URD AN ETA CITY

UN IVERS ITY
Owned and operated by the City Government of Urdaneta
COLLEGE OF P HARMACY

PHYSICAL PHARMACY
MODULE 2: STATES OF MATTER – Forces of Attraction / The Gaseous State

Learning outcomes
1. Understand the nature of the intra- and intermolecular forces that are involved in stabilizing molecular and
physical structures.
2. Understand the differences in these forces and their relevance to different types of molecules
3. Perform calculations involving ideal gas law, molecular weights, vapor pressure, boiling points, kinetic
molecular theory, Clausius-Clapeyron equation, heats of fusion and melting points, and the phase rule
equations,
4. Understand the different states of matter.
5. Describe the gaseous, liquid and solid states, crystallinity, solvates, and polymorphism
6. Understand phase equilibria and phase transitions between the three states of matter
Topics:
1. Binding forces between molecules
2. States of matter
3. Transition State
Forces of Attraction
1. Intermolecular Bonding
 Are binding forces in order that the molecules will exist as aggregates in gases, liquid and solids.
 This bonding is largely governed by electron orbital interaction (between molecules)
 Covalency is not established here.
Manifestations of intermolecular forces:
a. Cohesion – attraction between like molecules
b. Adhesion – attraction between unlike molecules
Repulsive and Attractive Forces
When molecules interact, both repulsive and attractive forces operate. As two atoms are brought closer
together, the opposite charges and binding forces in the two molecules are closer together than the similar
charges and forces, causing the molecules to attract one another. When the molecules are brought together
so close that the outer charge clouds touch, they repel each other like rigid elastic bodies.
Repulsion –is a reaction between two molecules that forces them apart.

 Repulsion is needed because attraction must be balanced energetically favoring a certain

arrangement in space.
 It causes a decrease in attraction when molecules are moving closer together. Repulsion increases
so the molecules will move a little further and therefore attain stability.

Attractive forces are necessary for molecules to cohere whereas repulsive forces act to prevent the
molecules to interpenetrate or annihilate each other,
 2. Intramolecular bonding
 Energies found in covalent bonds
Importance of knowledge of these forces
1. To understand properties of gases, liquids and solids
2. To understand interfacial phenomena
3. To understand flocculation and suspension
4. To understand compaction of powders
5. To understand compression of granules to make tablets
Types of attractive intermolecular forces
1. Van der Waals Forces-
Relate to nonionic interaction between molecules, yet they involve charge-charge interaction

Van der Waals interaction- are weak forces that involves the dispersion of charge across a molecule called
the dipole (permanent dipole)

Types of Van der Waals Forces

a. Dipole-dipole or Keesom forces – weak attractions associated to a large molecule.
b. Dipole-induced dipole or Debye interactions- permanent dipoles are capable of inducing an
electric dipole in non-polar molecules (which are easily polarizable)
c. Induced dipole-induced dipole or London forces - induce polarity of nonpolar
molecule.

2. Ion-Dipole Interaction – type of interactions account in part for the solubility of ionic
crystalline substances in water. Example: NaCl
 3. Ion-Induced Dipole Interaction – are presumably involved in the formation of the iodide
complex like KI3

4. Hydrogen Bonds - interaction between a molecule containing a hydrogen atom and a

strongly electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen is of
particular interest.

States of Matter
A. The Gaseous state
Properties of gases:
 No definite shape and volume
 Possess compressibility and thermal expansion
 Occupy volumes that depend sensitively on the external variables, pressure and temperature
 Special attention must therefore be given to factors influencing the volume of gases.
 Vigorous and rapid motion and resultant collisions
 They exert pressure – a force per unit area – expressed in dynes/cm3
Pressure is also recorded in atmospheres or in mm of Hg
Normal Atmospheric pressure
Pressure approximately equal to the average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. Pressure is
equivalent to the pressure exerted by the mass of a column of mercury, 760 mm high at 0oC
P = height of column of Hg x density of Hg x gravitational acceleration.
P = 0.76 m Hg x 13595.1 x 0.806665 m/s2 = 101325 M/m2

Standard Conditions:
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) = denote a temperature of 0oC (273 K) and normal
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg).

