Parallelism refers to using similar words, clauses, phrases, sentence structure,

or other grammatical elements to emphasize similar ideas in a sentence. It makes

the sentence concise, clear, and easy to read.Parallel structure is important
especially in items in a series, paired items, and items in an outline or list.

Below are examples of sentences that are parallel and sentences that are not.

Not parallel: The business accepts cash, credit cards, and you can even pay with a
check.
Parallel: The business accepts cash, credit cards, and checks.

Not parallel: She aspires to finish college, and becoming an accountant would be
another goal.
Parallel: She aspires to finish college and become an accountant.

Not parallel: Lily likes eating M&Ms and to binge-watch series on Netflix.
Parallel: Lily likes eating M&Ms and binge-watching series on Netflix.
Parallel: Lily likes to eat M&Ms and to binge-watch series on Netflix.

Parallel structure should be used for items in a series, and be sure that three or
more items are separated by commas. A comma should never go after the last item.
The series can consist of words, phrases, or clauses.

Examples:

Every Tuesday Sheila has chemistry, anatomy, and sociology. (three words)
Inadequate drainage, heavy rains, and leaky plumbing can all contribute to a weak
foundation. (three phrases)
Some projects students will complete throughout the semester include interviewing
an elder, designing an exercise routine, and leading a group activity in the nursing
home. (three clauses)

Use parallelism when connecting ideas with a coordinating conjunction (paired

items).

Examples:

There are three reasons everyone should exercise:

To increase strength and endurance
To maintain or lose weight
To prevent heart disease

Types of kidney stones

Calcium
Uric acid
Struvite
Cystine
Sentence Fragments
Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences
that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to
correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause.
Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.

Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or
words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is
frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the main clause.

Fragment: Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical,

and industrial engineering.
Possible Revision: Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical,
chemical, and industrial engineering.

Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the
middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in
the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.

Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working
out too well.
Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't
working out too well.

Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why
we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.
Possible Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it
stands, we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a
dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding
main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional journalistic practice,
often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing
situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.

Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached
to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

No main verb

Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.

Possible Revisions:
Direct object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
Appositive: Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts and
emotions, has impressed critics for decades.
Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
Possible Revisions:
Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.

Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.

Possible Revisions:
Direct object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you
were first hired
Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

No Subject

Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.

Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling
to propose innovative policies.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader
unwilling to propose innovative policies.

Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed
constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way
(often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the
object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as
the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually
the easiest way to edit such errors.
 Composition Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide

What is composition writing?

Composition can mean two things. It can mean a piece of writing, or it can

mean the art and process of writing. Composition isn’t a specific type of

writing like an essay or a blog post. Instead, it’s a broad term that can refer to

any (usually nonfiction) work and how a piece is written. Under the first

definition, you might be asked to write a composition for class. Using the

second definition, somebody might refer to “the essay’s composition” to

discuss the format and word choice its author used. A composition is not the

same as an essay. Here’s one area where the definition of composition writing

can be confusing—an essay is a kind of composition, but the terms aren’t

interchangeable. Every essay is a composition, but not every composition is

an essay. A composition can also be a book report, a presentation, a short

response to a reading assignment, or a research paper.

The four modes of composition

There are four types of composition:

 Description

 Exposition

 Narration

 Argumentation

Do these sound familiar?

They’re the four types of writing. Essentially, the definition of “composition

writing” is the tone and structure a writer uses to express their position. When

a composition is a work of fiction, its author typically chooses the composition

mode that best expresses the work’s theme. Think of each of these as a
composition writing format. You might use more than one of these

composition modes in a single piece of writing.

A description is a piece of writing that makes a clear statement about its

subject. Here is an example of a description:

Water, chemical symbol H2O, is a clear, colorless liquid that has a freezing

point of 0 degrees Celsius and a boiling point of 100 degrees Celsius. Water

is the most abundant atom in our atmosphere. All life-forms on Earth need

water.

A description doesn’t speculate or offer up opinions or interpretations. It

simply states the facts.

Exposition is an interpretation of the facts. It expands on a description by

introducing additional facts that shed light on how the subject fits into a larger

discussion. It might explore related facts and what they imply and/or pivot to

related topics through thoughtful transition sentences and extrapolation. It’s

still grounded in fact; an exposition doesn’t include its author’s opinions on the

subject. Take a look at this example:

Although water is the most abundant atom in our atmosphere, entire regions

are devastated by yearly droughts. These droughts can lead to mass

starvation due to crop loss. Switching to more sustainable agricultural

practices can reduce the impact of droughts, and doing this successfully

requires cooperation between governments and corporations.

