MODULE 2

INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After careful study of this chapter you should be able to do the following:
✓ Describe the basic kinematic relationships between position, velocity,
acceleration, and time.
✓ Solve problems using these basic kinematic relationships and calculus or
graphical methods.
✓ Define position, velocity, and acceleration in terms of Cartesian, tangential
and normal, and radial and transverse coordinates.
✓ Analyze the relative motion of multiple particles by using a translating
coordinate system.
✓ Determine the motion of a particle that depends on the motion of another
particle.
✓ Determine which coordinate system is most appropriate for solving a
curvilinear kinematics problem.
✓ Calculate the position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle undergoing
curvilinear motion using Cartesian, tangential and normal, and radial and
transverse coordinates.

2.a RECTILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES

A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion.

2.a.1. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Position
The straight-line path of a particle will be defined using a single coordinate
axis x. The origin O on the path is a fixed point, and from this point the position
coordinate x is used to specify the location of the particle P at any given instant.
The magnitude of x is the distance from O to the particle’s position P, usually
measured in meters (m) or feet (ft), and the sense of direction is defined by the
algebraic sign on x.

x = +5m x’ = -2m

Fig. 1. Position is measured from a fixed origin.

(a) A positive position coordinate; (b) a negative position coordinate.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 1

 Displacement
The displacement of the particle is defined as the change in its position. For
example, if the particle moves from one point to another, Fig. 2, the displacement
is
∆𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ − 𝑥

𝑥′

Fig. 2. A small displacement ∆x from

time t to time t + ∆t.

Velocity
If the particle moves through a displacement ∆𝑥 during the time interval ∆𝑡,
the average velocity of the particle during this time interval is

∆𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝑡

If we take smaller and smaller values of ∆𝑡, the magnitude of ∆𝑥 becomes

smaller and smaller. Consequently, the instantaneous velocity is a vector defined
as
∆𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Observing that the limit of the quotient is equal, by definition, to the

derivative of 𝑥 with respect to 𝑡, we have

Velocity of a particle along a line

𝒅𝒙
𝒗=
𝒅𝒕

If we use SI units, the average velocity and instantaneous velocity are expressed in
meters per second (m/s). If we use U.S. customary units, the average velocity and
instantaneous velocity are expressed in feet per second (ft/s).

A positive value of 𝑣 indicates that 𝑥 increases, i.e., that the particle moves in the
positive direction (Fig. 3a). A negative value of 𝑣 indicates that 𝑥 decreases, i.e.,
that the particle moves in the negative direction (Fig. 3b).

Fig. 3. Velocity can be only (a) positive or (b) negative along the line.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 2

 Speed
It is the magnitude of the velocity and it is generally expressed in units
of m/s or ft/s.

Acceleration
Consider the velocity 𝑣 of the particle at time 𝑡 and also its velocity 𝑣 + ∆𝑣 at
a later time 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 (Fig. 4). We define the average acceleration of the particle over
the time interval ∆𝑡 as the quotient of ∆𝑣 and ∆𝑡 as

∆𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ; ∆𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ − 𝑣
∆𝑡

Fig. 4. A change in velocity from 𝒗 to 𝒗 + ∆𝒗 corresponding to a change in time

from 𝒕 to 𝒕 + ∆𝒕.

The instantaneous acceleration at time 𝑡 is a vector that is found by taking

smaller and smaller values of ∆𝑡 and corresponding smaller and smaller values of
∆𝑣,

∆𝑣
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The limit of the quotient, which is by definition the derivative of 𝑣 with respect
to 𝑡, measures the rate of change of the velocity. We have

Acceleration of a particle along a line

𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐

If we use SI units, the average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration

are expressed in m/s2. If we use U.S. customary units, the average acceleration and
instantaneous acceleration are expressed in ft/s2.

Sometimes we use the term deceleration to refer to 𝑎 when the speed of the
particle (i.e., the magnitude of 𝑣) decreases; the particle is then moving more
slowly.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 3

 Fig. 5. Velocity and acceleration can be in the same or different directions.
(a, d) When 𝑎 and 𝑣 are in the same direction, the particle speeds up;
(b, c) when 𝑎 and 𝑣 are in opposite directions, the particle slows down.

Concept Application

Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume that its position is
defined by
𝑥 = 6𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3
where 𝑡 is in seconds and 𝑥 in meters.

