\

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

There are a number of books on this subject which have been written by many
specialists , both on the continent and also in U . S. A . These books are more or less like
reference works for the use of practising engineers in the profession as these books
are based on standard specifications of design of respective countries . As text - books
for young engineering students, they are , of course , very valuable , when the course
calls for a study of few subjects and the syllabus demands study in the subject of
specialization , as in foreign Universities . They are also prohibitively costly for our
Indian students preparing for various examinations of the Universities in India . For
such students , this book is a boon .
This book presents the basic principles involved in the design of reinforced concrete
structures . It is written completely in SI units and based on latest revision of IS : 456-
1978 . The material presented in the book covers the syllabus of most of the Indian
Universities. The principles of design are explained with numerous examples and neat
sketches in a manner of drawings for work at site . Supplementary details are included
to provide the practical knowledge of design . The use of design aids is also emphasized .
It also includes exercise problems at the end of each chapter and objective type
questions with answers at the end of the book .
Generally , now - a - days , the elastic theory of design is not followed in practice
except for deflection and crack width calculations, and where the design methods of
limit state are not available e . g. liquid retaining structures. However , the elastic
theory of design is a basic one and the beginners must learn it ; because of this, in
most of the Universities , elastic theory is taught first. It is believed by the author that
after understanding the basic principles of analysis and design by an elastic theory ,
the student should learn the complicated elements like different types of footings ,
frames, retaining walls , etc., directly using the limit state method . This book is written
as a first course in reinforced concrete analysis and design. Therefore , simple concrete
elements are considered with practical details.
Suggestions to improve the usefulness of the book are most welcome .
Baroda H. J. SHAH
SECOND EDITION
Encouraged by the excellent response of the first edition , I have the pleasure to
introduce this second edition within a very short period . This edition is thoroughly
revised and enlarged with the inclusion of the following six new chapters:
1 . Properties of Materials
2 . Structural Concrete
3 . Retaining Walls
4 . Water Tanks
5 . Formwork
6 . Detailing of Reinforcement .
These new chapters are added to make the reader conversant with the basic concrete
technology , basic retaining structures , site supervision and practical drawings , etc .
Calculations of deflection and crack width are included as they are assuming greater
importance with the use of higher grade steel day - by - day.
I have also taken the opportunity to present substantial new material in the existing
chapters in a logical and meticulous manner. Besides this :
About 52 typical fully solved new problems are distributed in almost all the
chapters.
About 110 neat and clean drawings are added at the prominent places.
About 100 Questions with answers are included in Appendix B .
vm Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

I am thankful to Shri L. N . Shah , retired lecturer of M . S. University of Baroda , for

going through the typescript; and to Shri Ramanbhai C. Patel , Anand , for his assistance
for the tedious task of proof - checking. I am especially grateful to numerous professors
from various Engineering Degree Colleges and Polytechnic Institutions, who have sent
to me their valuable suggestions to make the book most up - to - date . I am highly
obliged to all of them for their kind co - operation and also for recommending the book
to their students.
It is hoped that with the above additions this book will be found more useful to
the teachers and the students alike .
Suggestions to improve the utility of the book are most welcome .
Baroda . .
H J SHAH
January 26, 1987
SIXTH EDITION
This edition has been thoroughly revised adding plenty of new matter , examples
and figures incorporating the latest code IS : 456 - 2000. The text matter also has been
revised and enlarged to incorporate a few revised and newly added clauses of the code .
Since concrete having minimum grade M 20 has been accepted as structural concrete
by the code , it became necessary to revise almost all the examples of the previous
edition .
To complete this volume to be known as “ Elementary Reinforced Concrete ” , the
following chapters are expunged from Volume II and after revising them according to
the new standards, they are accommodated here in Volume I :
Design of foundations
Fundamentals Isolated footings Combined footings Pile foundations
Retaining walls
Formwork
Detailing of reinforcement .
I hope that this ameliorated enhanced Volume I will be accepted as a complete
book on “ Elementary Reinforced Concrete” . The Volume II of this book is planned to be
known as wAdvanced Reinforced Concrete” which is under active preparation .
In spite of all the pains taken , it is possible that some errors may have escaped
our attention . We shall be grateful if they are brought to our notice by sending
e - mail at charotar @ cphbooks. com , so that they can be corrected in subsequent edition .
We strongly urge the readers to send their comments , suggestions and opinions to
enhance the utility of the book .
Vadodara DR. H. J. SHAH
August 24 , 2005
EIGHTH EDITION
In this edition the errors which had inadvertently crept - in , in the subject matter
and also in the figures previously , have been rectified .
I take this opportunity to express my grateful appreciation and sincere thanks to
all the friends for sending their valuable suggestions to improve the text - matter and
also to the students for their magificent responce to the book .
I shall feel obliged to receive comments, suggestions and opinions from the readers
to enhance the utility of the book .
Vadodara DR. H . J. SHAH
August 24 , 2009
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With the kind blessings , bestowed on me by Mata Saraswati , the Goddess of
knowledge, I have been able to write this book .
I am sincerely thankful to Shri Ashwin Dhabalia, consulting structural engineer
of Vadodara for his valuable comments, my student Mr. Ajit Sant who checked the
final proofs of the book and a number of teachers , students and practising
engineers who gave their valuable suggestions to enhance the utility of the book .
The author is thankful to Mr. Nikhil Bhavsar for preparing excellent computer
aided drawings .
I am especially thankful to Shri Ramanbhai C . Patel and Mr. Pradeep R . Patel
of Charotar Publishing House for undertaking the dreary task of checking the
proofs , Mr. Bhavin R. Patel and their well experienced staff of Charotar Associates
for Laser Typesetting which they have done with great care and enthusiasm .
I am equally indebted to Rev. Br. S. Abril , Rev. Br. M . Eneriz, Fr. Agnelo and
their good staff of the Anand Press for the excellent work done by them in
bringing out this volume .
The author gratefully acknowledg es the Indian Standards , 9, Bahadur Shah
Zafar Marg, New Delhi 110 002, for giving permission to include extracts from
various Indian Standards .
The publications of Bureau of Indian Standards are available for sale from
Bureau of Indian Standards , New Delhi and its regional and branch offices at
Amdavad , Bangalore , Bhopal , Bhubaneshw ar, Calcutta, Chandigarh, Chennai ,
Coimbatore, Faridabad , Ghaziabad , Guwahati , Hyderabad , Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow ,
Mumbai , Nagpur , Patna , Pune , Rajkot and Thiruvanant hapuram .
Finally I am greatly indebted to my wife Harsha and my daughter Nirali for
their constant help and encourageme nt while writing this book .
Vadodara DR . HITEN J . SHAH
August 24 , 2005

/
 •
>

CONTENTS IN BRIEF
CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION 1- 7

CHAPTER 02 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 8 -52

CHAPTER 03 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE 53 - 90

CHAPTER 04 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE : FUNDAMENTALS 91- 104

CHAPTER 05 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE: WORKING STRESS METHOD . 105 - 169

CHAPTER 06 LIMIT STATE METHOD 170 - 248

CHAPTER 07 SHEAR AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTH 249 -308

CHAPTER 08 DEFLECTION AND CRACKING 309 -333

CHAPTER 09 SIMPLY SUPPORTED AND CANTILEVER BEAMS 334 -376

CHAPTER 10 SIMPLY SUPPORTED AND CANTILEVER SLABS 377- 412

CHAPTER 11 CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND SLABS 413- 461

CHAPTER 12 TORSION 462 - 480

CHAPTER 13 STAIRS 481-504

CHAPTER 14 LOAD CALCULATIONS 1 - -

505 519

CHAPTER 15 SIMPLE DESIGNS 520-558

CHAPTER 16 FRAMED BEAMS 559-585

CHAPTER 17 COLUMNS 586 - 664

CHAPTER 18 DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS: FUNDAMENTALS 665- 689

CHAPTER 19 ISOLATED FOOTINGS 690- 732

CHAPTER 20 COMBINED FOOTINGS 733 - 780

CHAPTER 21 PILE FOUNDATIONS 781- 808

CHAPTER 22 RETAINING WALLS 809- 857

CHAPTER 23 FORMWORK 858-878

CHAPTER 24 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT 879 - 886

APPENDIX A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS 887- 915

APPENDIX B USEFUL TABLES 916-922

INDEX 923 -928

 DETAILED CONTENTS

1-7
CHAPTE R 1 INTROD UCTION 1
1 - 1. Structura l design-Role of a structura l engineer
2
1 - 2 . Reinforce d concrete
3
-
1 3. Structura l elements
1- 4 . Loads on structure
4
5
1 -5. Ductility versus brittlenes s
5
1 -6. Strength and serviceab ility
6
1 -7. Methods of design
7
1 -8. Codes of practice
7
1 - 9. Adaptati on of SI units
7
QUESTI ONS I
8 -52
CHAPTE R 2 PROPER TIES OF MATERI ALS
8
2- 1. Constitue nts of concrete
8
CEMEN T
8
2-2. General
8
2 -3. Manufact ure of Portland cement
9
2 - 4. Basic chemistr y of cement
10
2-5. Chemical propertie s of cement
12
2 - 6 . Hydratio n of cement
14
2-7. Types of cement
19
2 - 8. Selection of cement for producti on of concrete
19
2 - 9. Tests for cement
20
2- 10. Fineness test
22
2- 11. Consiste ncy of standard cement paste
23
2- 12. Test for setting times
24
2 - 13. Soundne ss test
25
2 - 14. Autoclav e expansio n
25
2 - 15. Density test
26
2 - 16. Test for compress ive strength
28
2-17. Heat of hydratio n test
28
2 - 18. Storing of cement
29
AGGREG ATES
29
2- 19. Introduc tory
29
2 - 20. Aggrega te size
30
2-21. Fine and coarse aggregat e
31
2 - 22 . Particle shape
31
2- 23. Surface texture
32
2-24 . Strength of aggregat e
33
2- 25. Specific gravity
34
2 -26 . Bulk density
35
2 - 27. Water absorpti on and surface moisture
35
2 - 28. Bulking of sand
36
2 - 29. Deleterio us substance s in aggregat es
37
2 -30. Soundnes s of aggregat e
37
2-31. Alkali - aggregat e reaction
37
2- 32 . Sieve analysis
39
2-33. Standard grading
41
2 - 34 . Use of grading curves
45
WATER
45
2-35. Water for mixing concrete
45
CHEMIC AL ADMIXT URES 45
2 - 36. Admixtur es
*

Xll Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I

REINFORCEMENT 46
2- 37. Steel as reinforcement 46
2-38. Types of reinforcement 46
2-39. Mild steel bars 46
2- 40. Cold Twisted Deformed ( CTD ) bars . . . . 47
2-41. Thermo - mechanically treated ( TMT ) bars 48
2- 42. Corrosion - resistant steel 48
2 - 43. Hard - drawn steel wire fabric 48
2- 44. Bending and fixing of bars 49
2 - 45. Requirements for reinforcing bars 49
2 - 46. Welding of reinforcement 49
2 - 47. General notes for site engineers 51
QUESTIONS II 51
EXAMPLES II 52

CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE -

53 90
3- 1. Proportioning of ingredients 53
3- 2 . Measurement of materials 55
3-3. Mixing and placing of concrete 56
3- 4 . Compaction 57
3- 5. Curing 57
3- 6. Formwork for R . C . C . members 58
3-7. Workability 58
3-8. Factors influencing workability 62
3- 9. Strength of concrete and water- cement ratio 63
3- 10. Compressive strength of concrete 64
3- 11. Tensile strength of concrete 66
3- 12. Non - destructive tests 69
3- 13. Stress - strain behaviour of concrete under short term loads 69
3- 14. Short term static modulus of elasticity 70
3- 15. Shrinkage 71
3- 16. Creep 72
3- 17. Durability of concrete 74
3- 18. Temperature change 77
3- 19. Concrete quality control 77
3-20 . Sampling and strength tests of concrete 77
3- 21. Statistical analysis of test results 78
3- 22. Standard deviation 82
3- 23. Acceptance criteria 84
QUESTIONS III 89
EXAMPLES III 90
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE : FUNDAMENTALS .. . 91- 104
4 - 1. Introductory 91
4 - 2. Review of theory of simple bending 91
Practical requirements of an R . C . C . beam 92
4 - 4 . Size of the beam 92
4 - 5. Cover to the reinforcement 92
4 -6. Spacing of bars 94
4 -7. Design requirements of a beam 94
4 -8. Classification of beams 96
4 - 9. Effective width of a flanged beam 97
4 - 10 . Balanced , Under- reinforced and Over - reinforced design . . . 99
 Detailed Contents xm

4 - 11. Cracking moment 101

4 - 12 . Bending of an R . C . C. beam 102
4 - 13. Design methods 104

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE: WORKING STRESS METHOD . 105 -169

5- 1. Permissible stresses 105
5- 2 . Modular ratio 106
5- 3. Design for flexure -assumptions 107
SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS 108
5- 4 . Derivation of formulae for balanced design 108
5-5. Transformed area method 114
5- 6 . Types of problems 118
5-7. Analysis of the section 119
5 - 8. Design of the section 128
5- 9. Use of design aids 131
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS 136
5- 10. Introductory 136
5- 11. Derivation of formulae for balanced design 136
5- 12. Transformed area method 137
5- 13. Types of problems 138
5- 14. Use of design aids 146
FLANGED BEAMS 146
5- 15. Moment of resistance of a singly reinforced flanged beam 146
5- 16. Types of problems 148
5- 17. Doubly reinforced flanged beams 158
5- 18. Slabs 166
EXAMPLES V 166

CHAPTER 6 LIMIT STATE METHOD 170 - 248

6- 1. Inelastic behaviour of materials 170
6 - 2. Ultimate load theory 170
6- 3. Limit state method 172
6 - 4 . Limit state of collapse 173
6-5. Limit state of serviceability 173
6- 6 . Characteristic and design values and partial safety factors: 173
6-7. Limit state of collapse: Flexure 175
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS 180
6-8. Derivation of formulae 180
6-9. General values 184
6- 10. Types of problems 185
6- 11. Failure of R . C . C. beam in flexure 195
6- 12. Code provisions to prevent the brittle failure 199
6- 13. Computer programmes 199
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS 207
6- 14. Derivation of formulae 207
6- 15. Types of problems 209
6- 16. Use of design aids 215
6- 17. Computer programmes for doubly reinforced rectangular sections . . . 215
FLANGED BEAMS 224
6- 18. Introductory 224
6- 19. Position of neutral axis 225
6- 20 . Derivation of formulae 225
6-21. Use of design aids 235
xiv Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

6-22 . Doubly reinforced flanged beams 237

6-23. Sections subjected to reversal of moments . 240
6-24 . Computer programmes for flanged sections 242
EXAMPLES VI 247
CHAPTER 7 SHEAR AND DEVELOPME NT LENGTH . 249 - 308
7- 1. Shear in structural members 249
7- 2 . Flexure and shear in homogeneous beam 250
7- 3. Shear in reinforced concrete beams - Elastic theory 251
7- 4 . Diagonal tension and diagonal compression 252
7-5. Limit state theory 253
7- 6. Design shear strength of concrete 254
7-7. Design for shear 256
7-8. Shear reinforcement in beams 257
7- 9 . Practical considerations 260
7- 10. Critical sections for shear 266
7- 11. Design of a complete beam for shear 273
7- 12 . Use of design aids 285
7- 13. Shear design of beams with variable depth 288
DEVELOPME NT LENGTH 293
7- 14. Introductory 293
7- 15. Development length : Pull out test 293
7- 16. Code provision 294
7- 17. Use of bundled bars 294
7- 18. Anchoring reinforcement s 295
7- 19. Bearing stresses at bends 301
7- 20. Reinforcemen t splicing 304
EXAMPLES VII 306
CHAPTER 8 DEFLECTIO N AND CRACKING 309 - 333
DEFLECTIO N 309
8 - 1. Introductory 309
8 - 2 . Span / effective depth ratio 309
8-3. Control of deflection on site 313
8 - 4 . Deflection calculations 315
8 -5 . Short term deflections 315
8 -6 . Long term deflections 320
CRACKING 325
8-7. Introductory 325
8 -8. Bar spacing controls 325
8 -9 . Calculation of crack width 327
EXAMPLES VIII 332
CHAPTER 9 SIMPLY SUPPORTED AND CANTILEVE R BEAMS 334 -376
9- 1. Design procedure 334
9- 2 . Anchorage of bars: Check for development length 334
9-3. Reinforcemen t requirements 336
9 - 4 . Slenderness limits for beams to ensure lateral stability 338
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS 339
9-5. Introductory 339
9-6 . Design S . F. diagram 339
9-7. Curtailment of bars 351
9 - 8. Design of a template 362
 Detailed Contents xv

9- 9. Design of a lintel . . . 365

CANTILEVER BEAMS . . . 369
9- 10. Design considerations 369
EXAMPLES IX 375

CHAPTER 10 SIMPLY SUPPORTED AND CANTILEVER SLABS 377- 412

10 - 1. Introductory 377
10-2. Analysis 379
10-3. One - way spanning slabs 379
10 - 4. Simply supported one - way slab 382
10-5. Detailing of slabs 394
10 -6. Inclined slabs 397
10 -7. Straight slabs having a small length inclined along the span 399
10 -8. Cantilever slab 401
10 -9. Concentrated load on slabs 406
10 - 10. Two - way slabs 407
10- 11. Simply supported two - way slabs 407
EXAMPLES X 411

CHAPTER 11 CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND SLABS 413-461

CONTINUOUS BEAMS 413
11 - 1. Introductory 413
11 - 2. Analysis parameters 414
11 -3. Live load arrangements 415
11 - 4. Redistribution of moment 416
11-5. Reinforcement requirements 420
11-6. Typical continuous beam details 421
11-7. Flexure design considerations 421
11-8. Simplified analysis for uniform loads 440
11 -9. Moment and shear coefficients for continuous beams 440
CONTINUOUS SLABS 443
11- 10. Continuous one - way slab 443
11 - 11. Restrained two - way slabs 451
EXAMPLES XI 460
CHAPTER 12 TORSION 462 - 480
12-1. General 462
12 - 2. Effect of torsion : Provision of reinforcement 463
12 -3. Code provisions 463
12 - 4. General cases of torsion 468
EXAMPLES XII 480
CHAPTER 13 STAIRS 481-504
13- 1. Stair slabs 481
13- 2. Classification of stairs 481
13-3. Design requirements for stair 482
13- 4. Reducing the span 484
13-5. Tread - riser staircase 500
13-6. Closure 504
EXAMPLES XIII 504

CHAPTER 14 LOAD CALCULATIONS - 1 .. . . 505-519

14 - 1. Introductory 505
14 -2. Loads on slabs 505
14-3. Loading on beams from one - way slabs 509
r*

xvi Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

14- 4. Wall loads and self weight of beams . . 510
14 -5. Loading on beams from two - way slabs 512
14 -6. Unit loads 512
EXAMPLES XIV 519
CHAPTER 15 SIMPLE DESIGNS . -
520 558
15 - 1. Introductory 520
15- 2. Design S. F. diagram 520
15- 3. Loads from two - way slabs 547
EXAMPLES XV 557
CHAPTER 16 FRAMED BEAMS 559 - 585
16- 1. Structural joints 559
16-2. Fixed , cantilever and framed beams 559
16-3. Analysis and design of the framed beams 561
16- 4 . Single span portal frame 563
16-5. Substitute frame 563
EXAMPLES XVI 583
CHAPTER 17 COLUMNS 586 - 664
17-1. Introductory 586
17- 2. Braced and Unbraced columns 586
17-3. -
No Sway and Sway columns 588
17- 4 . Tied , Spiral and Composite columns 588
17-5. Short and Long columns 590
17-6. Reinforcement requirements 591
17-7. Minimum eccentricity 594
17- 8. Assumptions made for design 594
SHORT COLUMNS 594
17-9. Axially loaded tied columns 594
17- 10. Axially loaded spiral columns 596
17- 11 . Short eccentrically loaded columns-uniaxial bending 603
17- 12. Modes of failure in combined axial load and uniaxial bending . . . . 605
17- 13. Types of problems 608
17- 14. The interaction diagram 608
17- 15. Stress block parameters when N . A . lies outside the section 609
17- 16. Construction of interaction diagrams 612
17- 17. Pure axial load 612
17- 18. Axial load with uniaxial moment 612
17- 19. Neutral axis ( N . A.) lies outside the section 613
17- 20. Neutral axis ( N . A . ) lies inside the section 615
17- 21. Charts for compression with bending 616
17- 22 . Tension with bending 618
17-23. Use of interaction diagram 627
17- 24 . Unsymmetrically reinforced columns with uniaxial eccentricity 631
17- 25. Short eccentrically loaded columns : Biaxial bending 638
SLENDER COLUMNS 645
17-26. Slender columns 645
17- 27. Effective length calculations 646
17- 28. Lengths of column 649
17- 29. Design of slender columns 653
17-30. Design and detailing of a practical column 662
EXAMPLES XVII 663
 Detailed Contents XVII

CHAPTER 18 DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS: FUNDAMENTALS 665 - 689

18- 1. Introductory 665
18 -2. Classification of foundations . "
666
18-3. Types of footings 667
18- 4. R . C .C. footings 670
18-5. Aspects of soil design 671
18-6. General soil design considerations 677
18-7. Footing for eccentrically loaded columns 678
18-8. General structural design considerations 681
18-9. Concrete pedestal 682
18- 10. Transfer of load at the base of column 683
EXAMPLES XVIII 688

CHAPTER 19 ISOLATED FOOTINGS 690 - 732

19- 1. Introductory 690
19-2. Wall footings 690
19-3. Axially loaded pad footing 693
19- 4 . Axially loaded sloped footing 699
19-5. Eccentrically loaded footings 712
19-6. Fixing up footing dimensions 713
19-7. Isolated slab and beam type footing 718
19-8. Resistance to horizontal loads 722
19-9. Footing for multi -storeyed building columns 724
EXAMPLES XIX 732

CHAPTER 20 COMBINED FOOTINGS 733 - 780

20- 1. Combined footings 733
20 - 2. Combined footing for two axially loaded columns 734
20 -3. Strap footings 759
20 - 4. Strip footings 764
20 -5. Raft foundation * 769
20 - 6. Closure 780
EXAMPLES XX 780

CHAPTER 21 PILE FOUNDATIONS 781 - 808

21- 1. Introductory 781
21-2. Loads on pile groups 783
21 -3. Soil design of a pile 792
21 -4 . Structural design of a pile . . 794
21 -5. Design of a pile cap 799
EXAMPLES XXI 807

CHAPTER 22 RETAINING WALLS 809 -857

22- 1. Introductory 809
22-2 . Types of retaining walls 809
22-3. Earth pressure on walls 811
22-4 . Calculation of earth pressure 811
22-5. Earth pressure of submerged soil 814
22 -6. Earth pressure due to surcharge . 814
22-7. Drainage of retaining walls 816
22 -8. Stability requirements 816
CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL . . 819
22-9. Preliminary proportioning of cantilever retaining wall 819
22- 10. Design of a cantilever retaining wall 822

J
xvm Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I
COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL 840
22- 11. Counterfort wall 840
22 - 12. Stability and design procedure . 841
EXAMPLES XXII 856
CHAPTER 23 FORMWORK 858- 878
23-1. Introductory 858
23-2. Requirements for good formwork 858
23-3. Materials for forms 859
23-4 . Choice of formwork 860
23-5. Loads on formwork 860
23-6. Permissible stresses for timber 860
23-7. Design of formwork 863
23-8. Shuttering for columns 863
23-9. Shuttering for beam and slab floor . . 866
23- 10 . Practical considerations 873
23- 11. Erection of forms 876
23- 12. Action prior to and during concreting 876
23- 13. Striking of forms 877
EXAMPLES XXIII 878
CHAPTER 24 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT 879 - 886
24 - 1. Introduction 879
24-2. General informations for drawing 879
24 -3. Drafting 879
24 -4 . Columns framing plan and foundation details 881
24 -5. Columns details 885
24 -6. Slabs and beams details 886
24 -7. Closure 886
APPENDIX A SHORT QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS 887- 915
APPENDIX B USEFUL TABLES 916- 922
Table B- l Areas of bars in slabs ( in mm ^ ) 916
Table B - 2 Moment and shear coefficients 917
Table B -3 Reinforcement percentage , pt for singly reinforced sections . . 918
Table B -4 Reinforcement percentages for doubly reinforced sections . . . 919
Table B -5 Limiting moment of resistance factor , Afu umj / (/ck w 2 )
for singly reinforced T- beams , N / mm 2 ^ ^ 920
Table B- 6 Properties of round bars used as reinforcement 921
Table B-7 Design shear strength of concrete Tc , N / mm 2 921
Table B - 8 Maximum shear stress T c , max N / m m 12 921
Table B- 9 Minimum shear reinforcement ( two - legged stirrups) 922
Kus
Table B- 10 Values of —— for two - legged stirrups in N / mm . 922