Narration is the mode of writing that presents the author’s point of view. The

writing is still about its subject rather than its author, but it discusses and

explores the subject through the author’s description of their experience. Here

is an example of narrative writing:

I’ve always had a healthy respect for water, and I’d say that comes from an

experience with it I had as a small child. It was a delightful summer day and

my family decided to take the boat out. But then the sky suddenly turned gray,

and our delightful summer day became a terrifying summer thunderstorm,

with forceful winds pushing the boat as my brother and I tried to bail the

pooling rainwater out with buckets.

See how this example is about the author’s thoughts and feelings about

water, whereas description and exposition stick to objective facts? Personal

essays are perhaps the most common type of narration composition.

The last type, argumentation, isn’t really argumentative. Rather, it’s similar to

a persuasive essay. In an argumentation composition, the writer presents two

or more positions on an issue and, through a logical exploration of each,

demonstrates why one position is the best choice. Take a look at this

example:

Researchers have identified multiple strategies we can use to prevent

droughts. These include rainwater harvesting, desalination, switching to

renewable energy sources, and combating deforestation. These strategies

have different success rates . . .

In this example, the writer would go on to compare these different drought

prevention strategies and their recorded success rates.

When do you write a composition?

You might be asked to write a composition as part of a composition writing

course. It’s not uncommon for students to be required to take courses that

focus solely on composition writing, often early on in their college careers, to

prepare them for the writing they’ll do in other courses later.

Your instructor might also assign you to write a composition when the

assignment doesn’t quite fit the parameters of an essay or other established

academic writing format. This might be because the assignment is primarily to

give your opinion or perspective rather than support a specific position with

evidence. You might also be asked to write a composition as a way to practice

writing in one of the compositional modes we discussed above.

How to write a composition in 5 steps

As we mentioned above, composition writing is a broad subject. There is no

specific composition writing format, nor are you limited to any specific

composition writing topics.

If your composition is an essay—and often, this is the case—follow the

standard essay format unless your instructor tells you to follow a different

format.

Composition writing follows the same writing process as every other kind of

writing. Here are the steps:

1Brainstorm

Before you can start writing, you need to figure out what you’re going to write

about! When you brainstorm, that’s exactly what you do. Take some time to

think about your subject, the compositional mode you’re writing in, and the
sources you’re using (if your assignment requires sources) to support your

position.

Jot down every idea, relevant fact, and connection you come across. You can

also give freewriting a try as you brainstorm to see how your mind wanders

through your subject and sources. Take your time with brainstorming because

this is the stage where you might come across the perfect topic sentence and

make connections among sources you might not have realized before.

2 Outline

The next step in the writing process is creating an outline. This is a basic

framework for your composition.

An outline helps you organize your composition by giving you a visual

overview of its flow. Depending on your assignment and instructor, you might

be required to submit your outline and have it approved before moving

forward with your composition. Even if you aren’t, it can be very helpful to

create an outline so you have something to follow and refer to when writing

and editing.

3 First draft

Finally, it’s time to do some composition writing!

Using your brainstorming notes and outline, write your composition. Keep in

mind that you don’t have to write it in order—in fact, it can be helpful to start

with whichever part you find easiest to write, like the conclusion or one of the

supporting paragraphs, and build it out from there.

Don’t worry too much about making grammatical mistakes at this stage. You’ll

fix those when you edit your draft. Similarly, if a sentence or paragraph feels

awkward, out of place, or otherwise not quite right, don’t dwell on it now. That,

too, is something you’ll smooth out when you edit. When you’re writing your

first draft, just focus on getting the words out of your brain and into your

composition.

If you didn’t come up with a title when you brainstormed or outlined, you might

be able to write a clever one once you have a finished draft.

4 Edit

With the first draft down, give yourself a break. You’re a better editor when

you come back to your work with fresh eyes, so take a few hours—ideally,

twenty-four hours or so—to work on other projects or spend some time

relaxing.

Once your break is over, read your draft again. Take note of all the

grammatical mistakes and which words, sentences, and paragraphs feel off.

Grammarly can help you catch mistakes at this stage.

Beyond any small edits like changing word choices, fixing grammatical

mistakes, and smoothing out transitions between sentences and sections,

look at the bigger picture. Try to see if there are any logical fallacies in your

work or if there are areas where you can dive deeper into your subject. Editing

is a holistic process, so pay attention to all the parts of your composition and

how they work together.

Through the editing process, you’ll end up with a second draft. At this stage,

you’re almost ready to submit your work.

