T

Prepared by:
Mr. / Ehab Zakaria

1
 1- Measurements
International System of units (SI)

Quantity Mass Time length Charge Temperature Quantity Luminous

of intensity
material
unit Kg Second Meter Coulomb Kelvin Mole Candela

Conversion symbols:

Deci(d) Centi(c) Milli(m) Nano(n) Pico(p) Femto(f)

Micro( )
× 10-1 × 10-2 × 10-3 × 10-6 × 10-9 × 10-12 × 10-15

Kilo (K) Mega (M) Gega(G)

× 103 × 106 × 109
Measuring length:

 Depending on the length, the instruments used to measure the length are:
a) The micrometer ( up to 1cm with accuracy 0.001 cm)
b) The Vernier caliper (up to 10cm with accuracy 0.01cm)
c) The ruler ( up to 30cm with accuracy 0.1cm)
d) The meter rule (up to 1m with accuracy 0.1cm)
e) The measuring tape ( distances more than 1m with accuracy 1cm)
f) Tap meter (very long distance)
 Precautions for measuring length:
a) Place the meter rule very close to the object.
If this is not possible you must use a divider.

b) The eye should be placed perpendicular to any scale to avoid parallax error.
Some instruments that use a pointer with a scale are provided with a mirror to
avoid parallax error. The eye should be positioned so that the pointer exactly
covers its image in the mirror.

2
 c) Each reading should be repeated several times and then get an average. If certain
reading appears to be wrong it should be excluded.
d) To get the diameter of a cylinder or a sphere, it is placed between two vertical
blocks and the difference between readings is taken at the edges of the blocks.

e) To measure the length of a very thin object you should measure the total length
of a large number of this object then divide this length by the number of objects
to get the length of one object.

Measuring area:

Area measurements give the amount of surface of an object.

Area of square = side × side Area of circle = πr2

Area of rectangle = length × width

Area of triangle =

To measure the area of irregular shape traces it on a squared paper then count the number
of squares inside the shape.

Km2 ×106 m2 × 102 dm2 × 102 cm2 ×102 mm2

Measuring volume:

m3 × 103 dm3 × 103 cm3 ×103 mm3

litre(L) × 103 milliliter(ml)

a) Volume of liquids:
 It is measured using a measuring cylinder. For small volumes or more accuracy we
can use a pipette or a burette.

3
 Precautions for measuring volume of liquids:
a) The measuring cylinder must be vertical by putting it on a horizontal bench.
b) The eye should be placed perpendicular to any scale to avoid parallax error.

c) The reading should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid surface.
For mercury the reading should be taken at the top of the meniscus.

b) Volume of regular solids:

Volume of cube = L3
Volume of cuboid = L × W × h
Volume of cylinder = πr2h
Volume of sphere = 4/3 πr3

c) Volume of irregular solids:

i) By using a measuring cylinder

V = V2 – V1
ii) By using a displacement can and a measuring cylinder. (Used for large solids)

Volume of solid = the volume of displaced liquid

4
 Measuring mass:
Mt ×106 t ×103 kg ×103 g ×103 mg

 The mass of an object is the amount of matter contained in this object.

 The mass of the object depends on number and type of atoms in this object. So it is
constant. It does not depend on place, temperature, time, . . .
 Mass can be measured by a top pan balance, beam balance . . . The balance should
be clean, horizontal and reads zero if no mass is placed on it.
 When we want the mass of a very small object, we find the mass of a large number of
these objects and then divide by the number to get the average mass of one object.

Measuring time:
 Long times ( few hours ) are measured using a clock or watch.
 Shorter times ( up to one hour ) are measured using a stop watch.
 We must check that the watch is reset to zero before measuring time, otherwise a
correction should be made.
 Very short times ( up to 3s ) are measured using electronic timer which start and stop
automatically.
 To measure very short time like the period of one complete swing of a pendulum you
should measure the time of large number of swings then divide by the number.
 You should repeat your measurements and take average to get reliable (more
accurate) results.

5
Density:

 Density is the mass per unit volume.

 Density =
 The SI unit of density is kg/m3 but in lab we usually use
g/cm3.
 Density decreases as the temperature increases. Why?
 Different substances of the same volume have different
masses and different substances of the same masses have
different volumes as they have different densities.

Measuring the density:

1] Calculation of the density of regular shaped solid.

Steps:

1- Measure the mass by using a balance.

2- Measure the dimensions by using the ruler then calculate the volume
using the formula
Volume = Length x width x height
3- Calculate the density using the formula
Density =

Example: Calculate the density of a rectangular solid block of mass 25g and
dimensions 5cm , 2cm and 10cm.

6
2] Calculation of the density of irregular shaped solid.

Steps:

1- Measure the mass by using a balance.

2- Put a certain volume of water in a
measuring cylinder (V1).
3- Put carefully the solid into the
measuring cylinder so the level of
water will rise up to (V2).
4- Volume of solid = V2 – V1
5- Calculate the density using the formula
Density =

Example: A measuring cylinder contains 50cm3 water. John put his rubber in it so the
level of the water rose to 75cm3. If the mass of the rubber is 50g then find the density of
the rubber.

3] Calculation of the density of liquid:

Steps:

1- Place empty measuring cylinder on the scales, then note the mass of the
empty measuring cylinder. (m1)
2- Pour certain volume of liquid into the measuring cylinder then note the
new mass of cylinder and liquid (m2)
3- The mass of liquid = m2 – m1
4- Calculate the density using the formula
Density =

Example: The mass of empty baker is 135 g. When 80 cm3 of water were poured inside it
the total mass became 215 g. Calculate the density of water.

7
8
 2- Kinematics.
a) Distance – time graph:

b) Speed and velocity:

 Speed is the rate of change of distance with time. (scalar)
 Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. ( vector)
 Both speed and velocity have the unit of km/h or m/s.
 Average speed = total distance/total time
 If u is the initial speed and v is the final speed of a journey
Then:
Average speed = (u+v)/2
 The distance moved by an object is = average speed x time

9
  The Speed-time graph is a relation that shows how the speed varies with time.

 The gradient of the speed-time graph gives the acceleration of the moving body.

A has (+ve) gradient represents acceleration.

B has zero gradient represents uniform velocity.
C has (-ve) gradient represents deceleration.

 The area under the velocity-time graph gives the distance travelled by
the object.
c) Acceleration: It is the rate of change of velocity with time. It has the unit of m/s2.
 If u is the initial speed and v is the final speed of a journey
Then:
Acceleration = =

10
11
 3 – Forces.
You cannot see a force but you can see what it does. You can also feel the effect of a force
on your body. A force is a pull or a push.

What forces do
1] A force can change the velocity (speed or direction or both of them) of an object. It
means that force can cause acceleration.

2] A force can change the shape of an object. (Bending – twisting – stretching – squashing)

Newton's first law of motion

A body will stay at rest or in state of uniform velocity unless acted up on by an unbalanced
force.

How to measure a force

 A force can be measured with a Newton spring balance.
 The SI unit for measuring a force is the Newton.
 One Newton is the force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2 (F = ma)

Combination of forces: The sum of two forces is known as their resultant.

a) Two forces act in the same direction.

b) Two forces act in opposite directions.

Balanced forces:

 These are forces which are in equilibrium. The resultant of all the forces is equal to
zero.
 In this case the body is at rest or moving with constant velocity (constant speed and
direction).

12
 Types of forces

 a) Impact force: when a moving object

collides with a stationary object an impact
force is exerted by one object on the other.

b) Friction
 It is the force released between two
contact surfaces opposite to the direction of motion. It converts the energy of
motion (K.E) into heat and wastes it.
 As the push or pull on the object increases, the force of friction between the surfaces
of the objects also increases
 This friction matches the strength of the push or the pull up to a certain value and so,
below this value, the objects does not move.
 The friction which exists between the two objects when there is no movement is
called static friction.
 If the strength of the push or pull on the object is increased beyond this value the
object will start to slide.
 There is still a fractional force between the two surfaces, acting in the opposite
direction of motion, which is called sliding friction.
 The strength of sliding frictional force is less than the maximum value of the static
frictional force.
A closer look at friction

 The surfaces of objects in contact are not completely smooth.

