CHAPTER I

The Discovery of Personal Identification

Alphonse Bertillon – the constructed the method of identification called anthropometry

on the uniqueness of the human frame. Through this method the human body
is measured in eleven key places. The eleven measurements were then recorded
with the color of the eyes, hair, and skin.

- He was the first identification expert in Europe to solve a murder case by

means of fingerprint evidence in 1902.
- He also credited with inventing a method of preserving plaster costs by using
a metallic replica.
- Pioneer in ultraviolet photography and utilizing this technique to examine
questionable documents.

Juan Vucetich (1858-1926) – The father of fingerprint classification.

Eduard Richard Henry (1850-1931) – pioneered the science of fingerprinting.

- He devised a classification scheme based on patterns and shapes.
- Henry’s work was credited as the major factor in the persuation of Scotland
Yard to adopt fingerprinting as means of criminal identification. This system
of identification was used in all English-speaking countries.

Franci’s Galton (1822-1911) – published a definite study of dactylography (fingerprint

identification) and complied much scientific data to prove that fingerprints are
both unchanging and unique for each individual.
- He demonstrated mathematically that there are approximately
64,000,000,000 chances to 1 of two fingerprints being identical.

Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) an Australian Medical Doctor, researcher, and

pathologist discovered in 1901 the agglutination of human blood.
- That blood possess certain characteristics, which allowed the designations A,
B, AB and O.
Calvin H. Goddard (1891-1955) – Developed a standard system of tracing bullets and
associated evidence to weapons from which they were fired.
Hans Gross (1847-1915) – He was one of the first to stress the scene of crime as an
indispensable starting point for gathering evidence. (Known as the father of
criminalistics)
Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – His researched practically concerned the analysis of
minute evidence which was based on the science of poroscopy, the
identification of sweat pores.
Robert Heindel (1883-1958) – His book containing a classification of all known the
patterns was used with success in one of the earliest cases involving such
evidence.
Rudolph Reiss (1876-1929) – He was known of his work on ink discharge, forged
fingerprints, and developing methods of presenting footprints.
August Vollmer (1876-1955) – Developed the first practical polygraph (lie detector) in
1921.
Paul L. Kirk – In 1952, He invented a new density-device for soil samples found at
outdoor crime scenes. He said the field officer was the key to successful crime
investigation.
Alec Jeffreys (1950) – a British biologist, discovered the concept of DNA profiling,
commonly called “genetic fingerprinting”. (DNA – means deoxyribonucleic acid)
is a genetic compound found in every cell of the human body.

Some Known Method of Identification

1. Tattooing – (among the Barbarians sovages) was the intentional pricking of needles with ink
on the outer.
2. Scarification – This method was practiced in the post. It is a process of inflecting wound
or mutilating a part of the body in order to form permanent scar thereof.
3. Personal Description – identification is achieved by way of recognition and observation
of the facial profiles and other bodily features of a person.
4. Photography – the use of Cameras and other devices for reproduction, identification
could be done or actual viewing of picture profiles of known persons and criminals. A
compilation of pictures of known suspects, criminals, or convicts recorded through their
modus operandi in a police department is called “Roque’s Gallery.”
5. Portrait Parle – means word picture. Another method of developed by Bertillon for
identification of individual criminal and non criminal thru sketching, drawing and
portraiting criminals based on the descriptions given by the complainant and witnesses.
 This method still utilize today with the talent and abilities of artists and cartographers.

Sources : Handbook of Fingerprint science, Rocomora, Jury.

Chapter II

PRINCIPLE AND CONCEPT OF FINGERPRINT SCIENCE

1. Principle of Individuality – which means there are no two fingerprints exactly alike.
These is a possibility of duplication has been estimated as one in sixty four billion.
In order to have a probably duplicity, a population of no less than (64,000,00,000)
sixty four billion should be attained, which is impossible.
- Twins, triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets, and other are found to home different
prints even the finger of the Siamese twins, whose bodies have been joined
together since birth.
2. Principle of Permanency – The pattern of fingerprint never change during human
life. The fingerprint pattern have been formed during the embryonic period (the
fourth month of a fatal life), have been found to be exactly the same during life
time.
3. Principle of Infallibility – If forgery it is meant duplication, the illustrative prints
depicted in some books are mere duplicates fingerprints “for anything that can be
photographed be duplicated (not a forgery, but one has to be the original and the
other a mere copy.