INDEX 923- 928

 NOTATIONS
[ Standard Symbols from Clause 4 , IS :456 ]
A area M bending moment
b breadth of beam , shorter dimension m modular ratio
of a rectangular column n number of samples
be ( effective width of slab P axial load on a compression member
effective width of flange or a pull
h calculated maximum bearing pressure
K breadth of web or rib %
D overall depth of beam or slab or diameter at the base of a pedestal
of column ; dimension of a rectangular r radius
column in the direction under s spacing of stirrups, standard deviation
consideration T torsional moment
thickness of flange /slab in flanged beam t wall thickness
d effective depth of beam or slab V shear force
d' depth of compression reinforcement w total load
from the highly compressed face WL wind load
DL dead load w v distributed load per unit area / length
Ec modulus of elasticity of concrete w6 distributed dead load per unit area
E modulus of elasticity of steel wt distributed live load per unit area
EL earthquake load x depth of neutral axis ( various subscripts)
e eccentricity Z modulus of section
/ck characteristic compressive strength of £ lever arm
concrete a , P angle or ratio ( various subscripts )
fcr modulus of rupture of concrete ( flexural partial safety factor for load
tensile strength ) Yf partial safety factor for material
fct splitting tensile strength of concrete percentage reduction in moment
/d design strength acbc permissible stress in concrete in bending
f characteristic strength of steel compression
/
4ff effective moment of inertia <4c permissible stress in concrete in direct
moment of inertia of gross section compression
4 r
excluding reinforcement permissible stress in steel in compression
moment of inertia of cracked section
° sc
permissible stress in steel in tension
K stiffness of member
° st
permissible tensile stress in shear
k constant or coefficient or factor
° sv
reinforcement
development length T shear stress
LA bond stress
LL live load or imposed load ^ bd design stress in concrete
/ length of a column or beam between 4 shear
adequate lateral restraints or the .
T c max maximum shear stress in concrete with
shear reinforcement
unsupported length of a column
4f effective span of beam or slab or nominal shear stress
effective length of column <t> diameter of bar
effective length about x - axis
'4 ex
y effective length about y - axis
Other symbols used are:
Ac area of concrete
In clear span , face to face of supports As area of minimum reinforcement or
In / 'n for shorter of the two spans at longitudinal tension reinforcement which
right angles continues at least one effective depth
l* length of shorter side of slab beyond the section
length of longer side of slab A ,c area of compression reinforcement or
b distance between points of zero moments area of longitudinal reinforcement for
la
in a beam columns
span in the direction in which moments area of tension reinforcement
l;
are determined , centre to centre of ^ St
total cross -sectional area of stirrup
supports legs or bent - up bars within a distance
h span transverse to / j , centre to centre equal to spacing of stirrup or bent-
of supports up bar
l>2 for the shorter of the continuous span A .y area of transformed section
*2
 xx Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I
distance of the concentrated load from M1 moment of resistance of the section
the face of the cantilever support assuming all reinforcement at the section
b actual width of an isolated flanged to be stressed to fa

b1
beam or width of slab or footing
centre to centre distance between corner
M
Me 2
A equivalent bending moments
bars in the direction of width Mlc moment of flange area of flanged beam
C, Cc force in concrete in compression , about bottom of a flange
coefficient of flexibility of structure moment of transformed area of steel
Cr reduction coefficient about bottom of a flange in a flanged
C, force in steel in compression beam
Cl constant m metre
d1 centre to centre distance between corner mm millimetre
bars in the direction of the depth N newton
E ce long term modulus of elasticity of P steel percentage , soil pressure
concrete ( various subscripts ) , percentage of
F characteristic load water required to produce a paste of
standard consistency
Ebt tensile force due to design loads in a
bar or group of bars a moment of resistance factor for a
balanced rectangular section
E tc total flange compression in a flanged
beam R reaction at support
As total tension of the steel in flanged beam spacing of stirrups or bent - up bars
/ characteristic strength of material along the length of the member
T tension or total tensile force in steel ,
Ad design bearing stress round the bar
fundamental time period
At actual bearing stress round the bar
TA top anchor bars
fc stress in concrete due to axial
t thickness of member
compression , permissible compressive
stress in timber column VB base shear
/cb stress in concrete in compression due Vc capacity of concrete to resist shear
to bending K capacity of shear reinforcement
W/ c water - cement ratio
Abt calculated stress in concrete in bending
U) distributed load per unit length
tension
At calculated stress in concrete in direct yi long dimension of stirrup
tension ax , ay bending moment coefficient for two -
Ac stress in steel in compression way slabs
strain in the concrete
At stress in steel in tension p
strain in steel in compression
A target mean strength of concrete °sc
e strain in steel in tension
G going of stairs *
h agg maximum size of aggregate P density of cement
hi a tensile stress
height measured from base of building
to any floor i al major principal stress
minor principal stress
/ moment of inertia ( various subscripts ) , °2 permissible stress in concrete in bending
importance factor ^cbt tension
IS Indian Standards
permissible stress in concrete in direct
l radius of gyration ( various subscripts ) ° ct
tension
J lever arm constant
stress in bar at the section considered
*t coefficient for moment of inertia of a
flanged beam
at design load , permissible stress in
steel in direct tension
k neutral axis constant equivalent nominal shear stress
Tve
kN -
kilo newton T
avg average shear stress on the section
kNm -
kilo newton - metre 0 angle, rotation
4> anchorage of bars beyond the centre 6 deflection
of the support unit weight of earth , water , etc. ( various
Y
/ span of beam or slab subscripts )
^Aal moment of resistance of a balanced
rectangular section
#
<t>
diameter of an HYSD steel bar
diameter of a mild steel bar
 INTRODUCTION

1-1. Structural design — Role of a structural engineer: A building or

any structure in general may be built in any way one desires . However , when the
question of building a systematically planned structure arises :
( 1 ) It should satisfy the functional requirements of the client and should be aesthetic,
which needs an Architect.
( 2 ) It should be structurally safe so as to withstand the loads it has to bear , which
needs a Structural engineer.
To achieve the best possible results, both have to work together .
The functional design of the building consists of planning the areas in best possible
way to obtain maximum usage and functions from the building. For a given residential
bungalow, for example, this relates to the proper distribution of the areas to various
rooms and placing them in best possible way so that the users will get maximum
output from the structure . The other services like water supply , plumbing, electrification ,
etc ., also have to be properly planned . The functional design is thus concerned with
overall functions and outlook of the structure . Most users of the structure are directly
concerned with the functional design of the building . The structural design on the
other hand is concerned with the strength of the building and its components .
By providing the functional design , the Architect prepares the useful and beautiful
outlook of the structure whereas the structural engineer provides the design of bones
of the body of the structure .
The general structural frame - work with which a structural engineer is concerned ,
usually consists of load bearing masonry structure , reinforced cement concrete frame
or a steel structure . Many other types of frame - work are also used . The choice of the
type of frame - work depends on site conditions , architectural planning of the building,
economy and safety requirements . Building regulations and client ’s desire also play an
important role in framing the building. In any case the safety of the building is the
ruling factor for the structural design .
The working drawings of a building are prepared by the architect with the help
of the structural engineer.
The general works of the structural engineer are as follows:
( 1 ) Finalizing the frame - work and tentative sizes of beams , columns , etc., considering
the site conditions and structural requirements.
( 2 ) Estimating the loads on structure or a part of the structure by using available
loading standards and his experience . For normal structural works the loading
standard is IS : 875.
( 3) Analysing the structure for shear , moments , axial loads , deflection , etc .
( 4 ) Designing the structural members using results from ( 3) .
( 5 ) Preparing the detailed structural drawings for the work at site .
( 6 ) Checking the work done by the contractor on site when the work is in progress .
In the interest of smooth and proper execution of work , it is essential for the contractor
and the client to get the work checked by the structural engineer frequently.
The job of the structural engineer is challenging and carries a great deal of
responsibility. Thorough knowledge of analysis and design of structure with current
codes of practice, creative ability , confidence and practical experience are required to
get a safe and economical design of the structure .
2 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 1
Different types of designs treated in this book are based on “ Code of Practice for
plain and reinforced concrete IS : 456- 2000 ” and other relevant codes wherever necessary.
Use of design aids is also explained wherever necessary and should be read in conjunction
with SP : 16 - Design aids to IS : 456 .
1- 2 . R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e: Concrete is produced by mixing cement , fine
aggregate ( sand ), coarse aggregate ( kapchi ) and water mixed in a definite proportion .
Fresh concrete is an easily workable plastic mixture and it flows easily so that it can
be placed in the previously made formwork to cast beams , slabs , columns or any
desired shape. The product is then allowed to cure ( refer to art. 3-5 for more details )
for hardening. When reinforcing steel is placed in the forms before fresh concrete is
placed around it , the final solidified mass becomes reinforced concrete .
The advantages of using concrete are as follows:
( 1 ) It has a very high compressive strength. The strength of concrete can be
increased or decreased by using suitable proportions of its ingredients .
( 2 ) It is free from corrosion and weathering effects and hence , superior to other
building materials like wood , steel , etc. In comparison to steel , it is generally
economical . For footings, basement walls, etc., it is the only economical material.
( 3 ) It acts as a good fire proofing material . During the fire of average intensity ,
the structure suffers only the surface damage if the reinforcements are given
proper concrete cover.
( 4 ) It binds with steel so that concrete can be reinforced with steel to form
reinforced concrete .
( 5 ) When proper construction joints are used ; the columns , beams, slabs, etc ., all
act monolithically ( i . e ., acting together as a single piece of stone ) .
( 6 ) It has an ability to be cast in required shape and is produced from cheap and
universally available raw materials .
( 7 ) The structures made out of reinforced concrete are very rigid and have a low
maintenance cost .
( 8 ) It has a very long service life .
( 9 ) The works can be carried out by using lower grade skilled labours .
Concrete has the following limitations:
( 1 ) It is weak in tension and cracks easily when subjected to tensile stresses.
( 2 ) It requires the formwork to be kept for many days. The cost of formwork
varies from 30 to 40 per cent of the total cost.
( 3 ) It leads to larger size members as compared to steel and is uneconomical for
very long spans .
( 4 ) As the concrete is man made material, its properties vary widely.
( 5 ) It shrinks and sets up shrinkage stresses.
( 6 ) It is not completely impervious .
To minimize the above defects , steel reinforcement is used which strengthens the
concrete. The combination of concrete and steel is ideal because when concrete sets,
it contracts and thus, it grips the reinforcement . Because of this adhesion , steel and
concrete can work together as a single material . The final product , reinforced concrete ,
can withstand compression , shear , bending , tension , torsion , etc ., and is extensively
used for building the structures like buildings , bridges , viaducts , retaining walls ,
tunnels , tanks and many other structures .
A r t . 1 - 3] Introduction 3

It should be noted that the reinforced concrete is a non - homogeneous material and
the equations derived in strength of materials for homogeneous materials cannot be
directly applied to concrete . Also concrete shrinks , creeps and cracks under the application
of loads . Much of the reinforced concrete design is therefore empirical and based on
experimental studies .
Unit weight : For the purpose of design and estimate of loading , the unit weights
of plain concrete and reinforced concrete with sand and gravel or crushed natural
stone aggregate may be taken as ^ 4 kN / m 3 and 25 kN / m ^ respectively .

-.
1 3 S t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s: Primary elements of a reinforced concrete structure
are : slabs , beams , columns and foundations . Fig. l - l illustrates the structural elements
for a reinforced concrete structure .

B B B Terrace B
*
C i r
I I I ! I I
c
II s II s II s *I s ' s *s * First floor B
B B B
-
I
r
A *l J l l L I A C
Ground floor B
I I l I l I
I I _ I I F F F F

* -, •
B
- r-
B B
=
[ CZl

I I I I I C = Column
I S I S I S I I S I S I SI B = Beam
I I I S = Slab
F = Foundation
ft ft
( a ) Plan ( b ) Section A - A

Structural plan and section of a building showing elements of a concrete structure

FIG . M
The elements are described as under :
( 1 ) Slabs: Slabs are the plate elements and carry the loads primarily by flexure .
They usually carry vertical loads . Under the action of horizontal load:s , due to
a large moment of inertia , they can carry quite large wind and earthquake forces ,
and transfer them to beams . A reasonable thickness of slab can act as a rigid
diaphragm under the action of horizontal loads . The rigid diaphragm is a plate
whose all elements displace equally in the direction of applied in - plane loads .
The slab with a sufficient thickness acts as a rigid diaphragm when in - plane
horizontal loads like wind or earthquake are acting on it due to its very large
in - plane moment of inertia . As a result , it constraints the connected columns
to deflect equally in a given horizontal direction of wind or earthquake loads .
( 2 ) Beams : Beams carry loads from slabs and also direct loads such as masonry
walls and their self weights . The beam may be supported on the other beams
or may be supported by columns forming an integral part of the frame . Beams
are primarily the flexural members .
(3 ) Columns: Columns are the vertical members carrying loads from beams and
from upper columns . The loads may be axial or eccentric . The importance of
the column is greater than that of the beams and slabs . This is because , if one
4 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 1
beam fails , it will be a local failure of one floor but if one column fails , it can
lead to the collapse of the complete structure . The safety provisions adopted
by the standards are therefore more for columns than for beams or slabs.
( 4 ) Foundations: These are the load transmitting members. The loads from columns
and walls are transmitted to the solid ground through foundations .
1- 4. Loads on structure: The correct estimation of loads on a structure or
a part of the structure leads the designer to the safe and economical design . It is very
important that no load which is to be borne by the structure is overlooked . The
procedure of correct estimation of loads consists of :
( 1 ) Estimation of different types of loads expected to be borne by the structure
throughout its design life . Different kinds of loads may be estimated by using
respective Indian Standard codes of practice .
( 2 ) Determination of the worst combination of loads that may occur at one time
throughout the life of a structure. The standard codes of practice give guidelines
for this. All the loads are not expected at the same time . For example , as per
annex B - 2.3, IS : 45 b , wind and seismic forces need not be considered as acting
simultaneously. The earthquakes are a rare phenomena . It is therefore very
unlikely that the maximum earthquake will coincide with maximum of other
occasional forces like wind , flood , etc . Therefore , for design purpose these are
assumed not to occur simultaneously .
In general the loads on structure are classified as vertical or gravity loads , horizontal
loads and longitudinal loads . The vertical loads are further classified as dead loads ,
live loads and impact loads. The horizontal loads are classified as wind loads and
earthquake loads. The longitudinal loads are considered in some special cases . The
following is a brief discussion on various types of loads :
( 1 ) Dead loads are the loads due to the self - weight of the structure or structural
members. The dead loads are static loads and remain reasonably constant
throughout the life of the structure . These are also due to partition walls ,
flooring, roofs , false ceiling, fixtures , etc . The magnitude of dead loads can be
calculated if the unit weights of different materials are known .
In the beginning of the design , the sizes of members are not known , therefore
an estimation of sizes has to be made and dead weights are calculated . After
solving some problems , a designer will be able to estimate the correct sizes of
the members. If necessary , after completing the trial , a design shall be repeated .
Other dead loads like partition walls, flooring, etc ., can be correctly estimated
as the size and unit weights are known . The unit weights of different materials
may be taken from IS : 875 - 1987 ( Code of practice for design loads for buildings
and structures Part I : Dead Loads ) .
( 2 ) Live loads are the loads whjch are not steady. U n l i k e t h e dead loads , thpy
change their magnitudes . These include moving loads like persons , car , etc. ,
and also movable loads like furniture . Usually the live loads are assumed to
be the uniformly distributed loads specified by the standard codes of practice .
Live loads cannot be determined as precisely as the dead loads. However , the
live loads those had given sufficient margins in the past are used for design .
Live loads on floors and on roofs are different . Live loads are comprehensively
described in tables I and II of IS :875 - 1987 Part II : Imposed Loads, and shall
be referred from the code .
(3 ) Impact loads are the loads caused by the vibration of live loads, e .g. ,
moving
crane . There is a difference between a person simply walking and a soldier
marching. The person produces a live load while the soldier produces an
A r t. 1- 6 ] Introduction 5

impact load . When live loads cause impact, it is usual in static analysis to
increase the live load by some percentage depending on the type of the impact .
( 4 ) Wind loads are the lateral loads and depend on the velocity of the wind . In
different parts of our country , the velocity of wind that can be estimated is
different at different places . For one particular place also , the wind velocity is
different at different heights from the ground . Considering all these possibilities,
the country is divided into several zones . The wind pressure is converted into
equivalent , horizontal , uniformly distributed load . For further information ,
reference shall be made to IS : 875- 1987 Part III : Wind Loads.
For further information on live loads , impact loads and wind loads , reference
may be made to IS : 875 - 1987. Cj y\v V z zv
( 5 ) Earthquake loads are also horizontal foads caused by earthquake . The country
is divided into four zones namely zone II , zone III , zone IV and zone V
according to the probable intensity of the earthquake . The earthquake forces
on the structure shall be calculated in accordance with IS : 1893 - 2002 ( Criteria
for earthquake resistant design of structures - part I ) .
( 6 ) Longitudinal loads are caused by sudden stopping of moving loads. A moving
crane , a moving truck , etc ., when abruptly stopped cause longitudinal loads .
For further details , reference shall be made to IS : 875 - 1987 ( Part V ).
The combination of loads shall be as given in IS : 875 - 1987 ( Part V ) .
_
1- 5 - Ductility versus brittleness: Ductility can be described as an ability of /z
material to undergo large deformations without rupture beforj failure. Mild steel is an
example of a ductile material that can be bent and twisted without rupture. If ductile
members are used to form a structure , the structure can undergo large deformations
before failure. This is beneficial to the users of the structure, as in case of overloading,
if the structure is to collapse , it will undergo large deformations before failure . T his
gives a notice to the occupants and provides sufficient time for taking preventive
measures .
Brittleness on the other hand , describes a property of material that will fail suddenly
without undergoing noticeable deform atio nsBrittle structures, thus, do not gi venoTfre
'

before failure and may suddenly collapse and the occupants may not have time to take
measures to prevent the collapse . A civil engineer is usually concerned with brittle
materials like concrete , bricks, soil and other building materials.
While using concrete in reinforced concrete structures , it should be remembered
that concrete is a brittle material . The engineer must take all provisions to increase
the ductility of a structure . By suitably anchoring the reinforcement , the ductility of
a structure can be increased to a greater extent with a little increase in cost. The codes
of practice take all measures to make the structure a ductile one. Different measures
taken by the code ( mainly IS: 456 ) to increase ductility of a concrete structure are
discussed in the chapters to follow. In short , the engineer should design a structure
functioning as a ductile one.
1- 6. Strength and serviceability: The design of a structure or the members
of a structure is made to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. The
members are designed with a capacity to carry the loads those are significantly greater
than the anticipated service loads . This extra or reserve capacity of the member
provides factor of safety against overloading. Also it reduces the level of the stress
in the materials .
Even though, the members are designed to carry anticipated loads, adequate serviceability
is also necessary. The deflection and cracking of the members should not be
excessive.
should be limited to ensure the better appearance of the structure and
The deflections
 6 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 1
to prevent the ceiling plaster and partition walls from cracking. The cracking of the
reinforced concrete should not be excessive to ensure better appearance and also to
prevent the access of water from cracks which may otherwise corroid the reinforceme nt.
The strength and serviceabil ity are thus two main criteria for which a structural
member or a structure should be designed .
The strength of the structure can be ensured in two ways:
( 1 ) By designing the structural elements in such a way that the stresses in the
materials are not greater than permissible stresses . Here the materials are
assumed t, n he elastic and the design method is known as working stress method
or elastic theory of design.
f > •
r
II f f '
1

' T 2 ) By designing
•

the structural " elements so as to carry the loads with sufficient

factor of sjifety ( limit or factored loads ) known as limit state method of design.
-.
1 7 Methods of design : IS : 456 permits three methods of design . They are
limit state method , working stress method and methods based on experiment al investigatio ns .
When a design is made by the methods based on experiment al investigatio ns on
models or full size structure or element, load tests shall be carried out as per clause 18
of IS : 456 . For further details the code shall be consulted .
In the following paragraphs , working stress method ( or elastic theory ) and limit
state method are briefly discussed . Working stress method being the basic method is
discussed first .
( 1 ) Working stress method: It is assumed in this method that concrete and steel are
elastic . At the worst combinatio n of working loads, the stresses in materials are
not exceeded beyond permissible values. The permissible stresses are found out
by using a suitable factor of safety to the material strength , e .g., for concrete in
compression due to bending , a factor of safety equal to 3 is considered on
28 days characterist ic strength and a factor of safety equal to 1.8 is considered
on the yield strength for mild steel reinforceme nt in tension due to bending. The
permissible stresses for different grades of concrete and steel are given in
tables 15 and 16 of IS : 456 may be referred .
Note that the working stress method does not consider the mode of failure of
the structure ( ductile or brittle ) . Also the reserve strength of materials beyond
the yield point is not considered in this design .
( 2 ) Limit state method: The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirement
s
before failure occurs is known as limit state. In this method of design , the structure
is designed to withstand safely all loads liable to act on it throughout its life.
The structure also has to be checked for the serviceabil ity requirement s such
as limitations on deflection and cracking.
In this method , also called the strength design , the designer is concerned with
the load that can cause the failure of the structure and thus, instead of knowing
the stresses induced in materials, he or she can directly use the collapse load .
By controlling the ultimate load - carrying capacity of each member in a structure ,
the overall failure of the structure can be confined to a limited
region .
By using the elastic theory , the stresses in materials can be limited , but the actual
stresses in concrete and steel cannot be predicted accurately because
:
(i ) Concrete shrinks and produces shrinkage stresses in addition to bending and
other stresses .
( ii ) Concrete creeps which reduces the stress in concrete
and increases the stress
in steel .
Que. 1 - 1 ] Introduction 7

( iii ) Concrete cracks under loads so that the actual sectional properties cannot be
determined accurately.
It can be seen that the limit state method of design is a right approach of design.
Also , note that clause 18.2 . 2 , IS : 456 advises to use working stress method where
limit state method cannot be conveniently used . For example , design of liquid retaining
structures shall be done by using working stress method , since IS publications presently
do not include such design by limit state method . Thus , in most cases, we are using
limit state method ; the working stress method being used only in exceptional cases .
In this book, after learning fundamentals of working stress method, the limit state
method is used throughout.
1- 8. Codes of practice: The Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS ) has published
over 14000 Indian Standards codes of practice in order to standardize the quality of
different items . These codes cover many items like Agricultural and food products ,
Chemicals , Civil engineering, Electrical , Electronics, Mechanical engineering , Petroleum
products , Metals, Textiles , etc. For the purpose of this book , codes related to plain and
reinforced concrete are used .
A code is a set of technical specifications intended to control the design and construction.
The codes can be legally adopted to see that sound structures are designed and constructed and
thus the occupant is protected from the serious damages to the building . The code specifies
acceptable methods of design and construction to produce safe and sound structures.
It should be noted that the code is not a recommended practice and the designer
is free to use his knowledge and experience . The code does not relieve the designer
from the responsibility of designing a safe and economical structure .
The Bureau of Indian Standards has its head quarter at New Delhi . It publishes
various codes as specified above . It also publishes explanatory hand books, design aids
and design tables , etc.
All designs in this book are in accordance with IS : 456 - 2000 ( Code of practice
for plain and reinforced concrete ) . Other useful codes for design are IS : 875 - 1987
( Parts I to V ) and SP : 16 ( Design aids to IS : 456 ) . While reading this book , it is
extremely essential to obtain copies of above BIS publications and the book shall be
read in conjunction with these publications. Also note that in this book , code means
IS : 456 : 2000.
1- 9. Adaptation of SI units: The Bureau of Indian Standards have adopted
SI units for all its publications. It is an abbreviation of the French System International
d units . This book is written completely in SI units. Students are expected to be conversant
with these units. For basic discussion of SI units, reference may be made to the book
titled “Applied Mechanics ” by the same author.
QUESTIONS I
( 1 ) What is a role of structural designer in construction industry ?
( 2 ) What is reinforced concrete ? Why is it popular in construction industry ?
( 3 ) Refer to IS : 875 ( Part I ) and list the unit weights of a few important building
materials.
( 4 ) Write a short note on different kinds of loads to be taken into account for the design .
( 5 ) How is limit state method superior to the working stress method ?
( 6 ) List at least 25 IS standards which are useful to you in various subjects.
Note : Some objective type questions with answers for this chapter and also for
other chapters of the book are given in Appendix.
 hapter PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS

