CHAPTER TWO

INPUT / OUTPUT DEVICES

This chapter is a brief consideration of typical input and output devices used with
PLCs. The input devices considered include digital and analog devices.
Input Devices

Sensors that give digital or discrete, that is, on/off, outputs can be easily
connected to the input ports of PLCs. An analog sensor gives an output
proportional to the measured variable. Such analog signals have to be
converted to digital signals before they can be input to PLC ports.
A- Digital Inputs
1- Mechanical Switches
A mechanical switch generates an on/off signal as a result of some
mechanical input causing the switch to open or close. Such a switch might
be used to indicate the presence of a work piece on a machining table.

Workpiece not present: 0 Workpiece not present: 1

Workpiece present: 1 Workpiece present: 0
The 1 level might correspond to a
24 V DC input, the 0 to a 0 V input.
A problem with mechanical switches is that when a switch is closed or
opened, bounce can occur and the contacts do not make or open cleanly.
Because they involve an elastic member, they bounce back and forth like
an oscillating spring. This “bounce” may produce amplitudes that change
logic levels over perhaps 20 ms, and so a single switch change may give
rise to a number of signals rather than just the required single one.
There are a number of ways of eliminating these spurious signals
(debouncing).
 One way is to include in the software program a delay of approximately
20 ms after the first detected signal transition before any further
signals are read.
 A possibility for a single pole/double throw (SPDT) switch is to use two
NAND logic gates.
The term limit switch applies to a switch that is used to detect the
presence or passage of a moving part. It can be actuated by a cam, roller,
or lever.
2- Proximity Switches

Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without

making contact with it. There are a number of forms of such switches.
A- Eddy current type

The eddy current type of proximity switch

has a coil that is energized by a constant
alternating current and produces a
constant alternating magnetic field.
When a metallic object is close to it, eddy
currents are induced in it. The magnetic
field due to these eddy currents induces
an EMF back in the coil with the result
that the voltage amplitude needed to
maintain the constant coil current changes. The voltage amplitude is thus
a measure of the proximity of metallic objects. The voltage can be used to
activate an electronic switch circuit, basically a transistor that has its
output switched from low to high by the voltage change, creating an on/off
device. The range over which such objects can be detected is typically
about 0.5 to 20 mm.
B- Reed switch
Another switch type is the reed switch. This
consists of two overlapping, but not touching,
strips of a springy ferromagnetic material
sealed in a glass or plastic envelope. When a
magnet or current-carrying coil is brought
close to the switch, the strips become
magnetized and attract each other. The
contacts then close. The magnet closes the
contacts when it is typically about 1 mm from
the switch.
C- Capacitive proximity switch

This switch can be used with metallic and

nonmetallic objects. The capacitance of a pair of
plates separated by some distance depends on
the separation; the smaller the separation, the
higher the capacitance. The sensor of the
capacitive proximity switch is just one of the
plates of the capacitor, the other plate being the
metal object for which the proximity is to be
detected. Thus the proximity of the object is detected by a change in
capacitance. The sensor can also be used to detect nonmetallic objects,
since the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric between its
plates. In this case the plates are the sensor and the earth and the
nonmetallic object is the dielectric. The change in capacitance can be used
to activate an electronic switch circuit and so create an on/off device.
Capacitive proximity switches can be used to detect objects when they are
typically between 4 mm and 60 mm from the sensor head.

D- Inductive proximity switch

The inductive proximity switch, consists of a coil wound around a ferrous

metallic core. When one end of this core is placed near a ferrous metal
object, there is effectively a change in the amount of metallic core
associated with the coil and so a change in its inductance. This change
can be monitored using a resonant circuit, the presence of the ferrous
metal object thus changing the current in that circuit. The current can be
used to activate an electronic switch circuit and so create an on/off device.
The range over which such objects can be detected is typically about 2
mm to 15 mm. An
3- Photoelectric Sensors and Switches

Photoelectric switch devices can either

operate as transmissive types, or reflective
types.
In the transmissive types the object being
detected breaks a beam of light, usually
infrared radiation, and stops it reaching
the detector.
In the reflective types the object being
detected reflects a beam of light onto the
detector.
The radiation emitter is generally a
light-emitting diode (LED). The radiation
detector might be a phototransistor or
photodiode.
4- Encoders

The term encoder is used for a device that provides a digital output as a
result of angular or linear displacement.
A- Incremental encoder
An incremental encoder detects changes in angular or linear
displacement from some datum position. A beam of light, perhaps from an
LED, passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a light sensor, such
as a photodiode or phototransistor. When the disc rotates, the light beam
is alternately transmitted and stopped, and so a pulsed output is
produced from the light sensor. The number of pulses is proportional to
the angle through which the disc has rotated, the resolution being
proportional to the number of slots on a disc.
With a single track, the output is the same for
both directions of rotation. With two tracks,
one track is one-quarter of a cycle displaced
from the other track. As a consequence, the
output from one track will lead or lag that
from the other track, depending on the
direction of rotation. A third track of just a
single aperture is also included; this gives one
pulse per revolution and so can be used for
counting the number of full revolutions
B- Absolute encoder

An absolute encoder gives the actual angular or linear position. The

absolute encoder differs from the incremental encoder in having a pattern
of slots that uniquely defines each angular position. With the form shown
in figure, the rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots and four
sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way
that the sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code,
each number corresponding to a particular angular position. With four
tracks there will be 4 bits, and so the number of positions that can be
detected is 24 = 16, that is, a resolution of 360/16 = 22.5o.
B- Analog Inputs
Analog inputs are used in applications where the input device (sensor)
has a continuous signal. Unlike discrete signals, which possess only
two states (ON and OFF), analog signals have an infinite number of
states.
As examples of the analog devices:

1- Temperature sensors,
2- Pressure sensors,
3- Strain gauges,
4- Flow rate sensors,
5- Potentiometers.