 Under a microscope it can be seen that they have tiny projections with hollows
between them.
 Projections of the two surfaces meet together and stick.
 These connections between the surfaces produce the force of friction between the
objects.
Increasing friction

 Friction between two surfaces can be increased by pressing the surfaces together
more strongly.(or increasing the weight of the body)
 This makes the projections press against each other more and increases the size and
number of connections between the surfaces.
13
  The friction increases as the roughness of the two forces increases.
 The friction increases as the contact area between the two surfaces increases.

Reducing friction

 If a liquid is placed between the two surfaces the projections are forced apart a little
and the number of connections is reduced, which in turn reduces the force of
friction.
Why does oiling the axles of a bicycle make the bicycle move more easily?

Why does water run between the surface of a tire and the road increases the
chance of skidding?

Drag force in fluids:

It is the friction force between a solid and a fluid (liquid or gas). Such as:

a) The friction between a moving car and the air which is called air resistance.
b) The friction between a moving fish and the water which is called water resistance.

 The size of Drag force :

1) Increases as the speed increases.
2) Increases as the area increases.
3) Increases as the viscosity of the fluid increases.
4) Decreases if the shape is streamlined shape.

Sky diving: terminal velocity

 When a sky diver leaps from an aeroplane the diver's weight pulls him down.
 The air resistance is small compared to the weight so the sky diver accelerates down
wards.
 As the velocity increases air resistance increases till it balances the weight so the sky
diver falls steadily (constant velocity) at what is called the terminal velocity.
 When the sky diver open the parachute the air resistance greatly increases. This
slows down the sky driver to a new, slower terminal velocity so he can make a safe
landing.

14
  This figure shows a speed/time graph of a sky
driver's jump.
a) At what time is the acceleration greatest?

b) When did the sky driver begin to fall at the

terminal velocity?

c) When was the parachute opened?

d) At what speed did the sky diver hit the ground?

 Comparison between free fall and fall with air resistance:

C) Reaction forces:
Newton's third law: To every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

For example: When you site on a chair your weight acts on the chair down wards, but your
body don't penetrate the chair going down ward because the chair acts on your body by a
reaction force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

It is important to notice that:

a) There are always two forces only, which are equal, opposite, and act on the same line
for the same time.
b) They are of the same type (gravitational, electrical,..)
c) Forces do not cancel each other because they don't act on the same body but they
act on two different bodies.

15
d) Strain force: it is the force exerted by materials to overcome the deformation after
applied force removed.

* Elastic materials: they are materials that can return to its original shape after
deformation.

 Extension = stretched length – original length

 The extension of the string is proportional to the mass attached to it.

 Proportional means that the line of the graph in figure passes through the origin and is
straight up to the elastic limit.
 When you remove the mass the string returns to its original length.
 If the mass increased more than certain limit (elastic limit) the spring is remained
slightly stretched after the mass removed.
 In this case the spring had gone beyond a point called elastic limit and was
permanently deformed.
 When larger mass was added to the spring it no longer extended in proportion to the
mass.
 The spring beyond its elastic limit was in a state known as plastic deformation.

e) Upthrust force:
When an object is placed in any liquid or gas it pushes some of the liquid or gas out of
the way. The liquid or gas pushes upwards on the object with a force called the upthrust
. This force is equal to the weight of the liquid or gas that has been pushed out of the
way.

16
The magnitude of the upthrust increases with increase of:

a) The volume of the immersed part of the body. (or volume of replaced fluid)
b) The density of the fluid.

What effect does the temperature of the water have on the upthrust of the water on a ship?

How does the presence of salt in water affect the upthrust of the water on a ship?

 When the body is immersed in a fluid it will suffer two forces, its weight and the
upthrust. Which of these forces is greater determines whether the body sinks or floats.

Upthrust upthrust

Weight Weight

Sinking Suspended or Floating Rises up

If the density of the body is greater than the fluid it will sink and vice versa.

f) Gravitational force
 The force that exists between any two masses because of their mass is called the
gravitational force.
 The gravitational force between an object on the earth and the earth itself pulls the
object down towards the centre of the earth and is called the weight of the object.
 W=mg
Where W is the weight of the object, m is the mass of the object and g is the
acceleration of free fall or gravitational field strength.
 Near the surface of the earth g = 9.8 m/s2 or 9.8 N/kg.
 The weight depends on:
a) The mass of the object

b) The mass of the plant

c) The distance between the object and the centre of the earth.

 The mass is the amount of matter contained by an object at rest relative to the
observer. The mass is constant.
17
 4- Turning Forces

 If a body is fixed at certain point (called pivot or fulcrum), a force applied to the body
can cause rotation about the pivot without displacing the body.
 Moment of a force: This is the turning effect of the force about a fixed point and is
calculated from:
Moment = force × Perpendicular distance between force and pivot.
 Moment is measured in N.m
 A larger moment can be obtained by:
a) Applying a larger force.
b) Increasing the distance between the force and the pivot.
 Moments have two types: clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments.

Conditions for equilibrium:

1) The net force on the object = zero
2) The resultant moment on the object = zero
Total clockwise moments = Total anticlockwise moments

d1 d2

pivot

F1 W F2

R = F1 + F2 + W
F1d1 = F2d2

18
Centre of mass (centre of gravity): It is the point through which the whole weight of
the object seems to act.

 For a regular and uniform object the centre of gravity lies on its geometrical centre.

 For an irregular sheet of card:

1) Tie a small weight to a piece of string

to form a plumb line.
2) Let the card hang freely from a large pin.
3) Hang a plumb line from the same pin.
4) Mark the position of the plumb line by two
crosses on the card. Join the crosses with a
ruler.
5) Repeat these steps again using another hole.
6) The centre of gravity is the point of intersection of the two lines.

19
 Work and energy
 Energy is the ability to do work
 Work = force × parallel distance [ w = Fd = ]
 The SI unit of work and energy is joule (J)
 Joule is the work done when a force of 1N moves the object a distance of 1m in the
direction of the force. ( J = N.m)

Conservation of energy, Energy transfer:

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to
another.

Forms of energy:
1] Mechanical energy: it is the sum of potential and kinetic energy of the body.
2] Potential energy: it is the energy due to the position of the object.
* Objects have P.E if they have been moved into a position from which they can do
work when released.

P.E divided into 3 types:

a) Strain potential energy: such as energy stored in a stretched spring.
b) Gravitational potential energy: such as energy stored in a body have been
raised to a higher position.

Gravitational P.E = mgh , where m is the mass , h is the height and g is the
acceleration due to gravity(g = 10m/s2).

c) Chemical potential energy

 It is the energy stored in the chemicals from which a material is made.

 Food, fuel and chemicals in an electrical cell are examples of stored chemical energy.
 When food burns during respiration inside the body cells chemical energy changed
into K.E in the muscles and heat energy in the body.
 When fuel burns chemical energy transformed to K.E of the car and heat energy.
 Chemical energy in batteries transform to electric and heat energy.

20
 3] Kinetic energy:
This is the energy of the body due to its motion.

K.E = 1/2 mv2

When a body is released to have a free fall ( the only force acting is the body weight) Its
G.P.E decreases as it becomes transformed to K.E.

Lost G.P.E = Gained K.E

Mgh = ½ mv2

Example:

1] The mass of a ball is 0.5 kg. This ball has been raised 7m above the ground then it falls
again. Find

a) The P.E at the top.

b) The K.E at the top.
c) The P.E just before hitting the ground.
d) The K.E just before hitting the ground.
e) The P.E at height 3m.
f) The K.E at height 3m.
g) The velocity of the ball at height 3m.
h) What happens when the ball hits the ground?

4] Thermal (Heat) energy: It is the K.E possessed by all molecules of a body. This
energy increases as the temperature of the body increases. This form of energy flows from
a hot body to a cold body due to difference in temperature between the two bodies.

5] Internal energy: It is the sum of K.E and P.E possessed by all molecules of a body.
This energy increases as the temperature of the body increases.

6] Sound energy: Sound energy is produced due to vibration of an object.

7] Nuclear energy: Produced due to nuclear reaction (fission or fusion).

8] Electric energy: The electric charges are given energy by the battery and carry it to
the working parts of a circuit. (Lamp, radio, fan…)
21
9] Radiation energy

 It is a form of energy that can travel through space in the speed of light.
 It travels in waves that have some properties of electricity and some properties of
magnetism, so it is called electromagnetic waves.
 It splits into 7 groups according to wavelength.
 Different groups have different properties and different uses.

Complete the following table to show that energy can change from one form to another.