5 Proofread

After editing your work, proofread it! This is the last look-over before you

submit your composition to your instructor.

At this stage, you’re primarily focused on catching any grammar, syntax,

or spelling mistakes that can be fixed easily. When you edited your work, you

did the heavy lifting of transforming a first draft into a second draft. Through

that stage, you might have added new sentences or reworked existing ones.

At this stage, check and see if you made any mistakes in those new

sentences or if you overlooked any mistakes in lines you kept from the first

draft.

Let Grammarly have another look at it too. Grammarly makes suggestions

you can use to make your work stronger, like offering fixes to grammatical

mistakes and ways you can make your work’s tone more cohesive.

After proofreading your work and fixing any mistakes, you’ve got a finished,

ready-to-submit second draft! The only thing left to do is turn it in to your

instructor and wait for their feedback.

Composition writing FAQs

What is composition writing?

Composition writing is the organization and process of creating a piece of

writing. It broadly refers to all the kinds of writing a student may be assigned,

which are typically types of writing like essays and reports.

What are the different kinds of composition?

 The four kinds of composition are:

 Description

 Exposition

 Narration

 Argumentation

How is composition writing structured?

There is no specific composition writing format. However, compositions

typically follow a similar format as essays. Most compositions begin with an

introduction that includes the work’s thesis, which is then followed by

supporting paragraphs containing evidence from the sources the writer used

in their research. After these supporting paragraphs, most compositions end

with a conclusion that reiterates each point made and offers a new, final

thought on the subject.

Rules on Punctuation
1. Comma (,)

a. Use commas to separate independent clauses in a sentence.

Example: The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave. Yesterday was

her brother’s birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

b. Use commas after introductory words, phrases, or clauses that come

before the main clause.

Examples: While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door. If you are ill, you

ought to see a doctor.

c. Use a pair of commas to separate an aside from the main body of the

sentence.

Example: John and Mim, the couple from next door, are coming for dinner

tonight.

d. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the

month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in

names.

e. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

Example: I said without emotion, “I’ll see you tomorrow.” “I was able,” she

answered, “To complete the assignment.”

2. Period (.)

a. The primary use of a period is to end a sentence.

Example: It is very important for your professional growth.

b. Its second important use is for abbreviations.

Examples: M.A., Mr. Jasim was happy to see his wife.

3. Question Mark (?)

It goes at the end of a sentence which is a question.

Examples: What can you do for the company? How can you be an asset? Are

you happy?

4. Exclamation Point (!)

This is used in ending extreme emotions expressed in a sentence.

Example: Ouch! Fire! Fire!

5. Quotation marks (“ ”)

a. Quotation marks are used to quote another person’s words exactly,

whether they be spoken, or written.

Examples: Jitu said, “We are going shopping.” Nitu said, “I have done it.”

b. Quotation marks are used to denote irony or sarcasm, or to note something

unusual about it.

Example: The great march of “progress” has left millions impoverished and

hungry.
6. Colon (:)

a. Colon is used after a complete statement in order to introduce one or more

directly related ideas, such as a series of directions, a list, or a quotation or

other comment illustrating or explaining the statement.

Example: The daily newspaper contains four sections: news, sports,

entertainment, and classified ads.

b. Colon is used to separate chapter and verse from the bible or to separate

hours, minutes, and seconds

Example: John 1:212. 09:25:12

7. Semicolon (;)

a. Use a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound

sentences.

Example: Jim worked hard to earn his degree; consequently, he was certain

to achieve a distinction. Jane overslept by three hours; she was going to be

late for work again.

b. Used to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already

include commas.

8. Apostrophe (’)

a. to form possessives of nouns.

Example: the boy’s hat. three day’s journey

b. to show the omission of letters.

Example: He’ll go = He will go. could’ve = could have

c. to form plurals.

Example: Mind your p’s and q’s.

9. Parentheses ( )

Occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a

sentence.

10. Hyphen or dash (-)

a. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective

before a noun.

Example: chocolate-covered peanuts, Two-storey house

b. Use a hyphen with compound numbers.

Example: Forty-five, Sixty-two

c. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the

suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or

letters.

Example: ex-husband, T-shirt

d. Use the dash to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment;

but don’t overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact; typically represented

on a computer by two hyphens with no spaces before, after, or between the

hyphens.

Example: To some of you, my proposals may seem radical – even

revolutionary.

e. Used for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.

Example: The boys–Jim, John, and Jamal–left the party early.

Exercise Use the capital letter and punctuation marks in the following

sentences.