- .
2 1 C o n s t i t u e n t s o f c o n c r e t e: Concrete is produced by mixing cement ,
fine aggregate ( usually sand ) , coarse aggregate ( kapchi ) and potable water in definite
proportion . Fresh concrete is a workable plastic mixture and it flows easily so that it
can be placed and compacted around the reinforcement ( to eliminate voids ) in previously
made formwork to cast the beams, slabs, columns or any desired shape. The product
is then allowed to cure for hardening. The strength of concrete depends on the properties
of ingredients. By adjusting the proportions of the ingredients, concretes of different
strengths can be prepared . It is therefore necessary to study the properties of ingredients.
CEMENT
2 - 2 . G e n e r a l: Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties .
Cement , when mixed with mineral fragments and water , binds the particles into a
compact whole. This description includes a large number of cementing materials. For
the purpose of construction works, the cement is used to bind stones , sand , bricks , etc. Our
study is limited to cement used for construction works, particularly for concrete work .
Cement is the most important and costliest ingredient of concrete . It was invented
by Joseph Aspdin of U . K. in 1824 . He named it portland cement because the hardened
concrete made out of the cement , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate and water in definite
proportion resembled the natural stone occurring at Portland in England . The materials
which set and harden in the presence of water are said to possess hydraulic properties. As
cement gets strength due to the chemical action between cement and water ( known as
hydration ) and its ability to harden under water , it is also known as hydraulic cement .
2 - 3. M a n u f a c t u r e o f P o r t l a n d c e m e n t: Portland cement is manufactured
by grinding together calcareous (limestone , chalk , marl , etc .) and argillaceous ( shale
or clay ) materials in approximate proportion of 2: l and / or other silica, alumina or iron
oxide bearing materials . The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done
either in water ( known as wet process ) or in a dry condition ( known as dry process ) .
Most of the cement manufacturers in India , use dry process now - a - days . The
mixture is then burnt in a kiln at a temperature of about 1300° C to 1500° C where
the material sinters and partially fuses to produce small clinkers of nodular shape and
of size 3 mm to 20 mm . The temperature of 1300° C to 1500 ° C is obtained by firing
oil , gas or coal .
In India , coal is used for firing. As the coal ash is detrimental to the quality of
the clinker , low ash coal is used to obtain high grade ( strength ) cements like grade
43 and grade 53. The clinker is then cooled using moderate cooling conditions. It has
been observed that either a quick or slow cooling conditions reduce the strength of
the cement . In moderate cooling , the temperature of clinker is brought down to
500 ° C in 15 minutes and then in further 10 minutes its temperature is brought down
to that of atmospheric . The cooled clinkers are then mixed with gypsum ( about
2 % to 3% by mass of clinker ) in order to prevent flash - setting of the cement .
1 he mixture is ground to required fineness in ball mills to get the final product
known as cement. This cement has as many as 1.1 x lO 1 particles per kilogramme.
^
1 he cement is in hot condition at this stage and is stored in silos before despatch .
After the cement is cooled , it is packed in plastic or jute bags for despatch . One
bag
of cement contains 50 kg mass of cement which is considered equivalent to 34.5
litres,
lor larger works such as dam site , etc . , cement is despatched in barrels
containing
250 kg mass of cement . In case of shortage , the cement is sometimes
despatched in
Art . 2 - 4] Properties of Materials 9

hot condition also . The use of hot cement is also satisfacto ry for normal works as the
required quantities of fine aggregate , coarse aggregate and water for mixing are
sufficient to bring down the temperatur e .
As soon as the water is added to cement , the reaction between cement and water
immediate ly starts if gypsum is not added while grinding of clinker . This is called
flash - setting . This is not acceptabl e since mixing the ingredien ts and placing the
concrete at the required location requires some time . The addition of gypsum
retards
( delays the hydration or prevent the fast reaction for some time ) and controls the
setting times after adding water to cement . This ensures that concrete will not
set too
quickly before it is placed and compacte d at required place .
2- 4 . B a s i c c h e m i s t r y o f c e m e n t: The componen t elements of cement are
O 2, Si , Ca , A 1 and Fe . The componen t oxides of ordinary portland cement are : CaO ,
Si 02, Al 2 O 3 and Fe 2 O3. CaO is obtained by burning of lime stone ( i . e . , Ca CO 3) ,
Si 02 is obtained from sand , Al 203 from clay and Fe 203 from haematite . Some other
minor oxides like MgO and alkalies K 20 and Na 203 , and SO 3 also exist in
small
amount . The chief oxides are abbreviate d to single letters as shown in table 2 - 1 for
discussion . The percentage contents of these oxides in cement , are also shown in the
same table . Water , i . e . , H 20 is abbreviate d as H .

TABLE 2 - 1
COMPON ENT OXIDES OF ORDINAR Y PORTLAN D CEMENT
Oxide Abbreviat ion %, content

CaO C 60-67
Si 02 S 17-25
AI 2 O 3 A 3-8
Fe 203 F 0.5-6
MgO 0.1 -4
Alkalies ( K 20 , Na 20 ) 0.4- 1.3
SO 3 1.0-3.0

The chief chemical compoun ds formed during the manufactu re of cement ( OPC )
with their abbreviati ons and percentag e content are tabulated in table 2 2 , in the
-

descendin g order of their formation in the kiln .

TABLE 2 - 2
CHEMICA L COMPOU NDS OF CEMENT
Order of
Compound Chemical formula Abbreviat ion % content formulatio n
in Kiln

Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO . SiO 2 < C3S 40-55 4

2 CaO . Si 02 C2S 15-30 3
Dicalcium silicate
Tricalcium aluminate 3 CaO . AI 2 O 3 C3A 8-11 2
Teracalciu m alumino - ferrite 4 CaO . AI 2 O 3 , Fe 203 C 4 AF 13-17 1

To determine the percent content of chemical compoun ds in a given cement , the

following equations called Bogue ’s equations are used . These equations are based on
the work of shri R . H . Bogue and others .
( 2 - la)
C3S = 4.07 ( CaO ) - 7.6 (Si 02) - 6.72 (A1203) - 1.43 ( Fe203) - 2.85 (S 03)
C 2 S = 2.87 ( Si 02 ) - 0.754 ( 3 CaO , Si 02) ( 2 - lb )
C 3 A = 2.65 ( A 1203 ) - 1.69 ( Fe 203)
( 2 - lc )
(2- l d)
C 4 AF = 3.04 ( Fe 203)
 10 Reinforc ed Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 2
Example 2 -1.

The raw material percent composit ion for a particula r cement is as follows. Determin
e
the percent cement of the chief compoun ds using Bogue ’s equations .

Compoun d CaO Si 02 AI 2O 3 Fe20;1 Loss on Insolubl e

MgO S03 Alkalies Others
ignition residue
Percenta ge 62 20 5.5 3.0 2 2 1 1.5 2.5 0.5
Solution :
Using Bogue ’s equations ( 2- la ) to (2- Id ) , the percent contents of chief compone nts
of cement are calculate d as follows :
C 3S = 4.07 ( CaO ) - 7.6 ( Si 02 ) - 6.72 ( A1203) - 1.43 ( Fe 203) - 2.85 ( S03)
= 4.07 x 62 - 7.6 x 20 - 6.72 x 5.5 - 1.43 x 3 - 2.85 x 2
= 53.39 ( 1)
C 2S = 2.87 (Si 02 ) - 0.754 ( 3 CaO , Si 02 )
= 2.87 ( Si 02 ) - 0.754 ( C 3S)
= 2.87 x 20 - 0.754 x 53.39
17.14
(2)
C3A = 2.65 ( A1203) - 1.69 ( Fe 203)
= 2.65 x 5.5 - 1.69 x 3.0
= 9.505 ( 3)
C 4 AF = 3.04 ( Fe 2 O 3 )
= 3.04 x 3.0
= 9.12
(4)
2- 5 - Chemic al properti es of cement: BIS requirem ents : The
BIS requirem ents
for chemical propertie s of grade 33, grade 43 and grade 53
ordinary portland cement
are summari sed in table 2 - 3. For further details and for
requirem ents of other cement ,
respectiv e codes shall be consulted . The terms for characte ristics used
in table 2 - 3 are
explaine d as follows :
( 1 ) Lime saturatio n factor ( LSF) : The lime saturation
factor is obtained from the
equation 2- 2.
CaO - 0.7 SOs
LSF = 2.8 Si 02 + 1.2 A1203 + 0.65 Fe (2 -2)
203
The lime saturation factor depends on amount of C S. When
3 LSF is low
than specifie d , the amount of C 3S will also be low resulting
in slow setting and
slow gaining of strength during earlier period . The BIS
lower limit of 0.66 for grade 33 and grade 43 cements requirem ents set a
while a limit of 0.80
is specified for grade 53 cement . The
higher value of LSF correspo nds to a
higher content of free lime which makes the concrete vulnerab
attack and reduces soundne ss of the concrete. The le to sulphate
higher limit of 1.02 is set
by the standard s.
Art. 2 - 5] Properties of Materials 11

TABLE 2 -3
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENTS
BIS requirements
Sr.
no . Characteristic Grade 33 Grade 43 Grade 53
IS : 269 IS : 8112 IS : 12269
1 Lime saturation factor ( refer to note 1 ) 0.66 to 1.02 0.66 to 1.02 0.80 to 1.2
2 Ratio of percentage of alumina to iron 0.66 0.66 0.66
( minimum )
3 Insoluble residue , percentage by mass
( maximum ) 4 2 2
4 Magnesia percent by mass ( maximum ) 6 6 6
5 Total sulphate content as sulphuric anhydride
(SO3) percent by mass ( maximum )
- when C 3A 5 2.5 2.5 2.5
- when C 3A > 5 3 3 3
( refer to note 2 )
6 Total loss on ignition , percent ( maximum ) 5 5 4

Note 1 : Lime saturation factor is obtained from equation ( 2 - 2) .

Note 2 : Percentage of C3 A is obtained from equation ( 2 - lc )
( 2 ) Ratio of alumina to iron oxide: In a cement clinker , alumina and iron oxide
are respectively represented by the amount of C3A and C 4 AF. The higher C3A
content results in high early strength and high heat of hydration , while higher
C 4 AF content will increase liquid content in the clinker causing operation
problems during manufacturing process . The minimum value of this ratio is
set as 0.66 for all grades of ordinary portland cement .
( 3 ) Insoluble residue: Insoluble residue contains alumina and iron oxide. This shall
not be more than 4 percent for grade 33 cement . For higher grade cements
(grade 43 and grade 53) these residue shall not be more than 2 percent .
( 4 ) Magnesia ( MgO ): Magnesia forms the liquid part of clinker alongwith C3A and
C 4 AF. It can lead to unsoundness, i . e., the volume expansion of cement after
a few months , when present in free or crystalline form . The volume expansion
causes tensile stresses leading to disintegration of mortar or concrete if such
cement is used . The amount of magnesia shall not be more than 6 percent by mass.
( 5 ) Total sulphate content as sulphuric anhydride ( SO3 ): Low percent of SO3 results
in flash setting of cement , whereas high percentage of SO 3 leads to sulphate
expansion and disintegration of the mortar and concrete . The SO3 in cement
is mainly contributed by gypsum ( CaS 04) added while grinding of clinker to
control the setting time of cement . Total sulphur content as SO3 present in
cement shall be limited to 2.75 % when C3A is not more than 5 % and to 3 %
when C3 A is more than 5 °/o.
( 6 ) Total loss on ignition: The loss of ignition indicates the extent of carbonation
and pre - hydration of free lime and free magnesia due to exposure of cement
to the atmosphere . Carbonation occurs , when cement is exposed to carbon
dioxide in the air while the pre - hydration results from the moisture introduced
or absorbed during manufacture and storage of cement . The loss on ignition
test is carried out at 950° C . Thus, the percentage loss on ignition is a measure
of freshness of cement. If the cement is older , it may have been attached by the
 12 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
atmosphere giving larger percentage loss on ignition . It is instructive to note
that this loss permitted by the standards is 5 % for grade 33 and 43 cement ,
but limited to 4 % for grade 53 cement .
2 - 6 . Hydration of cement:
( 1 ) General: As soon as the water is added to cement , a chemical reaction starts
( after a short delay due to presence of gypsum ) which is exothermic in nature and
produces a significant amount of heat . This is known as hydration and the liberated
heat is called the heat of hydration. The process of hydration is not an instantaneous .
It is faster in the early periods and continues indefinitely at a slower rate . In about
a month ’s time , 85 to 90 % of the cement hydrates and the cement attains almost its
full strength . The hydration still continues and cement grows stronger with the time .
The process of hydration may be explained as follows:
In a cement paste , i . e ., a thorough mixture of cement and water , chemical reaction
soon starts and after a lapse of some time , the paste consists of hydrates of various
compounds, collectively called gel, unhydrated cement, water and spaces filled with
residual ( uncombined ) water in the fresh paste . These voids are called capillary pores.
The cementing gel consists of thin fibrous crystals which is porous in nature . These
pores are called gel - pores. About 23 % of water by mass of cement is required for
chemical reaction of cement with water and is known as bound water. About 15 % of
water by mass of cement is required to fill the gel - pores and is known as gel - water .
Thus a total of 38 % of water by mass of cement is required for complete hydration .
In this discussion it is assumed that the reaction takes place in a sealed container.
The remaining water mixed with cement causes undesirable capillary cavities . If only
38 % of water is added , the capillary cavities can be eliminated . The products of
hydration are colloidal and because of this , during hydration the surface area of solid
phase increases enormously. This absorbs a large amount of free water. If water added
is only 38 %, all the colloids are not sufficiently saturated which decreases the relative
humidity of the paste . This leads to a lower hydration as the gel can be formed only
in water - filled space . This requires a minimum of 50 % of water by mass of cement
or in other words , a water - cement ratio in excess of 0.5 is sufficient for hydration .
In actual conditions , the reaction does not take place in a sealed container and
with lower percentage of water , the concrete mix would not be workable . A mix is
workable if it can be easily mixed , placed and compacted at the required place . Usually
about 50 to 60 % of water by mass of cement is added to manufacture the concrete .
With the use of suitable admixtures like plasticizers ( water reducers ) , it is possible to
reduce the water - cement ratio upto 0.4. This will increase the strength of concrete.
( 2 ) Chemistry of hydration : The chemistry of hydration is explained as follows :
When water is added , C3 A is the first to set and harden . The term setting refers to a
change from a fluid to a rigid state , i .e ., the stiffening of the paste . During setting,
cement acquires some strength . However , for practical purpose , setting is distinguished
from hardening which refers to the gain of strength of a set cement paste . C A is
3
responsible for initial setting of the cement . Then gaining of strength is due to C S
3
while C2S reacts slowly and is responsible for adding the strength from 14 to 28 days.
C 4 AF does not contribute to the strength of cement. However , the hydrates of C AF
4
have a higher resistance to the attack of sulphates. The order of hydration of Bogue ’s
compounds from faster to slower is
C3A -4 C3S C2S -4 CtAF.
( i ) Hydration of C$ A: The chemical reation for hydration of C A can be approximately
3
given as :
C3A + 6 H -4 C3AH (5
[ 100 ]
[ 40 ] [ 140 ]
Art . 2 - 6] Properties of Materials 13

The number in bracket indicates the mass of the respective compound taking
part in the reaction . The reaction of pure C3A with water is very rapid which
may lead to a flash set.
The chemical reaction between cement and water should not start immediately
as the process of mixing, placing and compacting concrete requires the time
of about 20 to. 30 minutes. To retard the reaction of cement and water during
this time, gypsum is added to clinker while manufacturing cement. The addition
of gypsum increases the soundness of cement, and accelerates the hydration of
silicates . However , excess gypsum can cause expansion and disruption of already
hydrated mass .
( ii ) Hydration of silicates: The hydration of silicates can be approximately given by
the following equations :
C 3S : 2 C 3S + 6 H
[ 100 ] [ 24]
—> C 3 S 2 H 3 + 3 Ca ( OH ) 2
[ 75] [ 49 ]

C 2S: 2 C 2S + 4 H -) C 3 S 2 H 3 + Ca ( OH ) 2
[ 100 ] [ 21 ] [ 99 ] [ 22 ]
From these two equations, it can be seen that for the same quantity, both
silicates require approximately the same amount of water for hydration ,
however , C3S forms more than twice the amount of Ca OH ) 2 than that
formed by C 2S.
(3 ) Heat of hydration and strength : The amount of heat evolved in joules per gram
of unhydrated cement upon complete hydration at a given temperature is defined as a heat
of hydration. The heat of hydration of pure compounds are given in table 2 - 4 .
TABLE 2 - 4
HEAT OF HYDRATION OF PURE COMPOUNDS
Heat of hydration
Compounds j/ g Cal / g

C 3S 502 120
C 2S 260 62
C3A 867 207
C 4 AF 419 100

About 50 % of the total heat of hydration is liberated in first three days, 75 %

in seven days and 90 % in about 6 months. The total heat of hydration is approximately
equal to the sum of heat liberated due to hydration of individual pure compounds
when their respective proportions by mass are hydrated separately.
The gaining of compressive strengths of respective compounds with the age are
plotted in fig. 2- 1. It may be noted that there is no relation between the heat of
hydration and cementing properties of individual compounds .
C 3S is the best cementing material and by increasing its percentage, the quality
of cement can be improved . If the percentage of C3S is increased and that of C 2S
is decreased , a high early strength is obtained , but with a high heat generation .
If the percentage of C 3S is lowered and that of C 2S is increased , strength is
developed more slowly with less evolution of heat. For most of the cements, the
sum of percentages of C3S and C 2 S is nearly the same ( usually 70 to 72 percent ) .
This sum ( C3S + C 2 S ) is slightly increased in modern cements .
 14 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 2

Q.

Age-days
Development of Strength of pure compounds
FIG. 2 - 1.
( 4) Rate of hydration: The rate of hydration is mainly influenced by the following.
However , it may be noted that total heat of hydration evolved remains the same :
(i) The temperature at which hydration takes place. At high temperatures the reaction
is rapid . Only 10 to 15 minutes of hydration at high temperature is equivalent
to 10 to 12 hours of hydration at lower temperatures. It is for this reason that
in cold weather, sometimes the aggregates are heated before they are used for
making concrete .
( ii ) The fineness of cement . The finer the cement , the more rapid is the reaction .
As the hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles, the larger the
available surface area , the more rapid is the hydration . Finer cements have
larger surface areas and therefore the hydration is rapid . However , a very
fine ground cement is susceptible to air - set and deteriorates earlier.
( iii ) The ingredients of cement . The reaction can be made rapid or slow by changing
the proportions of the ingredients of the cement .
-
2 7 Types of cement: By altering the proportions of the ingredients of cement ,
by adding other ingredients or by changing the intensity of grinding, different types
of cement useful for particular situations can be manufactured . The different types of
cement are listed below.
( 1 ) Ordinary portland cement
( 2 ) Rapid hardening cement
( 3 ) Blast furnace slag portland cement
( 4 ) Portland pozzolana cement
( 5 ) Hydrophobic cement
( 6 ) Low heat portland cement
( 7 ) Sulphate resisting cement
Art. 2 -7] Properties of Materials 15

(8) High alumina cement

(9) Super - sulphated cement
( 10 ) Oil well cement :
( 11 ) Ultra rapid hardening portland cement
( 12 ) White cement
( 13 ) Coloured cements
( 14 ) Water - proof portland cement
( 15 ) Masonry cement
( 16 ) Expanding cement
( 17 ) Quick setting cement
( 18 ) -
Air entraining cement
Each of the above type of cement will now be briefly discussed .
(1) Ordinary portland cement : It is a widely used cement for most of the works.
It is suitable for general construction works when there is no exposure to sulphates
in the soil or in the ground water. The manufacturing of cement as discussed in
art . 2 - 3 pertains to the ordinary portland cement .
For using the portland cement to produce high strength concrete ( M 35 and above )
for specialized works , high strength cement is required . The Bureau of Indian Standards
has therefore introduced three different grades of ordinary portland cement . Consequently,
ordinary portland cement is available in three different grades as follows:
( i ) grade 33 ( IS : 269 - 1989 )
( ii ) grade 43 ( IS : 8112 - 1989 )
( iii ) grade 53 ( IS : 12269 - 1987 )
The grade indicates the compressive strength of cement at 28 days tested according
to IS : 4031 - part IV ( Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement ) . Refer to art. 2- 16
for further details .
Higher strength of cement (grade 43 and 53) is achieved by
( i ) Selecting good quality of limestone as a raw material .
( ii ) Using low ash coal firing as the coal ash is detrimental to the quality of
clinker. Many plants in India import good quality of coal to ensure consistent
quality product .
( iii ) Ratio of CaO with SiC> 2, AI 2 O 3 and Fe 2 C> 3 is always maintained during
manufacturing .
( iv At all stages of manufacturing, required quality controls are carefully exercised.
)
With a better quality of limestone , having higher percentage of CaC 03, the cement
of higher grade ( even 63 grade ) can be produced . In India , good quality limestone
deposits are localized at Ranavav in Gujarat , Ariyalur deposits in Tamilnadu , Gotan
of Rajasthan , Adityana mines , etc.
The noteworthy advantages of using high grade cements are:
( i ) Saving of cement consumption for required specification of concrete .
( ii ) Development of high early strength which may facilitate the early stripping
of formwork .
( iii ) The reduced quantity of cement reduces the shrinkage cracks and heat of
hydration .
16 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2 I