Source: Handbook of Fingerprint Science, Rocomora, Jury.

USES OF FINGERPRINT
General purposes of fingerprint identification.
1. Used in maternity Hospitals 5. Election protest
2. Identification of Victims 6. Bureau of Immigration
3. Identification of Employees 7. Wills and Testaments
4. Insurance Companies

Allied science of Fingerprint

a. Podoscopy – science of footprint identification
b. Chiroscopy – science of Palm print identification
c. Poroscopy – science of Pore identification
 Friction Skin

Fingerprints – are distinctive ridge-outlines which appear on the bulb on the inside end
joint of the fingers and thumb.
Bulb of finger – the bulb of a finger and thumbs, in the first phalanx and from one nail
joint to the opposite nail joint.
Friction skin – the skin covering the bulb of a fingers and thumbs, the palms of the
hands, and the soles of the feet. The skin of the human body devoid of hair,
which surfaces resists slipping and provides constant gripping of objects.

Formation of Friction Skin:

1. Ridges – the raised strip of skin on the inner side of the end joints of fingers
and thumbs.
2. Furrows – the depressed area between the ridges

Components of Epidermis:
Epidermis – the scientific term for the outer, or top skin, which is also identifies
as the surface skin.
1. Stratum Corneum – covers the surface on which the ridges are visible.
2. Stratum Mucosum – beneath the stratum corneum.
Epidermis – the deeper the skin layer.

Components of Dermis:
1. Sweat gland 3. dermal papillae (nerve of touch)
2. Sweat duct

Ridge Formation

Ridges begin to form on the human fetus four to five months before birth. Since
the ridges are the basis for the fingerprint identification, they seemed to appear as
continuous live.
 - Some short and curved, other long and short, and a few like islands
containing a single pore structure.
During the process of growth and development these ridges formation are
not continuous lines but consist of a series of islands, each containing a
small opening or pore. As they grow, the fuse together and eventually they
round continuous flatten and straighten but to form a continuous straight or
short line.
Description of a Ridge

The LENGTH – The length of the fingerprint is variable, depending on whether it comes
to an abrupt end, bifurcates, or forms a simple design, as composed with
sometimes complicated pattern.
The WIDTH – The width of fingerprint ridge, on the average, is about 1/3 MM, in
children, ½ mm. (or slightly less) in women and ½ mm. (or slightly more) in
males.
The THICKNESS – For adults, the average thickness is 1 mm. to 2 mm. (or 1/25th top
of an inch); such measurements are made from the top of a ridge down to the
junction of the dermis with the deeper, underlying layers.

Destruction of Patterns

1. Surgery 3. Certain skin disease 5. Abrasion

2. Amputation 4. Corrosive acid 6.Total decomposition after death

Definitions:

Dactyl – is came from the Latin which means finger or toe.

Dactylogrpahy – is the study of fingerprint for the purpose of identification.

Polydactylism –the appearance of extra fingers as anatomically known.

Dactyloscopy –is the science of identification by means of fingerprints.

Dermatolyphics – are the lines, tracings, designs, etc. on the skin of a fingers, palm

and soles.
 Chapter III

FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

3 General groups of Fingerprints Patterns:

1. Arch – 5%
a. Plain arch
b. Tented arch
2. Loop – 60%
a. Radial loop
b. Ulnar loop
3. Whorl – 35%
a.Plain whorl
b.Central Pocket loop
c.Double loop
d.Accidental whorl

Definition of Fingerprint Patterns and its Requisites Elements

1. Loop – a pattern having one or more of the ridges enter on either side of the
impression, then turn around (recurve), passing or touching an imaginary line
drawn between the delta and the core, then flow toward the same side of the
impression from whence the ridges entered.
Division of Loop:

A human bone particularly on the forearm contains two large bones

namely:
1. Radius bone – This bone located at the thumb side.
2. Ulna bone – located at the little finger side.

Radial loop – When the down slope or slanting of the ridges is towards the direction of
the thumbs.
Ulnar loop – The ridges flow toward the direction of the little finger.

Requisites Loop:
1. it must have a delta
2. it must have a core
3. it must have a recurring ridge that passes between the delta and the core.
4. it must have a ridge count of at least one.

