
interview or pursue post-graduate degree, at your workplace or while dealing with your clients, in your
school/college or while a ending par es. Even at your home in front of your rela ves, it is your good
behaviour which counts the most. But behavioural e que e is something which cannot be forced on
anyone, it has to be cul vated and nurtured within oneself.
Showing compliant behavioural e que e towards women is very important.
What are the various instances where one can show such e que e? Let's take a look:
• Before entering the room: You must always knock and ask for permission before entering. This is
perhaps the most basic e que e. You must ensure that the privacy of the woman is unharmed. So,
knock and take verbal permission before entering a room
• Avoiding touch contact: You must always ensure that you do not intrude on the customer's personal
space. This is not only unprofessional but also unhygienic. So try your best to avoid touch contact. If
absolutely necessary, ask for permission and then assist the customer.
• Using Abusive languages or gestures: This is the last thing a women/customer expects from you.
Ensure that you never use any foul language in front of the customer. Ensure that you don't abuse
your colleagues in front of the guests
Women are empowered by society as well as legally, simply speaking some basic rights that are universal
applied to both genders but speciﬁcally for women include the following:-
• Rights as a woman for dignity and respect that implies no male of any age has the right to make
advances at a woman tease or sexually harass her
• A privilege to respect under all circumstances: No one has the rights to make women
uncomfortable, whether at work place, home or on the streets, whether in school, college or in a
social gathering
• Rights to physical and mental security: No one has the rights to use physical force, torture physically
or mentally, or coerce women in any way, no ma er rela onship with that person
• Privilege to complain: Women have all the rights to complain when violated even in the smallest
way. Take advice and adopt the correct course under such circumstances, whatever is the status of
the individual, be it boss, rela ve or a neighbourhood bully
• Rights as a women employee for security by the organiza on as per Visakha guidelines for
preven on of sexual harassment at the workplace
• Violence, physical or mental against women is not her fate as is made out to be in some cases.
Dominant behaviour is not anyone's right and not a women's des ny, thus complaining against the
same is in perfect order
A security procedure is a set sequence of necessary ac vi es that performs a speciﬁc security task or
func on. Procedures are normally designed as a series of steps to be followed as a consistent and
repe ve approach or cycle to accomplish an end result.

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Once implemented, security procedures provide a set of established ac ons for conduc ng the security
aﬀairs of the organiza on, which will facilitate training, process audi ng, and process improvement.
Procedures provide a star ng point for implemen ng the consistency needed to decrease varia on in
security processes, which increases control of security within the organiza on.
An employer must ensure that the employees feel safe at all mes without being over threatened by the
security procedures and related environment.

13.2.3 Comply to PWD Inclusive Policies

How to maintain and provide a conducive work environment that is free from any harassment;
facili es and ameni es to PWD
The Indian Government respects the equality and therefore no discrimina on should be made on the
ground of disability. The Cons tu on secures to the ci zens including the disabled, a right of jus ce,
liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship, equality of status and of opportunity and for the
promo on of fraternity. No disabled person can be compelled to pay any taxes for the promo on and
maintenance of any par cular religion or religious group. To enforce the same, the government has
passed laws to protect disables and their right to equality. The laws pertaining to disables are as follows:

The Person with

Disabili es Act, 1995

The Na onal Trust The Rehabilita on

Act, 1999 Council of India, 1992

The Mental Health Act,

1987

Fig 13.7 Acts related to disabili es

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Improve through specifically designed recruitment prac ces, PWD friendly infrastructure, job roles,
etc.
The defini on of a 'disabled person' is broadened under the 2016 Act: it covers persons with disability,
persons with benchmark disability, and persons with disability having high support needs. This
defini on is inclusive and categorizes 21 types of disabili es as 'specific disabili es'.
The Act applies to government establishments as well as private establishments. Under the law, private
establishments refer to a company, firm, coopera ve or other society, associa ons, trust, agency,
ins tu on, organiza on, union, factory, or such other establishment specified by the government.
The Act requires all establishments to frame and publish an Equal Opportuni es Policy. All forms of
discrimina on against persons with disabili es are prohibited, unless it can be proved that such
discrimina on is propor onate in nature and a necessary means of achieving legi mate purposes.
The Act provides addi onal benefits for persons with benchmark disabili es, such as employment
vacancies in government establishments, educa on opportuni es, land alloca on, and poverty
allevia on schemes, among others.
In order to ensure speedy jus ce, special courts are ins tuted in each district to deal with cases
pertaining to the viola on of the rights of disabled persons. Penal es for the viola on of rights of
disabled persons can extend to a monetary fine of US$7,750 (Rs 500,000) and imprisonment for up to
five years.
Use and advocate for appropriate verbal/nonverbal communica on, schemes and benefits of PWD
• Although the majority of the compliances under the Act apply exclusively to government
establishments, private establishments are also covered under the purview of the Act and must
comply with the following requirements:
• Frame and publish an Equal Opportuni es Policy on the establishment's website or at a conspicuous
place within the establishment premises. The Policy must contain details of the benefits and
facili es provided to disabled persons at the workplace. A copy of the Policy must also be registered
with the State Commissioner
• Establishments having more than 20 employees must appoint a Liaison Officer to oversee the
recruitment of disabled persons and special facili es provided for them
• Establishments are required to iden fy job vacancies, which would be appropriate for disabled
persons. In case of establishments receiving incen ves from the government, a minimum of five
percent of job vacancies must be compulsorily reserved for disabled persons
• The employer must ensure the prohibi on of illegi mate discrimina on against disabled persons
within the workplace
• The employer must provide addi onal facili es or special benefits to disabled employees in order to
increase their accessibility, such as special leave and training programs
• All establishments have to conform to the accessibility norms issued by the government regarding
disabled persons. The accessibility norms pertain to workplace infrastructure and communica on
technologies, which must be accessible to disabled persons
• Every covered establishment must maintain records of its disabled employees

