STRESS AND STRAIN

STRESS

• When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the stresses are tensile stresses; if the
forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain
compressive stresses.
• In as much as the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are
called normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.
𝑃
σ=
𝐴
• When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to define
tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.
 STRAIN

• The elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the total length L and
multiplied by the total elongation 𝛿.
• Therefore, a unit length of the bar will have an elongation equal to 1/L times 𝛿. This
quantity is called the elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted by the
greed letter 𝜀 (epsilon).
𝛿
𝜀=
𝐿
 STRAIN

• If the bar is in tension, the strain is called tensile strain, representing an elongation
or stretching of the material.
• If the bar is in compression, the strain is a compressive strain and the bar shortens.
• Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and compressive strain as negative.
• The strain 𝜀 is called a normal strain because it is associated with normal stresses.
• Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity, that is,
it has no unit.
 STRESS AND STRAIN

• If solid object is in equilibrium but subjected to forces that tends to stretch, shear, or
compress it, the shape of the object changes.
• If the object returns to its original shape when the forces are removed, the solid is
said to be elastic.
• If the forces are too great, the object does not return to its original shape but is
permanently deformed.
 STRESS AND STRAIN

• The figure shows a solid bar subjected to a tensile force F to the right and an equal
but opposite force to the left.
• In the figure b we concentrate on an element of the bar of length 𝑙 and assume the
forces to be distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional area of the bar.
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• If we increase the stretching force by a slight amount ∆𝐹, the bar stretches by a slight
amount ∆𝑙. The ratio of the increase in the force to the cross-sectional area of the bar
is called tensile stress:
∆𝐹 𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = or σ =
𝐴 𝐴
Where:
𝜎 – (Greek letter sigma) Normal stress Note that Tensile Forces are positive (+)
P – Normal force and Compressive Forces are negative
A – Cross sectional area (-).
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• The fractional change in length of the bar∆𝑙/𝑙 is called the strain:

∆𝑙 𝛿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜀 =
𝑙 𝐿
Where:
𝜀 – (Greek letter – Epsilon) Strain Note that tensile strain is positive (+) - Stretching
𝛿 – (Greek letter – Delta) Elongation and that compressive strain is negative (-) - Shortening
L – total length
 YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

• The ratio of the stress to the strain is called Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (K or E)

∆𝐹/𝐴 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝐸= or 𝐸 = =
∆𝑙/𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
• The unit of Young’s modulus are those of pressure, newtons per square meter or
pounds per square inch ( psi ).
 STRESS AND STRAIN
• The figure shows a graph of the strain versus the stress for a typical
solid bar.
• The stress is proportional to the strain up to a point A on the graph.
This is known as Hooke’s Law. ( It is the same behaviour as that of a
coiled spring for small stretchings, but a coiled spring is more
complicated because the stretching force is a combination of tensile
forces and shearing forces.)
• Point B in the figure is the elastic limit of the material. If the body
stretched beyond this point, it does not return to its original length
but is permanently deformed.
• If an even greater stress is applied, the material eventually breaks.
STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM
 SHEARING STRESS

• Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress.
• It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they act.
• Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
Where:
𝜏 – Shearing Stress
V – resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area being shear
A – Area parallel with force
 SHEARING STRESS
• In the figure, forces are applied to a bar perpendicularly to the
length of the bar. Such forces are called shear forces.
• The ratio of the change in shear force 𝐹𝑠 or V to the area is called the
shear stress.

∆𝐹𝑠 𝑉
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = or 𝜏 =
𝐴 𝐴
• A shear stress tends to deform the bar as shown in the figure. The
ratio ∆𝑋/𝑙 is called the shear strain:

∆𝑋 𝛿𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =𝛾=
𝑙 𝐿
 SHEARING STRAIN
• Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not
change in length but undergoes a change in shape.

• The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the
shear strain and is expressed as
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿
 SHEAR MODULUS

• The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called the shear modulus.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∆𝐹/𝐴 𝜏
𝑀𝑔 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑋/𝑙 𝛾
Where:
G - shear modulus ( Modulus of Rigidity)
𝜏 – Greek letter (tau) shear stress
𝛾 – Greek letter (gamma) shear strain
STRESS AND STRAIN
• Four methods of
shaping metals by
plastics deformation.
Most metals deform
considerably before
breaking.
 EXAMPLE 1

• A 500 kg load is hung from a 3 m steel wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.15 cm^2.
By how much does the wire stretch?
 EXAMPLE 2

• A wire 1.5 m long has a cross-sectional area of 2.4 mm^2. It is hung vertically and
stretches 0.29 mm when an 8.5 kg block is attached to it. Find the following for the
wire:
a. Stress b. Strain c. Young’s modulus of elasticity
 EXAMPLE 3
• Copper wire has a breaking stress of about 3 x 10^8 Pa. E = 110 GPa
a. What is the maximum load that can be hung from a copper wire of diameter 0.42
mm?
b. If half this maximum load is hung from the copper wire, by what percentage of its
length will stretch?
EXAMPLE 4
• As a runner’s foot touches the ground,
the shearing force acting on the 8
mm thick sole as shown in the figure.
If the force of 25 N is distributed over
an area of 15 cm^2, find the angle of
shear 𝜃 shown given that the shear
modulus of the sole is 1.9 x 10^5 Pa.
 EXAMPLE 5
• A length L of copper wire of diameter 1.2 mm is joined to a length 2L of steel wire 0.8
mm in diameter, and is hung vertically. When a 10 kg load is suspended from the
lower end, the total elongation is 0.65 mm. Find L.
 EXAMPLE 6
• A 70 kg swami lies on a bed of nails 1.0 cm apart whose points each have an area of
1.0 mm^2. If the area of the swami’s body in contact with the bed is 0.5 m^2 and the
threshold stress for pain is 1 MPa, how much disagreeable is the experience for the
swami?
 EXAMPLE 7

• A copper wire 1 mm in diameter and 2 m long is used to support a mass of 5 kg. By

• Ordinary mild steel ruptures when a shear stress of about 3.5 x 10 ^8 Pa is applied.
Find the force needed to punch a 10-mm diameter hole in the steel sheet 3.0 mm
thick.