2 types of Arches:

1. Plain arch – a pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern
then flow toward the outer side, with a rise at the center.
 2. Tented Arch – This pattern where majority of the ridges form an arch and one or
more ridges at the center shape a tent in outline giving an angle of 90º or less,
or one with an upward thrust having an angle of 45º or more, or a pattern
similar to a loop but lacking or two of its essential element.

Whorl family:

a. Plain whorl – a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one ridge
makes a turn through one complete circuit an imaginary line drawn the two
deltas must touch or cross at least of the recurring ridges within the pattern
area.

Elements:
1. a complete circuit
2. two deltas
3. at least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line
traversing between the two deltas.

(illustration)
3. Central Pocket Loop – This pattern which possesses two deltas, which one or more
ridges forming a complete circuit which may be oval, spinal, circular or any variant
of a circle, or it is consisting of two deltas, with one or more recurring ridges with
an obstruction at right angles to the inner line of flow, between which or imaginary
line would touch or cross no recurring ridge within the inner pattern area.

Elements of Central pocket loop:

1. at least one recurring ridge or obstruction ridge at right angle
2. two deltas
3. no recurring ridge within the pattern area is touch or cross by an imaginary
line drawn between the two deltas.

(illustration)

4. Double Loop – This is a Pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop
formations, two sets of shoulders, and two deltas. The loops necessarily do not
have to be of the same length and size. The loops of double loop whorl do not have
to possess the requirements of the plain loop. It is enough that the elements
mentioned herein are found on such a pattern.

Elements of double loop whorl:

1. Two separate loop formations
2. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulder
3. Two deltas
 (illustration)

5. Accidental Whorl – This pattern consisting of a condition of two different types

of patterns such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and central pocket whorl, or a any
combination of two different loop and whorl-type patterns, but with the
exception of a plain arch with any other pattern. Unlike the other whorl type
patterns, an accidental whorl can have two or more deltas.

Elements of accidental whorl:

1. a combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the
plain arch
2. two or more deltas

(illustration)
 Ridge Characteristics:
The ridge characteristics are the details of ridge structure, formation, and
elements which differentiate one fingerprint from another and which impart
individuality to each fingerprint.
1. Ridge – is a raised strip of skin or inner side of the end joint of fingers and
thumbs.
2. Ridge formation – refers to structure recurring ridge, converging, short, long,
etc.
3. Short ridge – is used in the ridge count only when it appears as thick and as all
of the surrounding ridges.
4. Recurving ridge – a single which a certain point in its course, curves back in the
direction of its starting point.
5. Converging ridge – are two ridges suddenly tending to approach each other at
one point; they may be even meet and continue as a single ridge.
6. Divergence – is a spreading a part of two ridges which after running parallel, or
nearly parallel, suddenly separate, spread apart and cease to parallel.
7. Bifurcation – is one single ridge splitting into two or more branches.
8. Inverted bifurcation – is the bifurcation of one single ridge, splitting or forking
in the opposite direction from the line of flow of the surrounding ridges.
9. Difference between bifurcation and divergence:
a. Bifurcation result from one single ridge.
b. Divergence result from two distinct ridges.
10. Enclosure – is formed by a bifurcation when the branches, once separate ridge
meet to again become one ridge.
11. Dot – it is exactly what is implies.
12. Island – it resemble a circle, or a dot, or at times an oval, it is formed by a
single which, after bifurcating for a short space, converges and continues as a
single ridge. An island is always much smaller than the enclosure.
13. Angle – is the result of two or more ridges meeting each other. A single ridge
can not form an angle.
14. Ending ridge – is a ridge abruptly stopping its course.

General Fingerprint Rules

A. Pattern area – is that part of a loop and whorl which appear the core,
delta and the ridges. The pattern area is the only portion of the
impression which the fingerprint expert is concerned when interpreting
and classifying a point.
B. Focal Points

The focal points are enclosed within the pattern area of loops and
whorl. The focal points are:

1. core – inner terminus; is the approximate center of the pattern

2. Delta – outer terminus; is the terminal points of the patterns

Absence of pattern area:

The absence of pattern is arches: plain and tented arch

C. Type lines – these are the basic boundaries of fingerprint pattern. They
are formed by ridges which run parallel, then diverge or separate tending
to surround the pattern area.
D. Dot – this never be considered as type lines

E. Broken type lines – a type line are not always continuous ridges. They are
frequently broken. When there is a definite break in a type lines, the ridge
immediately outside of it is considered its connection.