We can obtain the velocity 𝑣 at any time 𝑡 by differentiating 𝑥 with respect to 𝑡 as,
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 12𝑡 − 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
We can obtain the acceleration 𝑎 by differentiating again with respect to 𝑡.
Hence,
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 12 − 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Motion Curves

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 4

 Fig. 6. Graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration
as functions of time for Concept Application

2.a.2. Determining the Motion of a Particle

Let us consider three (3) common classes of motion:
1. Acceleration is a given function of time [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒕)]

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑎= 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑥𝑜 𝑡𝑜
𝑡 𝑡
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

𝒗 = 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒕)

2. Acceleration is a given function of x [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒙)]

𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎= 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑥
𝑑𝑣 න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑥𝑜 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑎 𝑣
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 2 1 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = න 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝑥𝑜 𝑓𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝒗 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡 = න
𝑣
𝑡𝑜 𝑥𝑜 𝑓(𝑥)
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
= 𝒕 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒂 𝒗

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 5

 3. Acceleration is a given function of v [𝒂 = 𝒇(𝒗)]

𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑎= 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑓(𝑣) = 𝑓(𝑣) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓(𝑣) 𝑓(𝑣)
𝑡 𝑣 𝑥 𝑣
𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
න 𝑑𝑡 = න න 𝑑𝑥 = න
𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑓(𝑣) 𝑥𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑓(𝑣)

𝒕 = 𝒇(𝒗) 𝒗 = 𝒇(𝒙)

Sample Problem 1:
The position of a particle moving along a straight line is defined by the
relation 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 − 15𝑡 + 40, where 𝑥 is expressed in feet and 𝑡 in seconds.
Determine (a) the time at which the velocity is zero, (b) the position and distance
traveled by the particle at that time, (c) the acceleration of the particle at that
time, (d) the distance traveled by the particle from 𝑡 = 4𝑠 to 𝑡 = 6𝑠.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 6

 Sample Problem 2:
You throw a ball vertically upward with a velocity of 10 m/s from a window
located 20m above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of the ball is
constant and equal to 9.81 m/s2 downward, determine (a) the velocity 𝑣 and
elevation 𝑦 of the ball above the ground at any time 𝑡, (b) the highest elevation
reached by the ball and the corresponding value of 𝑡, (c) the time when the ball
hits the ground and the corresponding velocity. Draw the 𝑣 − 𝑡 and 𝑦 − 𝑡 curves.

2.b SPECIAL CASES AND RELATIVE MOTION

In this section, we derive the equations that describe uniform rectilinear
motion and uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion. We also introduce the
concept of relative motion, which is of fundamental importance whenever we
consider the motion of more than one particle at the same time.

2.b.1 Uniform Rectilinear Motion

Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of straight-line motion that is frequently
encountered in practical applications.
𝒂 = 𝟎 (Acceleration of the particle)
∴ 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝒅𝒙
= 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 7

 By integrating the equation, position coordinate can be obtained: (Initial value of
𝑥 be 𝑥𝑜 )

Distance in Uniform Rectilinear Motion

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑜
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑣𝑡

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑣𝑡

*This equation can be used only if the velocity of the particle is known to be
constant.

2.b.2 Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is another common type of motion.
𝒂 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (Acceleration of the particle)

𝒅𝒗
= 𝒂 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕

We obtain the velocity 𝑣 of the particle by integrating this equation as

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜 0
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑡

𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕

Substituting for 𝑣, we have

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡
න 𝑑𝑥 = න ( 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑜 0
1
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 + 𝒗𝒐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 8

 Also, using the equation,

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑎 𝑣
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑥
න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 න 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑜 𝑥𝑜

1 2
(𝑣 − 𝑣0 2 ) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
2
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )

The three equations we have derived provide useful relations among

position, velocity, and time in the case of constant acceleration, once you
have provided appropriate values for 𝑎, 𝑣𝑜 and 𝑥𝑜 . An important application
of uniformly accelerated motion is the motion of a body in free fall. The
acceleration of a body in free fall (usually denoted by g) is equal to 9.81 m/s2
or 32.2 ft/s2 (we ignore air resistance in this case).

It is important to keep in mind that the three equations can be used

only when the acceleration of the particle is known to be constant.

2.b.3 Motion of Several Particles

When several particles move independently along the same line, you can
write independent equations of motion for each particle.

Relative Motion of Two Particles

Consider two particles A and B moving along the same straight line.

If we measure the position coordinates 𝑥𝐴 and 𝑥𝐵 from the same origin, the
difference 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 defines the relative position coordinate of B with respect to A,
which is denoted by 𝑥𝐵/𝐴 .