Device Energy used Energy produced

Sources of energy:
1] Wind energy:
* Wind energy generators are driven by giant windmills to produce electric energy.
* It is a clean source of energy although it causes sight pollution and may kill the birds.
* It is a renewable source of energy but is not a permanent one. (Depends on weather)
* It is a cheap source of energy although it has large initial cost for fixing large number of
windmills.
* Needs large area to fix large number of windmills.

22
2] Solar energy:
 It is the main source of energy on earth
 The earth receives large amount of energy directly from the sun but we use very little
of it.
 Solar cells can convert solar energy into electric energy used to operate satellites,
calculators,…etc.
 Solar heaters convert solar energy into heat energy used in some homes.
 In hot countries solar heaters convert water into steam which drives turbines of
electric generators.
 It is a 100% clean source of energy.
 It is a renewable source of energy but is not a permanent one (Depends on weather).
 It is a cheap source of energy although it has large initial cost.

3] Hydroelectric power stations:

 It is a power station that converts the Kinetic energy of the water falls into electric
energy.
G.P.E K.E electric energy
 They are clean sources but they upset the balance of local animal and plant life.
 They are renewable.
 It is a cheap source of energy although it has large initial cost.

4] Geothermal energy:

 The inside of the earth is hot (due to radioactivity).

 Water is pumped down several kilometers and steam comes back to the surface at
over 2000C which can be used to drive turbines or to heat buildings.
 It is Clean, renewable and cheap source of energy.

5] Fossil Fuel energy:

 Coal, oil and natural gas were formed from barred plants and animals millions years
ago under high pressure and temperature in a place without oxygen.
 When fossil fuel burn they emit CO2 so they increase greenhouse effect which
causes global warming. They emit So2 which produces acid rain.
 It is not renewable.
 It is expensive.

23
6] Nuclear energy:
a) Nuclear fusion:
 This is the main source of energy in the sun.
 Light nuclei of hydrogen are combined together to produce a heavier nucleus of
helium and a great amount of energy is released.
b) Nuclear fission:
 When a Uranium nucleus is bombarded with a neutron it splits into two lighter nuclei
and few neutrons are emitted.
 Large amount of thermal energy is produced due to nuclear fission.
 In the nuclear reactors this heat used to convert water to steam which drives
turbines to generate electricity.
 Nuclear reactors are cooled by water from lake or sea thus raising temperature of
water in this area causing ecological disturbance (thermal pollution).
 Nuclear wastes produce nuclear radiations which are very danger. (may cause
cancer)
 Not renewable
 It is a cheap source of energy although it has large initial cost.

7] Tidal power stations:

They use tide and ebb to generate electricity.

8] Water waves.
Generators are used to convert K.E of the water waves into electric energy.

9] Biofuels.

Is a type of renewable energy source derived from microbial, plant, or animal materials.

Examples:

a) Ethanol made from corn.

b) Biodiesel made from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats.
c) Green diesel made from algae and other plant sources.
d) Biogas (methane derived from animal manure and other digested organic material).
e) Wood.

Biofuels can be solid, liquid, or gas. Liquid and gaseous forms are easier to transport,
deliver, and burn cleanly.

24
 Power
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy.

Energy transferred Work done Force × Distance

Time taken Time taken Time taken

The unit of power is thus Joule/s = Watt.

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Efficiency
 When energy transferred from one form to another some of the energy is wasted
usually as heat and sound.
 Give an example and draw a sanky diagram for this example.

 Efficiency = × 100% = × 100%

 Calculate the efficiency in the last example.

25
 Pressure
 Pressure is the normal force acting on a unit area.

 Pressure =

 The SI unit for measuring pressure is N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)

 Pressure increases as the force (weight) increases.
 Pressure decreases as the area increases.

Which cuboid exerts the largest pressure?

Pressure inside a liquid:

 Pressure =

 Pressure inside a liquid depends on density and depth only. (fig. 1)

 Pressure doesn't depend on the shape or cross sectional area of the container. (fig. 2)
 Pressure acts in all directions. (fig. 3)

(fig. 1) (fig. 2) (fig. 3)

26
Atmospheric pressure:
 Atmospheric pressure is due to the weight of the column of air above a certain level.
 As we rise from the ground the atmospheric pressure decreases because the weight
of the air above us decreases. The weight of the air decreases due to the decrease of
the height of the column of air above us and the decrease of the density of air as we
rise up.

The mercury barometer:

 Used to measure atmospheric pressure.

 The normal atmospheric pressure = 76 cm Hg.
 Tilting the glass tube doesn't affect the height of the mercury.
 Using a wider glass tube doesn't affect the height of the mercury.

The manometer:

 Used to measure the pressure of a gas supply.

 Pgas = Patmosphere - h Pgas = Patmosphere + h

 If the difference between mercury levels is too

Small to measure accurately then water or oil can be used instead of mercury to get
measurable difference between the levels. This is due to their lower density.

27
 Thermal Physics
Kinetic molecular theory of matter:
1] Basic assumptions:

* All matter is made up of tiny particles called molecules.

* These molecules are separated by small distances called intermolecular spaces.

* These molecules are in continues motion.

* These molecules attract each other.

* These molecules have K.E due to motion and P.E due to attraction.

2] States of matter:

Solids Liquids Gases

Appearance Definite volume and Definite volume but No definite volume
shape no definite shape. and no definite
shape.
Intermolecular Extremely small Further apart Extremely large
spaces
Intermolecular Strong Weaker Negligible
forces
Ordering Regularly ordered Have no ordering Have no ordering
Type of motion Molecules vibrate Molecules vibrate The molecules move
about a fixed and can change its randomly. They
position. position. collide with each
Liquids can flow other and the walls
of the container.
3] Brownian motion:

* Smoke from a burning straw is trapped in a small glass container which

has a bright light shining through it from the side.

* You can see the particles of smoke as bright specks moving randomly in
zigzag paths. This motion is called Brownian motion.

* This Brownian motion happens because the air molecules (un seen) bombard the smoke
particles randomly from all directions causing the Brownian motion.

* If the container is heated the air molecules will move faster so the smoke particles will
move faster and vice versa.
28
4] Temperature: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy possessed by
each molecule of the substance.

* This means that as the temperature increases the average K.E of the molecules increases.

5] Evaporation:

It is the change of state from liquid into a gas at any temperature below the boiling point.
This occurs by escape of most energetic molecules of a liquid from its surface.

Factors increasing evaporation rate of a liquid:

a) Increasing the temperature

b) Increasing the surface area
c) Pass air across the surface
d) Decreasing humidity

Evaporation has cooling effect because during evaporation the most energetic molecules
escape from the surface so the average K.E of the liquid decreases. This means that
temperature decreases.

6] Pressure of a gas: the gas molecules are in continues random motion in all directions
bombarding the walls of the container causing outward pressure on it.

7] Effect of temperature on gas pressure at constant volume.

As the temperature rises the average K.E of the molecules increases (molecules move
faster) so they strike the walls of the container more frequently and with greater force,
therefore the pressure increases.

8] Relation between pressure and volume of gas at constant temperature:

If the volume of a gas is reduced, the molecules of the gas

are crowded in a smaller space. The frequency of collisions
between molecules and walls of the container increases
and the pressure increases.

9] Relation between temperature and volume at constant pressure:

All materials expand by heating and contract by cooling.

29
10] Explaining physical phenomena by the Kinetic theory of matter:

* Gases are easily compressed because there are large distances between their molecules.
In case of liquids and solids the distances are much smaller and they are almost
incompressible.

* When a spring is extended by a load, the intermolecular spaces are increased, and the
attractive forces between the molecules cause it to return to its original length when the
load is removed. (The opposite will occur if the spring is compressed).

**********************************************************************

Expansion of materials by heating:

 All materials expand by heating and contract by cooling.

 Gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than solids.
 According to the kinetic theory, when a material gains heat energy, its molecules
move faster and so they push each other further apart causing expansion.
 Different materials expand by different amounts.

 When a liquid in a flask is heated its level initially

drops due to the expansion of the flask.
When heat reaches the liquid it compensates
for the expansion of the flask and rises much
more than the original level.
This shows that liquids expand more than solids.

30
 Applications on expansion:
1] Thermometers and Temperature scales.

 In the laboratory, temperatures are often measured using liquid filled thermometers.
The bulb contains mercury or coloured alcohol which expands when the temperature
rises and pushes the thread of liquid along the scale.