( iv ) Due to low percentage of alkalies , chlorides , magnesia and free lime , they
offer more durable structures .
( v ) Due to high fineness , the workability of concrete increases for a given water
cement ratio .
( 2 ) Rapid hardening cement ( IS : 8041 - 1990 ) : As the name implies, it hardens and
attains its strength earlier than ordinary portland cement. Three days ’ hardening of
this cement is equivalent to seven days' hardening of ordinary portland cement . The
rapid hardening property of this cement is achieved by increasing C 3S content , lowering
-
C S content and by finer grinding of the cement clinker. Due to this property , early
^
stripping of concrete formwork becomes possible.
This is advantageous where repeated use of the same shuttering is made, e .g., precast
works or where speedy development of strength is important , e . g. , road repair
works. Rapid hardening cement should not be confused with quick setting cement
which sets quickly but does not harden quickly. In the early stages this cement
gives out a large quantity of heat of hydration. This cement must not be used for
mass concrete or for large structural sections because due to a large quantity of
heat of hydration , the temperature inside the concrete increases , leading to formation
of undesirable cracks on cooling.
(3 ) Blast furnace slag portland cement ( IS : 455 - 1976 ) : It is manufactured by
mixing portland cement clinker with granulated blast furnace slag (a waste product
from blast furnace which contains oxide of lime, silica and alumina ) and gypsum in
suitable proportions and grinding the mixture to the required fineness . The slag
proportion is limited to 65 percent of the mass of the mixture . According to IS : 455- 1976 ,
the slag content should not be less than 25 percent and not more than 65 percent
of the total mass of the mixture. It is similar to and cheaper than the ordinary
portland cement and can replace it . It has low heat of hydration , more durability
and is better resistant to soil and water containing excessive amounts of sulphates ,
alkalies , metals as well as acidic waters. It is helpful for marine works.
-
( 4) Portland pozzolana cement (IS : 1489 1991): This cement is manufactured by
grinding portland cement clinker with pozzolana and required quantity of gypsum .
The pozzolanas are materials which at ordinary temperatures , react with lime in presence
of water , resulting in cementing materials. Fly ash , burnt clay and pumicite are used
as pozzolana. Addition of pozzolana is 10 to 25 percent of the pozzolana cement
by mass. The advantages of this cement are : reduced cost, increased impermeability ,
increased workability , less heat of hydration and it offers greater resistance to the
attack of aggressive waters. However , the rate of hydration is low and gaining of
strength is slower upto 14 days . This may necessiate to keep the formwork for a
few more days than that for ordinary portland cement . If the concreting done by
this cement is properly cured , at 28 days, the strength of this cement is equal to
that of ordinary portland cement .
( 5 ) Hydrophobic cement ( IS : 8043- 1991 ) : It is manufactured by grinding ordinary
portland cement clinker with 0.1 to 0.4 percent of oleic acid , stearic acid or
pentachlorophenol . This addition forms water repellent film around each particle
of cement and therefore transportation and storage of this cement is not affected
by the moisture content of atmosphere . When concrete is prepared using this
cement , the water repellent film breaks out which improves the workability of
concrete. The storage of ordinary portland cement in humid places causes deterioration
in the quality of cement . For such places this cement is useful . The hydrophobic
quality of cement would facilitate its storage for longer periods in extremely wet
climate conditions . The properties of hydrophobic cement and ordinary portland
cement are nearly the same .
 Art . 2 -7 ] Properties of Materials 17
t
( 6 ) Low heat Portland cement ( IS : 12600 - 1989 ) : It is manufactured by reducing the
percentages of C3S and C3A of ordinary portland cement. As a result, this cement gets
the strength at a slower rate and the heat of hydration is less . This will require long
time curing and keeping forms for a long time. This cement is particularly useful for mass
concrete works such as dams and retaining walls . For mass concrete works , when
ordinary portland cement is used , the temperature may rise to a considerable degree
due to high quantum of heat of hydration . As time passes, the outer layers will cool
and contract while the inner concrete mass is still at a higher temperature . This may
lead to serious crackings . According to IS : 12600 , the heat of hydration for this
cement is limited to 272 kj / kg at 7 days and 314 kj / kg at 28 days. Ordinary portland
cement generates about 502 kj / kg heat of hydration at 28 days.
( 7 ) Sulphate resisting cement ( IS : 12330 - 1988 ) : It is similar to ordinary portland
cement except that it contains more silicates and less quantity of aluminates . The heat
of hydration of this cement is low and it develops higher ultimate strength , although
the early strength of this cement is low. It is used for under - water structures particularly
exposed to alkali actions .
Soluble sulphates like magnesium sulphate ( MgS 04), calcium sulphate ( CaS04) and
sodium sulphate ( Na 2 S 04) when present in ground , may attack the foundation concrete
through pores of the concrete and chemically react with cement ( particularly with C3A ,
which will occupy much larger volume than other reacting constituents. This will create
pressure in concrete which will result in cracks and finally disintegration of concrete .
When sulphate resisting cement ( with low C 3 A content ) is used in the areas where
sulphates are present, it helps in reducing the sulphate attack . It is strongly recommended
for structures in sea w iter , coastal areas and marshy lands .
( 8 ) High alumina cement ( IS : 6452 - 1989 ) : It is a non - portland cement. It is manufactured
by melting mixture of aluminous and calcareous materials in suitable proportion and
grinding the resulting clinker to fine powder which is black in colour. It hardens and develops
strength very rapidly, giving out a great amount of heat . Its one day '
s strength is equal
’
to 28 days strength of ordinary cement . It is strongly resistant to chemical attack and
is suitable to sea and under - water works. It is not recommended in tropical region .
( 9 ) Super - sulphated cement ( IS : 6909 - 1990 ) : It is manufactured by grinding together
a mixture of 80 to 85 percent of granulated slag with 10 to 15 percent of calcium sulphate
and about 5 percent of portland cement clinker. It is ground to an extreme fineness
and has to be stored in dry conditions as otherwise it deteriorates rapidly. It has a low
heat of evolution about 165 to 190 kj / kg at 7 days and 190 to 210 kj / kg at 28 days.
This cement is highly resistant to sulphate attack . Because of low heat of evolution ,
it is useful for mass concrete works . It is also useful for foundation works where
aggressive chemical conditions exist .
( 10 ) Oil - well cement ( IS : 8229 - 1986 ) : As the name indicates, this cement is specially
manufactured for the use in oil wells to fill the space between the steel casing and the
wall of the well . It is commonly used in the form of cement slurry for cementing
oil - wells , under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure . High pressure and
high temperature facilitates the slurry to reach the large depths usually associated
with the oil wells. It sets rapidly which prevents any blowout encountered in the high
pressure zone. The oil - well cement has a high resistance to sulphate attack .
( 11 ) Ultra rapid hardening portland cement : It is manufactured by intergrinding
about 2 percent calcium chloride and rapid hardening portland cement . While using
this cement , maximum time of 10 minutes is available for mixing, transporting and
placing the concrete . Also , this cement should be used within one month . This cement
 18 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
attains strength more rapidly than rapid hardening cement and is used for special
purposes like repair works , especially in cold weather.
(12 ) White cement ( I S : 8042 - 1989 ) : It is manufactured in the same way as portland
cement . The grey colour of portland cement is due to the presence of iron oxide
(about 4 percent). If the raw materials selected for manufacturin g portland cement are
such that they do not contain iron oxide , the resulting cement is white in colour. The
raw materials are chosen to see that maximum iron oxide content is less than one
percent. White chalk and china clay are used as raw materials in the manufacture of
this cement and coal firing is replaced by oil fuel firing. This results in white coloured
cement . This cement costs 2 to 3 times that of ordinary portland cement. It is used
for white concrete ( as may be required architectural ly ) or for white finishing works .
( 13 ) Coloured cements: These are manufactured by adding 5 to 10 percent of
ground pigments to ordinary or white portland cement . The pigments are chemically
inert and have fast colours . The proportion and type of pigments added vary according
to the colour desired . Thus, iron oxide is added to give red and yellow, cobalt to give
blue and manganese dioxide to give black colour.
(14 ) Water - proof portland cement: This type of cement is manufacture d by adding
water - proofing agents like metal stearates or non - saponifiable oil to ordinary portland
cement during grinding. Concrete made with this cement is more impermeable .
( 15 ) Masonry cement ( I S : 3466 - 1988 ) : It is specially manufactured for masonry
works , plaster works, etc ., by intergrinding very finely ground portland cement , limestone
and an air - entraining agent. It can also be manufactured by intergrinding portland
cement and hydrated lime , granulated slag or crushed stone. Addition of these materials
gives good workability , reduces shrinkage and water retentivity. The cement mortar
prepared from this cement is more plastic, cohesive and strong and yet workable, than
that prepared from ordinary portland cement which produces a harsh mortar. When
ordinary portland cement is used , due to its less water retentivity , the masonry absorbs
water from the mortar resulting in a poor bond . This difficulty is overcome when
masonry cement is used . However , the strength of mortar is reduced . This cement
must not be used for concrete works .
( 16 ) Expanding cement : It is used to neutralize the shrinkage of concrete to eliminate
cracks. An ordinary portland cement shrinks while setting due to the loss of free
water , whereas the volume of expanding cement increase on hardening. This does not
mean that expanding cement produces a ‘shrinkless’ concrete but the magnitude of
expansion can be adjusted in such a way that shrinkage and expansion of volume are
numerically equal . A small percentage of this cement when added to the concrete , will
eliminate the cracks. This is specially used for hydraulic structures. It is also useful
in repairing works where the old concrete is required to be extended with new concrete .
The tightness of old and new concretes can be obtained by using this cement for new
concrete.
( 17 ) Quick setting cement: As the name implies , it sets quickly. This does not mean
that it achieves the strength quickly. It sets quickly but does not harden quickly. In
the manufacture of this cement, gypsum content is reduced to get the quick
setting
property. It is particularly useful for under - water constructions . It sets very quickly
so that the time available for mixing , transporting and placing the concrete is
very
short and its use in general works must be avoided .
(18) Air - entraining cement: It is manufactured by grinding ordinary portland cement
clinker with air - entraining agents ( about 0.025 to 0.1 percent by mass of clinker )
. At
the time of mixing, this cement produces tough and tiny air bubbles which
improve
the workability of concrete .
Art . 2 - 9] Properties of Materials 19

2 - 8. Selection of cement for production of concrete: Cement 1 to

7
discussed in art 2 -. 7 are permitted to use in making plain and reinforced concrete by
IS : 456 - 2000. These can be used depending on the type of the work . The cement
no . 8 and 9 are permitted under special circumstance s only by using specialist literature
for the use and with permission of engineer - in - charge . Also while using cement 6
( ),
• i . e., low heat portland cement the code requires utmost care regarding the removal of
the form - work , etc .
Selecting the cement for specified work needs careful attention . It is observed that
people have a tendency to use only one type of cement throughout the work , in spite
of a variety of cements are available in the market . It is therefore necessary to
understand the usefulness of various types of cements and use them effectively to get
better results. Usually for most of the normal structures like residential and commercia l
buildings and also for the industrial sheds , etc. , OPC ( Ordinary Portland Cements) of
grade 33, 43, and 53, PPC ( Portland Pozzalana Cement ) , SRC ( Sulphate Resisting
Cement ) and slag cements are used . As far as the time schedule and speed of the work
is concerned , OPC is most popular However , when the speed is not a criterion , PPC
and slag cements may be used in view of more durability of concrete . When construction s
are carried out in marshy land and costal area, SRC is used .
As far as the ordinary portland cement is concerned , the selection of grade type
also needs careful attention . For casting low and normal grade concrete, the preference
shall be given to 33 and 43 grade concretes. However , for medium and high strength
concrete , grade 53 cement shall be used . It is a simple understand ing that the low
grade cement should be used for low grade concretes while high strength cement shall
be preferred for high strength concrete . It should be noted that the use of 53 grade
cement is not recommend ed for masonry or plaster work because this cement requires
early curing which is usually ignored in such works, and may lead to cracking.
In general , for finishing and masonry work grade 33 and PPC may be used ; for
normal RCC works grade 33 /43 and for high strength concrete , 53 grade cement will
prove economica l . The SRC and slag cements may be used in foundation s and below
plinth works to protect the concrete element from sulphate attack .
The quality control should not be ignored . Many - a - times, when it is not possible
to control the water - cement ratio , higher grade of cement ( grade 53) is used in small ,
low strength RCC works as the higher grade cements permits little larger water - cement
ratio for the given grade of concrete ! Although , this is followed at many places , it
is not solution of the problem . The site engineer and labourers both should be trained
to manufactur e better quality of concrete . The quality control cannot be bargained for
any type of concrete production .
.
2 - 9 Tests for cement : To ensure the quality of cement , specificati ons are
drawn in various Indian standards. The cement should conform to the requiremen ts of these
specificati ons. For this , a number of tests on cement are carried out to ensure that the
cement is of required standards. Tests are also necessary to check the quality of cement
periodical ly. Testing of cement may be field testing and / or laboratory testing. Field
, it
testing is used only to get an idea of the quality. If a cement satisfies field testing
can be said that the cement is not bad . However to conclude finally that the cement is
of a good quality , the laboratory testings are required . The following are the field tests :

( 1 ) The cement should look greenish grey in colour. There should not be any
presence of lumps .
( 2 ) The cement should give smooth feeling when rubbed between the fingers .
( 3 ) It should give a cool feeling when a hand is thrust into a cement bag.
( 4 ) If a handful of cement is thrown in water , the cement should float for a few
minutes before it sinks.
 20 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
The laboratory tests include the methods of sampling, methods of physical tests
and methods of chemical tests . All these are discussed in great details in respective
Indian Standards specifications . Some important tests are briefly discussed in the
following articles. However for more details , respective Indian standards should be
consulted .
The methods of sampling are described in IS : 353.5 - 1986 ( Method of sampling
hydraulic cement ) and may be referred . The chemical tests are described in IS : 4032- 1985
( Methods of chemical analysis of hydraulic cement ) and may be referred . In the
following articles, some physical tests for cement are described and are in accordance
with IS : 4031 - 1988 / 91 ( Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement - Parts I to XV ) .
2- 10. Fineness test: The object of this test is to check the proper grinding
of cement . The rate of hydration depends on the fineness of cement. Finer the cement,
earlier is the hydration and the faster and greater is the gaining of strength . This is
because the hydration starts at the surface. Larger the surface area ( i. e ., finer the
cement ) , faster will be hydration . However , a very fine cement is susceptible to air set
and deteriorates earlier. The grinding of cement shall be as fine as possible to conform
to the standard specifications and also shall be uniformly fine. If the cement is not
uniformly fine , the concrete made out of it will have poor workability and will require
a large quantity of water while mixing. Also bleeding of concrete can occur , i . e ., even
before the concrete is set , water will come out of the surface due to the settlement of
concrete particles . To check the fineness of cement, IS : 4031- 1988 ( Methods of physical
tests for hydraulic cement ) gives three methods :
( 1 ) By dry sieving ( IS : 4031 - Part I )
( 2 ) Blaine air permeability method ( IS : 4031 - Part II )
( 3 ) By wet sieving ( IS : 4031 - Part XV )
First two methods are described below. For the third method refer to IS : 4031 - 1991
( Part XV) .
( 1 ) By dry sieving: The fineness of cement depends on the particle size distribution .
A small mass of finer cement may have larger surface area than a large mass of
coarser particles of cement . It is therefore necessary to reduce the percentage of
coarser particles to get required fineness of cement . In this test mass of coarser
cement particles (greater size than 90 micron ) is found out which is limited to specified
percentage for various cements as per respective Indian Standards . Take 100 gm of
cement from sample and break down any air - set lumps with finger . Place it on a
standard IS sieve no . 9 ( 90 microns ) . Continuously sieve the sample with a gentle
wrist motion for 15 minutes. The mass of residue shall not exceed 10 gm in case of
ordinary portland cement and 5 gm i n case of rapid hardening cement .
This test is described by IS : 4031 ( Part I ) ; however , from the codes of specifications
of various cements, fineness requirements of dry seiving are not specified . Instead ,
fineness checking by Blaine’ s air permeability method as described below is specified
by the standards.
( 2 ) Blaine air permeability method : In this method , the fineness of cement is
represented by specific surface area in square metres per kg of cement .
-
Permeability apparatus ( fig. 2 - 2 according to IS : 5516 1969 ) consists of a permeability
cell and a manometer. The cell consists of a rigid cylinder 12.5 + 1 mm inside
diameter. A metal disc of 0.9 ± 0.1 mm in thickness, perforated with 30 to 40 holes
of 1 mm diameter equally distributed over its area is placed inside the cell .
Place a filter paper disc over the cell. Place given mass of cement to be tested
over the filter paper. The manometer tube is filled with a non - volatile non
- hygroscopic
Art . 2 - 10 ] Properties of Materials 21

liquid of low viscosity and density such as dibutylphthal ate upto the mid - point . Calculate
the mass of the sample so that the porosity
volume of pores
(0 = is 0.5.
total volume
The volume of cell is determined by the mercury displacement method .

I Male 16 0
Coupling to fit \< H
t TL-
or
Valve or clamp bottom of cell
F female
1
Flat 3 mm wide Length to
give 15 ± 1
»n X Clearance between plunger depth of bed
T
Tf and cell 0.1 mm max

o
o
-I i f—
o
<N o
O
1

1
Glass tube 9 mm OD PLUNGER
Enlarged detail of Plunger

12.5 ± 1 <t>
o
«o
CN
H
Filter paper discs
T

SZs
Coupling to Fit
top of manometer
Male
or
female
»
1
I

15 -
-H
o

0.9 ± 0.1
MANOMETER Perforated metal disc with 30 to 40
1 mm d holes equally distributed

Essential dimensions arc underlined CELL

All dimensions are in millimetres Enlarged detail of Cell

Blaine air permeability apparatus

FIG. 2- 2
3
Mass of the cement ( M ) = p V ( 1 - e ) where p is the density of cement in kg/ m
(for portland cement a value of 3150 shall be used ). Mass the calculated quantity of
National Council for Cement and Building Materials standard reference material SRM 1001
or its equivalent. Brush it into the cell from the mass calculating bottle . Tap the cell
lightly. Place a filter disc on the top of the cement . Slowly push down the plunger
until the plunger touches the top of the cell.
Remove the plunger. Fit the permeability cell . The air in one of the arm of the
manometer is evacuated until the liquid reaches the top mark , close the valve . Measure
the time interval ( T s ) in seconds of manometer drops from second mark to the third
mark . Similarly measure the time interval ( T ) for the test sample .

Calculation: The specific surface S = ssVr

JTS
where T = measured time interval of manometer drop for the test sample
Ts = measured time interval of manometer drop for the standard sample
Ss = specific surface in sq m per kg of standard sample used in calibration .
The specific surface in sq. m per kg should not be less than 225 for ordinary
cement, 325 for rapid hardening cement and 320 for low heat cement .
22 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
.
2- 11 Consistency of standard cement paste: This test determines the
quantity of water required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency for the
use in other tests. The Vicat apparatus ( IS : 5513- 1976) is used for this purpose. The
consistency of standard cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit
the Vicat plunger 50 mm long and having 10 mm diameter to penetrate to a point
5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat mould as shown in fig. 2 - 3. The unit
of consistency is percentage of water by mass of dry cement and denoted by p.
Procedure: Take 400 gm cement and add to it 30 percent water ( 120 gm ) on a glass
plate or any non - porous surface . Mix thoroughly and fill the mould of Vicat apparatus.
The interval from the time of adding water to the dry cement until commencing to
fill the mould is known as time of gauging and must be not less than 3 minutes and
not more than 5 minutes .

—
F
1 mm 2 WA
3.3 4-
Mass —
—
Air vent T
6.4 B
- Release pin
5 -H
i 0.5
300 gm

i i
A
mm
- Indicator
«oJ-
I
301-
-
20T
I-
104- Enlarged view of needle F
1-
°r
—_
ri hi
e .

5 Clamping screw

10 ± 0.5 mm <f > -*

X

1 mm 2 _ Q
u
50 ± 1 mm
—
M 80 j ()
—
1
l l E l
R i 1
nr -
Non porous plate

Plunger G
R
40

Vicat apparatus
FIG . 2 - 3
Lower the plunger gently ( the biggest of the three needles , 10 mm in diameter ) to
touch the surface of the test block and quickly release it, allowing it to sink into the
paste . Note the settlement of the plunger . The settlement of the plunger should be
5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould . If not, repeat the procedure using fresh
cement and other percentages of water until the described penetration of the plunger
is obtained .
The consistency of a standard cement paste is expressed as the amount of water
as a percentage by mass of the dry cement .
Let mj = mass of the cement taken
m2 = mass of water added when the plunger has a penetration of 5 mm to
7 mm from the bottom of the mould .
Art. 2 - 12 ] Properties of Materials 23

Then the percentage of water or standard consistency is

772
2
P = m x 100.
\
Usually standard consistency p lies between 26 to 33 percent .
2 - 1 2 . T e s t f o r s e t t i n g t i m e s : The change of cement paste from fluid to a
rigid state may be referred to as setting. The gaining of strength of a set cement paste
is known as hardening. During the setting, cement acquires some strength , however it
is not considered in definition to distinguish setting from hardening, where hardening
is a gain of strength of a set cement paste .
The objects of these tests are :
( 1 ) To find initial and final setting times of cement
( 2 ) To distinguish between quick setting and normal setting types of cement
( 3 ) To detect deterioration due to storage .
When water is added to cement and mixed properly , the chemical reaction soon
starts and the paste of cement remains plastic for a short period . During this period ,
it is possible to remix the paste . This period is called initial setting time . It is
assumed that no hardening will start in this period . As the time lapses , the reaction
is continued and cement begins to harden . At some stage it hardens also called
setting time .
“finally set’ and the time lapsed since the water was added is called finalmeasurements
It is not possible to express the exact state of hardening and hence empirical
are taken .
This test is purely a conventional one and does not relate to the setting and
hardening of actual concrete .
Procedure: Mix 400 gm of cement with 0.85 p percentage of water where p is the
consistency of standard cement paste as determined in art. 2 - ll . Start the stop - watch
at the instant when water is added to cement. Fill the Vicat mould with this paste and
smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top of the mould . Attach
l mm x l mm square cross -section needle to the Vicat rod. Lower the needle gently
near the surface of the block and release it quickly allowing it to penetrate into the
test block . Note whether the needle pierces completely. If so , wait for a while and drop
the needle at a fresh place . Repeat the procedure till the needle fails to pierce the
block for 5 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould . The interval between
the time when water was added to cement and the time at which the needle fails to
pierce the block by 5 ± 0.5 mm is known as initial setting time.
Replace the needle ( C ) by the needle which has a sharp pointing, projecting in the
centre with an annular attachment ( F ) and release it on the same test block as before.
Note the time when needle makes an impression , but the attachment fails to do so . The
interval between this time and the time when water was added is known as the
final setting time.
The initial setting time for ordinary portland cement should not be less than
30 minutes and the final setting time not more than 10 hours. Modern cement usually
have minimum initial setting time of 60 min . ( or title more ) and maximum final
setting time of 200 min . ( or little less ) . For quick setting cement , the initial setting
time should not be less than 5 minutes and the final setting time not more than
30 minutes.
Setting times for ordinary portland cement are approximate ly related as
Final setting time = 90 min . + 1.2 [ Initial setting time ( min . ) ]
 24 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
The minimum limits on initial setting time are specified because
( 1 ) Concrete once placed should not be disturbed after the initial setting has taken
place .
( 2 ) There must be sufficient time for placing of second batch which may disturb
the first batch of concrete.
( 3 ) The transportatio n of concrete from the place where concrete is prepared to
the placing of concrete requires some finite time.
The maximum limits on final setting time are specified because the concrete
should achieve the desired strength as early as possible so that the shuttering can be
removed and reused .
The setting time of cement can be controlled by varying the quantity of
gypsum in the cement. Larger the gypsum content , greater will be the setting time and
vice versa .
False set: Sometimes, with the addition of water to cement , a premature set occurs
within 5 minutes. This is called false set and is due to the presence of anhydrous
gypsum , which is formed due to grinding of gypsum with too hot clinker. This is not
to be worried . Continuous mixing of aggregates, cement and water will break the false
set without harming any property of the concrete.
2- 13. Soundness test : The ability of cement to maintain a constant volume
is known as soundness of cement. The presence of excess gypsum or free lime and
magnesia in the cement shall be limited as these undergo a large change in volume .
Concrete once placed should not undergo the large change in volume as this produces
cracks in the concrete . If the cement shows expansion after hardening , it is called
unsound cement which may cause cracks and destruction of structures. This experiment
is designed to detect the presence of free lime in cement. The hydration of free lime
is accelerated by boiling which causes the expansion of cement . It is this
expansion
of lime which is one of the causes of cracking of cement concrete. This expansion is
measured which should not be excessive .
165 mm

0.5
y ^A
Split 0.5 mm max .
mm
^A

Top view without glass sheets

A -«— Glass sheet

30 mm i c
I
Glass sheet

Le Chatelier ' s apparatus

FIG . 2 - 4
This test is carried out by using Le Chatelier's apparatus as shown in
consists of a small split cylinder of spring brass of 0.5 mm thickness
-
fig. 2 4 . It
of 30 mm internal diameter and 30 mm high . Two pointers A-
forming a mould
A are attached to the
cylinder , one on each
i side of the split . The pointers are 165 mm in length upto the
axis of the cylinder .
Art . 2 - 15 ] Properties of Materials 25

Procedure : Mix 100 gm cement with 0.78 p percentage of water where p is the
consistency of standard cement paste and place the paste in Le Chatelier ’s mould
which rests on a glass plate . Cover the mould with another glass plate and place a
small weight on its top and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water and
leave it under water for 24 hours at a temperature of 27 ° C ± 2 ° C.
Measure the distance between the indicator points and immerse the mould in a
beaker of water. Bring the water to boiling with the mould kept submerged , in 25 to 30
minutes and keep it boiling for three hours. Remove the mould and allow it to cool ,
and measure the distance again between the indicator points . The difference between
these two measurements represents the expansion of cement which should not exceed
10 mm .
2 - 1 4 . A u t o c l a v e e x p a n s i o n: The soundness as tested by Le Chatelier test
detects the expansion due to free lime . However , it does not indicate the presence and
effects of excess of magnesia . Unaerated cement shall be tested for soundness by autoclave
test and shall not have an expansion of more than 0.8 percent. In India, the occurrence
of low magnesia lime stone i s limited . Therefore , this test deserves more importance .
The method determines the soundness of portland cement by autoclave test on a
25 mm x 25 mm x 250 mm neat cement specimen .
Procedure : A specimen in mould of 25 mm x 25 mm x 282 mm internal length
and 250 mm gauge length with metal inserts at ends to serve as reference point is
prepared and cured for 24 hours. The specimen is then removed from the mould . The
length of the specimen is measured with dial gauge or micrometer comparator ( having
a range of at least 7.6 mm and graduated to 0.025 mm ) . The specimen is then placed
in autoclave at room temperature . The autoclave is then switched on at such a rate
as to bring the gauge pressure of the steam to 2.1 ± 0.1 N / mm 2 in 60 to 75 minutes
corresponding to a temperature of 215.7 ± 1.7 ° C and is allowed to maintain the steam
pressure for three hours .
The heat supply is then cut off and the autoclave cooled to a pressure of less than
0.1 N / mm 2 in about one hour , which is later on brought to atmospheric pressure by
opening the vent valve . The specimen is then removed and placed in water , the
temperature of which is above 90 ° C and uniformly cooled at room temperature with
water , surface dried , and measured again for their length as before .
The difference in length of the test specimen before and after autoclaving
is calculated to the nearest 0.01 percent of the effective length and reported as autoclave
expansion of the cement . For a sound cement the expansion should not exceed
0.8 percent.
2 - 1 5 . D e n s i t y t e s t: The object of this test is to determine the density of
hydraulic cement . Refer to IS : 4031 - Part XI .
Apparatus: Standard Le Chatelier flask . ( Refer to fig. 2 - 5 )
Materials: Kerosene ( light oil ) free from water.
Procedure: Fill the flask with kerosene to a point on the stem between zero and
1 ml mark . The inside of the flask above the level of the liquid , shall be dried
if necessary , after pouring. Immerse the flask in a constant temperature water bath
and record the first reading . About 64 gm of cement is then introduced in small
amounts at the same temperature of the liquid . Care shall be taken that cement
does not stick to the portion of the flask above the surface of the oil. After all
the cement has been introduced , the flask is fitted with stopper and rolled in an
inclined position so that the cement is free from air , until no further bubbles rise
to the surface of the liquid . The final reading of the oil in the flask is then taken
after the flask has been immersed in water bath to maintain the temperature .
 26 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
Calculation : The difference between the first reading ( R { ) and the final reading ( /? 2)
represents the volume of liquid displaced by the cement and is equal to the volume
of cement. If mass of the cement is m, the density ( p ) of the cement is calculated as:

P gm / cm 3.
^ ^ K 50 <t>
.1.
/
\ i ;
Ground glass stopper — -i i b
ml
--
•A I A 24
'
23
23 X
22 6 ml
21 Capacity
at 20 ° C
20
19
22
18
1
v
*

