Go, change the

RV College of world
Engineering

CONTROL ENGINEERING
(18AS62)
Department of Aerospace Engineering
R V College of Engineering
Bangalore
 Go, change the
RV College of world
Engineering

UNIT-4
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
COURSE COORDINATOR

Dr. Promio Charles F

Associate Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
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CONTENTS
1. Magnitude and phase,
2. Frequency response of higher order systems,
3. Bode Plot
4. Polar Plot
5. Nichols Plot,
6. Bandwidth,
7. Nyquist stability criterion,
8. Gain and phase margins.
9. Standard control actions: Proportional control, steady state error constants, system type, tracking control and
integral control, lag compensator, transient response improvement and derivative control, lead compensators.

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Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

R V College of Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

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Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

R V College of Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

R V College of Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

R V College of Engineering

Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore

R V College of Engineering

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What is a Bode Plot

A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system
engineering to determine the stability of a control system. A Bode
plot maps the frequency response of the system through two
graphs – the Bode magnitude plot (expressing the magnitude in
decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in
degrees).

Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s by Hendrik Wade

Bode, while he was working at Bell Labs in the United States.
Although Bode plots offer a relatively simple method to calculate
system stability, they can not handle transfer functions with right
half plane singularities (unlike Nyquist stability criterion).
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Gain Margin

The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system. The
gain margin refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.

We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the
diagram above). This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the
magnitude curve (on the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the frequency
where the Bode phase plot = 180°. This point is known as the phase crossover
frequency.

It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same
things. In fact, the Gain Margin is the negative of the gain (in decibels, dB).
This will make sense when we look at the Gain margin formula.
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GAIN MARGIN FORMULA

The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:

Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis
of the magnitude plot at the phase crossover frequency.

In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20. Hence using our
formula for gain margin, the gain margin is equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB
(unstable).

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Phase Margin

The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the system.
The phase margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be increased or
decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase
in degrees.

We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in
the diagram above). This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the
phase curve (on the Bode phase plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the
Bode magnitude plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.

It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not the
same things. This will make sense when we look at the phase margin
formula.
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PHASE MARGIN FORMULA

The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:

Where  is the phase lag (a number less than 0). This is the phase as read from
the vertical axis of the phase plot at the gain crossover frequency.

In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°. Hence using our
formula for phase margin, the phase margin is equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9°
(unstable).

As another example, if an amplifier’s open-loop gain crosses 0 dB at a frequency

where the phase lag is -120°, then the phase lag -120°. Hence the phase margin of
this feedback system is -120° – (-180°) = 60° (stable).
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BODE PLOT STABILITY

Below is a summarized list of criterion relevant to drawing Bode plots (and

calculating their stability):

1. Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the
system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
2. Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of
the system. It refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without
making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in phase.

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3. Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the

magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.
4. Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve
cuts the negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
5. Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet
each other is known as break frequency or corner frequency.
6. Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (jω)
has a peak value is known as the resonant frequency.

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7. Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of various
factors like constant term K, Integral factors (jω), first-order factors
(1+jωT)(± n) where n is an integer, second-order or quadratic factors.
8. Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each
factor is expressed in the dB per decade.
9. Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each
factor is expressed in the degrees.

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Now there are some results that one should remember in order to plot the Bode curve.
These results are written below:
1. Constant term K: This factor has a slope of zero dB per decade. There is no corner
frequency corresponding to this constant term. The phase angle associated with this
constant term is also zero.
2. Integral factor 1/(jω)n: This factor has a slope of -20 × n (where n is an integer)dB per
decade. There is no corner frequency corresponding to this integral factor. The phase
angle associated with this integral factor is -90 × n. Here n is also an integer.
3. First order factor 1/ (1+jωT): This factor has a slope of -20 dB per decade. The corner
frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second. The phase angle
associated with this first factor is -tan– 1(ωT).

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4. First order factor (1+jωT): This factor has a slope of 20 dB per decade. The corner
frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second. The phase angle
associated with this first factor is tan– 1(ωT) .
5. Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2ζ/ω)} × (jω) + {(1/ω2)} × (jω)2)]: This factor
has a slope of -40 dB per decade. The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is
ωn radian per second. The phase angle associated with this first factor is

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HOW TO DRAW BODE PLOT

Keeping all the above points in mind, we are able to draw a Bode plot for any kind of control system. Now let
us discuss the procedure of drawing a Bode plot:

1. Substitute the s = jω in the open loop transfer function G(s) × H(s).

2. Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.
3. Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency range such that the plot should start with
the frequency which is lower than the lowest corner frequency. Mark angular frequencies on the x-axis,
mark slopes on the left hand side of the y-axis by marking a zero slope in the middle and on the right hand
side mark phase angle by taking -180o in the middle.
4. Calculate the gain factor and the type of order of the system.
5. Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.