Temperature scales:

a) Celsius scale: This scale depends on three essential features:

0
i) The lower fixed point. This is the temperature of pure melting ice. This is called 0 C.

ii) The upper fixed point. This is the temperature of pure boiling water under standard
atmospheric pressure (76 cm Hg). This is called 1000C.

iii) The scale. Once the 00C and 1000C points have been fixed on the thermometer, the
rest of the scale is made by dividing the space between the two points into hundred equal
divisions or degrees. This is called calibration of the scale. The idea can be extended to
produce a temperature scale going above 1000C and beneath 00C.

b) Absolute or Kelvin scale:

 The lowest temperature in this scale is called absolute zero. At this temperature
molecules are supposed to have no kinetic energy. The absolute zero occurs at
-2730C.
 Each scale division on the absolute temperature scale is called a degree Kelvin (0K).
The size of the degree Kelvin is the same as that of the degree Celsius. 10K = 10C.
 The absolute and Celsius scales are related by the relation:
T(K) = ɵ0C + 273

31
Properties of a thermometer:

 The sensitivity: It is the amount of expansion corresponding to very small change in

temperature. The sensitivity can be increased by:
a) Increasing the volume of the bulb.
b) Decreasing the diameter of the capillary.
 The Range: is the difference between the highest and the lowest values on the scale.
The range can be increased by using smaller bulb and wider capillary. (It is opposite
to the sensitivity).
 Linearity of the scale: The scale is said to be linear when the expansion of the liquid
due to temperature increase of 10C is the same at any temperature. (Regular
expansion).

Advantages (+) and disadvantages (-) of mercury and alcohol:

Mercury Alcohol
+ It doesn't wet sides of the tube. + Alcohol freezes at -1150C, so it can be
+ It conducts heat well. used for measuring arctic temperatures.
+ It responds quickly to temperature + It expands more than mercury so it has
changes. greater sensitivity even with wide
+ Mercury thread is easily seen. capillaries.
- Mercury freezes at -390C, so it cannot be - It cannot measure high temperatures
used for measuring arctic temperatures. since it boils at 700C.
- Mercury is poisonous so it is dangerous if - It should be coloured to be seen easily.
thermometer is broken. - It clings to sides of tube so thread has
- Mercury is expensive. tendency to break.

The clinical thermometer:

 This is a special type of mercury thermometer used to measure the temperature of

the human body.
 Its scale ranges between 350C and 420C.
 It has a narrow constriction above the bulb to prevent mercury thread from falling
back into the bulb when the thermometer cools down.

32
2] Separating and joining materials:
a) If a bottle top is too tight to unscrew, you can free it by pouring hot water on the led so
the led will expand and be easily to unscrew.

b) Using shrink fitting to produce a tight fit between two pieces of metal.

3] The Bimetal strip:

The bimetal strip is made of two thin metal strips firmly fixed together. When this is heated,
the two metals expand by different amount. When this happens the bimetal has to bend
with the metal which expands most on the outside of the curve.

Cold Hot
The bimetal strip can be used in Bimetallic thermostat and Fire alarm.

Bimetallic thermostat Fire alarm

33
 Transmission of heat
Heat transmitted by three methods:

1] Conduction:

* Heat transmitted by conduction through solids only.

* When a solid is heated its molecules vibrate faster. This vibration transfers to the adjacent
molecules so heat transfers through the solid from hot to cold in all directions.

* During conduction molecules doesn't transfer, only vibration transfer.

* Metals have free electrons that help in transmission of heat. For this reason metals are
good conductors of heat and electricity.

* Nonmetals are bad conductors of heat so they are used as insulators.

* Different metals conduct heat by different amounts. Copper is the best conductor.

2] Convection:

* Heat transmitted by convection through fluids (liquids and gases) only.

*As the fluid above the flame becomes warmer, it expands and becomes
less dense and is pushed upwards while the cooler, denser fluid sinks to
take its place.

* The circulating stream of fluid which is set up is called convection

currents, and it rapidly transfers heat from the bottom to the top of the
beaker.

Applications of convection:

a] In the refrigerator, air is cooled by the freezer compartment at the top of the
refrigerator. AS the air cooled it sinks and hot air rises to be cooled.
34
b] We should place the heater at the bottom of the room. When the air is heated it rises up
and cold air falls down to be heated.

c] Sea and land breeze in coastal areas: In hot sunshine, the land heats up more quickly
than the sea. Warmer air above the land rises up and cold air above the sea blows to
replace it. At night the reverse happens.

3] Radiation:

* Heat can be radiated as a form of electromagnetic energy; these are called infrared
waves.

* Heat radiations can travel through vacuum and gases.

* Heat travels from the sun to the earth by radiation.

* All hot objects emit heat radiations in the form of EM waves. The hotter the object, the
shorter is the wavelength of the emitted wave and the greater is the amount of radiation.

* When heat radiation falls on an object it is partly reflected, and partly absorbed. The
absorbed radiation raises the temperature of the object.

* Heat radiation can be detected by: Thermocouple, thermopile and blackened-bulb

thermometer.

Properties of surfaces:

 Black rough surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of heat radiations (they
are bad reflectors).
 Shiny (& white) surfaces are good reflectors of heat radiations (they are bad
absorbers and bad emitters).

Applications:

 People wear dark clothes in winter and white clothes in summer.

 Roofs of petrol tanks are painted by shiny metallic paint.
 Vacuum flasks are made of double-walled glass vessels with vacuum between the
walls to eliminate conduction and convection,
and the walls are shiny silvered to reflect
infrared radiation.

35
Greenhouse effect:

 Green houses are made of glass walled rooms. The short wave length radiations can
pass easily through the glass. Some of the energy of these waves absorbed and some
is reflected but with longer wave length. The long waves cannot pass easily through
the glass so it is kept inside the green house and make it warmer than outside.
 CO2 makes a greenhouse effect on earth that causes the global warmth.
 Cloudy nights are warmer than clear ones because clouds make a greenhouse effect.

Cooling of an object:

The rate of cooling of a body depends upon:

 The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings. Hotter objects
cool down faster than cold ones.
 The exposed surface area of the body. The greater the area the greater the chance of
the body to lose heat.
 The nature of the radiating surface (black is a good radiator).

Heating precautions:

 When heating any material, immerse the electric heater completely in the material.
 When boiling alcohol or benzene, use an electric heater (avoid Bunsen flame which
may cause fire). In addition, there is much heat loss from the Bunsen to surrounding
air and tripod.
 Keep the thermometer away from the heater.
 The liquid should be stirred to distribute the heat evenly.
 Usually, one can reduce heat loss to surrounding by using lagging material.
36
 Heat Energy
1] Heat gained to raise the body temperature:

* When a body is heated, its internal energy will increase because its molecules will move
faster and its temperature will rise.

* The amount of thermal energy gained by the body depends on:

a) Temperature rise T, which is a measure of the average kinetic energy gained by each
molecule.

b) The mass of the body m, which is proportional to the number of molecules in the body.

c) The specific heat capacity C, which depends on the type of the material.

 The specific heat capacity of a material (C):

This is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one kg of the
material by 10k.

 The amount of heat gained or lost can be written as:

Q = mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature = mC T

 Specific Heat capacity of water:

It is particularly high (4200 J/kg k) which makes it useful to store heat energy.
The temperature of the sea rises and falls more slowly than that of the land (sea and
land breezes).
Living creatures can resist the change in temperature since they contain a large
amount of water.
 Heat capacity of a body: it is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the whole body 10k.

 The thermal (heat) capacity of a body increases with increase of the body mass and
increase of the specific heat of its material.

37
Change of state:
When a material absorbs or loses heat energy this will lead to change in temperature
or state of the material.
When the absorbed heat increases the K.E of the molecules of the material this will
cause an increase in temperature and vice versa.
But sometimes the material absorbs or loses heat energy without any change in
temperature. In this case the energy absorbed are used to overcome the attraction
force between molecules to increase the intermolecular spaces and change the state
of matter from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas. In this case the P.E of molecules
increase but no change in K.E so there is no change in temperature.

Melting: it is the change of state from solid to liquid at constant temperature and
pressure.
Freezing: it is the change of state from liquid to solid at constant temperature and
pressure.
Melting point: it is the temperature at which the state of matter changed from solid
to liquid at constant pressure. (Melting point = freezing point)
Boiling (vaporization): it is the change of state from liquid to gas at constant
temperature and pressure.
Condensation: it is the change of state from gas to liquid at constant temperature
and pressure.
Boiling point: it is the temperature at which the state of matter changed from liquid
to gas at constant pressure. (Boiling point = condensing point)

What is the difference between boiling and evaporation?