F. Bifurcation and Type lines – The two fork of bifurcation may never
constitute the type lines, because a bifurcation is the forking, or the
dividing of one line into two or more branches. The two branches of a
bifurcation may constitute the type lines only when the fork of run
parallel after bifurcating, and then diverge and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area.
 G. Angular formation not type lines – an angular formation between two
lines which after running parallel, surround, or tend to surround the
pattern area is not to be considered. As forming type lines, but is
considered a delta instead.

H. Bifurcation not typelines – it must be remembered that a bifurcation is

the dividing or forking of one single ridge, but the typlines are two
distinct ridges which after running parallel, diverge to surround or
attempt to surround the pattern area.

Note: Source in Dactyloscopy, Tubid, Proceso

CORE FORMATION:

Core – it is the second of the two focal points.

The approximate center of the fingerprint impression.

Core in loops – is placed upon or written the innermost looping ridge. When the
looping ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders of the loop the core is
placed on the shoulder of the loop farthest from the delta.
Shoulders of loop – are the points at which the recurring ridge definitely turns inward,
or curves.

One rod – if there is only one rod inside the recurring ridge which is high as the
shoulders of the recurring ridge, the core is on the tip of this rod.

Two rods in different height – if there are two rods in inside the recurring ridge which
rise to the shoulders at different heights, the core is placed on the higher tip.
Two rods in the same height – if there are two rods inside the recurring ridge at the
same height, the core is place on the tip farthest from the delta.

Three or an even number of rods – if there are three or an even number of rods inside
the recurring ridge, the core is placed on the center rod even if it does not rise
as high as the shoulders of the recurring ridge and whether it touches the
looping ridge or not.

Four or even number of rods – if there are four, or even number of rods within the
recurring ridge, the two innermost rods are considered as one, as if an
 imaginary curve joined the tips of the two rods, and the core is placed on the
imaginary shoulder farthest from the delta.

Recurring Ridge destroyed by appendage – any appendage abutting upon the outside
of the recurred at a right angle automatically destroys that ridge for use as a
core or ridge count.

Two loops side by side by side – when two loops side by side are present within one
recurring ridge, the two loops are considered as one, and the core is placed on
the inner shoulder of the loop farthest from the delta.

Two loops interlocking;

Imaginary line crosses at point of intersection – when two loops are interlocking,
the loops are considered as one. If imaginary line drawn between the shoulders
of both loops crosses the point of interlocking, the core is placed at this point.

Two loops interlocking:

Imaginary line below intersection – when two loops are interlocking, the loops
are considered as one. If an imaginary line is drawn across the shoulder and
falls below the interlocking point of the loops the core is placed on the farthest
shoulder of the loop closer to the delta.
Two loops interlocking;
Imaginary line above intersection – when two loops are interlocking the loops
are considered as one. If an imaginary line is drawn across the shoulders and
falls above the interlocking point of the loops the core is placed on the shoulder
facing the delta of the loop farthest from the delta.

Core below the shoulder – the core may not be placed below the shoulder if it is being
placed on the recurring ridge itself.

Abutting ridge through two looping ridge – when the abutting ridge or appendage
continues up through the next looping but away the delta, the core will be
placed at the intersection of the second looping ridge.

The Delta Formation

1. Delta as a bifurcating ridge

2. Delta as an ending ridge (abrupt)

3. Delta as a short ridge (Frequenting ridge)

 4. Delta a dot

5. Delta as a converging ridge (angle)

6. Delta as a point on a long ridge

Rules growing the choice between the two or more possible deltas:

1. When two or more possible deltas conform to the definition, the delta nearest

the core is chosen;

2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the

bifurcation is selected as delta;

3. When there is a choice between two possible deltas, neither of which is a

bifurcation and when both are in the vicinity of the divergence of the type lines,

the delta nearest the center of the divergence is selected;

4. When a single ridge enters the pattern area with two or more bifurcations

opening towards the core, the bifurcation which is closest to the core becomes

the delta.