Enlarged detail at X 17 ml
i Capacity
Two 0.1 ml graduations at 20 ° C (N

extending above 1 and

below 0 mark 1
1 1 ml Capacity
Q
“ * at 20 °C
Capacity of bulk —
250 ml approx . j

K 90 P H
Le Chatelier flask for density test
FIG . 2-5
2- 1 6. T e s t f o r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h: The object of this test is to
determine the strength of cement as represented by compressive strength tests
( IS : 4031 - Part IV ) on mortar cubes compacted by means of a vibrating machine
giving 12000 vibrations per minute of amplitude 0.056 mm .
Procedure: Prepare a mixture of cement and standard ( Ennore ) sand as specified
by IS : 650 - 1966 ( specification for standard sand for testing of cement ) in proportion
of 1:3 by mass. Place it on a non - porous plate and mix it dry with a trowel
for
one minute . Add water equal to ( 0.25 p + 3) percentage of combined
mass of
cement and sand where p is the percentage of water required to
produce a paste
of standard consistency.
Art . 2 - 16 ] Properties of Materials 27

TABLE 2 -5
SPECIFICATIO NS FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS
Sr. Properties IS : 269 IS: 8112 IS: 12269 IS: 12600 IS : 8041 IS: 1489 IS:6452

No . Ordinary Ordinary Ordinary Low Rapid Portland High

33 grade 43 grade .53 grade heat hardening pozzolana alumina
(0 (2 ) ( 3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9 )

1. Fineness
Residue by mass on IS
sieve 90 not to exceed
percent * 10 10 10 5 5
Specific surface ( m 2 / kg )
by air permeability
method , not less than 225 225 225 320 325 300 225
2. Setting time
Initial setting time in
minutes, not less than 30 30 30 60 30 30 30
Final setting time in
minutes , not more than 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
3. Soundness
By Le Chatelier method
specimen shall not have
an expansion of more
than ( mm ) 10 10 10 10 5 10 5
By Autoclave method
specimen shall not have
an expansion of more
than ( percent ) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8
4. Compressive strength
( N / mm 2)
At 24 hours ± 30 minutes,
not less than 22 27 16 30
At 72 ± 1 hours,
not less than 16 33 37 10 27 16 35
At 168 ± 2 hours,
not less than 22 43 53 16 22
At 672 ± 4 hours ,
not less than 33 35 33

5. Heat of hydration ( kj / kg)

At 7 days, not more than 272
At 28 days , not more than 314
This specification is not included in the new editions of respective IS standards
*

Mix thoroughly for not less than 3 minutes and not more than 4 minutes
Place the mortar in a cubical mould having 50 cm 2 surface area ( this is equal to
70.6 mm x 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm cube ) in two equal layers. Each layer shall be
tamped 20 times in about 8 seconds to ensure the elimination of entrapped air and
 28 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
honeycomb ing. Compact the mortar by vibration for 2 minutes and finish the top
surface with the blade of the trowel . A number of cubes in the similar manner are
cast. The materials must be mixed each time and cubes made separately. For each
cube about 200 gm cement and 600 gm sand is needed .
Place the moulds in a damp for 24 hours . Remove the specimens from moulds
and immerse them in water . The cubes shall be tested at 3 days , 7 days and
28 days . A minimum of three specimens shall be tested on their sides, the load
being applied at the rate of 3.5 N / mm 2 per minute . The mould shall be placed
in testing machine such that the testing load is applied on finished surfaces of the
cube . Find out and express the crushing strength in N / mm 2 .
For ordinary portland cement of grade 33 the crushing strength shall not be
less than 16 N / mm 2 at 3 days , 22 N / mm 2 at 7 days, and 33 N / mm 2 at 28 days.
For rapid hardening cement the crushing strength shall not be less than 16 N / mm 2
at 24 hours and 27 N / mm 2 at 3 days . Refer to table 2 - 5 for more details .
2 - 1 7 . H e a t o f h y d r a t i o n t e s t: When water is added to the cement , the
hydration of cement starts . This is exothermic and releases a large amount _o£-iieat
called heat of hydration . It estimated that 1 gm of ordinary portland cement
generates about 500 joules of heat during h y d r a t i o n. h i s is a particularly serious
matter in the case of large mass concreting works such as dams where the high
temperature developed in the interior of the concrete will cause serious crackings.
Therefore , in such works , low heat cement is used .
The test for heat of hydration shall be carried out for low heat cement only . When
tested by the standard method as specified by IS : 4031 ( Methods of physical tests for
hydraulic cement ) , the heat of hydration of low heat portland cement shall not be
more than 272 kj / kg at 7 days and 314 kj / kg at 28 days .
The specificatio ns for some kinds of cements are tabulated in table 2 - 5.
2- 1 8. S t o r i n g o f c e m e n t : Cement bags are stored in such a way that they are
free from the reach of water or moisture . If cement is stored in an air - tight container ,
it can be stored for years without loss in its properties . If cement is stored in a
silo,
it can remain good for 3- 4 months and if stored in usual jute or plastic
bags, it starts
deteriorati ng within 4 - 6 weeks even kept under good conditions .
When cement is stored in damp conditions, the air setting may be observed . A
lump of air set cement may be taken in hand and crumbled between the fingers. If it
does not break , air setting has taken place . This cement should not be used for
structural works, however , for finishing work like plaster , etc ., after testing, it may be
used considerin g the reduced strength and consulting the engineer - in - charge .
For a running job cement is stored in open on a dry base at least 150 mm
higher
than the surroundin g ground level . Wooden plates or bricks may be used to
raise the
platform which may be covered with plastic sheet . The bags are stacked on the
platform and should be covered with tarpaulins or plastic sheets.
Cement when stored in a shed , should be placed in a water tight floor preferably
covered with plastic sheets. The cement should be kept away from side walls
by at
least 300 mm so as to have free circulation of air. Not more than 10
bags are placed
in one stack and all precautions should be taken to keep the cement free
from moisture.
The bottom bag may have ‘air set ’ because of the compaction caused
above. This cement will easily separate during mixing and can be used
by the bags
satisfactor ily.
Cement is also stored in air tight containers free from moisture in godowns
it can be stored for years without loss of its properties .
where
However , for normal conditions,
it should not be stored indefinitel y , as its strength will
reduce with time . Approxima tely
20 percent strength is reduced in 3 months and 30 percent in 6 months
.
Art . 2 - 20 ] Properties of Materials 29

AGGREGATES
.
2-19 Introductory: The aggregates consist of about 75 percent of volume of
concrete and they greatly influence the properties of concrete . They give body to the
concrete , reduce the shrinkage effect of cement and make the concrete durable. Usually ,
the aggregates are fairly inexpensive commodity at the quarry and the cost of aggregates
is greatly influenced by the transport charges. Unlike the cement, the aggregates in
our country are not branded. The availability of quality aggregate is therefore sometimes
difficult . The site supervisor shall be responsible to check and make the corrections
in proportions to comply with the requirements of quality concrete .
The parent materials for aggregates may be igneous rock like granite and basalt ,
or sedimentary rock like lime stone . They also may be quartzite , gabbro or schist .
The aggregates obtained from riverbed or creeks are called natural aggregates.
These are produced due to the forces of nature. Natural aggregates are rounded if they
are water worn or angular in shape if they are crushed from massive boulders.
The aggregates obtained by quarring solid rock and then crushing to a suitable
size are called manufactured or processed aggregates , while manufacturing such aggregates ,
jaw crushers with rotating screen are used as crushing devices. The modern crushing
devices consists of impactors where the large size feed aggregates ( 20 mm to 100 mm )
are sprayed on metallic plate and disintegrated in small cubical units. To manufacture
fine aggregates , these cubical coarse aggregates are recycled .
2- 20. Aggregate size: The aggregate size is determined by ' using the IS sieves .
A list of IS sieves contains many sieves used for various purposes . The IS sieves used
in concrete technology are given in table 2 - 6 .
TABLE 2 - 6
IS SIEVES USED IN CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Type Sieve designation
Square hole perforated type 80 mm , 63 mm , 50 mm , 40 mm , 20 mm , 16 mm , 12 mm , 10 mm ,
6.3 mm , 4.75 mm
Fine mesh , wire cloths 2.36 mm , 1.18 mm , 600 micron , 300 micron , 150 micron ,
_
75 micron . ( I micron = 10 ( metre )
)

An individual aggregate is designated by its size. Single sized aggregate is the bulk
of aggregate which passes one sieve on the normal concrete series and is retained on
the next smaller size. A bulk of 20 mm size aggregate means that the whole bulk
passes through 20 mm sieve but retained on a next lower size , i .e ., 16 mm sieve .
In the process of concrete making , the single sized aggregate cannot be used
because such a matrix contains tremendous voids . In a compacted whole of the concrete,
the voids of larger aggregates are filled with even smaller aggregates. Very small
voids left are now filled by cement and water. Thus the whole mass becomes a
concrete which should be well compacted and cured. Very small voids still remain in
a final concrete because of the evaporation loss of water ( during curing ) which was
initially mixed while concrete making.
From the above discussion it should be clear that we must use different sizes of
aggregate so that there can be proper compaction and the final product would contain
as less voids as possible . A heap of aggregate for the use of concrete making, therefore ,
contains various sizes of aggregates in different amount .
A heap of aggregate containing different sizes of aggregate is designated by the
maximum size of the aggregate present in considerable amount in it. A heap of 20 mm
aggregate means that it contains maximum of 20 mm size aggregate in substantial amount .
30 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
.
2- 21 Fine and coarse aggregate: Depending on the size of the aggregate ,
the aggregates are classified as fine and coarse.
The fine aggregates are those , most of which will pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve
and contain only so much coarser material as is permitted for various grading zones .
The coarse aggregates are those, most of which will retain on 4.75 mm IS sieve and
contain only so much finer material as is permitted by the specification .
Various sands are commonly used as fine aggregate and obtained from riverbeds
or by crushing the rock. Fly ash is also sometimes used as a part of replacement of
fine aggregate. The sand obtained from river beds, is, of course , the best as it contains
particles of varying size and easy to procure. The use of sand from sea - shore is
generally avoided for normal works . Sand should not contain more than 5 percent dirt,
if it is natural sand and 2 percent in the case of crushed sand . Sand containing mica
shall be usually avoided as it reduces considerably the strength and durability of
concrete .
The lower size limit of sand is 0.07 mm or a little less. Particles between 0.06 mm
and 0.002 mm are classified as silt and the particles having size less than 0.002 mm
are termed clay. Silt and clay are undesirable particles for concrete work as particles
larger than 75 micron are used as aggregate . Aggregate containing silt and clay must
be washed before use .
The coarse aggregates are either water - worn gravels or crushed rocks such as
granite, quarzite and sandstone . Artificial aggregates such as slag and crushed overburnt
brick or tile , which may be found suitable with regard to strength and durability of
concrete and free from harmful effects may be used for secondary members, but such
aggregates should not contain more than one percent of sulphates and should not
absorb water more than 10 percent of their own mass.
As per clause 5.3. 3 IS: 456 2000 , the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be
such that it can be conveniently mixed , placed and compacted where it is required .
The size of aggregate as large as 160 mm in limited quantity ( not more than
20 percent by volume of concrete ) can be used in lean concrete ( concrete of low
cement content ) and mass concrete ( cast - in - place concrete having a high portion of large
coarse aggregate and low cement content which resists the applied loads by virtue of
its mass ) works. The use of larger size of aggregate reduces shrinkage and requires
less quantity of cement and water for a given strength of concrete .
However , for reinforced concrete works , the size of aggregates should not be
greater than one - fourth of the minimum thickness of the member and also it should
not be so large as to create difficulty in placing and compacting thoroughly the
concrete surrounding the congested reinforcement and filling the corners of the forms .
For reinforced concrete works , aggregates having a maximum size of 20 mm are
generally considered satisfactory.
For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of beams , the size should
be about 5 mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5 mm
less than the minimum clear over to the reinforcement , whichever is smaller. Where
the reinforcement is widely spaced as in the solid slabs, the nominal m a x i m u m size
may be as great as or 5 mm greater than the minimum cover. For 15 mm clear cover
solid slab, 20 mm nominal size aggregates may be used .
Some important definitions regarding aggregate are given below.
( I ) All - in - aggregate is a material composed of a mixture of coarse
aggregate and
fine aggregate .
Art . 2 - 22 ] Properties of Materials 31

( 2 ) Single sized, aggregate is the bulk of aggregate which passes one sieve on the
normal concrete series and is retained on the next smaller size .
( 3 ) Graded aggregate is the aggregate comprising of a proportion of all sizes from
a given nominal maximum to 4.25 mm . When these sizes are so proportioned
as to give a definite grading, it is a well graded aggregate.
The following are the important properties of aggregate which influence the properties
of concrete .
( 1 ) Particle shape
( 2 ) Surface texture
( 3) Strength of aggregate
( 4 ) Specific gravity
( 5 ) Bulk density
( 6 ) Water absorption and surface moisture
( 7 ) Bulking of sand
( 8 ) Deleterious substances in aggregates
( 9 ) Soundness of aggregate
( 10 ) Alkali - aggregate reaction .
Each of these properties of aggregate will be now briefly discussed .
2- 22. Particle shape: The aggregate shape is important as it affects the workability
of concrete. The shape of aggregate is defined using certain geometrical characteristics
of particles . Classification of aggregates are classified as:
( 1 ) Rounded , e. g., river or sea shore gravels , desert, sea shore and wind blown sand .
( 2 ) Irregular or partly rounded , e . g . , pit sands and gravels, dug flints or rocks.
(3) Angular , e.g ., crushed rocks of all types , talus , screes .
( 4 ) Flaky, e . g. , laminated rocks.
To achieve the best possible strength , concrete should be as dense as possible , i . e .,
it should contain minimum voids . The voids are greatly influenced by the shape of
aggregates. The rounded particles can be packed to produce a concrete with 33 percent
voids, i .e ., 67 percent of the volume of concrete is occupied by the aggregates. The
rounded particles produce smoother mix for a given water / cement ratio . On the other
hand , the angular or flaky particles reduce the workability and demand more cement
and water to give the specified strength of concrete mix . Not more than 10 to 15
percent of flaky particles should be used in concrete .
2 - 23. Surface texture: According to surface texture the aggregates are
classified as glassy , smooth , granular , rough , crystalline and honeycombed . This
classification is based on degree to which the particle surfaces are polished or dull
and smooth or rough . The surface texture of aggregate depends on the properties
of parent materials such as hardness, grain size and pore characteristics . Examples
of surface texture are as follows:
( 1 ) Glassy Black flint
( 2 ) Smooth Chert , slate , marble
( 3 ) Granular Sandstone , oolite
( 4 ) Rough Basalt, limestone
(5 ) Crystalline Granite , gabbro , gneiss
( 6 ) Honeycombed Brick , pumice , trass , clinker.
32 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
2- 24. Strength of aggregate: The strength of concrete depends simultaneously \
on the strength of cement , strength of the bulk of aggregate and the bond between
them . If the strength of cement paste is satisfactory , good quality of concrete can be
obtained provided that the strength of aggregate and bond between aggregate and
cement is satisfactory . However , if the strength of aggregate is satisfactory and the
strength of paste and bond between them is low , a poor quality of concrete is obtained .
This discussion concludes that for obtaining a good quality of concrete, strong aggregates
are necessary ; however , strong aggregates do not always produce a strong concrete.
To find out the strength of the bulk of aggregate by direct method is impossible
and therefore , indirect methods of testing are applied . These are :
( 1 ) Compressive strength of prepared samples of parent rocks
( 2 ) Aggregate crushing value
( 3 ) Ten percent fines value
( 4 ) Aggregate impact value .
Each of these tests are now briefly discussed .
( 1) Compressive strength of prepared samples of parent rocks : A cylindrical sample
of 25 mm diameter and 25 mm height is prepared from the parent rock . The piece is
subjected to compressive stress . The crushing strength is found which may vary from
minimum of 45 N / mm 2 to 530 N / mm 2 for different rock samples . A good average value
of crushing strength of parent rock sample is about 200 N / mm 2. This test measures
the quality of parent rock rather than the quality of aggregates as used in concrete . It
is particularly useful when dealing with entirely a new source of aggregate .
( 2 ) Aggregate crushing value: This test indicates the
suitability of aggregate for concrete and gives a measure 100 to 1500
of its wearing qualities. T ir
The coarse aggregate passing through 12.5 mm IS sieve 2 20 0 :
1
and retained on 10 mm sieve is dried for 24 hours in o
an oven at 100° C to 110° C and then cooled . The aggregate
is then filled in 150 mm diameter open ended steel 2 i
cylinder in three equal layers upto 100 mm depth . The
cylinder is resting on a steel base plate as shown in o
1
o
8
— I 25 mm
K-150 ± 0.5 0-H

fig. 2 - 6 . Each layer is tamped 25 times with rounded

end of a 16 mm diameter tamping steel rod and 450 mm
long. The mass of the material in the cylinder is now
accurately determined . Insert the plunger at the top of
the material . Apply the load of 400 kN in 10 minutes at
a uniform rate . Remove the load and sieve the material
r
16 mm
152 + 0.5 0 H

200 to 230
FIG . 2 6
16 mm

-
—
through 2.36 mm IS sieve .
Let mass of the aggregate
mass of the material passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve
— A kg
= B kg
Then aggregate crushing value = —
B x 100 %
A.
There is no explicit relation between the compressive strength and aggregate
crushing value . However , the lower the crushing value , the higher is the compressive
strength .
The aggregate crushing value shall not be more than 30 % for concrete used for
roads and pavements and 45 % for other structural works.
Art . 2 - 25 ] Properties of Materials 33

(3 ) Ten percent fines value: The aggregate crushing value test is incentive to the
variation in strength of weaker aggregates as a load of 400 kN compacts aggregates
before crushing and hence crushing at the later stage is reduced . Therefore , ten
percent fines value test is introduced . In this test, the apparatus of crushing value test
is used . Progressive load to produce 10 % fines is applied so as to cause its penetration
in 10 minutes about 15 mm for rounded aggregate , 20 mm for crushed aggregate and
24 mm for honeycombed aggregate . The material is sieved through 2.36 mm sieve .
This will give fines between 7.5 to 12.5 %. If y is the actual percentage fines and x is
14
the load applied in kilo newtons, the load required to give 10 % fines is given by y *4 ’
+
The higher is this value , the higher is the strength of aggregate .
( 4 ) Aggregate impact value: This test is an alternative to aggregate crushing value
test The aggregate impact value is a measure of toughness which is defined as the
.
resistance of aggregate to failure by impact .
A test sample is prepared in the same manner as in the crushing value test . The
aggregate is then filled in a cylinder 75 mm diameter and 50 mm depth in three
equal layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with 16 mm diameter tamping rod 600
mm long. The mass of the material in the cylinder is accurately determined . Place
the same mass of the test sample in a cup which is firmly fixed in position ( impact
testing machine ) . Compact the material 25 times in a single operation . Allow the
hammer to fall freely on the aggregate from 380 mm above the upper surface of the
aggregate . Subject the sample to 15 such blows. Sieve the material through 2.36 mm
IS sieve .
Let mass of the aggregate — A kg
mass of the material passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve = B kg
Then aggregate impact value =
A —
x 100%.

Note that higher impact value indicates weaker aggregate and vice - versa.
The aggregate impact value shall not be more than 30 % for concrete used for
roads and pavements and 50% for other structural work .
-
2 2 5 . S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y : The aggregate generally contains pores, both permeable
and impermeable . Therefore , two types of the specific gravities of the aggregate are
defined in concrete technology. These are:
( 1 ) Apparent specific gravity
( 2 ) Specific gravity based on saturated surface dry basis .
These are discussed as below.
( 1) Apparent specific gravity : This is given by
mass of aggregate dried in oven at 100 ° C for 24 hours
mass of water occupying the volume equal to that
of solids of aggregate excluding permeable pores
To determine absolute specific gravity a vessel is used which is known as
top
pycnometer ( fig . 2 -7 ) consisting of one litre jar to which is screwed a jar with
surmounted by a cone of 38 mm . At the top of the cone a hole is provided
or without a shutter. The jar and cover should have match marks in
line when the
cover is screwed tight .
of the oven
Find out the mass of the pycnometer full of water ( mp ) . Take 600 gm
with water. Screw
dried aggregate ( ) and place it in the jar and nearly fill the jar
ma
34 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
the top to get the match marks in r«- 50.8 mm - ]
line . Cover the top hole and roll Hole
the jar so that the entrapped air in
the sample is forced out. Again add There must be no places in this top
mm that might entrap air bubbles
water until the pycnometer is completely
full . I Copper Brass cone
1 kg jam jar top and rubber
Find out the mass of this
pycnometer ( m ) . Jar and cover to have match
The volume of aggregate is the marks in line when the
volume of displaced water = cover is on tight
mp - ( m - ma)
= mp + ma - m.
The apparent specific gravity is
— Standard jam
jar to test aggregate

given by
ma upto 40 mm max .size
+ ma -m
(2) Specific gravity based on saturated
surface dry basis: The water contained
in the pores of the aggregate does not
take part in the chemical reaction of Pycnometer
cement and therefore , it can be FIG . 2 -7
considered as a part of the aggregate.
Thus , specific gravity based on saturated surface dry basis is defined and can be determined
in the same way as above. If the mass of the saturated and surface dry aggregate in the
above experiment is mas, then
Specific gravity ( S .S . D . basis )
mass of aggregate dried in saturated surface dry condition mas
mass of water occupying the volume equal to that of solids mp + mas - m.
including permeable pores
The specific gravity based on saturated surface dry basis is used to design the
concrete mix, to calculate the yield of concrete for a given proportion and to calculate
the void ratio for given aggregate .
Note: For determination of specific gravity of cement refer to art. 2 - 15. The specific
gravity of cement will be 3.15 , and of sand and aggregate between 2.60 and 2.85 .
2 - 2 6 . B u l k d e n s i t y : The specific gravity as found out above refers to an
individual particle . However , when aggregate is used for concrete it contains voids .
It is not possible to pack the material so that it does not contain voids . Therefore
,
bulk density of the aggregate is defined . This density is used to convert
quantities by
mass to quantities by volume .
The bulk density depends on the shape and particle size distribution . Rounded
can be packed to get minimum voids and the bulk
particles
density is higher. Similarly if one
size particles are taken , they can be packed to a limited extent .
If smaller particles are
used , they can fill the voids of larger particles. Thus using well graded
aggregate , minimum
voids can be obtained . Higher bulk density means it contains fewer
voids .
The bulk density may be loose bulk density or compacted bulk
loose bulk density , a container is filled with dry aggregate to density . To find the
The mass of material divided by the volume will overflowing and levelled .
give the loose bulk density.
A r t . 2 - 2 8] Properties of Materials 35

To obtain compacted or rodded bulk density, the container is filled with aggregate
in three layers , each layer being tamped for 25 times with a 16 mm diameter rod
600 mm long, bullet pointed at the lower end .
The ratio of loose bulk density to the compacted bulk density lies between 0.87 to 0.96 .
The voids ratio is calculated from the expression
bulk density
Voids ratio = 1
specific gravity on S . S . D . basis
*

3
The bulk density of cement is 1440 kg/ m 3, of sand is 1440 to 1600 kg/ m and for
coarse aggregate it is 1600 to 1880 kg / m . 3

2 - 2 7 . W a t e r a b s o r p t i o n a n d s u r f a c e m o i s t u r e : The aggregates have

pores and can absorb water. In mix design of concrete , it is assumed that aggregates
are saturated surface dry. However , in practice, this is not the case. If the aggregates
are exposed to rain , they absorb water. While preparing concrete mix , this increases
water - cement ratio. On the other hand , when aggregates are exposed to sun for a long
time , the water inside the pores may evaporate . While mixing these aggregates to
prepare concrete , the mixed water is absorbed by the aggregates and water - cement
ratio is reduced . Both the conditions are harmful to maintain the quality of concrete
on site . Consequen tly , the knowledge of water absorption and surface moisture is
necessary which will guide to decrease or increase the water content for a specified mix .
In laboratory , oven dried aggregate is allowed to remain in water for 24 hours and
then surface water is removed . The ratio of increase in mass to the mass of dry
sample , expressed as a percentage , is termed absorption.
Absorbed moisture Free moisture
H H-
( Absorption ) ( Moisture content )