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For drawing the Bode magnitude plot:

 Mark the corner frequency on the semi-log graph paper.

 Tabulate these factors moving from top to bottom in the given sequence.
1. Constant term K.
2. Integral factor
3. First order factor
4. First order factor (1+jωT).
5. Second order or quadratic factor:
 Now sketch the line with the help of the corresponding slope of the given factor.
 Change the slope at every corner frequency by adding the slope of the next factor. You will get the
magnitude plot.
 Calculate the gain margin.

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For drawing the Bode Phase plot:

1. Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors.

2. Substitute various values to the above function in order to find out
the phase at different points and plot a curve. You will get a phase
curve.
3. Calculate the phase margin.

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Bode Stability Criterion

Stability conditions are given below:
1. For a Stable System: Both the margins should be positive or
phase margin should be greater than the gain margin.
2. For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins should be zero
or phase margin should be equal to the gain margin.
3. For Unstable System: If any of them is negative or phase
margin should be less than the gain margin.

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 R V College of Engineering Advantages of a Bode Plot
1. It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple
method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
2. The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can
be treated as an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we
are using a logarithmic scale.
3. With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the
system without doing any calculations.
4. Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase
margin.
5. It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.
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 R V College of Engineering Advantages of a Bode Plot
1. It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple
method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
2. The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can
be treated as an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we
are using a logarithmic scale.
3. With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the
system without doing any calculations.
4. Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase
margin.
5. It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.
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Bode Plot: Example 1

Here, we will be sketching the bode plot of the system

using Semi-log graph by plotting magnitude plot,
phase plot, and also by identifying gain cross over
frequency and phase cross over frequency

Note: Bode plot is a frequency response plot, where the response depends on the
frequency. Hence, both magnitude and phase depends on frequency, as shown in the
generic plot above.
Important: Once the question is given, first check whether it is in the time constant form,
that exists in the form of

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Step 1: Convert the given system in terms of (j) – Frequency domain. Thus, replace ‘s’ by (j)
Here, our focus is to find the Magnitude of the given
system. For this we have identify the Corner
frequencies.
We know that the frequency and time period are
inversely proportional. Thus we can identify the time
period from Time constant form and then we can arrive
in getting the corner frequencies

For the given problem in the frequency domain,

we get two corner frequencies. Also there is a
need in identifying, the number of terms in the
given transfer function,

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How to find the slope required for Bode plot?

• If ‘s’ is in the numerator, the slope value is 20
• If ‘s’ is in the denominator, the slope value is -20,
• Similarly all slopes can be obtained as shown in
the table

Note: Always arrange the corner frequency in the

ascending order
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TO FIND THE AMPLITUDE

After getting the corner frequencies and slopes, we have to choose lower and higher corner frequencies,
except the value ‘1’, which may lead to zero value (i.e. log(1) = 0). Hence 0.1 and 2.5 is chosen, respectively.

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With the obtained corner frequencies and Amplitude, we have to represent the same in Semi-log plot.
X- Axis (Frequency)
Here all the ones should be replaced
with the powers of 10 (In semi log plot).
Since we have selected the first
frequency as 0.1, the plot will start from
the value 0.1 followed by 1,10,100, …..

Y- Axis (Magnitude)
Choose and indicate the appropriate
values in the graph as per the Amplitude
values obtained.

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TO FIND THE PHASE ANGLE

The next step is to identify the phase angle of the transfer function ()

 Since there are three terms and the first term corresponds to (1/s), then we have the phase angle for the
first term to be -90. and if ‘s’ is there in the numerator, then phase angle will be+90 degree.
 Similarly, (1/s2) corresponds to -180 and if s2 is in the numerator, it will have the values +180 degree.