38
39
40
41
42
43
44
 Magnetism

a) Properties of a magnet:
1) A magnet has a north-seeking pole and a south-seeking pole.
2) The freely suspended magnet takes a fixed direction (north south direction)
3) Like poles repel each other and unlike attract each other.
4) Most of the magnetic force concentrated at the two poles.
5) The strength of the magnetic force increase as the distance between the magnet
and the magnetic material decrease.
6) The area around the magnet where its effect appears is called magnetic field.
7) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece is found to be
a magnet with two poles.
Magnetic material (Ferrous): it is the material attracted
to the magnet (iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)
Nonmagnetic material (non-Ferrous): it is the material not attracted to the magnet.

b) Magnetic field:
* It is the region around a magnet in which a magnetic force is exerted.

* The magnetic flux lines represent the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.

* The lines are close together where the field is strong.

* The lines go from the North Pole to the South Pole.

* The lines never cross each other.

45
c) Plotting magnetic flux lines:
1] Using a plotting compass:
* Place the magnet on a sheet of paper and trace around it.

* Put a compass near one pole of the magnet then mark the positions of the two ends of
the compass by pencil dots.

* move the compass to the farther pencil dot and mark the new positions of the two ends
of the compass by pencil dots.

* repeat the last step until the compass reaches the other end of the magnet then join the
pencil dots to draw a magnetic flux line.

* repeat the previous steps to draw another flux lines.

* mark the lines with arrows indicating the direction of the

north pole of the compass.

 This method is sensitive and suitable for weak fields, but it is not suitable for fields
rapidly changing in a short distance.

2] Using iron filings:

* put the magnet under a stiff sheet of paper.

* spread iron filings on the paper.

* When the paper is tapped gently the iron filing move

and take the shape of the magnetic field.

 This method does not show the direction of the field. Also it is not sensitive; it is
used with strong fields only.

46
D) How to make a magnet:

1] By induction:
* When a bar of soft iron or steel is brought near a strong magnet, it becomes magnetized
by induction.

 Soft iron gain magnetism easily and loses magnetism easily but steel gain magnetism
hardly and loses magnetism hardly.

That is why:

 Hard steel is used to make permanent magnets.

 Soft iron is used to make electromagnets.

2] By stroking with a magnet:

The steel bar is stroked by a strong magnet
many times in the same direction.

The pole produced at the end of the

stroke is opposite to the
magnetizing pole.

47
3] By electrical method:
* Place the steel bar inside a long solenoid, with a direct current flowing in the solenoid,
the steel bar becomes magnetized.

 The polarity produced can be found by the right-hand grip rule.

"When the fingers of the right hand turn in the direction of the current, the thumb will
point towards the North pole"

 The strength of magnetization of the bar increases by:

a) Increasing the current.
b) Increasing the number of turns of the solenoid.

4] By hammering in a magnetic field.

E) Demagnetization of a magnet:
1] By heating 2] By hammering in east west direction.

3] Place the magnet in a solenoid carrying A.C current then withdraw the magnet slowly
from the solenoid.

48
 Electrostatics
Conductors: these are materials which contain free electrons that flow through them.

Example: metals and graphite

Metals are also good conductors of heat due to the presence of free electrons.

Insulators: These are materials which contain no free electrons to flow through them.

An insulator should be perfectly dry. Moisture can destroy the insulation by conducting
electric charges.

Properties of a charged body:

 An insulator becomes positively charged when it loses some of its electrons.

 An insulator becomes negatively charged when it gains some extra electrons.
 A charged body attracts light objects like dust or small pieces of paper.
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
 The force between charges increases with:
a) Increasing any of the charges.
b) Decreasing the distance between the charges.

Methods of charging a body:

a) Charging by rubbing:
 When a polythene rod is rubbed with a dry wool
cloth some of the electrons transfer from the
surface of the cloth to the polythene so the
cloth becomes positively charged and the
polythene negatively charged.
 When a perspex rod is rubbed with a dry wool
cloth some of the electrons transfer from the
surface of the perspex to the cloth so the cloth
becomes negatively charged and the perspex
positively charged.

b) Charging by contact:
When a charged body touches an uncharged object, the two bodies will share the
charge. Both will carry a part of the same type of charge.

49
 C) Charging by induction:

When a positively charged rod is approached near a

neutral piece of paper the charges on the surface of
the paper are rearranged such that the negative
charges becomes nearer to the positive rode and the
positive charges away from the positive rode. And so the
positive rod attracts the neutral paper due to the induced charges formed on it.

 Producing an opposite charge by induction:

 Bring a charged rod near the conductor. The conductor becomes polarized but it is
still neutral.
 Connect the conductor to the earth by touching it by a finger.
 Remove the finger then remove the charged rod, the conductor is now charged with
an opposite charge.

Forces on charged particles in an electric field:

 Beta particle has a negative charge so it is deflected by the electric field towards the
positive plate.
 Alpha particle has a positive charge so it is deflected by the electric field towards the
negative plate.

50
 Electric current
When the terminals of a battery are connected to a conductor (making closed path) the
electrons flow from the negative pole of the battery through the conductor until it reaches
the positive pole.

Conventional current is assumed as if positive charges

are moving in the conductor (holes) so the direction of
the current is going from the positive pole to the negative
pole of the battery.

The electric current: is the amount of charge flowing in the circuit per unit time.

I is the electric current and is measured in Amperes(A).

Q is the electric charge and is measured in coulombs(C).

t is the time and is measured in seconds(S).

The potential difference and the electromotive force (e.m.f):

 While charges are moving around a circuit two things are happening to these
charges:
a) The battery gives the charges energy to push them through the whole circuit. The
electric energy gained by each coulomb of charge is called electromotive force
(e.m.f) of the battery.
b) The charges lose its energy through the components of the circuit. For example if
the charges pass through electric bulb some of its electric energy will change into
heat and light.
The electric energy lost by each coulomb of charge as it passes through a certain
component is called the potential difference across this component.
(P.d is the work done by a unit charge passing through a component)

The e.m.f or the potential difference is measured in Volts

1 Volt = 1 Joule/coulomb

51
Ohm's Law:

Ohm's law states that: "At constant temperature the potential

difference across any component is directly proportional to the current
passing through it".

VαI or V = RI
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the component and is
measured in Ohms Ω.

The resistance of a metal wire is:

a) Directly proportional to the length of the wire (L).

b) Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire (A).
c) Dependent on the material of the wire.
d) Increases as the temperature increases.

Where is a constant of proportionality called the resistivity of the material.

The variable resistor (Rheostat):

 It is used to control the current in the circuit.

 Moving the slider change the length of the resistance coil
and so the value of the resistance.

52
 Connecting in series Connection in parallel


 The components
connected end to end.
 The current is constnt.
 The components
 R =R1+ R2 + R3
connected side by side.
 Emf = V1 + V2 + V3
 I =I1 + I2 + I3


 The potential difference is
constant.

All appliances in a house are connected in parallel because:

 This makes each appliance get the same voltage as the mains, while connecting in
series divides the mains voltage among all appliances.
 When appliances are connected in parallel each appliance will operate at its normal
power (e.g. a lamp will be fully bright), while connection in series the power used by
each appliance is less than its normal operating value.
 Connection in parallel allows each appliance to operate independent of all other
appliances, while connection in series all appliances are switched on and off
together.

53
Example: In the following circuit find current through each resistance.

Ammeters:

 Ammeters are instruments used to measure electric

current.
 They are connected in series in a branch of the circuit
where the current is desired.
 Ammeters have very low resistance so as not to affect
the current in the circuit.

Voltmeters:

 Voltmeters are instruments used to measure the potential difference between two
points in a circuit.
 They are connected in parallel between the points where the potential difference is
desired.
 Voltmeters have very high resistance to take as little current as possible.

54
55
Experimental determination of resistance of a metal wire:

 This circuit is used to determine the resistance of a

metal wire.
 Adjust the rheostat at its maximum resistance to
avoid large current that may damage the ammeter.
 Switch on the circuit and change the current
gradually several times by changing the resistance
of the variable resistor.
 Each time take the value of the voltage across the wire resistor.
 Tabulate the results and plot the relation between the current (I) on the Y-axis and
the potential difference (V) on the X-axis.