PLCs, like other digital computers, are discrete systems that only
understand 1s and 0s. Therefore, they cannot interpret analog signals in
their continuous form. The analog-to-digital converter (A/D) translates
continuous analog signals into discrete values that can be interpreted by
PLC processors.
 Otput Devices
Like input ports, the output ports of PLC can be digital or analog.
Generally, the signal from a digital output channel of a PLC is used to
switch on/off an actuator, which in turn controls some process. Analog
outputs are used in applications requiring the control of an analog
output devices that respond to continuous voltage or current levels.
A- Digital Outputs
1- Relays

 When a current passes through a

solenoid, a magnetic field is produced;
this can then attract ferrous metal
components in its vicinity. This attraction
is used to operate a switch.
 Relays can thus be used to control a
larger current or voltage.
 It can also isolate the power used to initiate the switching action from
that of the controlled power.
 The relay might be used to operate more than one set of contacts, the
term pole being used for each set of contacts.
2- Directional Control Valves

Another example of the use of a solenoid as an actuator is a solenoid

operated valve. The valve may be used to control the directions of flow of
pressurized air or oil and so used to operate other devices, such as a piston
moving in a cylinder.
3- Motors
A PLC might be used to control DC motors. It can be used to control the
on/off status, the direction or the speed.

I- On/Off control
Many industrial processes only require
the PLC to switch a DC motor on or off.
This might be done using a relay. The
diode is included to dissipate the induced
current resulting from the back EMF.

II- Direction control

This can be done using relays to reverse
the direction of the current applied to the
armature coil (H-bridge).
III- Speed control
The speed of rotation can be changed by changing the value of the
current to the armature coil. However, because fixed voltage supplies are
generally used as the input to the coils, the required variable current is
often obtained by an electronic circuit. This can control the average value
of the voltage, and hence current, by varying the time for which the
constant DC voltage is switched on (PWM). A PLC might thus control the
speed of rotation of a motor by controlling the electronic circuit used to
control the width of the voltage pulses.
4- Stepper Motors
The stepper or stepping motor is a motor that produces rotation through
equal angles, the so-called steps, for each digital pulse supplied to its input.

To drive a stepper motor so

that it proceeds step by step
it is required that each pair
of stator coils to be switched
on and off in the required
sequence when the input is a
sequence of pulses. The PLC
can provide the required
pulses.
B- Analog Outputs
Analog output are used in applications requiring the control of analog
devices that respond to continuous voltage or current levels.

As mentioned earlier, a PLC processor can only interpret digital binary

numbers. So, a digital-to-analog converter (D/A) is needed to change
the PLC’s data from a binary value to an analog signal that can be
understood by analog output devices.
Examples of Applications

The following are some examples of control systems designed to

illustrate the use of a range of input and output devices.

1- A Conveyor Belt

Consider a conveyor belt that is to be used to transport goods from a

loading machine to a packaging area. When an item is loaded onto the
conveyor belt, a contact switch might be used to indicate that the item
is on the belt and to start the conveyor motor. The motor then has to
keep running until the item reaches the far end of the conveyor and
falls off into the packaging area. When it does this, a switch might be
activated that has the effect of switching off the conveyor motor.
2- A Robot Control System
The figure shows how directional control valves can be used for a control
system of a robot. When there is an input to solenoid A of valve 1, the piston
moves to the right and causes the gripper to close. If solenoid B is energized
with A deenergized, the piston moves to the left and the gripper opens. When
both solenoids are deenergized, no air passes to either side of the piston in the
cylinder and the piston keeps its position without change. Likewise, inputs to
the solenoids of valve 2 are used to extend or retract the arm. Inputs to the
solenoids of valve 3 are used to move the arm up or down. Inputs to the
solenoids of valve 4 are used to rotate the base in either a clockwise or
anticlockwise direction.
3- A Liquid-Level Monitoring

The figure shows a method that could be

used to give an on/off signal when the
liquid in a container reaches a critical
level. A magnetic float, a ring circling the
sensor probe, falls as the liquid level falls
and opens a reed switch when the critical
level is reached. The reed switch is in
series with a 39 Ω resistor so that this is
switched in parallel with a 1 kΩ resistor
by the action of the reed switch. Opening
the reed switch thus increases the
resistance from about 37 Ω to 1 kΩ. Such
a resistance change can be transformed
by signal conditioning to give suitable
on/off signals.