Therefore, Phase angle =  = First term (1) +Second Term(2) + Third Term (3)

But the second term has the complex number (a+ib). Hence the phase angle for complex term can be
identified by tan-1(b/a). If the complex term is in the denominator, the corresponding phase angle
will have negative value and if it is there on the numerator, it is considered to have positive angle.

Therefore, the overall expression for Phase angle is given by:

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In order to have the phase angle plot more precise, addition to the corner frequencies considered,
few more frequency values are incorporated to get the smooth phase angle curve.
Hence, using the expression the corresponding values of phase angle is calculated and plotted.
Other side of the Y-axis in the Semi-log chart is used as Phase angle information. Also for magnitude
plot, scale is used to connect the points, whereas, free hand drawing is used for drawing phase plot.

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TO FIND GAIN CROSSOVER AND PHASE CROSS OVER FREQUENCY

Gain cross over frequency

corresponds to the
magnitude value crossing 0
dB line (gc = 5 rad/sec)

Similarly the phase cross

over frequency corresponds
to the phase value crossing
the 180 line (pc = 5.5
rad/sec)

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Here, you will be understanding

1.What is a Polar Plot

2.Generating Polar plot from Type and order of the System

3.The effect of adding pole to a system

4.Effect of adding Zero to a System

Polar plot is the graph between Magnitude of G(j) and Angle of G(j)
Remember Magnitude is varied from 0 to ∞
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Identifying the type and order of the system

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Identifying the Magnitude and Phase angle expression:

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Varying the Magnitude and Phase angle values from 0 to infinity:

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In order to draw the graph, we should understand, that the graph will have starting and ending point:

Starting point is determined by the Type of system and the ending point is determined by the Order of the
system

Note: In polar graph, the angle is taken positive in anticlockwise direction.

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INFLUENCE OF ADDING POLES

Effect of adding pole to the system: Only the ending point will be affected.

If we are adding a Pole to the system, then our ending will shift by angle -90

If we are adding a Zero to the system, then our ending will shift by an angle +90

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P
O
L
A
R

G
R
A
P
H

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 How to sketch polar plot in the graph sheet and also to detail
R V College of Engineering the procedure in obtaining the Gain and phase Margin

Problem 2: Polar plot is the graph between

Magnitude of G(j) and Angle of G(j)

Identify Corner frequency

Increase the number of corner frequencies just below the upper limit

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Polar plot can be plotted in two graphs
1. Polar Graph (In the form of 𝒂ȁ𝒃
2. Rectangular Graph (X- axis is Real part and Y- axis is Imaginary part) – (a+ib)

Polar Graph

Converted

Rectangular Graph

Use Calculator to
convert
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As the values are very small, precise scaling is considered

This is the Polar plot, and from this we have to
identify the Gain margin and Phase margin.

Step 1: Draw a unit circle using compass

(As 1.0 as the radius).

Step 2: In polar plot, the angle is positive

in anti-clockwise direction, hence mark
the angles as -90,-180,-270 and 0.

Step 3: Observe the Polar plot and identify

the location it is crossing 180. The distance
between the origin and this location is
GR(j)

Step 4: The inverse value of GR(j) is the

Gain margin.

Step 5: The expression of Phase angle:

(r ) = 180 + gc Department of Aerospace Engineering, Bangalore
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Step 6: From the origin identify the location, where

the polar plot meets the Unit Circle.

Step 7: Draw the line from origin to this point and

measure the angle in anti-clockwise direction.

Step 8: The measured angle is the gc

Step 9: Therefore the Phase margin is 180 + gc

= 180 – 168 = 12

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Validation by Drawing the model graph
Note: If there are only poles in the system, we can use this method,

From the given problem, it is clear that it is Type-1 system and having order value of 3 (If gives rise to s3 term)

The generic model graph for both Type and Order is shown below:
Therefore the model graph will start from Type-1 and end in order-3.

Validation through Model Graph

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Nyquist Plot is used to determine the Stability of the closed loop system from the given Open
loop system

Nyquist Plot is the extension of Polar plot

Objectives:
To Draw the Nyquist Plot and to determine the stability of the system

Example 1: Draw the Nyquist plot and determine the Stability of the system given below

For the given open loop system, the poles are identified from the denominator. i.e. s=-1 and +1.
Plotting this in the S-plane, shows that the system is unstable. However, we have to check for its stability
in the closed loop system.
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For the Open loop system we mark the poles in the S-plane and identify whether the system is stable or
not. However to check for Closed loop system, the characteristic equation is obtained and to check the
stability of the closed loop system, it is recommended to have the plot in GH-plane.