56
  In the case of metal wire (ohmic resistance) a straight line is obtained. The inverse of
the gradient of this line gives the value of the wire resistance.
 In the case of a filament lamp the graph is a curve. This happens because the
resistance of the filament increases as its temperature increases.

Precautions regarding the experiment:

 The positive side of the instrument should be connected to the positive pole of the
battery and vice versa.
 The instruments should be placed on a horizontal bench.
 By gentle tapping on the apparatus check that the pointer moves freely.
 The eye should be perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax error.
 Repeat and take average.
 The ends of the connecting wires should be clean and not rusty to avoid increase in
resistance.
 The ends are tightened in the clockwise direction to suit the direction of rotation of
the apparatus screw.
 You should switch off the circuit between each reading and the next to avoid over
heating that may change the resistance.

Electric energy and house installation

Electric energy: It is the work done to move charge Q through a potential difference V. It is
measured in Joules.

E = QV
Using Q = It and V = IR we can write:

E = VIt = I2Rt = t = Pt
Electric power: It is the rate of producing or using electric energy. It has the unit of Watt. It
is given by:

P= =VI = I2R =
Calculation of electric energy consumption in our houses:

 Electric energy consumption in our houses is measured in Kilowatt hour (KWh).

 1 KWh = 3.6 x 106 Joule.

Cost of using electric energy = Power (in KW) x time (in h) x cost of 1 kWh.
57
  The current supplied to your home is alternating current (a.c) with frequency 50 HZ.
 Three types of connecting wires are used in any house:
a) The live wire: it carries high voltage (240 V in UK and Egypt) from the power
station.
It should be brown.
All switches and fuses must be connected to the
live wire.
b) The neutral wire: it completes the circuit
because it is earthed back at the power station.
It has low voltage (about 0 V).
It should be blue.
c) The earth wire: it is connected to the metal case of an appliance to discharge it to
avoid electric shock when there is a fault.
Plastic casing does not need Earth wire.
It should be yellow or green.

Fuses and fuse value:

 The fuse is made from a very thin tin wire.

 When a high current passes through the circuit the fuse will
melt and make open circuit and so protect the appliance from
this high current.
 A fuse should be connected to the live wire.
 The value of the fuse should be higher than but close to
the maximum current used by the appliance.

Sources of dangers of electricity:

 Electric shocks can be produced due to damaged insulation of connecting wires.

 Damp conditions (high humidity and rainy weather) reduce resistance of insulators
causing electric shocks.
 A fire can be produced if extremely high currents pass in the wires thus producing
overheating of wires. (Excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads,
single and multiple sockets.

58
Potential divider (voltage divider): the potential
difference across a resistance in a series connection is
directly proportional to the value of the resistance.

Potentiometer: this is a rheostat that is connected in

a certain way to be used as a potential divider.

*If S is at B then the output (voltage across the lamp)

= 0V.

* As S moves towards A the output voltage increases.

* At A the output voltage = the total input voltage of the battery.

Magnetic effects of a current and Motors

A) Magnetic flux pattern due to a current in a straight wire:

 When a current passes in a wire it produces a magnetic field
in the region around the wire.
 The form of the field can be shown using iron filings.
 The magnetic field takes the form of concentric circles
around the wire.
 The magnitude of the field increases with :
1) Increasing the current in the wire.
2) Getting closer to the wire.
 The direction of the field is given by the right hand grip rule.
“ If the Thumb points in the current direction, the fingers will indicate the magnetic field direction”
 If the current is reversed, then the field direction will be reversed too.




59
 B) Magnetic flux pattern due to a current in a circular coil:
 The field around each section of the coil appears circular.
 At the centre of the coil the field is straight and is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil.

c) Magnetic flux pattern due to a current in a solenoid:

* The magnetic field is similar to that of a bar magnet, with the north and south poles at
the ends of the solenoid.

* Inside the solenoid the field intensity is constant and the magnetic flux lines are
parallel and straight lines.

* The direction of the field is given by the right hand grip rule.
“ If the fingers point in the current direction, the Thumb will point towards the north pole”

 The magnetic field intensity increases by:

1) Increasing the current
2) Increasing the number of turns.
3) Inserting a soft iron bar inside the solenoid.

The electromagnet and its uses:

 When a wire is wound around a piece of soft iron, it forms

an electromagnet.
 If a current passes in the wire the soft iron becomes
magnetized and we get a magnet.
 If the current is stopped the soft iron loses its
magnetization.
 The electromagnet is used in the electric bells, the magnetic relays, loudspeakers and
in the circuit breakers (tip switches).
60
The electric bell:
a) When the bell switch is closed, current flows through the electromagnet.
b) The soft-iron armature is attracted toward the electromagnet and the hummer hits the gong.
c) This movement breaks the circuit, so that the current stops flowing and switches off the
electromagnet.
d) The spring pulls the armature back so that contact is made and the sequence begins again.

61
Force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field:

 When a current flows in a conductor perpendicular to a magnetic field, a force is

produced perpendicular on both of them.
 The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
 If either the current or the magnetic field is reversed, the direction of the force is
reversed.
 If both the current and the magnetic field are reversed, the direction of the force
remains unchanged.
 If the wire is parallel to the field no force acts on it.
 The force on the conductor increases by:
1) Increasing the current in the conductor.
2) Increasing the length of the wire placed in the field.
3) Increasing the magnetic field strength.

Force on charged particles moving in a magnetic field:

 When a beam of charged particles enters a region of magnetic field with a velocity
perpendicular to this magnetic field then the particles experience a force
perpendicular to both the velocity and the field.
The beam is deflected in a circular path.
 The direction by which the particles are
deflected is given by Fleming’s left hand
rule.
 The direction of conventional current is
taken to be the same as the direction of
velocity of positive particles, but
opposite to direction of velocity of
negative particles.
 As the particles leave the region of the magnetic field they continue in a straight
path.
62
 The simple d.c motor:

1] The simple d.c motor consists of:

a) a rectangular coil of copper wire.

b) Horseshoe magnet

c) Commutator (copper ring cut out into two halves).

d) Two carbon brushes.

e) A source of d.c power.

2] How it works?

* All the components are connected as

shown in the figure.

* According to Fleming’s left-hand rule the

left wire is pushed up while the right wire
is pushed down so the coil rotates clockwise.

* When the coil takes a vertical position no

turning effect is produced. The current stops
flowing because the gaps in the commutator
break the circuit. But the coil keeps turning
because of its own inertia.

* When the coil and the commutator are reversed

the current in the coil is reversed too. This causes
the coil to continue rotation in the same
direction.

3] Function of the commutator:

* Conduct electric current from battery to the coil.

* Break the circuit when the coil takes a vertical position.

* Reverse the current in the coil each half cycle so that the coil continues rotating in the
same direction.

63
4] The turning effect of the coil can be increased by:

* Increasing the current in the coil.

* Increasing the number of turns of the coil.

* Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.

* Winding the coil on a soft iron core.

64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
 Waves
 Some forms of energy can travel as waves.
 For example: if you vibrate a string from one end the vibration will travel to the
other end. This is called a wave.
 In the wave the disturbance (energy) travels without traveling of the particles of the
medium.
 The particles of the medium only vibrate about their positions.

Classification of waves: waves can be classified in two ways.

1]
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
 In these waves the particles vibrate  In these waves the particles
perpendicular to the direction of vibrate along the direction of
motion. motion.

 They have compressions and

 They have crests and troughs. rarefactions.

 Example:
 Examples: Sound wave.
Light wave and water wave.

2]
Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves
 Need a medium to travel through it.  Don't need a medium to travel
through it. It can travel through
 Examples: space.
Water wave and sound wave.  Examples:
Light, X ray, radio wave, …

72
Properties of a wave:

 The amplitude (a): It is the maximum displacement from the rest position. It has
the unit of meter (m).
 The wave length (λ): It is the length of one complete wave. It is equal to the
distance between two points on the wave having the same phase. (e.g.) crest to crest
or trough to trough. It has the unit of meter (m).
 The frequency (f): It is the number of complete waves in one second. It has the
unit of Hertz (Hz) or s-1.
 The periodic time (T): It is the time taken to produce one complete wave. f=
It has the unit of second (s).
 The wave speed (V): This is the distance moved by the wave in one second. It has
the unit of metre per second (m/s).
 The wave equation: The product of the wave length and the frequency is equal to
the speed of the wave.
V = λf
 The wave front: It is the line connecting all points in a wave crest.
+ Successive wave fronts, when seen from above, are
represented as a group of lines.
+ The direction of motion of the waves is called the ray
and is always perpendicular to the wave fronts.