How to change atmosphere (atm) to mm Hg and vice versa

1 atm = 760 mm Hg E.g. convert 250 mm to atm; 0.9 atm to mmHg

 atm = 1 atm x 250 mm = 0.3289 atm;
760 mm

mm Hg = 0.9 atm x 760 = 684 mm Hg

1 atm
o
C to K = oC + 273

Gas Laws
At sufficiently low pressures and high temperature, all gases have been found to obey 3 simple
laws. These laws relate the volume of a gas to the pressure and temperature.
A gas which obeys these laws is called an IDEAL GAS or PERFECT GAS and follows the
IDEAL GAS Law.
Applied only to gases which do not undergo change in chemical complexity when temperature or
pressure is varied.

1. Boyle’s Law = temperature is kept constant, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas varies
inversely with the pressure to which the gas is subjected.
1
v∝
P
V= volume; p = pressure; ∝ = proportional to

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 = original of gas; V1 = original volume; P2 = new pressure; V2= new volume

2. Charles Law = at constant pressure, the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the
absolute temperature (K)

v1 v2
=
T1 T 2
V1 = original volume; T1 = original temperature in degrees Kelvin; V2 = new volume; T2
new temperature (absolute or Kelvin)

3. Guy- Lussac’s Law = at constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature (Kelvin) degree

P 1 P2
=
T1 T2
P1 = original pressure (atm or mm Hg); T1 = original temperature (absolute/Kelvin); P2 = new
pressure;
T2 = new temperature

4. General Gas Law = any two of the three laws can be employed to derive the general gas law which
applies to all possible combinations.

P 1 v1 P 2 V 2
=
T1 T2

5. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures = the total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures of the components. The partial pressure of a component of a gas mixture is
the pressure which that component would exert if alone occupied the entire volume.
PT = P1 + P2 +P3 …….

The Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT
P = atmosphere
V = liters
n = no. of moles
T= temperature in Kelvin or Absolute
R = 0.0821 liter -atm
Mole K
 Density of a gas
As the volume of a gas increases, the mass per unit volume (Density) decreases proportionally,
therefore, the density of a gas varies inversely with its volume. It follows that the density of a gas varies
inversely with the absolute temperature and directly with the pressure. This can be written as follows:
❑
TI P2
D 2=D 1 x ×
T 2 P2

Kinetic Theory of gases

1. A gas is composed of minute particles called molecules. For any particular gas, all molecules
have the same mass and shape.
2. The molecules of a gas are in a state of ceaseless, chaotic motion during which they collide with
each other and with the sides of the container.
3. The phenomenon known as pressure is caused by collisions of the molecules with the sides of the
container.
4. Collisions between molecules (and the sides of the container) must be perfectly elastic (no kinetic
energy is lost due to friction) since the pressure does not decrease with time.
5. At low pressures the molecules are so far apart that the intermolecular attractive forces which
decreases as the distances between molecules increase) may be considered negligible.
6. At low pressures the volume occupied by the molecules may be considered negligible compared
to the volume of the container.

The absolute temperature of a gas is a function only of the average kinetic energy of all molecules.
Problems:
1. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 10 liters and a pressure of 1 atm. What is the new pressure if the
volume is decreased to 3Liters?
2. A sample of Neon gas at 760 mm Hg has a volume of 12 liters and a temperature of 44oC. find the new
volume of the gas after the temperature has been increased to 85oC at 760 mm Hg pressure.
3. Suppose a can of insecticide with a pressure of 4 atm at room temperature (28oC) is thrown into a fire. If
the temperature of the gas inside the can reaches 400oC, what will be the pressure? Would you expect the
can to explode if the maximum safe pressure is 8 atm?
4. A 30 ml bubble is released from a divers air tank at a pressure of 45 atm and a temperature of 15oC. what is
the volume of the bubble when it reaches the ocean surface where the pressure is at 1 atm and the
temperature is 20oC?
5. Calculate the pressure exerted by o.3 mole of a gas contained in an 8 L vessel at 18oC