3
<
4
4 <L 3
< >
<3

Bone-dry Air-dry Saturated and surface-dry Moist

Diagramm atic representa tion of moisture in aggregate

FIG . 2 - 8
saturated and
When all the pores of aggregate are full of water , it is said to be
will evaporate.
surface - dry. If it is allowed to dry in air , some of the water from pores and is
This is called air dry. If the aggregate is oven - dried evaporate
, all water will
of in aggregates .
called bone dry. Fig. 2 - 8 shows the diagramma tic representat ion moisture
content , aggregates
2 - 2 8. B u l k i n g o f s a n d: Due to the presence of moisture
form a thin film around the aggregates and
bulk in volume . The moisture particles and thus aggregates
each other
exert surface tension . This keeps the particles away from aggregate
in the case ol coarse
bulk in volume . This phenomen on , practicall y negligible
is however, of great importance in case of fine aggregate or sand . For sand , the volume
content is about 8 percent ( for liner sand ) by
goes on increasing until the moisture . 1 he bulking
the mass of sand . The bulking increases with fineness of the aggregates
addition of moisture content ,
of sand may be as large as 30 to 40 percent. With further
the thin film of water coated round the sand , starts disappeari ng and the volume of
at 25 to 30 percent of moisture content , the volume
sand begins to decrease till finally
of sand returns to its original volume when it is dry
.
 36 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
When the materials are proportion ed by volume batching, due to bulking of sand ,
the actual amount of sand mixed is less than required . This results in a stony mix and
also the concrete will be honeycom bed . Thus, the amount of sand to be added shall
be suitably modified when moisture is present . To achieve the required concrete mix ,
the prescribed addition of water also should be suitably modified when moisture is
present in sand or in coarse aggregate . The bulking of sand directly affects the
quantity of sand required .
Bulking factor: In connection with bulking of sand , the bulking factor is defined
as the ratio of the volume of moist sand to volume of the sand when dry.
To find the bulking factor take 500 gm
[ Vi ) of dry sand by mass. Put it in a 1.34
mixing pan and add one percent water 1.30
o
(5 c. c. ) . Mix it thoroughly to get uniform
colour. Fill it in the measuring cylinder -
4
1.25
gently and note the volume V T h e <
00
§ 1.20 \ Fine sand
increase in volume is [ V i< - V { ) and
\
percentage bulking is
( V2 - Fi )
,
r
The bulking factor from the definition
x 100 .
00
1.15
1.10
1.05
z Coarse sand

N
v2
is y . Repeat the experimen t using CO 1.00 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
18 20 22 24
different percentage of water. Plot the Moisture content-percentage of dry mass
graph of bulking factor v / s moisture
content , by percent of dry mass of sand . Bulking curves
This is known as bulking curve. Typical FIG . 2 -9
bulking curves are shown in fig . 2 - 9 . Note that finer sand has higher maximum
bulking factor than that of a coarser sand , as large surface area is available with
finer sand .
2- 29. Deleteriou s substance s in aggregate s: The aggregate may contain
deleterious substances such as :
( 1 ) organic impurities , which interfere the hydration of cement
( 2 ) surface coatings, which prevent the developme nt of good bond between
aggregate
and cement paste
( 3) salt when aggregate is obtained from sea - shore etc.
( 4 ) weak or unsound particles .
These are discussed below in brief .
( 1 ) Organic impurities: The organic impurities in
aggregate usually consist of
products of decay of vegetable matter ( mainly tunic acid and
its derivative s ) . They
may interfere with the chemical reactions of hydration . These
washed away. The impurities sometimes may be impurities can be easily
temporary , i . e . , they initially interfere
with the hydration but they are not effective later on
aggregates shows lower strength in earlier periods but at
. Concrete made out of these
results . All the organic matter is not harmful . However
28 days gives satisfactor y
, if aggregate contains organic
impurities , it shall be tested according to IS : 2386 (
Part II ) .
( 2 ) Surface coatings: Clay , silt and crusher dust
may be present in the aggregates.
Because of the extreme fineness of these materials,
increase the amount of water needed for mixing
they completel y coat the aggregate,
and interfere with the bond between
aggregate anc cement paste . These impurities can be
* harmful if the coatings are
A r t. 2-3 2 ] Properties of Materials 37

chemically reactive . Before using such aggregates , they should be washed . Aggregate
containing silt and clay are washed through screw conveyor in controlled manner. The
water flow should be such that only silt is washed and not the finer fines in sand . The
washing should not change the grading of aggregate . The quantities of these materials
can be determined by laboratory test as per IS : 2386 ( Part II ) .
(3 ) Salt contamination: Sand obtained from sea - shore or from a river estuary
contains salt. This salt is harmful as it absorbs water from air , causes efflorescence
and corrosion of reinforcement . The simplest method is to wash the aggregate in
fresh water.
( 4 ) Weak or Unsound particles: The aggregate may contain unsound particles such
as shale , clay lumps, coal , wood , etc. These particles may adversely affect the strength
and durability of concrete . IS : 383 - 1970 gives limiting values of such impurities and
should be observed .
2- 30. Soundness of aggregate: The ability of aggregate to resist excessive
changes in volume due to changes in physical conditions is known as the soundness.
In laboratory , it is found out by determining the resistance of aggregates to disintegration
by saturated solutions of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate.
The test sample of aggregate is immersed in the saturated solution of sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours . Remove the aggregate and dry
them . Measure the mass of the dried sample and immerse again in the sodium sulphate
or magnesium sulphate . Repeat this cycle 5 times. The loss of mass after five cycles
shall be limited to 10 to 15 percent for fine aggregates and 12 to 18 percent for
coarse aggregate .
The physical causes of large and permanent volume changes of aggregate are
freezing and thawing, thermal changes and alternate wetting and drying.
2 - 31. Alkali - aggregate reaction: It has been observed that active silica
constituents of aggregate like opal ( amorphous ) , chalcedony ( crystalline fibrous ) and
tridymite (crystalline ) react with the alkalies in cement. The alkali - aggregate reaction
is a highly complex phenomenon . Due to this reaction , alkali - silicate gel is formed
which swells and exerts internal pressures leading to expansion , cracking and disruption
of cement paste . This reaction can be reduced by addition of reactive silica in finely
powdered form .
2- 32. Sieve analysis: Sieve analysis is an operation of dividing a sample of
aggregate into fractions, each consisting of particles of the same size . Each fraction
of a sample , thus divided , contains particles between definite limits , these being the
openings of standard test sieves. The sieves used consist of a series in which the size
of any sieve is approximately one - half the next higher sieve . This consists of a series
of ten sieves of 80 mm , 40 mm , 20 mm , 10 mm , 4.75 mm , 2.36 mm , 1.18 mm ,
600 micron , 300 micron and 150 micron . The results of the sieve analysis can be
graphically represented on logarithmic scale . This is used to determine the particle
size distribution in a sample of aggregate called gradation.
The aggregates used for sieve analysis should be air - dried in order to avoid any
lumps of fine particles . This is also necessary to prevent the clogging of the finer
sieves , The sieving operation can be performed manually
or by mechanical means
using sieve shaker . The sieves are mounted in frames which can nest . This makes it
possible to place the sieves one above the other in order. The sieve with the largest
aperture will be at the top . The material retained on each sieve after shaking ,
finer
represents the fraction of the aggregate coarser than the sieve in question but
than the sieve above .
 38 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
TABLE 2 - 8
EXAMPLE OF SIEVE ANALYSIS
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Sieve size Mass retained mass retained percentage of percentage of mass
gm gm mass retained passing through
( a ) Coarse aggregate:

40 0 0 0 100
20 80 80 4 96
10 1320 1400 70 30
4.75 600 2000 100 0
2.36 0 2000 100 0
1.18 0 2000 100 0
600 micron 0 2000 100 0
300 micron 0 2000 100 0
150 micron 0 2000 100 0
below 150 micron 0
Total 2000 674
sum of cumulative percentage retained 674
Fineness modulus = = 6.74 .
100 100
( b) Fine aggregate:
4.75 mm 0 0 0 100
2.36 mm 110 110 11 89
1.18 mm 200 310 31 69
600 micron 240 550 55 45
300 micron 250 800 80 20
150 micron 190 990 99 01
below 150 micron 10
Total 1000 gm 276
sum of cumulative percentage retained
Fineness modulus = 276
100 =
100 2.76 .
1 he results of the sieve analysis are expressed in graphical form known
as
grading curves. To express the gradation , a convenient system is one in which the
openings of the consecutive sieves are doubled , e .g., 10 mm , 20 mm , 40 mm , etc.
In grading curves, a logarithmic scale is used which shows these
openings at a
constant spacing
i . The ordinate of this graph represents the cumulative percentage
of materialsJ passing through and abscissae the sieve
openings. The example of
s i e v e analysis for coarse and fine aggregate are worked
out in table 2 -8 and the
results are plotted in fig. 2 - 10. The masses of the sample taken are 2
kg for
coarse aggregate and 1 kg for sand .
Fig. 2 - 10 represents grading of a sample of aggregate . To determine
particular grading is suitable or not , the sample grading curve shall be
whether a
standard grading curves as specified by standard specifications.
compared with
This is discussed in
Art . 2 - 33] Properties of Materials 39

detail in art. 2 - 34 . Coarse aggregate of table 2 - 8 complies with the IS requiremen ts

of grading as can be seen from fig. 2 - 11. Also sand of table 2 - 8 confirms to grading
zone II as can be seen from fig. 2 - 12 ( b ) .
100 100
100

80

•S
c/ j
60
C/5

a.
rj

<v
40
a
u

£ 20

0i
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 10 20 40
It mm mm mm mm mm mm
Sieve size
Grading curves for table 2 -8
FIG . 2 - 10
Fineness modulus : In order to ensure the presence of all sizes of particles , the
property of aggregate called fineness modulus is defined . The fineness modulus is
the
sum , divided by 100 of the cumulative percentage mass which is retained on each of
the ten sieves specified by Indian standards. The specified sieves are 150 micron ,
300 micron , 600 micron , 1.18 mm , 2.36 mm , 4.75 mm , 10 mm , 20 mm , 40 mm , 80 mm
and larger ( if required ) increasing in the ratio of 2 : 1. For the samples of table 2 - 8, the
fineness modulli worked out are 6.74 for coarse aggregate and 2.76 for sand .
The fineness modulus represents the massed average size of the sieve on which the
material is retained , the sieve being counted from the finest . For example , a fineness
modulus of 3 indicates the third sieve , i . e., 600 micron is the average size .
It may be noted that fineness modulus cannot represent a particular grading of the
be
aggregate. For a number of entirely different gradings, the fineness modulus can
. However , it can indicate the probable behaviour of a concrete mix having
the same
a specified grading . It can also be used as a day - to - day check on materials from
the
same source .
The following limits on fineness modulus may be taken as guidance .
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
A sand having fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be unsuitable for making
satisfactory concrete .
2 - 3 3 . S t a n d a r d g r a d i n g : Although the strength of concrete is independen t of
and ease
grading of aggregates, the graded aggregates are used to improve workability
to get dense mix . To get high strength concrete , dense concrete is
of compaction
required . To get a dense concrete , graded aggregates should be used . According
to
from natural sources for concrete ),
IS : 383 (Specificati on for coarse and fine aggregates
the aggregates are graded as follows :
 40 Reinforc ed Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
( 1 ) Coarse aggrega te : Single sized coarse aggregat e and graded coarse aggregat e
should be supplied in the nominal sizes as shown in table 2 of IS : 383 may be
referred . Coarse aggregat e for mass concrete work should be supplied in the nominal
sizes given in table 3 of IS : 383 and may be referred . Table 2-9 and table 2 - 10 give ,
some of these values.

TABLE 2- 9
COARSE AGGRE GATES

Percenta ge passing Percenta ge passing

IS sieve for single -size aggregat e for graded aggregate
designat ion of nominal size of nominal size
mm 20 mm 20 mm
80
63
40 100 100
20 85 to 100 95 to 100
16
12.5

10 0 to 20 25 to 55
4.75 0 to 5 0 to 10
2.36
Note: Refer to IS : 383 for other values.

TABLE 2 10 -
SIZES OF COARSE AGGRE GATES FOR MASS CONCRE TE
Class and size IS sieve designat ion Percenta ge passing
Very large 150 to 80 mm
Large 80 to 40 mm
Medium 40 to 20 mm 40 mm 90 to 100
20 mm 0 to 10
Small 20 to 4.75 mm
Note : Refer to IS : 383 for other values .
( 2 ) Fine aggrega te : Fine aggregat e is graded in four differen
t zones as given in
table 2 - 11 known as grading zones I , II , III and IV ,
Where the grading falls
outside the limits of any particula r grading zone of sieves other
than 600 micron IS
sieve by a total amount not exceedin g 5%, it should be
regarded as falling within that
grading zone .
This toleranc e shall not be applied to percenta ge passing the
600 micron IS sieve
or to percenta ge passing any other sieve size on the coarse limit
of grading zone I
or the finer limit of grading zone IV.
Art . 2 - 33 ] Properties of Materials 41

The sand falling in grading zone II is a normal sand . The sands falling in zone I and III
are respectively coarser and finer sands . The sand of zone IV is too fine and is
generally not used for concrete work .
TABLE 2 - 11
GRADING OF FINE AGGREGATES
Percentage passing for
IS sieve
designation Grading Grading Grading Grading
Zone I Zone II Zone III zone IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100

4.75 mm 90 - 100 90 - 100 90- 100 95 - 100
2.36 mm 60 -95 75- 100 85- 100 95- 100
1.18 mm 30 -70 55 - 90 75- 100 90 - 100
600 micron 15- 34 35 -59 60 -79 80 - 100
300 micron 5 - 20 8 - 30 12 - 40 15 -50
150 micron 0 - 10 0- 10 0- 10 0 - 15
( 3 ) All - in - aggregate : If combined aggregates are available they need not be
separated into fine and coarse , but necessary adjustment may be made in the
grading by the addition of single - sized aggregates .
The grading of 20 mm nominal size for all - in - aggregate is shown in table 2 - 12 .
Refer to IS : 383 for more details.
TABLE 2 - 12
ALL - IN - AGGREGATE GRADING

Percentage passing for

IS sieve designation all - in - aggregate of
20 mm nominal size
80 mm
40 mm 100
20 mm 95 to 100
4.75 mm 30 to 50
600 micron 10 to 35
150 micron 0 to 6

2 - 3 4 . U s e o f g r a d i n g c u r v e s : On a semi - log paper , first of all , the

curves for standard grading limits as tabulated by IS : 383 shall be drawn . Then
grading curve of the available aggregate should be drawn and compared with the
standard grading curves, to decide the suitability of the locally available materials
for concrete work .
( 1 ) Coarse aggregates: Fig. 2 - 11 shows the standard grading limits for 20 mm size
coarse aggregate based on table 2 - 9 . The grading curve for other aggregates
(viz., 40 mm , 16 mm, etc.) may also be drawn in the same manner. The grading curve
for local material may be drawn in the same figure . If the grading curve falls within
the standard gradation , the material is accepted . It not , coarse aggregate shall be
mixed with other type of coarse aggregate in suitable proportion so that the grading
 42 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
requirements are fulfilled . Note that if the grading requirements are not satisfied , the
concrete will have honeycombing, bleeding and will have less strength .

100 100
100

SO

CJj
e
. 60
cr
ra
Q .
3
c
40
<o
a
Q
CU
20

2.36 4.75 10 20 40 80
mm mm mm mm mm mm
Sieve size

Grading limits for 20 mm coarse aggregate

FIG . 2- 11
The grading curve of fig. 2 - 10 is superimposed by dotted line in fig . 2 - 11 . Note
that the local coarse aggregate complies with grading requirements.

100 100 100 100 100 100

100
95
80 90
80
c 70 c
c/ j
cr 60 t/ 3
J: 60
CL 60 a.
CJ <U
2 40 2 40
c e
<u
o
34 (U

20 / 30 O

£ 20 du 20
15 10
0 5 1
0
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 10 150 300 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 10
mm mm mm mm M- M-
Sieve size
^ mm
Sieve size
mm mm mm

(a) Zone I ( Coarse sand ) ( b ) Zone II ( Normal sand )

FIG . 2 - 12
( 2) Fine aggregates: Standard grading limits for fine aggregates shall be drawn
for
various zones. Grading curve of the available sand should be compared with these
curves to decide the zone of the available sand . If the sand falls within
the zone IV,
it is not used for concrete work, being very fine. Other three
grades of sand are
 1

Art . 2 - 34 ] Properties of Materials 43

I,
accepted for concrete work as coarse , normal and fine sand respectivel y for zone )
zone II and zone III. Note that sand of table 2 - 8 falls within zone II of fig . 2 - 12 ( b .

100 100 100 100 100

100 100
95 95
90
80 80
oo
80
OX) c
c
<S!
c/3 60 2
73
60
73
Q . CL
o, 50
o
OX) -r
2 40
2 40 c
c <u
<U o

£ 20 £ 20
15 15
10
0
0
150 300 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 10 150 300 600 1.18 2.36 4.75 10
P P P mm mm mm mm P P P mm mm mm mm
Sieve size Sieve size
(c ) Zone ITT ( Fine sand ) (d ) Zone IV ( Very fine sand )
FlG . 2 - \ 2 [ C o n l i n u e.. )
Example 2 - 2.
Two different gradings of coarse aggregate are available on site as shown in
following table . The allowable grading for 20 mm size is also given . Prepare a scheme
to use these coarse aggregates .
Percentage passing for graded aggregate
IS sieve designation Heap 1 Heap 2 IS : 383

20 100 100 95- 100

10 0 71 25 -55
4.75 9.5 0- 10

2.36 0
Solution :
Any of the heap does not satisfy the IS requiremen t. Let us consider mixing of
both the heaps in various proportion s to get the desired grading.
Scheme I 50 % - 50 %
Size I II Combined IS : 383 Comment
20 50 50 100 95 - 100 \

10 0 35.5 35.5 25 -55 V

4.75 4.75 4.75 o- i o V
2.36

Remark : Confirms required grading.

Using 50 % - 50 % from both heaps, the grading is satisfied . Let us now check
for
other schemes .
44 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
Scheme II 40 % - 60 %
Size I II Combined IS : 383 Comment
20 40 60 100 95- 100 V
10 0 42.6 42.6 25-55 V
4.75 5.7 5.7 o- i o
2.36 0
Remark: Confirms required grading .
Scheme III 30 % - 70 %
Size 1 II Combined IS : 383 Comment
20 30 70 100 95- 100 V
10 o 49.7 49.5 25 -55
4.75 6.65 6.65 0 - 10 V
2.36
Remark : Confirms required grading .
Scheme IV 20 % - 80 %
Size I II Combined IS : 383 Comment
20 20 80 100 95- 100 V
10 0 56.8 56.8 25-55 x
4.75 7.6 7.6 0 - 10 >1
2.36
Remark : Does not conform required grading
Scheme V 60% -
40 <*/o
Size I II Combined IS : 383 Comment
20 60 40 100 95- 100 V
10 0 28.4 28.4 25 -55 V
4.75 3.8 3.8 0- 10 V
2.36
Remark : Confirms required grading.
Scheme VI 70 % - 30 %
Size I II Combined IS:38 3 Comment
20 70 30 100 95- 100 V
10 0 21.3 21.3 25-55 x
4.75 2.85 2.85 0- 10 V
2.36
Remark : Does not conform required grading .
Schemes of heap 1 : heap 2 from 60- 40%, 50-50%, 40-60% and 30 70%
- may be used .
Art . 2 - 36 ] Properties of Materials 45

WATER
2- 35 . Water for mixing concrete: Water used for mixing and curing shall
be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids , alkalis, salts , sugar , organic
materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel . Potable and
drinking water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete .
Mixing and curing of concrete with sea water is not recommended because of the
presence of harmful salts in sea water. Under unavoidable circumstances, sea water may
be used for mixing or curing in plain concrete or such reinforced concrete constructions
as are permanently under sea water. For more details refer to clause 5.4 of IS : 456 .

CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
2 - 36. Admixtures: Chemical admixtures are added to the batch immediately
before or during its mixing to modify one or more of the properties of concrete. The
admixture is used not to improve the quality of concrete but to modify the properties
of concrete as per special requirements . A good concrete can always be prepared
without the use of admixtures . According to the effects produced in concrete , the
admixtures are classified as:
( 1 ) Accelerators ( 3 ) Water reducing admixtures ( plasticizers )
( 2 ) Retarders ( 4 ) Air - entraining agents .
Each of these are briefly discussed below. The specifications for admixtures are
given in IS : 9103- 1999 (Specification for admixtures for concrete ) which may be
consulted for further details .
(1 ) Accelerators: These are the substances which when added to concrete , mortar
or grout , increase the rate of hydration of a hydraulic cement, shorten the time
of set or increase the rate of hardening or strength development . These are
particularly useful in cold weather. Calcium chloride is the most commonly
used substance for this purpose . Some of the soluble carbonates , silicates ,
fluosilicates and some of the organic compounds are used as accelerators .
Modern admixtures can make the cement set within a few minutes which makes
it possible to use the concrete for under - water construction .
( 2 ) Retarders : These are the substances which retard the setting of cement . These
are particularly useful in hot weather or for ready mixed concrete , where it is
required to delay the setting of cement . The quantity of these additives must
be controlled as these can totally inhibit the setting and hardening of concrete .
Sugar , carbohydrate derivatives, soluble zinc salts, etc ., are used as retarders.
(3 ) Water reducing admixtures ( plasticizers ): These are the substances which when
added to concrete , increase workability without increasing the water content
i .e . , the concrete made using these admixtures is a flowing concrete . Concrete
with increased workability without adding more water is called flowing concrete.
It is possible with flowing concrete to place it in inaccessible locations where quick
placing is required . It is particularly useful for very heavily reinforced sections
or where rapid placing of concrete is desired . They are also useful for reducing
water cement ratio when an extremely high strength concrete is required . For this
purpose , now - a - days super - plasticizers are also available . Super plasticizers are
capable of increasing the slump value ( measurement of workability - refer to
art . 3-7 ) from 20 mm to 60 mm . It may be noted here that reducing water -
cement ratio in concrete mix increases its strength . Thus, super plasticizer do
not increase the strength of the concrete but its use helps in reducing water
amount which in turn increase the strength of the concrete .
46 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
( 4) Air -entraining agents: These are the admixtures which cause air to be incorporated
in the form of minute bubbles in concrete during mixing to increase the
workability and resistance to freezing and thawing and disruptive action of
deicing salts . They can stop the bleeding of concrete . Visol resin , natural wood
resin , animal / vegetable fat, etc., are the substances to be used for this purpose .