73
Important notes:
 The frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the source producing it.
 The speed of the wave depends only on the medium in which the wave is moving.
 The distance between two successive wavefronts is a wavelength.
 For a given medium, when the frequency increases the wavelength decreases and
vice versa.
 When a wave propagates it transfers energy through the medium. Particles of the
medium vibrate only in their position and they don't move with the wave.
 Water waves are produced by a vibrating
object in a ripple tank. The wave motion
proceeds as a succession of crests and
troughs.

Reflection of waves:
 The reflection of waves can be clearly seen when applied on water waves in a ripple
tank.

 The wave falling on the surface is called incident wave.

 The wave reflected from the surface is called reflected wave.
 The normal is imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence.
 Angle of incidence is the angle between incident wave and the normal.
 Angle of reflection is the angle between reflected wave and the normal.
 During reflection:

The angle of incidence = the angle of reflection

74
  During reflection the speed, the wave length and the frequency of the wave remain
unchanged. Only the direction of the wave is changed.
Refraction of waves:
This is the change in the wave speed and wavelength as the wave passes from one
medium to another.

During refraction:
 The frequency remains constant.
 If the incident wave falls perpendicular to the separating surface between the two
mediums the direction of the wave will not change.
 If the incident wave falls inclined then the direction will change.

Let's study water waves as an example.

Waves going from deep to shallow water Waves going from shallow to deep water
 The ray bends towards normal.  The ray bends away from normal.
 Speed of the wave decreases.  Speed of the wave increases
 Wavelength decreases.  Wavelength increases.
 The frequency remains constant.
Diffraction of waves:
This is the spreading of the wave around a corner or when it passes through a narrow
opening.

75
  If the opening is narrow (about the same as λ), the emergent wave will spread in
all directions and the wavefronts become circular in shape.
 If the opening is wide (much greater than λ), the emergent wave will have the
same direction with plane wavefronts which are slightly bent at the edges.
 In diffraction there is no change in speed, wavelength or frequency. There is
only change in the shape of the wavefronts.
 Diffraction at an edge: long waves diffracted (spreads) more than short waves.

Sound waves
Properties of sound:

 Sound is produced due to vibration of bodies.

 Sound is a longitudinal wave. So vibration of particles due
to sound waves may be described as a to-and-fro movement or a backwards and
forwards movement.
 Sound can travel through a gas, liquid or solid but sound can't travel through vacuum
(space) because sound is a mechanical wave.
 Sound travels in all direction as concentric spherical waves
with the source in its centre.
 Sound wave propagates as a series of compressions and
rarefactions.
 Compression: is a region where the molecules of the medium are very close to each
other and the pressure is higher than normal.
 Rarefaction: is a region where the molecules of
the medium are far away from each other and the
pressure is lower than normal.

 If these changes in pressure were plotted on a graph they would make a waveform.

76
 Sound has the same frequency as the frequency of
the source producing it.
 When a metal strip touches the teeth of a rotating
toothed wheel, it produces sound whose
frequency is given by:
Frequency = no. of teeth × no. of revolutions per second.
 Audible sound has frequencies that range from 20Hz to 20 000 Hz.
 Frequencies below 20 Hz (infrasound) or above 20 000 Hz (ultrasound) cannot be
heard.
 Speed of sound = wavelength × frequency V = λf
 Speed of sound is about 330m/s in air, 1500m/s in water and 5000m/s in steel.
 Sound waves can be reflected from flat walls and cliffs and obey the laws of
reflections.
 The echo: is hearing the reflected sound a short time after hearing the original
sound.
 A minimum time of 0.1s between the original sound and the echo is needed to hear
the echo. During this time sound travels a distance equal to:
D = vt = 340 × 0.1 = 34 m
This means that in order to hear the echo the distance between the sound source
and the reflecting wall should be at least 17 m.
 Loudness indicates the sound energy reaching the ear. Louder sound has larger
amplitude.
 Pitch indicates the sharpness of sound and depends on its frequency. Sharp sound
has high frequency and consequently high pitch.

77
Experimental determination of speed of sound:

a) The direct method:

 Two students stand about one km or more apart and the distance between them
should be measured accurately by a measuring tape.
 One of the students holds a gun while the other holds a stopwatch.
 The first student fires the gun. The second student must operate the stopwatch when
he sees the flash and stops the stopwatch when he hears the sound.
 This time difference represents the time taken by sound to travel this distance.
 Speed of sound =

 We assumed that the time taken by light to travel this distance is almost zero since
the speed of light is much greater than the speed of sound.
 The distance between the two students must be very long so that the measured time
would be reasonably accurate.
 Time measurements should be repeated several times and an average is obtained.

b) The Echo method:

* A man stands at distance d from a wall (at least 50m away).

* He starts clapping two wooden sticks at a rate such that each clap coincides with the echo
of the one before.

* By counting and timing 20 echoes, the time t taken for one echo is calculated.

* The speed of sound can be obtained from V =

78
 Light
 Light is a form of energy.
 Objects that emit light are said to be luminous. Luminous objects emit light in all
directions.
 Objects that do not emit light are said to be non luminous.
Classifying non-luminous objects:
1) Transparent material: allow most of light to pass through it and so objects on the
other side of it can be seen clearly.
2) Translucent material: : allow some of light to pass through it and so objects on the
other side of it cannot be seen clearly unless they are very close to the translucent
object.
3) Opaque material: do not allow light to pass through it and so objects on the other
side of it can't be seen.

Properties of light:
1) Light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves that travel in vacuum with
greatest speed in the universe (3×108 m/s).
2) Speed of light = wavelength × frequency V = λf
3) For a certain medium (constant speed), the wave length is inversely proportional
to the frequency. Light has short wavelengths (~ 5×10-7m) and high frequencies.
4) Light travels in straight lines. This cause two phenomena's
a) Shadows
 Shadow is a darkened region formed behind opaque object when light falls on it
because light travels in straight line.
b) The pinhole camera:

 The image formed on the screen is real and inverted.

 The size of the image depends on the distance of the object from the pinhole. As the
distance increases the image becomes smaller and brighter.
 If the hole becomes wider the image becomes blurred and less sharp.

79
 5) Light can be reflected.

 Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 Angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
 In reflection the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection i=r

Experiment for observing reflection:

a) Place a plane mirror vertically on a sheet of paper.
b) Draw a line along the mirror.
c) Use a raybox to shine a ray of light on to the mirror
(incident ray). You will see the reflected ray of light.
Mark the position of each ray with optical pins.
d) Take off all the apparatus and use a ruler to join up
the optical pins, along the lines of the rays of light and
draw the normal.
e) Measure both of angle of incidence and angle of
reflection. You will observe that they are equal.
Precautions:
a) Optical pins should be placed with at least 5cm
separation between them.
b) It should be checked that optical pins are fixed in a vertical position.
c) Each pin should cover the preceding one when viewed by one eye.
d) Optical pins are viewed correctly when their bases coincide.

Kinds of images:
1) Real images: This can be formed on a
screen, such as the images which are
produced on a cinema screen by biconvex
lenses.
2) Virtual images: which cannot be projected
onto a surface but only appear to exist, such
as those in a plane mirror. The virtual image
of an object is
a) The same size as the object.
80
 b) At the same distance from the mirror but behind it instead of in front of it.
c) Wrong way round (laterally inverted). For example, your left shoulder appears to be
the right shoulder of your virtual image.
d) The image is erect (or upright).

The Periscope:
 Periscopes are used in submarines so that
people below the surface can see what is
happening above the surface.
 The diagram shows how light is reflected by
the two mirrors.
 Remember that the angle of incidence = the
angle of reflection and the rays should be
turned through 900 each time. Thus each
mirror should be placed at 450.

 Regular reflection: is the reflection of light

from a smooth shiny surface like plane
mirror, still water, polished metal . . . where
the light reflected regularly in the same
direction forming an image so you can see
your face in this surface.

 Irregular (diffuse) reflection: is the

reflection of light from a rough surface
(most of objects have rough surfaces)
where the light rays scattered in different
directions so it cannot form an image. You
do not see your face in the rough surface
but you can see the surface itself.

6) Light can be refracted.

 Refraction of light is the change in the light speed and wave length as it passes from
one medium to another.
 Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 Angle of refraction is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

81
  If light is falling normally from one medium to another (angle of
incidence = 0), the speed and wavelength change, but the
direction does not change.