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Summary
• Greenery within and around the office premises and other corporate environments helps not only to
enhance the décor of the workplace, but also has a posi ve impact on the produc vity of the
employees.
• Plants in workplaces purify the air; they reduce the concentra on of CO2 (Carbon dioxide gas) and
other vola le organic compounds, keeping the air fresh and healthy.
• External vegeta on moderates heat in and around office block in the summer me, pulling down heat
stress and decreasing the necessity for air-condi oning.
• Green roofs and facades proliferate insula on or the absorp on capacity of heat, plumme ng hea ng
and cooling expenses.
• Plants in and around office buildings release water vapour which moistens the air, dipping headaches.
• Hazard is defined as a factor, which may cause harm to people and proper es alike, like electricity,
inflammable products, explosive material, corrosive chemical, using heavy ladders at workplace etc.
• In order to take adequate precau onary measures against hazards, one needs to iden fy the hazards
commonly found in the workplace.
• The Cons tu on of India applies uniformly to equality of opportunity for all ci zens (including every
legal ci zen of India, whether they are the disabled) in ma ers rela ng to employment or healthy or
disabled.
• The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Preven on, Prohibi on and Redressal) Act, 2013
prescribes a system for inves ga ng and redressing complaints against sexual harassment of women
at the workplace.
• The defini on of a ‘disabled person’ is broadened under the 2016 Act: it covers persons with disability,
persons with benchmark disability, and persons with disability having high support needs.

Notes
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Exercise
Match the followings:

Column A Column B

The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace 1995

(Preven on, Prohibi on and Redressal) Act

The Person with Disabili es Act 1992

The Mental Health Act 1999

The Rehabilita on Council of India 2013

The Na onal Trust Act 1987

Choose the correct answer from the responses given:

1. Which of the following op ons is incorrect?
a. Greenery absorbs heat and keep the oﬃce building cool
b. Greenery is mandatory as per the law enforced by government
c. Greenery enhances produc vity
2. IEA stands for -
a. Indian Energy Agency
b. Indian Energy Authority
c. Interna onal Energy Agency
3. Employers who fail to comply will be punished with a ﬁne of up to -
a. INR 50,000
b. INR 5,00,000
c. Yet to determined
Answer the following ques ons
1. What are the basic steps of risk management?
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__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Write down the key features of organiza on's redressal mechanism regarding women safety.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

279
So ware Developer

3. What are the common sources of renewable energy?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What could be the possible outcomes of viola ng PWD policies?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Write down the steps of saving a person from electrocu on.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

280
Par cipant Handbook

ANNEXURE - QR Codes
Chapter No. Unit No. Topic Name Page QR code(s) URL
No.

Bridge Module: Unit 1.2 Career Career Path for 22 youtu.be/URO

IT-ITeS/So ware Path for a a So ware 8YA-tmfs
Products So ware Developer
Industry– An Developer
Introduc on
Bridge Module Unit 2.1 So ware 35 youtu.be/5T-c
So ware So ware development &
U1J32mc
Development- development & IT Services
An introduc on IT Services

Chapter 3 Unit 3.1 So ware 56 youtu.be/qgua

Programming So ware Programming & f0UKdAo
and Algorithms Programming & Algorithm
Algorithm Development
Development

Chapter 4 Unit 4.1 So ware 73 youtu.be/Acn

Analysis and So ware Development YnRST8Ns
Design of Development Life Cycle
So ware Life Cycle
Applica ons
Chapter 5 Work Unit 5.1 Program youtu.be/w_4
95
requirement, Program Speciﬁca on CXBCIfWA
tools, and Speciﬁca on and
so ware and Programming
Programming Language
Language

Chapter 6 Unit 6.1 So ware 119 youtu.be/omP

Process of So ware Development z4r2sCAM
So ware Development Process
Development Process

Chapter 8 Unit 8.1 - So ware 193 youtu.be/jDI4

Concept of So ware Tes ng wt6W5To
So ware Tes ng Tes ng

281
So ware Developer

ANNEXURE - QR Codes
Chapter No. Unit No. Topic Name Page QR code(s) URL
No.

Chapter 9 Self Unit 9.1 Importance of 209 youtu.be/4dqK

and work Importance of Following Work rsSLbsk
Management Following Work Instruc on and
Instruc on and Complying with
Complying with Company Policies
Company
Policies
Chapter 10 Unit 10.2 Team Team Work 221 youtu.be/dT-jB
Teamwork and Work jYq98w
Communica on

Chapter 11 Unit 11.1 Occupa onal 248 youtu.be/C4XA

Managing Occupa onal Health and p1Sa5zo
Health and Health and Safety
Safety Safety

Chapter 11 Health, Safety, Health, Safety, 248 youtu.be/LEqW

Managing and Accident and Accident ImsLNTo
Health and Repor ng Repor ng
Safety Procedures and Procedures and
the Importance the Importance
of These of These

Chapter 12 Unit 12.1 Data Data 255 youtu.be/9RIE8

Workplace Data Management Management SujOTo
Management

Chapter 13 Unit 13.1 Sustainable 270 youtu.be/5C5C

Inclusive and Sustainable Prac ces hPOqT14
Environmentally Prac ces
Sustainable
Workplaces

282
Par cipant Handbook

Scan this QR Code to access eBook

Address: IT - ITeS Sector Skill Council NASSCOM Plot No -7 to 10, Sector 126,
Noida, UP - 201303
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 0120 4990172

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