Hence, there is a need to transform the S-plane to GH-plane, which is called as Mapping. For this
purpose, we will be using Nyquist Contour.
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Since the given problem in open loop is unstable, we are going to consider the entire right side of the S-
plane, dividing it into 3 regions (C1, C2 and C3)
C1 =  varied from 0 to infinity.
C2 = Right half Circle = Rejθ (R = Radius of the Circle and θ is the angle) – From the polar plot it moves from +90
to -90
C3 =  varied - ∞ (Minus Infinity) to 0.

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TO GET THE PHASE ANGLE

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MAGNITUDE AND PHASE ANGLE WHEN =0 and Infinity

=2
 =0
= -180

=0
=∞
Plotting Region 1 (C1) in GH plane
= -90

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Plotting Region-2 (C2) in GH plane

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Plotting Region-2 (C2) in GH plane

Mirror of the Region-1 is Region-3

Combining all the Nyquist plot, we get

After getting the Nyquist plot, we have to find the

Stability
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The expression that is used to study the stability is N = P – Z

Note: In S-plane, the origin is 0, but while plotting the Nyquist plot, we can observe that the origin
will be (-1+j0)

Where N = Number of encirclement about the point

P = Number of poles on the RHS (From OLS)
Z = Number of Zeros on the RHS (From CLS)

Therefore Z = P – N
Z=1–1=0

If there are no Zeros on the RHS, then the Closed loop system is stable.

Though the Open Loop System is UNSTABLE, we can see that the Closed Loop System is STABLE.

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 Constant magnitude loci that are M-circles and constant phase angle loci that are N-circles are the
fundamental components in designing the Nichols chart.
 The constant M and constant N circles in G (jω) plane can be used for the analysis and design of
control systems.
 However the constant M and constant N circles in gain phase plane are prepared for system design
and analysis as these plots supply information with fewer manipulations.
 Gain phase plane is the graph having gain in decibel along the ordinate (vertical axis) and phase
angle along the abscissa (horizontal axis).
 The M and N circles of G (jω) in the gain phase plane are transformed into M and N contours in
rectangular co-ordinates.
 A point on the constant M loci in G (jω) plane is transferred to gain phase plane by drawing the
vector directed from the origin of G (jω) plane to a particular point on M circle and then
measuring the length in db and angle in degree.
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 The critical point in G (jω), plane corresponds to the point of zero decibel and -180o in the gain
phase plane. Plot of M and N circles in gain phase plane is known as Nichols chart /plot.
 The Nichols plot is named after the American engineer N.B Nichols who formulated this plot.
 Compensators can be designed using Nichols plot. Nichols plot technique is however also used in
designing of dc motor. This is used in signal processing and control design.
 Nyquist plot in complex plane shows how phase of transfer function and frequency variation of
magnitude are related.We can find out the gain and phase for a given frequency.
 Angle of positive real axis determines the phase and distance from origin of complex plane
determines the gain. There are some advantages of Nichols plot in control system engineering. They
are:
Gain and phase margin can be determined easily and also graphically.
Closed loop frequency response is obtained from open loop frequency response.

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1 • Introduction.

2 • Frequency Response Definition.

3 • Bode Plot Definition.

4 • Frequency Response Plot.

5 • Viewpoints of analyzing control system behavior.

6 • Logarithmic coordinate.

7 • Bode Plot Construction.

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What is frequency response of a system?

 The frequency response of a system is

defined as the steady-state response of the
system to a sinusoidal input signal.
 The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and
the resulting output signal for a linear
system, as well as signals throughout the
system, is sinusoidal in the steady-state.
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What is Bode Plot?