REINFORCEMENT
2- 37. Steel as reinforcement: In reinforced concrete , concrete being weak
in tension , steel bars are used to carry the tension . Steel bars are also used to carry
compression in beams and columns . For any material to be used as reinforcement for
concrete, it should possess the following properties.
(1) Itshould possess high tensile strength .
(2) Itshould be able to develop a good bond with concrete .
( 3) Itshould possess a high modulus of elasticity.
(4) It
should have the same (or nearly the same ) temperature coefficient of expansion
and contraction as concrete to avoid the development of thermal stresses.
(5 ) It should be easily available .
Many materials other than steel , like asbestos , glass, bamboo cane , etc. , were tried
on experimental basis as reinforcement but were found unsuitable . Steel is a material
which satisfies all the above requirements and is successfully used as reinforcement .
Combination of concrete and steel is ideal because when concrete sets , it contracts
and thus, it grips the reinforcement . Because of this adhesion , steel and concrete can
work together as a single material .
2 - 38. Types of reinforcement: Different types of reinforcement used are :
mild steel , medium tensile steel , hot rolled deformed bars , high yield strength
deformed (HYSD ) steel and hard drawn steel wire fabric. HYSD bars are available as
CTD ( Cold Twisted Deformed ) bars and TMT (Thermo Mechanically Treated ) bars.
In all cases the modulus of elasticity of steel shall be taken as 200 kN / mm 2.
The shape of steel reinforcement shall be such that it should have better bond with
concrete without inducing stress concentration . Round bars are effectively used to
avoid any possible stress concentration which is found at corners. Other shapes used
as reinforcement are flats , square bars , etc.
2- 39. Mild steel bars: Mild steel bars have been widely used as reinforcement
in construction industry. The yield strength of mild steel is 250 N / mm 2 ( minimum
specified value ) . Among all kinds of steel , mild steel is the most ductile . A typical
stress - strain curve for mild steel is shown in fig. 2 - 13.
In elastic range, the strain is directly
Strain hardening
proportional to the stress. If the load
is increased , the stress increases and oo f Ultimate stress
proportionally the strain increases. At
Breaking stress
one particular point , the stress remains
constant with significant increase in L Yield plateau
strain . This is known as yielding of Elastic range
steel and the stress is known as yield
stress which can be measured by drop Es = 2 x 105 N/ mm 2
of beam method on universal testing Strain
machine using standard tensile test Stress - strain relationships for mild steel
specimen . FIG . 2 - 13
102
Art . 2 - 40] Properties of Materials 47

With a further increase of load , the stress increases slowly upto ultimate stress
while strain increases rapidly. This is known as strain hardening. Beyond the ultimate
load , the deformatio ns are due to the necking and at a reduced load upto failure .
Mild steel , when used as reinforcem ent , can yield on over - loading. During yielding,
extensive cracking in concrete takes place before it fails . This can give sufficient
warning before failure . Now - a - days , because of the extensive use of high yield strength
deformed bars , the use of mild steel is limited ; however , it is sometimes used for
secondary reinforcem ent because of its higher ductility. Also, for the structures designed
to resist bombing, only mild steel is used because it is most ductile .
Mild steel can be plain or deformed to increase the capacity in bond . The
deformed bar is one which is provided with lugs, _ ribs or deformatio ns on the surface
of He bar to ntrumize the slippage of the bar in concrete so that its bond strength
^ ^
exceeds that of a plairTTsar of the arnpluze by 60 percent or more. The permissibl e
^
stresses tor deformed mildsteel bars are the same as lor plainrnild steel bars except
for bond stress , where permissibl e bond stress can be increased by 60 percent in
case of deformed bars.
2- 40. Cold Twisted Deformed ( CTD ) bars: Upto the late 1960s, only mild
steel was used as reinforcem ent in India . There was a shortage of steel which made
it costly. This created a demand to reduce the quantity of steel used . The quantity of
steel can only be reduced by using the reinforcem ent of quality marked by a higher
strength . Based on experiment s and prevailing
practice in foreign countries , the production
of high strength ribbed bars was started . r- 0.2 percent proof stress
It was noticed that if a mild steel bar is
strained beyond yield point by tensioning
and twisting and then unloaded , the yield <S
plateau is eliminated and a new stress - strain Cn
curve is obtained as shown in fig. 2 - 14.
As the high yield strength does not
possess the definite yield point, 0.2 percent
proof stress is used as a yield stress .
Based on the above property of steel , 5 Strain
the mild steel plain bars are subjected to Es = 2 x 5 N /mrrr
cold working by tensioning and twisting .
Tensioning raises both the yield _as wel 1 Effect of cold working on mild
steel bars
as the ultirqgtp strength of steel ; the FIG . 2 - 14
improveme nt in the yield strength
ns on the
(0.2 percent proof stress) being much higher. Twisting produces deformatio
its bond with concrete . These bars are extensivel y
surface of the bar which increases
.
used in R . C . C . works . These bars have the following advantages
and
( 1 ) Because of the high yield strength , the mass of steel required is reduced
even though its cost per kilogram is little higher than mild steel , the overall
cost with this steel is reduced .
hooks
(2) Twisted bars have better bond with concrete than mild steel , so that, end
in these bars can be omitted resulting in further saving in steel .
of mild
( 3) Cold working makes the bar uniform by hardening the softer parts and
of the bar , the defects in mild steel are noticed
steel . During the twisting
faulty bars are immediate ly rejected . Each bar is thus of a tested quality .
is less it leads to
(4) As the consumpti on of this steel as compared to mild steel
the saving of total steel in the nation .
 48 Reinforce d Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
The disadvantages of this steel are:
§
( 1 ) It is less ductile than mild steel .
( 2 ) The low percentag e of longitudi nal steel reduces the capacity of section in shear.
( 3 ) With higher stress level , the deflection and cracking of the member are larger.
To ensure adequate ductility before reaching ultimate stress, the cold working of
bars is carefully controlled in factories . The other two problems associated with the
use of high strength bars can be taken care of by suitably proportion ing the members
while designing .
In India , the CTD bars are available under the trade names of TOR steel , Tistrong,
Tiscon , GIRP, etc . These bars are available in three grades: Fe 415, Fe 500 and Fe 550.
In practice three types of steel reinforcem ent are normally used . They are : mild
steel reinforcem ent , high yield strength deformed bars of grade Fe 415 and Fe 500,
where Fe denotes ferrous materials and number , the yield strength of steel in N / mm 2.
Fe 550 grade is recently gaining popularit y for slab reinforcem ent , however , it will
take sometime to be usual in practice . The HYSD bars are available as CTD bars as
discussed in this article and TMT bars as discussed in the next article . The HYSD bar
means it may be CTD or TMT bar . These bars are most popular and most widely used
in all constructio ns . TMT bars have recently started gaining popularit y.
The following symbols are used in this book relating to cross -sectional shape and
size of reinforcem ent as specified by IS : 5525 - 1969 ( Recomme ndations for detailing
of reinforcem ent in reinforced concrete works ) .
0 Plain round bar or diameter of plain round bar
# Deformed bar or nominal size ( equivalen t diameter ) of the deformed bar.
The mass of steel reinforcem ent shall be calculated by consideri ng unit mass of
steel equal to 7850 kg / m 3. The temperatu re coefficien t of expansion of steel is about
11.5 x 10 ~ 6 per degree centigrad e . Note that the mass per running metre of mild steel
and that of HYSD reinforcem ent of the same diameter is the same .
2-41. Thermo-mechani cally treated ( TMT ) bars: The TMT bars are manufact
ured
by subjectin g the hot rolled M . S . bars to a sophistic ated and controlle d cooling
process which converts the outer surface of the bar into hardened structure. The
subseque nt cooling allow the hot inner core to soften the outer surface through thermal
exchange resulting into tempered martensite in the peripheric al zone and a fine
ferrite - pearlite at the central zone . This process increases the yield grain
strength of the bar
without losing its yielding property. Thus , these bars possess definite
yield point. In
addition , the bond strength is also increased due to such treatment.
TMT bars have
high strength combined with high elongatio n . This increases the ductility and
of the bars . Due to higher ductility and toughnes s , these weldabili ty
are used in earthquak e
prone areas . Also , these bars have better corrosion resistance .
TMT bars are manufact ured in three grades, viz., 400, 500 and 550
yield strength of 400 N / mm 2 , 500 N / mm 2 and 550 N / mm 2 having character istic
and are available in
limited variety of diameters (8, 10 , 12 , 16 , 20 , 25 mm ) .
2 * 42. Corrosio n-resistant steel: Recently , corrosion -
resistant steel has been
develope d and is being used in aggressive environme nts, marine
structures, etc. These
steels have the same usual grades, viz., Fe 415, Fe 500 and Fe
550 as per BIS specificat ions.
In addition , they are coated with corrosion - resistant elements
.
2 - 43 . Hard - drawn steel wire fabric : These are
made in two types ,
viz. , square mesh and oblong mesh . It consists of
longitudi nal and transverse wires at
right angles to one another joined by resistance spot
welding. This reduces the cost
Art . 2 - 44 ] Properties of Materials 49

of labour and fabrication in the field . The mesh is available in diameters from 3 to 10 mm ,
the diameters being same in both the directions. Both the directions can serve as main
reinforcement. Usually these mesh are employed as slab reinforcement.
2 - 44 . Bending and fixing of bars: All reinforcement shall be free from
loose mill scales, loose rust and coats of paints, oil , mud or other coating which may
destroy or reduce bond . Before fixing the bars in position , the forms are usually oiled
so as to make it easy while stripping and also to get proper finishing. The oil applied
on forms should be such that it will not be coated on reinforcement. The oil shall be
mixed with equal quantity of water before applying it on forms , so that water will
evaporate leaving extremely thin cover of oil . The forms shall be then properly
rubbed with cotton . The better method is to cover the forms with thin plastic sheet
before fixing the reinforcement .
Bar bending is an operation which requires adequate supervision , skilled workmanship
and efficiency. Any attempt to carry out the work with unskilled labour and
insufficient tools will result in unsatisfactory work . Bending of bars may be done
by fixing the bar between two iron pins, embedded in wooden plate which is fixed
to the ground .
The required radius of a bar can be obtained by bending the bar round the mandrel
of required diameter fixed in the iron pin . The required force for bending the bar is
applied through a lever made out of a hollow pipe . The bars shall be bent in cool
condition . Bars larger than 25 mm in size may be bent hot at cherry - red heat not
exceeding 850° C except those bars which depend for their strength on cold working.
Hot bars shall not be cooled by quenching.
The fixing of reinforcement shall be as per structural engineer ’ s drawing. The
concrete cover to the reinforcement can be obtained by using precast support block and
its use is explained in art . 4 - 5. In order to maintain the bars in a correct position
during concreting ; the bars are tied with each other using wire or tack welded .

(—
1
For general works , black soft iron wires of 16 gauge 16 inch or 1.6 mm diameter
are suitable . After tying the bars , surplus wire shall be cut off so that it does
not touch the formwork as this leads to rusting later on the face of the concrete .
1 1
inches. Thus 12 gauge means inch
Here n’ gauge wire means its diameter is
^
4 “

^ -
= 2.12 mm diameter and 20 gauge means 7 3 inch = 1 27 mm diameter. Larger the
gauge size , thinner is the diameter. Thin sheets are also measured in gauge .
A magnet of small capacity shall be moved on the formwork to catch small pieces
of binding wires lying on the formwork . About 7 to 8 kg mass of binding wire is
required for one tonne mass of steel bars. For more information of bending and fixing
of bars , IS : 2502 ( Code of practice for bending and fixing of bars for concrete
reinforcement ) shall be consulted .
2- 45. Requirements for reinforcing bars: The requirements for reinforcing
bars are collected from various Indian Standards and tabulated in table 2 - 13.
2- 46 . Welding of reinforcemen t: The reinforcing bars may be welded using
flash butt welding, manual metal arc welding or oxy - acetylene process. For welding of
mild steel bars IS : 2751 ( Code of practice for welding of mild steel plain and deformed
bars for reinforced concrete construction ) and for welding of cold - worked steel bars
IS : 9417 ( recommendatio ns for welding cold - worked steel bars for reinforced concrete
construction ) may be consulted .
 TABLE 2- 13 Cn
-
REQUIREM ENTS FOR REINFORC ING BARS o
Type of Nominal size of bars Characteris tic strength Ultimate tensile strength Minimum elongation on
IS : No reinforceme n ( yield strength or gauge length of 5.65 YJSQ
mm 0.2 % proof stress ) N / mm 2 *S() = Cross-section
area percent
IS:432 - 1982 Mild steel For bars upto and 250 410 23
( part I ) (grade I ) including 20 mm
For bars over 20 mm , 240 410 23
upto and including 50 mm
Mild steel For bars upto and 225 370 pa
23
(grade II ) including 20 mm a>
3
For bars over 20 mm , 215 370 23 O
•i
upto and including 50 mm o

Medium For bars upto and 350 540 20

Q
-
tensile steel including 16 mm O
o
3
For bars over 16 mm , o
340 540 20 a>
upto and including 32 mm a>
For bars over 32 mm 330 510 20
I
upto and including 50 mm
$
IS: 1786- 1985 HYSD All diameters 415 10% more than actual 14.5
bars / wires Fe 415 0.2% proof stress,
min . 485
500 8 % more than actual 12.0
Fe 500 0.2 % proof stress,
min . 545
550 6% more than actual 8.0
Fe 550 0.2 % proof stress ,
min . 585
IS: 1566 - 1982 Hard drawn Upto 10 mm [ Refer to 480 570 7.5 over a gauge length
steel wire IS : 432 ( Part 11) 1982 for of 8 diameter O
fabric 3“
more details ]
S3
Que. 2 ] Properties of Materials 51

2- 47 .
General notes for site engineers: Having understood the properties
of ingredients of concrete , and properties of steel reinforcement , the site engineer
should note the following points in order to get a better work on site :
( 1 ) Cement is the most important and costliest ingredient of concrete and should
be stored properly. Air set cement should not be used for concrete work while
deteriorated cement should not be used for any work .
( 2 ) Badly graded aggregates, dirty sand and polluted water should not be used .
(3) Bulking of aggregates should be properly adjusted while measuring aggregates
and water . Where possible , mass - batching shall be employed .
( 4 ) Steel should be kept clean and only the required quantity of steel should be
ordered stagewise , to avoid rusting of steel .
QUESTIONS II
(1) What is cement ? Why is it called hydraulic cement ?
(2) Describe the manufacture of Portland cement . In what ways does it differ from
( a ) rapid hardening cement , and
( b ) high alumina cement ?
( 3) What is the influence of the tri and di calcium silicates and tri calcium aluminate
on the properties of cement ?
( 4) Write a short note on chemical properties of cement.
(5) How will you calculate the percent content of various - compounds in a given
cement ?
( 6) What is hydration ? On which factors the rate of hydration depends ?
( 7) Explain the process of hydration .
( 8) Write a short note on chemistry of hydration .
(9 ) Write a note on role of gypsum in cement and concrete .
( 10 ) What is the importance of testing fineness of cement ? How is the surface area
method more reliable than sieve test for testing fineness of cement ?
( 11 ) Define consistency of standard cement paste.
( 12 ) How is the initial setting time of cement determined ? What is its significance ?
( 13 ) Differentiate between setting and hardening of cement. Is setting time of cement
related with setting time of concrete ?
( 14 ) How is the setting time of cement controlled ?
( 15 ) Why are the excess quantities of magnesium oxide , free lime , or sodium oxide
in cements considered undesirable ?
( 16 ) How is the cement stored ?
( 17 ) Which shape of aggregate is considered the best for making concrete ? Why ?
( 18 ) How is the strength of aggregate determined ?
( 19 ) Explain bulking of sand . How does it affect the quantity of sand in volume batch
mixing ? How will you find out bulking factor at site ?
( 20 ) The fine sand of fig. 2 - 9 is made saturated by adding more water , and the bulking
factor as observed is 0.9 . Comment on the result and explain how will you
modify the graph .
52 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 2
( 21 ) What is a fineness modulus ? What is its significance ?
( 22 ) What is grading ? How are the aggregates graded ?
( 23) On one site , 20 mm graded coarse aggregates are being used for concrete work .
If the grading of the aggregate does not comply with IS requirements, write the
steps you will follow on the site .
( 24 ) What are the admixtures ? Discuss briefly the various types of admixtures .
( 25 ) What is flowing concrete ?
( 26 ) Why is the steel used as reinforcement ?
( 27 ) Discuss the difference between use of mild steel and use of HYSD bars as
reinforcement .
( 28 ) How is the HYSD bar manufactured ? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of using HYSD bar as a reinforcement.
( 29 ) What is a corrosion -resistant steel ? Collect more information for this steel .
( 30 ) What are TMT bars ? collect more information about TMT bars.
( 31 ) Write a short note on bending and fixing of bars.

E X A M P L E S II
(1) The IS sieve sizes are 40 mm , 20 mm , 10 mm , 4.75 mm , 2.36 mm , 1.18 mm , 600
micron , 300 micron and 150 micron . A sample of sand measuring 2 kg is sieved ,
and it is found that 0.20 kg, 0.36 kg, 0.52 kg, 0.48 kg, and 0.42 kg are retained
on 2.36 mm , 1.18 mm , 600 micron , 300 micron and 150 micron respectively .
What is the fineness modulus of the sand and the range in size ?
( .Ans. 2.69, 600 micron . )
(2) Draw a grading curve for the sand of Example ( 1 ) . Specify the zone of sand .
( Ans. Zone I.)
 hapter
STRUCT URAL CONCRE TE
r 3 JH
General: In chapter 2 , we have discussed the properties of materials used for
preparing concrete. In this chapter the operations involved in the preparation of
concrete , and the properties of wet and set concrete are briefly discussed .
Concrete is a carefully proportioned mixture of cement , fine aggregate , coarse
aggregate and water . Sometimes to modify the physical properties of concrete , a
variety of admixtures ( discussed in art . 2 - 37 ) may be added . The preparation of
concrete consists of the following operations :
(1) Proportioning of ingredients
( 2) Measurement of materials
( 3) Mixing and placing of concrete
(4) Compaction
(5) Curing .
Each of the above operations will be now discussed in the following articles.
3-1. Proportioning of ingredients: Proportioning of ingredients means determining
the relative amounts of ingredients to get the required strength of concrete . The
required strength of concrete depends on many factors like the stresses it has to resist ,
the weathering conditions it has to bear , etc. The compressive strength of concrete is
an index of the quality of concrete . Most of the properties of concrete benefit by
increase in the compressive strength of concrete , e .g., tensile strength , shear strength ,
resistance to weathering, abrasion and wear and impermeability. Exceptions to this
rule are lightness ( in density ) and thermal insulation . While deciding the required
strength of concrete and proportion of ingredients, the following points shall have to
be considered .
( 1 ) The strength of concrete should be equal to or more than the minimum required
( e . g. , for structural concrete , the minimum specified compressive strength is
20 N / mm 2 ) and enough to resist the imposed stresses and weathering conditions.
Providing stronger concrete than required would be uneconomical .
( 2 ) It should be durable against different weathering conditions like moisture
changes , atmospheric gases , temperature changes , etc . It should be able to
resist the wear safely and should not disintegrate .
( 3 ) It should be easy to prepare with the available means on site and should be
workable , i . e ., it should be possible to get it easily mixed , placed and compacted
in order to obtain a dense concrete .
( 4 ) It should be economical . Economy is very important with regard to cement ,
the costliest ingredient of concrete. To obtain a specified compressive strength ,
a variety of concrete mixes can be prepared. The economical alternative
is one which requires the minimum possible cement for a given value of
concrete strength .
Different strengths of concrete can be achieved by using different proportions of
ingredients of concrete . The compressive strength of concrete is tested by testing
standard cubes of size 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm . The crushing strength of this
cube tested after curing it for 28 days is known as cube strength. In order to standardize
the construction practice , the grades of concrete are defined in table 3- 1 . The characteristic
strength of material is defined as the strength of material below which not more than
54 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
5 percent of the test results are expected to fall . In the designation of a concrete mix ,
letter M refers to the mix and number to the specified characteristic compressive
strength of 150 mm size cube at 28 days expressed in N / mm 2 .
TABLE 3 - 1
GRADES OF CONCRETE
Group Grade designation Specified characteristic compressive
strength of 150 mm
cube at 28 days , N / mm 2
Ordinary M 10 10
concrete M 15 15
M20 20
M25 25
M30 30
Standard M35 35
concrete M 40 40
M 45 45
M 50 50
M55 55
M60 60
High strength M65 65
concrete M 70 70
M 75 75
M80 80
The concrete mix proportioning is treated in clause 9 of IS : 456 . Accordingly, the
determination of the proportions of cement , aggregates and water in order to attain
the required strengths shall be made as follows:
( 1 ) By designing the concrete mix ; such concrete shall be called Design mix concrete.
( 2 ) By adopting nominal concrete mix ; such concrete shall be called Nominal mix
concrete.
Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix . If design mix concrete cannot
be used for any reason on the work for grades of M 20 or lower , nominal mixes may
be used with the permission of engineer - in - charge which, however, is likely to involve
a higher cement content .
( 1 ) Design mix concrete: The proportion of ingredients of concrete to obtain a
desired mix can be found out by laboratory method of mix design. Design
mix concrete is treated in IS : 10262 and may be referred . Design mix concrete
should produce the grades of concrete having the required workability
and a characteristic strength not less than the appropriate values given in
table 3- 1 .
( 2 ) Nominal mix concrete : Nominal mix concrete may be used for concrete of
grades M5, M 7.5, M 10, M 15 and M 20. The proportions of materials for nominal
mix concrete may be in accordance with table 3 - 2 ( as treated in IS : 456 ) .
Art. 3- 2 ] Structural Concrete 55

TABLE 3 - 2
PROPORTI ONS FOR NOMINAL MIX CONCRETE
Grade of Cement FA + CA Proportion of ( well graded ) Water content
Concrete kg kg fine aggregate to coarse maximum
aggregate ( by mass )
FA : CA litres
( 1) (2) ( 3) (4 ) (5 )
M5 50 800 Generally 1 : 2 but subject to 60
M 7.5 50 625 an upper limit of 1 : 1.5 and 45
M 10 50 480 a lower limit of 1 : 2.5 34
M 15 50 330 progressively as the grading 32
M 20 50 250 of finer aggregates become 30
finer and maximum size of
coarse aggregates becomes larger
Dosage of admixtures: When admixtures are used , their dosage by mass of cementitious
materials should not usually exceed the following.
retarders 0.5 %
plasticisers 1.0 %
super plasticisers 2.0 %
Example 3 - 1 .
Explain the proportion of CA : FA for preparing nominal mix concrete in reference
with 40 mm , 20 mm and 10 mm maximum size graded aggregate with sand confirming
to zone I , II , and III .
Solution :
As per table 3- 2 , the average grading is as follows:
Maximum size of C . A . Sand zone CA : FA

40 I 1 :2
20 II 1 :2
10 III 1 :2

When varius combination s are used , consider the following table .

Maximum size of C . A . Sand zone Comment CA : FA
40 I Average grading 1:2

—— —
II FA > finer 1 : 2.5
III FA > > finer N.A .
20 II Average grading 1:2
I FA —> coarser 1 : 1.5
III FA —> finer 1 : 2.5

10 III Average grading 1:2

II
I
——
FA > coarser
FA —> » coarser
1 : 1.5
N . A.

3- 2. Measuremen t of materials: In general , all materials shall be measured

by mass . However, for liquid admixtures and water , volume batching may be established .
The measurement of aggregates volume may be permitted , if the quality of ingredient
is going to remain the same for a long period of time and mass - batching is not
practicable. In such cases, periodic check shall be made on mass / volume relationship s .
 56 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
While measuring aggregates by volume , the bulking of fine aggregates in particular ,
shall be carefully taken into account.
( 1 ) Mass -batching: In India , one bag of cement contains 50 kg mass of cement. It
is not necessary to find the mass of each cement bag ; however , periodical
checks on the mass of cement should be made and if found in less quantity
suitable adjustment in measuring other materials shall be made or cement
should be added to make it 50 kg. The aggregates may be measured by an
ordinary platform scale . While measuring aggregates , one should account for
the surface water present in the aggregate ; also the quantity of water should
be modified . Water may be measured by mass or by volume , considering
density of water equal to 1000 kg / m 3.
( 2 ) Volume -batching: The apparent volume of cement depends on the manner in
which the cement is taken out of the bag. The volume of 50 kg cement shall
be taken as 34.5 litres. For measuring aggregates by volume , boxes of size 300
mm x 300 mm x 380 mm are used . This size is chosen as its cubical content
equals to volume of 50 kg cement, i . e., one bag of cement . If the proportion
of materials specified is for example, 1 : 2 : 4 by volume , then one bag of cement ,
two measures of sand and four measures of coarse aggregate shall be taken.
Aggregate filled in the box should not be heaped and shall be levelled . When
volume batching is used , one should account for the moisture present in aggregate,
and the bulking of sand . The proportion of sand and water shall be then
modified accordingly. The water shall be measured in litres . Example 3 - 7
explains the conversion of mass - batch to volume - batch .
3- 3. Mixing and placing of concrete: The ingredients of concrete should
be thoroughly mixed such that the cement paste is coated to the surface of all aggregates
and a uniform mass is obtained . Concrete shall be mixed in a mechanical mixer.
The mechanical mixers may be Rotating drum type or Tilting drum type. These are
available in capacities from 150 litres to 5000 litres and over. The mixing shall be
continued until there is a uniform distribution of the materials and the mass is
uniform in colour and consistency. All the water is not added before at least one - fourth
of the mixing period is over.
Minimum mixing time is 90 seconds for mixers upto 800 litres capacity with an
increase of 15 seconds of each additional capacity of 400 litres. The effect of increasing
mixing time is to increase in strength of concrete , however , after 2 minutes’ mixing
no further increase in strength can be obtained . Unnecessary prolonged mixing may
result in segregation (art. 3-7).
For small works where machine mixing is not possible , hand mixing may be
allowed but with an addition of 10 percent extra cement in the mix . On a pucca water
tight platform , the materials shall be mixed dry before addition of water. Cement ,
powdered admixture if any and fine aggregate are first mixed thoroughly to get
uniform colour . Then coarse aggregate is added and again the material is mixed
throughly. After adding the water , the materials should be mixed thoroughly until the
concrete is uniform in colour and consistency . The whole mass should be turned over
at least three times to get uniform mix . The liquid admixture if any, may be mixed
in water before the water is added to the mix .
The forms, where this mix is to be deposited, should be cleaned and wet with
water before placing. The forms also may be treated with an approved composition or
may be oiled . Care shall be taken that such approved composition is kept out of
contact with the reinforcemen t. It should be ensured that forms are rigidly tied
and
reinforcemen t is placed in correct position and is checked by the structural
engineer
related with the job .
A r t . 3 - 5] Structural Concrete 57