 If light is not falling normally (angle of incidence > 0) then we

have two cases:

a) Light coming from rare to denser medium:

 The speed of light decreases.
 The wavelength decreases.
 The frequency remains the same.
 The angle of incidence (i) is greater than the angle of refraction (r), so the ray bends
towards the normal.
b) Light coming from dense to rarer medium:
 The speed of light increases.
 The wavelength increases.
 The frequency remains the same.
 The angle of incidence (i) is smaller than the angle of
refraction (r), so the ray bends away from the normal.

Effects of refraction:
 Due to refraction an object placed in water appears higher than its real position.
 A coin which is invisible in an empty cup can become visible if the cup is filled with
water.
 A pencil placed in water appears to be broken.

82
Passage of light through a rectangular block:

 When a ray of light falls inclined on a glass block it refracted towards the normal.
 The emergent ray travels from glass to air so it refracted away from the normal.
 The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray and the perpendicular distance
between the two rays (d) is proportional to:
a) The angle of incidence.
b) Type of glass.
c) The width of the block.

Refraction by a prism:
 In a prism refraction occurs at both
surfaces of the prism.
 The image of an object appears closer
to the apex of the prism.
 The deviation of the ray at the first
surface is added to the deviation at
the second surface and gives the
angle of deviation.

83
Total internal reflection:
 Assume a lamp placed under water emitting light rays in all directions.
 Ray 1 strikes the surface of water at small angle and is refracted in air at a larger
angle of refraction. Some light is reflected back in water.
 Ray 2 strikes the water surface at a larger angle and the refracted ray comes parallel
to the surface. In this case the angle of incidence is called the critical angle (c).

The critical angle: this is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction is 900.

 Ray 3 strikes the surface at an angle greater than the critical angle. It becomes totally
internally reflected in water with no refracted ray.
 For having a critical angle or total internal reflection light must be moving from
denser medium to a rare one.

84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
 Space physics
 The sun and the stars in the sky seem to move from east to west every day and night,
but in reality the earth is rotating around its axis causing this apparent movement.
 The rotation of the earth around its axis every 24 hours causes the day and night.
 The axis about which the earth rotates is not perpendicular to the plane of the
Earth's orbit. It is at angle of about 230 to the perpendicular and remains pointing in
the same direction.
 The equator divides the earth into two hemispheres Known as northern hemisphere
and southern hemisphere.

 As the earth moves in its orbit there is a time of the year when the northern
hemisphere is tilting towards the sun and the southern hemisphere is tilting away
from the sun due to the inclination of the axis of the earth. In this time of the year
the day is longer at the northern and the sun rays are stronger causing summer in the
northern hemisphere but winter in the southern hemisphere.
 So the four seasons of the year happen due to the rotation of the earth around the
sun every 3651/4 days with inclined axis.
 The year is different from one planet to another. The length of the year depends on
the length of the orbit and the speed of rotation around the sun.

93
 The east to west path of the sun across the sky changes with the position of the
earth in its orbit.
 At the mid-summer the sun rises earlier, higher and sets later in the evening but vice
versa at the mid-winter.

94
  As the earth rotates around its axis the stars seem to move from east to west. Stars
near either pole appear to move around in a circle.
 AS the earth moves around in its orbit, it passes different groups of stars and they are
known as winter, spring, summer and autumn stars.
 The sun is a medium sized star but it seems very large because it is the closest star to
the earth.
 The sun is the only large luminous body in our solar system.
 The moon, plants and comets are dark bodies but we can see them because they
reflect the sun light.

Measuring with light

 A light year is the distance travelled by light in one year. This distance is 9.5 million
million kilometers.
 We use the light year as a unit for measuring vast distance between objects in the
space.

Bright stars
 The brightness of a star depends on its size, its temperature and its distance from the
earth.

Star Temperature/0C Colour Distance from earth

Sun 6000 Yellow 8 light minutes
Sirius 11000 White 8.6 light years
Arcturus 4000 Orange 36 light years
Betelgeuse 3000 Red 520 light years
Spica 25000 Blue 220 light years

95
Constellations
 The stars make patterns in the sky. These patterns are called constellations.
 The stars in a constellation may seem to be at the same distance from the earth but
in reality one of them may be many light of years closer to the earth than others.
 While the stars appear to be fixed in their positions, the planets do not. The planets
seem to wander across the night sky against the background of the constellations.
This is due to the way the earth and the planets move around the sun in their orbits.

96
The Moon
 The moon rotates around the earth in about 28 days.
 The moon spins on its axis in about 28 days.
 So the moon keeps the same part of its surface facing the earth. The other side of
the moon is never seen from the earth.

 Only the side of the moon that is facing the sun reflects light, So as it rotates around
the earth the illuminated part that we can see from earth changes shape.
 The different shapes are known as phases of the moon.

97
The parts of the solar system:

 The main parts of the solar system are the sun and the eight planets that rotate
around it in elliptical orbits in an anticlockwise direction.
 The largest planet is Jupiter (highest mass)
 The smallest planet is Mercury (lowest mass)
 Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn can be seen by naked eye but you need a
telescope to see Uranus and Neptune.
 The inner Planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are often called
terrestrial planets because they are made of rock.
 The outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are all much bigger than the
inner planets. They all have rings and plenty of moons. Jupiter and Saturn are made
of hydrogen and helium gas. Uranus and Neptune are made of ice and rock with
outer layer of gas.
 The earth only has one moon, while other planets have more (Saturn has 60 moons).

98
Asteroids

 Asteroids are lumps of rock that move in orbits around the sun.
 They are formed in the early stages of the solar system.
 The range of size is from grains of sand to Ceres, the largest asteroid, which is 913 km
across.
 Most of the asteroids move in orbits between 300 and 500 million km from the sun.
They form a huge ring in space rubble called the asteroid belt.
 Some asteroids have orbits further away from the sun and a few have orbits that take
them across the earth's orbit.
 The solar system does not end at the orbit of Neptune. Beyond this is a huge ring of
rocky and icy objects, which make up the kuiper Belt. In this belt are found dwarf
planets. The largest of them is called Pluto.

99
Comets

 Some comets come from the kuiper belt while many others are come from the edge
of the solar system, which is called the Oort Cloud. This is a huge hollow ball of icy
objects.

Meteors and meteorites

Meteor is a piece of rock enters the earth’s atmosphere and burns up due to friction
with air.

Meteorite is a meteor that survives to reach the ground.

100
The Milky Way galaxy
 The galaxy consists of a large number of stars.
 There are 3 types of galaxies- spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies and irregular galaxies.
 Our sun is one of the stars of a galaxy called Milky Way galaxy.
 The Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy and the sun lies on one of its arms.
 The Milky Way galaxy is 100 000 light years across and rotates like a huge pin wheel
in space at 970 000 km/h. this means that the sun in its position about 28 light year
from the center of the galaxy takes 225 million years to go round once.
 As more powerful telescopes are invented we discover more about the space.

Geocentric model:
Ancient Greek astronomers believed that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe and
all other astronomical bodies such as Sun, stars and planets move around it.

101
Heliocentric model:
Copernicus said that the sun is at the centre of the Solar system and all planets are in orbits
around the sun. This model was able to explain the motion of planets much more simply. In
this model the Moon was in orbit around the Earth.

After the invention of the telescope Galileo used the telescope to make some observations
that support the heliocentric model.

Church leaders in Rome refused the heliocentric model but after many years the model
gradually became accepted.

The core accretion model

Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known as
a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun
in the centre of the nebula. With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began to clump
together. Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles,
according to this model. The solar wind swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and
helium, from the closer regions, leaving only heavy, rocky materials to create terrestrial
worlds. But farther away, the solar winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing
them to coalesce into gas giants. In this way, asteroids, comets, planets and moons were
created.

The Big Bang Theory

About 14 billion years ago. The whole Universe expanded from something smaller than an
atom and hotter than anything we can imagine.

In a fraction of a second the Universe grew to the size of a galaxy, and it has continued to
expand ever since. As it expanded it cooled and energy changed to particles, making atoms
and molecules of hydrogen and helium. Eventually there were stars, planets, Moons and
galaxies.

When an object moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into lower frequencies
or longer wavelengths, and we say that the light is Redshifted.

The light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light emitted
on the earth. That redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is
expanding and supports the Big Bang Theory.

102