Bode Plot is a (semi log) plot of the
transfer function magnitude and
phase angle as a function of
frequency.
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Polar Plots
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• The transfer function can be separated into magnitude

and phase angle information
H(j) = |H(j)| Φ(j)
e.g., H(j)=Z(j)
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Viewpoints of analyzing
control system behavior
• Routh-Hurwitz ( s    j )
• Root locus
( s    j )
• Bode diagram (plots)
• Nyquist plots ( s  j )
• Nicols plots ( s  j )
• Time domain
( s  j )
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r (t )  A sin t y (t )  B sin( t   )
L.T.I system

Magnitude: B Phase: 
A
r (t ) y (t )
G(s)
＋
－ Steady state response
H(s)

Y ( s) G( s)

R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
s    j  s  j

Magnitude:
G ( j ) Phase: G( j )
1  G ( j ) H ( j ) [1  G( j ) H ( j )]
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2 2
Decade : dec  log 10 Octave : oct  log 2
1 1
dB


1 2 3 4 10 20 100
• The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of
decibels (dB)
dB = 20 log10 A
where A is the amplitude or gain
– a decade is defined as any 10-to-1 frequency range
– an octave is any 2-to-1 frequency range
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Y (s) k ( s  z1 )( s  z 2 ) 

R ( s ) ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( s 2  as  b) 
Case I : k GH (dB)

Magnitude:

0.1 1 10
k dB  20 log k (dB)
GH
Phase: 180 0

 0 900
o
,k  0
k   o 
180 ,k  0
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1
Case II :
sp
GH (dB)
Magnitude: p2

1 p 1
( j ) p
 20 p log  (dB ) 
dB 0.1 1 10

GH
Phase:

1 900

( j ) p
 (90o )  p
p 1

 900
p2
 180 0
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Case III : p
s
p2
GH (dB) p 1
Magnitude:

( j ) p
dB
 20 p log  (dB) 
0.1 1 10

GH
Phase: 0
p2
180
0
p 1
90
( j )  (90 )  p 
p o

 900
 180 0
 a 1
CaseofIVEngineering
R V College : or ( s  1) 1
( s  a) a
a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j ) 1  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  [20 log   20 log a] 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  0  tan
0


a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a

  a     GH   tan 1   90o
a
 ( s  a)
Case Vof: Engineering
R V College 1
or ( s  1)
a a a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j )  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  20 log   20 log a 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  tan

a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a

  a     GH  tan 1   90o
a
R V College of Engineering
  2
CaseofVIEngineering
R V College : T ( s)  2 n
s  2n s   n2
 n2 2n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
( n   2 )  2 jn ( n   2 )
2 2


2
1 n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
 2   2
(1  ( ) )  j 2 1 ( )
n n n

  
 1 ,  1
 0 ,
n
  n  0 0

   
T ( j )    20 log( 2 ) ,  1 T ( j )    90 , 1
0

 n  180 o  n
    
  40 log( ) ,  1 ,  1
  n  n n
R V College of Engineering

  n
R V College of Engineering
Example : 50(s  2)
T (s ) 
s (s  10)

1 s  2 10
T ( s )  10( )( )( )
s 2 s  10
R V College of Engineering
R V College of Engineering k ( s  z1 ) 
Minimum phase system T ( s)  n , zi  0, pi  0
s ( s  p1 ) 
Type 0 : (i.e. n=0)
0dB/dec
GH (dB)
k p p1
T (s) 
( s  p1 ) A


20 log K p  A 0.1 p1 p1 10 p1
R V College of Engineering
Type I : (i.e. n=1)

k v p1 -20dB/dec
T (s)  GH (dB)
s ( s  p1 )
A

20 log K v  A 0
10 p1

0.1 p1 1 p1

Kv
20 log  0dB -40dB/dec
j 0
 0  k v
R V College of Engineering
Type 2 : (i.e. n=2)
-40dB/dec

k a p1
T ( s)  2 GH (dB)
s ( s  p1 )
A

20 log K a  A
0

0.1 p1 1 p1 10 p1

Ka
20 log  0dB -60dB/dec
( j 0 ) 2

0  ka
2
R V College of Engineering

Relative Stability
A transfer function is called minimum phase when all the poles and zeroes are
LHP and non-minimum-phase when there are RHP poles or zeroes.