Relative Position of Two Particles

𝒙𝑩/𝑨 = 𝒙𝑩 − 𝒙𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒙𝑩 = 𝒙𝑨 + 𝒙𝑩/𝑨

Regardless of the positions of A and B with respect to the origin, a positive

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 9

 sign for 𝑥𝐵/𝐴 means that B is to the right of A, and a negative sign means
that B is to the left of A.

The rate of change of 𝑥𝐵/𝐴 is known as the relative velocity of B with respect to A
and is denoted by 𝑣𝐵/𝐴. Differentiating the previous equation of position, we obtain

Relative Velocity of Two Particles

𝒗𝑩/𝑨 = 𝒗𝑩 − 𝒗𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒗𝑩/𝑨

A positive sign for 𝒗𝑩/𝑨 means that B is observed from A to move in the positive
direction; a negative sign means that it is observed to move in the negative
direction.

The rate of change of 𝒗𝑩/𝑨 is known as the relative acceleration of B with respect to
A and is denoted by 𝒂𝑩/𝑨. Differentiating the previous equation of velocity, we
obtain

Relative Acceleration of Two Particles

𝒂𝑩/𝑨 = 𝒂𝑩 − 𝒂𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝒂𝑩/𝑨

Dependent Motion of Particles

Sometimes, the position of a particle depends upon the position of another
particle or of several other particles. These motions are called dependent.

For example, the position of block B depends upon the position of block A.

Since the rope ACDEFG is of constant length, and since the lengths of the portions
of rope CD and EF wrapped around the pulleys remain constant, it follows that the
sum of the lengths of the segments AC, DE, and FG is constant. Observing that the
length of the segment AC differs from 𝑥𝐴 only by a constant and that, similarly, the
lengths of the segments DE and FG differ from 𝑥𝐵 only by a constant, we have

𝒙𝑨 + 𝟐𝒙𝑩 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Since only one of the two coordinates 𝑥𝐴 and 𝑥𝐵 can be chosen arbitrarily, we say
that the system shown has one degree of freedom. From the relation between the

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 10

 position coordinates 𝑥𝐴 and 𝑥𝐵 , it follows that if 𝑥𝐴 is given an increment ∆𝑥𝐴 ––that is,
if block A is lowered by an amount ∆𝑥𝐴 ––the coordinate 𝑥𝐵 receives an increment
1
∆𝑥𝐵 = − ∆𝑥𝐴 . In other words, block B rises by half the same amount.
2

In the case of the three blocks, we can again observe that the length of the rope
that passes over the pulleys is constant.

The following relation must be satisfied by the position coordinates of the three
blocks:
𝟐𝒙𝑨 + 𝟐𝒙𝑩 + 𝒙𝑪 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Since two of the coordinates can be chosen arbitrarily, we say that the system
shown has two degrees of freedom.

When the relation existing between the position coordinates of several particles is
linear, a similar relation holds between the velocities and between the
accelerations of the particles.

We can differentiate the position equation twice and obtain

𝒅𝒙𝑨 𝒅𝒙𝑩 𝒅𝒙𝑪

𝟐 +𝟐 + = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝒗𝑨 + 𝟐𝒗𝑩 + 𝒗𝑪 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒗𝑨 𝒅𝒗𝑩 𝒅𝒗𝑪

𝟐 +𝟐 + = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝒂𝑨 + 𝟐𝒂𝑩 + 𝒂𝑪 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Sample Problem 3:
In an elevator shaft, a ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 18
m/s from a height of 12 m above ground. At the same instant, an open-platform
elevator passes the 5-m level, moving upward with a constant velocity of 2 m/s.
Determine (a) when and where the ball hits the elevator (b) the relative velocity of
the ball with respect to the elevator when the ball hits the elevator.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 11

 Sample Problem 4:
Car A is travelling at a constant 90 mi/h when she passes a parked police officer B,
who gives chase when the car passes her. The officer accelerates at a constant
rate until she reaches the speed of 105 mi/h. Thereafter, her speed remains
constant. The police officer catches the car 3 mi from her starting point. Determine
the initial acceleration of the police officer.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 12

 Sample Problem 5:
Collar A and block B are connected by a cable passing over three pulleys C, D,
and E as shown. Pulleys C and E are fixed, but D is attached to a collar that is pulled
downward with a constant velocity of 3 in/s. At t 5 0, collar A starts moving
downward from position K with a constant acceleration and no initial velocity.
Knowing that the velocity of collar A is 12 in/s as it passes through point L, determine
the change in elevation, the velocity, and the acceleration of block B when collar
A passes through L.

ES 102 – DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARIEL A. DE VERA 13