Minimum phase system Stable

The gain margin (GM) is the distance on the bode magnitude plot from
the amplitude at the phase crossover frequency up to the 0 dB point.
GM=-(dB of GH measured at the phase crossover frequency)

The phase margin (PM) is the distance from -180 up to the phase at the
gain crossover frequency. PM=180+phase of GH measured at the gain
crossover frequency
R V College of Engineering
Open loop transfer function : G ( s) H ( s)
Closed-loop transfer function : 1  G (s) H (s)

Open loop Stability  poles ofG ( s ) H ( s ) in LHP

Im

Closed-loop Stability  RHP

poles of in left side of (-1,0)
G ( s) H ( s)
Re
(1,0) (0,0)
R V College of Engineering
 0dB
GH (dB) (1,0)  
  180 0

g  Gain crossover frequency: g

G.M.>0 phase crossover frequency: p

GH
180 0
Stable system
0
90

 900
P.M.>0 p
 180 0
R V College of Engineering
GH (dB)
G.M.<0
Unstable system
g


GH
180 0 Stable system
900

 900
p
 180 0
P.M.<0
Unstable system
R V College of Engineering
R V College of Engineering

• Straight-line approximations of the Bode plot may be

drawn quickly from knowing the poles and zeroes
• response approaches a minimum near the zeroes
• response approaches a maximum near the poles

• The overall effect of constant, zero and pole terms

Term Magnitude Asymptotic Asymptotic
Break Magnitude Slope Phase Shift

Constant (K) N/A 0 0

Zero upward +20 dB/decade + 90
Pole downward –20 dB/decade – 90
R V College of Engineering

• Express the transfer function in standard form

H ( j ) 
 
K  j  (1  j 1 ) 1  2 2 ( j 2 )  ( j 2 ) 2 
N

 
(1  j a ) 1  2 b ( j b )  ( j b ) 2 

• There are four different factors:

• Constant gain term, K
• Poles or zeroes at the origin, (j)±N
• Poles or zeroes of the form (1+ j)
• Quadratic poles or zeroes of the form 1+2(j)+(j)2
R V College of Engineering

• We can combine the constant gain term (K) and the N

pole(s) or zero(s) at the origin such that the magnitude
crosses 0 dB at
K
Pole :   K 1/ N

( j ) N
0 dB

Zero : K ( j ) N  0 dB  (1 / K )1 / N

• Define the break frequency to be at ω=1/ with

magnitude at ±3 dB and phase at ±45°
R V College of Engineering

Magnitude Behavior Phase Behavior

Factor Low Break Asymptotic Low Break Asymptotic
Freq Freq

Constant 20 log10(K) for all frequencies 0 for all frequencies

Poles or ±20N dB/decade for all ±90(N) for all frequencies
zeros at origin frequencies with a crossover of
0 dB at ω=1
First order 0 dB ±3N dB ±20N 0 ±45(N) with ±90(N)
(simple) poles at ω=1/ dB/decade slope ±45(N)
or zeros per decade
Quadratic 0 dB see ζ at ±40N 0 ±90(N) ±180(N)
poles or zeros ω=1/ dB/decade

where N is the number of roots of value τ

R V College of Engineering

SINGLE POLE & ZERO BODE PLOTS

Gain ωp Gain ωz

0 dB +20 dB

–20 dB 0 dB
ω ω
Phase One Phase One
Decade Decade
0° +90°

–45° +45°

–90° 0°
ω ω

Pole at Assume K=1 Zero at

ωp=1/ 20 log10(K) = 0 dB ωz=1/
R V College of Engineering

• Further refinement of the magnitude characteristic for

first order poles and zeros is possible since
Magnitude at half break frequency:|H(½b)| = ±1 dB
Magnitude at break frequency: |H(b)| = ±3 dB
Magnitude at twice break frequency: |H(2b)| = ±7 dB

• Second order poles (and zeros) require that the

damping ratio ( value) be taken into account; see Fig.
9-30 in textbook
R V College of Engineering

• We can also take the Bode plot and extract the transfer
function from it (although in reality there will be error
associated with our extracting information from the
graph)
• First, determine the constant gain factor, K
• Next, move from lowest to highest frequency noting the
appearance and order of the poles and zeros
R V College of Engineering
Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles (Graphical Construction)

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

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Frequency Response Plots

Bode Plots – Real Poles

R V Gain andofPhase
College Margin
Engineering

Let's say that we have the following system:

where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration.

The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to
make the system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand
greater changes in system parameters before becoming unstable in closed
loop. Keep in mind that unity gain in magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in
dB

The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required
to make a closed loop system unstable.

The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -
180 deg at the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of
0dB (the gain cross over frequency, Wgc).

Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve
and 0dB at the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of
-180 deg (the phase cross over frequency, Wpc).
R V College of Engineering
Gain and Phase Margin

-180
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Examples - Bode
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Examples - Bode
R V College of Engineering
Examples – Bode