The mixed concrete should be transported to the place of laying as early as

possible . During transport , care should be taken to see that segregation ( refer to art. 3-7 )
does not take place and the concrete should be placed before it starts setting.
If segregation does occur during unloading, the concrete should be remixed before
placing. Continuous supply of concrete is desirable at the place of depositing. For
small works, concrete is transported manually through small steel buckets . For big
jobs , it may be pumped through pipes.
3- 4. C o m p a c t i o n: Immediately upon placing, the concrete should be compacted
so as to get a dense mass without voids. Compaction is extremely important as 5 %
of voids can give a loss of 30 % in strength , 10 % of voids can give a loss of (SO %
in strength and 25 % of voids can give a loss of 90 % in strength . Other properties
of concrete like durability , impermeabili ty , etc . , also greatly depend on the compaction
of concrete .
Compaction may be done by using hand tools or vibrators . Hand tools may be
pinning rod for comparativel y wet concrete or a heavy temper for comparativel y dry
concrete . The use of vibrators makes it possible to use lower water- cement ratio and
consequently dense and strong concrete can be produced .
Vibrators may be internal vibrators or external vibrators. The internal vibrator or
needle vibrator is immersed in concrete and allowed to vibrate. Needle vibrator should
be kept vertical in concrete . It should not be kept inclined . This enables the concrete
particles to come closer. External vibrators or form vibrators are attached to forms. The
vibrations are transmitted to concrete through forms. The formwork should be designed
to transmit vibrations . The compaction of concrete through vibrators is thus very
useful . However , over - vibrating makes the concrete non - homogeneous.
3 - 5 . C u r i n g : The hydration of cement takes place only in water - filled capillaries.
The products of hydration are filled in these capillaries . The water in capillaries may
get lost due to evaporation . If this water is retained by some means or , in other words,
if the water is continuously available , the chemical action can be continued as long
as all the cement is hydrated . The process by which the loss of water from concrete
is prevented is known as curing. Curing enables previously unwetted minute particles
of cement to participate in the chemical action . Curing is usually done in one of the
following ways :
( 1 ) Moist curing: Exposed surface of concrete shall be kept continuously in a damp
or wet condition for at least seven days from the date of placing of concrete .
Ponding can be done for the floors of basement , reservoir and slabs. Precast
concrete members can be immersed in water. The concrete of columns, walls ,
etc . , may be kept damp by covering them with a layer of sacking, canvas ,
hessian or similar materials and kept constantly wet for seven days . Seven
days’ period is the minimum specified . However , longer curing is beneficial.
( 2 ) Membrane curing: The concrete may be coated with approved curing compounds.
These compounds should be applied to all exposed surfaces of concrete as
soon as possible after the concrete has set. This method is used where water
is in short supply or in hot weather conditions .
(3) Steam curing: It has been pointed out earlier that hydration accelerates with
temperature . When heat is applied to concrete it is important to see that water
held in concrete is not lost or in other words high humidity is required with
an application of heat. Steam curing fulfils these requirements . This can be
done at atmospheric pressure or under pressure . Steam curing under pressure
is very costly as it requires pressure chambers. Half an hour strength of
concrete steam - cured under pressure , can be equal to 28 days strength of
'
58 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
similar concrete . However , steam curing reduces the bond strength of concrete
and shall be used only in exceptional cases . Steam curing is used only for
achieving 50 to 75 percent of the strength in a short period .
3 - 6 . Formwork for R .C .C . members: The temporary structure erected to
support the concrete in its required form , till it hardens and becomes self -supporting
is known as formwork , centering or shuttering. In olden days , the design of formwork
was left to the carpenters making the forms. However, in modern works , the formwork
is designed in design office . The formwork and design of basic forms such as forms
for columns, slabs and beams are treated separately in Chapter 23 of this book .
3- 7. Workability: Workability is the ease with which a concrete can be mixed ,
placed and compacted so that a dense concrete is obtained (full compaction ) . The
workable mix should not show any segregation or bleeding of concrete .
Workability as explained here does not give its correct definition . The desired
workability depends on the tools available to compact the concrete . Similarly the
workability of concrete for one condition, say mass concrete , may not be sufficient for
the heavily reinforced section .
The work done on concrete while compaction consists of useful work and wasted
work as vibrating the mould or already compacted concrete etc . Workability is defined
as a property of concrete . It is the amount of useful internal work necessary to
produce full compaction .
Segregation is said to occur when the constituent materials of concrete try to
separate out from each other producing concentration of coarser material at one place
and finer material at other place in the concrete. Such concrete contains large voids
and is less durable . The segregation occurs due to poor grading of aggregates
( i . e . , large difference in sizes of particles ) , over - vibration and dropping the concrete
from above a certain height , which should be avoided.
Bleeding of concrete is said to occur when unreacted water in the mix tends to rise
to the surface of freshly placed concrete due to sedimentation of constituents of
concrete . This produces continuous capillary pores which provides a clear straight
access to chemicals and deleterious materials in concrete and lowers the strength and
durability of concrete .
To reduce segregation , well graded aggregates are used and concrete is placed with
enough compaction . The concrete should not be dropped from a height of more than
1.5 metres . Bleeding can be reduced by increasing alkali and C3 A content or by
adding calcium chloride .
Workability can be assessed by many tests and some important tests are :
( 1 ) Slump test
( 2 ) Compacting factor test
( 3) Vee - bee test .
Each of the above tests are briefly discussed below.
( 1 ) Slump test : A slump test apparatus is shown in fig . 3- 1 ( a ) . It consists of a
frustum of cone and is hollow at top and bottom .
The slump cone is placed on a water tight levelled platform and fresh concrete is
placed in it in four equal layers . Each layer is tamped with twenty five strokes of the
rounded end of the tamping rod of steel or other suitable material , 16 mm diameter
and 600 mm long . After completely filling, the cone should be lifted vertically.
Lacking the support , concrete subsides (slumps ) . The difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen should be measured in
millimetres and recorded as slump .
Art . 3 - 7 ] S t r u c t u r a l Concrete 59

100 dia.
K -H
c Tamping rod

T
100
ri
I
i
\
\ nZ> .4
Slump

i. i
\
•
300 i \
At least
mm 2 mm \ 1.6 mm thick
i \
thick i \
i \
— 2 mm thick
-—
[

\u,
t j i : WWvxWWWW
i \

.. WkWxVwwXX .\
WXXX XVWWWWxWxWV
6 mm H 200 dia. H — ^
(a ) Apparatus ( b) Unsupported concrete
Slump test
FIG . 3 - 1
Typical slump patterns are shown in fig . 3 - 2 . In the first case , concrete subsides
evenly and is called a true slump. The second case is a shear slump where one - half of
the cone slides down . The shear slump is measured as a difference in height between
the height of the mould and the average value of subsidence . If the sample shows
shear slump , the experiment shall be repeated . If in a repeated test also , the specimen
shows shear slump , the slump should be measured and recorded as a shear slump .
Shear slump indicates that the concrete is non -cohesive or harsh and shows the characteristic
of segregation . This also indicates poor grading of aggregate . If the mix gives shear
slump , the grading of aggregate shall be checked , and corrected to satisfy the code
requirements . The collapse indicates a leaner mix .
Upto 125 mm 25 to 50 mm
i 1 / \
\ '
Upto i » 150
\ i \
i \
,, 150 mm i \ to
i
i \
i
i \
\
255 mm
i
i \ i \
i \ i \
11 \ i \

( a ) True slump ( b ) Shear ( c ) Collapse

Slump patterns
FIG . 3- 2
The slump is usually 25 to 75 mm for low - workability , 50 to 100 mm for medium
workability and 100 to 150 mm for high workability . Normal fresh concrete used for
reinforced concrete is usually of a medium workability. Suggested ranges of workability
are given in table 3 - 3 .
TABLE 3 - 3
SUGGESTED RANGES OF WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Sr. No . Degree of workability Placing conditions Slump ( mm )
( i) Very low Shallow sections Refer to note 1
(2) Low Mass concrete ; lightly reinforced sections 25-75
(3) Medium Heavily reinforced sections 50- 100
75- Too
’ ”

(4 ) Medium Pumped concrete

(5 ) High In - situ piling 100 - 50 T
(6 ) Very high Tremie concrete Refer to IS : 9103
 60 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
The slump test is not a true guide of workability as the same slump can be
obtained for different workabilities of concrete .
However , it is useful as a day to day check on site. Too high or a too low slump
gives immediate warning. Because of simplicity it is a widely accepted test all over
the world .
( 2 ) Compacting factor test :
Compacting factor test , developed A
at the Road Research Laboratory , I Hopper clamp
U . K . , is more precise and sensitive t
than the slump test. It is primarily IT Clamp — i i
Hinge
designed for laboratory work but
can also be used in the field . It
is particularly useful for concrete Trap door
mixes of very low workability ( refer
to table 3 - 3) as are normally used
when concrete is to be compacted B
by vibration ; such concrete may
constantly fail to slump .
A compacting factor apparatus
( IS : 5515- 1983) is shown in fig. 3- 3.
The essential dimensions of the
apparatus are listed in table 3- 4 . The
test should be made for concrete with
C

-s
maximum size of aggregate not
exceeding 40 mm . Cylinder clamp
The specimen concrete is gently each side r
placed in the upper hopper and levelled .
The trap - door is then opened and
concrete is allowed to fall in the Compacting factor apparatus
lower hopper. Sticked concrete in FIG . 3- 3
upper hopper at sides is gently pushed
into the lower one . The trap - door of the lower hopper is opened so that the concrete
falls in the cylinder.
The excess of concrete remaining above the level of the top of the cylinder should
be cut off and removed . The mass of concrete in the cylinder should be measured to
the nearest 10 gm . This is known as the mass of partially compacted concrete.
The cylinder should be refilled with concrete from the same specimen in layers
of 50 mm deep , each layer being rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction . The mass of concrete in the cylinder should be measured and it is known
as the mass of fully compacted concrete.
The compacting factor is defined as :
mass of partially compacted concrete
mass of fully compacted concrete
The mass of fully compacted concrete can also be worked out considering the
proportions of ingredients, their densities and the volume of the cylinder. However ,
this will hardly make any difference in results.
A compaction factor of about 0.85 represents low workability, 0.92 medium
and 0.95 high workability.
workability
Art . 3 - 7 ] Structural Concrete 61

This test measures the inherent characteristics of concrete. It is in fact very close
to workability requirements and thus it is one of the best method to find out the
workability.
As a rough guide the following relation between compacting factor and slump may
be assumed .
Compacting factor 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.92 0.95
Slump , mm 25 50 75 100 150

Where strict control on workability is necessary, e.g ., pavement quality concrete,

measurement of workability by determination of compacting factor will be more
appropriate than slump and a value of compacting factor of 0.75 to 0.80 is suggested .
(3 ) Vee - Bee test : In this test , the consistency of concrete is measured in terms of
VB seconds . This test is not influenced by personal errors . A Vee - Bee consistometer
is shown in fig. 3 4 . -
A Vee - Bee consistometer consists of a vibrating table resting on elastic supports,
a cylindrical metal pot, a sheet metal cone 300 mm high , 200 mm at the bottom and
100 mm at the top (open at both ends ) and a standard iron rod . The vibration table
is electrically operated . A graduated rod 20 mm in diameter and 500 mm long is fixed
on the swivel arm and at the end of the graduated arm , a transparent glass disc is
screwed which always remains in a horizontal position .

n
E
N CM
D
J

W
c r
= == ^
/
i
i
i
/
1 P
t
\
\
\
\
300
B

i
n
i
/

• KIOOH '
\
\
\
rihc.

I t I \
A
i
—
\

/
i \
t H M
'
i
200 — \

\
4 F
Hr -- 1 1 -
G

305
M

r* 380 260

A = Metal pot F = Guide screw K = Base

B = Sheet metal cone G = Vibrating table L = Vibrometer
C = Glass disc H = Wing nuts M = Swivel arm holder
D = Funnel J = Graduated rod N = Swivel arm
E = Guide sleeve

Vee - Bee consistometer

FIG . 3 - 4
62 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
A slump test is performed in the sheet metal cylindrical pot of the consistometer.
The slump is determined on the graduated rod by noting the readings before and after
raising the cone .
The electrical vibrator is then switched on and the concrete shall be allowed to
spread out in the pot . The vibrations shall be continued until the whole concrete
surface uniformly adhers to the glass disc and the time taken for this to be attained
is noted with a stop watch . The time is recorded in seconds known as VB seconds.
Relationship between the Vee - Bee degrees and slump is shown in fig. 3- 5, which
indicates that low

Vee-Bce degrees
Relation between slump in cm and Vee - Bee degrees
FIG. 3- 5
3- 8. Factors influencing workability: The following are the factors
influencing
workability of concrete .
( 1 ) Increased water content , i . e . , increase in water - cement ratio increases the
workability. However , other properties of concrete like strength and density
are reduced .
( 2 ) Increasing the maximum size of aggregate increases workability as comparative
ly
more mortar is available to fill the voids.
( 3) Increasing quantity of coarse aggregate , keeping total quantity of coarse
+ fine
aggregate to be constant , the workability is increased .
( 4 ) Particle interference , i . e ., much of aggregate lying in one zone , reduces
This requires proper grading of aggregates . Workability can be
workability.
increased by
using round aggregates , suitable admixtures , etc., to a greater extent.
Art . 3- 9 ] Structural Concrete 63

( 5 ) Workability is reduced with time .

( 6 ) Workability is also reduced at higher temperatures .
3- 9 . Strength of concrete and water -cement ratio: The compressive
strength of concrete is its most important property. Concrete is strong in compression
but weak in tension . As explained earlier , the compressive strength of concrete may
be considered as an index of the quality of concrete as most of the other properties
benefit by increasing the compressive strength .
The strength of concrete primarily depends on two factors . They are water - cement
ratio and the degree of compaction . Higher the water - cement ratio , lower is the
strength of concrete. Similarly the strength is reduced with lower degree of compaction
With regard to the full compaction of concrete , it was shown by Prof . Abrams that
“ With given materials and conditions of test, the ratio of quantity of mixing water to
the quantity of cement alone determines the strength of concrete so long as the mix
is of a workable plasticity ” . This is known as water - cement ratio law . The variation of
strength of concrete versus water - cement ratio is shown in fig . 3- 6 .

SZ
Df ]
£
—
i Vibration

a
C/3
— Hand compaction
<D
C/3
C/3
/
/
— Fully compacted
Q . t concrete
B
O
U
Insufficiently
/ compacted concrete

Water/cement ratio
Relation between compressive strength and w / c ratio of concrete
FIG. 3- 6
Note that to apply this law , concrete is assumed to be fully compacted . Lower
water content produces stiff paste having greater binding property. Because of this ,
lowering w / c ratio within the limits results in increased strength . Similarly higher
water content increases workability , but is useless for chemical action . The excess
water evaporates leaving pores in concrete. Thus increased w / c ratio lowers the strength
of concrete .
The strength of concrete is also influenced by the following factors:
( 1 ) Compaction: As explained in art . 3- 4 , compaction influences the strength of
concrete to a greater extent . Insufficient compaction results in lowering the strength .
( 2 ) Curing: To achieve better strength , proper curing is required . Improper curing
can reduce the strength upto 40°/o. The temperature during curing period also
affects the strength of concrete . The compressive strength of ordinary portland
cement increases with temperature of curing, but reverse effect is observed
with aluminous cements .
64 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
(3 ) Fineness of aggregate : Fineness of fine aggregate due to larger surface area,
requires more water to wet and thus increases water - cement ratio and ultimately
reduces the strength . For concrete works, it is desirable to use coarse sand .
Sand of zone IV is not used for concrete making.
t
( 4 ) Fatigue and impact : The strength of concrete is greatly reduced when subjected
to fatigue, i . e., reversible stresses, and impact, i. e., vibration of live loads. The
usual procedure of design for such structures subjected to fatigue and impact
is to reduce the permissible stresses in elastic design or increase the design
loads in limit state theory.
( 5 ) Age: The hydration of cement is faster initially and at 7 days , concrete attains
approximately two - third strength of its 28 days ’ strength . This is true when
ordinary portland cement is used . When portland pozzolana cement is used ,
the chemical action is slow and the rate of gaining strength upto 14 days is
slower. However , if properly cured , both the types of cement give required
strength at 28 days. Even after 28 days, as long as the moisture is present in
concrete , the hydration continues and concrete gains the strength with age at
a much slower rate . The quantum of increase in strength depends upon the
grade and type of cement , curing and environmental conditions, etc.
- -
3 1 0 C o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e : The compressive strength of
concrete is defined as the load which causes the failure of a standard specimen (e .g. , 150 mm
cube according to BIS) divided by the area of cross - section in uniaxial compression
under a given rate of loading. The test for compressive strength should be made on
150 mm size cube . Sometimes the test is made on cylinder of size 150 mm diameter
x 300 mm height. For example, in United States, the cylinder strength is specified for
grading of concrete . In India , the concrete grade is based on cube strength and if the
cylinder is tested , the strength should be modified into equivalent cube strength .
Details covering the preparation and testing of cubes and cylinders are covered in
IS : 516 and summarized below in the form of an experiment that may be conducted
in laboratory .
(1) Object: To prepare and test the concrete cubes and cylinders for compressive strength .
( 2 ) Equipments: 150 mm size cube or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high cylinder
moulds preferably steel or cast iron , standard rammer, testing machine.
(3 ) Preparation: Take required quantities of materials which are predetermined .
For example , if a mix of M 20 grade is to be prepared , the quantities may be
found by using table 3- 2 . The materials should be sufficient to cast at least four
cubes and four cylinders . If the results are to be used for site work , use the
specified proportions of materials. The mixing of the materials may be by hand - mixing
or machine mixing. In hand mixing, cement and sand are thoroughly mixed until
the mixture is of uniform colour. The coarse aggregate is then added and mixed
dry . Add water and mix the whole mass for minimum two minutes so that the
resulting concrete is uniform in colour. The slump of the concrete may be measured
by using slump cone . When machine - mixed , all the ingredients may be mixed
thoroughly at a time .
The moulds should be oiled to prevent the concrete from sticking. The concrete
should be filled in the mould in three equal layers . Each layer should be compacted
for 35 times with a 16 mm diameter rod , 600 mm long and bullet pointed at lower
end. When 100 mm size cube is used , 25 strokes should be applied . For 20 mm or less
size aggregates, 100 mm size cube may be used . When a cylinder is used , the strokes
for each layer should not be less than 30. Strike off the surface with a trowel. The test
specimen may be compacted using vibrator ( for all layers) if it is proposed to use
vibrator on site .
Art . 3- 10 ] Structural Concrete 65

Place the moulds containing the test specimen in moist air of at least 90 % humidity
and at a temperature of ( 27 ° ± 2 ° C ) for 24 hours . Next day , the specimens are taken
out and cured in clean , fresh water at a temperature of ( 27° ± 2° C.) The curing is
done until the required days of testing and the specimens shall be taken out just prior
to the test and tested while they are still in wet condition . This is required to prevent
any loss of moisture . If the specimen is dry and brought from outside for testing in
the laboratory , it should be immersed in water for 24 hours before testing.
( 4) Capping : Capping is applied only to the cylindrical test specimen . If the ends
of the cylindrical test specimen are not plane within 0.05 mm , they should be provided
with thin cap surface . This may be neat cement worked into stiff paste as thin as
possible . Capping can be done immediately after casting or 2 - 3 hours before testing
the specimen . A glass plate 6.5 mm thick or a metal plate 13 mm thick and with a
diameter 25 mm larger than the specimen may be used for forming the cap . It is
worked on the cement paste until its lower surface rests on the top of the mould .
The cap can also be made with a mixture of sulphur and inert filler like clay in
proportion of 1 :2. The sulphur cap should be allowed to harden for at least 2 hours
before use .
Another alternative is to use hard plaster with a compressive strength of at least
42 N / mm 2 in one hour. This capping shall be made just prior to testing.
( 5 ) Testing: Tests shall be made at recognized ages of the test specimens , the most
usual being 7 and 28 days. The test should be carried out immediately upon the
removal of specimen from water curing ( in wet condition ) . Note the weight of the
specimen before testing. The load should be applied on the opposite sides of the cube
as cast and not to the top and bottom , so as to obtain parallel faces.
Note the mode of failure and the angle of plane ( if any ) on which the specimen
fails. Determine the compressive strength of the specimen .
( 6 ) Results: To state the compressive strength , make average of strengths of all
cubes / cylinders made from the same concrete provided the results of individual cube
does not differ by ± 15 percent of the average . Otherwise repeat tests should be made .
For cylinders, a correction factor from graph of fig. 3-7 shall be applied to correct
the cylinder strength . Equivalent cube strength should be obtained by multiplying
cylinder strength by 1.25.

o
o
£
a
o
g
o
U

Height/diameter ratio
Correction factor for height / diameter ratio
FIG . 3-7
66 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
. The laboratory specimens are subjected to standard conditions , therefore , testing
of such specimens give potential strength of concrete . Usually a few service specimens
are also prepared and subjected to conditions usually employed at sites. The results
of such specimens are useful in deciding the stripping time for the formwork .
The following grades of concrete may normally be used for different R . C . C . works.
( 1 ) Slabs and beams M 20 to M 30
( 2 ) Lintels, footings, etc. M 20 to M 30
( 3 ) Columns M 20 to M 55 ( higher grades for lower storeys in
multistoreyed buildings )
( 4 ) Prestressed concrete : M 40 to M 80 .
3- 11. Tensile strength of concrete: Tensile strength of concrete greatly
affects the extent and size of cracking in concrete . It is of a great importance while
designing liquid retaining structures and prestressed concrete structures. Tensile strength
of concrete ranges from 10 to 18 percent of the compressive strength . Unlike the steel ,
the concrete strength in tension is very less than that in compression . This large
difference can be explained as follows :
In concrete , there exist numerous fine cracks which lower the tensile strength .
When a compressive load is applied , the compressive stress can push up any crack in
concrete and can be transferred through the cracks. On the other hand , when a tensile
load is applied , the tensile stress pulls up the concrete and can be transferred only
through the uncracked concrete . The average tensile stress may be small , the actual
stress in uncracked concrete is much larger . This further causes the cracks to lengthen
reducing the uncracked concrete area. Thus the tensile strength of concrete is much
lower than its compressive strength.
Measurement of tensile strength by subjecting the specimen to direct tension is
extremely difficult . Therefore , indirect measurements for tensile strength are made .
Tensile strength of concrete can be measured by two methods .
( 1 ) Split cylinder test
( 2 ) Standard beam test - modulus of rupture test.
These tests are now briefly described .
( 1 ) Split cylinder test: The concrete cylinder specimen may be tested at 7 days and
28 days and shall be immersed in water for at least 24 hours before test.
A concrete cylinder of size 150 mm diameter x 300 mm height is subjected to the
action of a compressive force along two opposite edges as shown in fig . 3 - 8 . By
applying the force in this manner , the cylinder is subjected to compression near the
loaded region and the length of cylinder is subjected to uniform tensile stress.
The compressive stress for an element on the vertical diameter
2 P D2
~ - 1 (i)
n LD Lr
[D- r)
and a horizontal tensile stress
2 P
n LD w
where P = the compressive load on the cylinder
L = length of cylinder
D = diameter of cylinder
r, ( D - r ) = distances of the element from the two loads respectively.
 -
Art . 3 11 ] Structural Concrete 67

The stress distribution on the vertical diameter , vertical stress ( compressive throughout
the height ) and horizontal stress ( compressive upto

is induced upto
^
from surface and then tensile )
are shown in fig. 3- 8. Immediately under the load a high compressive biaxial stress
12.5 mm for 150 mm diameter cylinder. Therefore the load is
=
applied through a packing of plywood strip , or rubber 13 mm x 3 mm in cross - section .
If such strips are not provided , the observed stress will be reduced for upto 8 percent .
As the cylinder splits into two halves , the test is known as the split test .
Compression Tension Compression
D I
12
i

D 1
2
' i
( b ) Vertical stress ( c ) Horizontal stress

Splitting test
FIG . 3- 8
For the proof of equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ), standard text books on “Advanced Strength
of Materials ” may be referred .
The split cylinder strength is used for estimating the shear strength of beams with
unreinforced webs and a few other similar problems.
( 2 ) Standard beam test - modulus of rupture test : The normal tensile stress in
concrete, when cracking occurs in a flexure test , is known as its modulus of rupture,
i . e ., flexural strength is known as its modulus of rupture . The flexural strength is
calculated considering the material to be homogeneous . This gives
M . v
fci = 7
where fCT = flexural strength of concrete
M — bending moment
y = distance of extreme fibre of concrete from neutral axis
/ = moment of inertia of the section .
The standard test specimen is a beam of 150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm size ,
however , if the largest nominal size of aggregate does not exceed 20 mm , specimen
of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm may be used .
The specimens should be cast and cured in the same manner as for casting of
cubes. The specimens should be stored under water for at least 48 hours before testing
and should be immediately tested on removal from the water.
The beam should be tested on a span of 600 mm or 400 mm for 150 mm and
100 mm specimens respectively by applying two equal loads placed at third points .
To get these loads, a central point load is applied on a beam supported on steel rollers
placed at third points as shown in fig . 3-9. The rate of loading shall be 4 kN / min for
68 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
150 mm specimens and 1.8 kN / min for 100 mm specimens . The load should be
increased until the beam fails . Note the type of failure , appearance of fracture and
fracture load .
/////////////

Y Lp 200 or 133-bJY
"

38 mm dia. roller

I 1
Locating bars removed before
loading is commenced — I

rffrj
t
m
I t
38 mm dia. roller

\ \\ \\ \ \ \\\\ \\\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \

m 1

K 600 or 400 mm
Arrangement for loading of flexure test specimen
FIG . 3 - 9
Let a be the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support . Then ,
for finding modulus of rupture , three cases should be considered .
( a ) When a > 200 mm for 150 mm specimen
> 133 mm for 100 mm specimen .
M = PL
6
Z = 1
o
f o r = P L x _6 _2 PL
6 bd bd2
where P is the total load applied on the beam .
( b ) When 170 mm < a < 200 mm for 150 mm specimen
110 mm < a < 133 mm for 100 mm specimen .
M = Pa
2
1
Z = ± bd2
o

/cr = —2 bd2
3 Pa
bd2
x JL
(c) If a < 170 mm for 150 mm specimen
< 110 mm for 100 mm specimen
the results should be discarded .
The above t w o experiments give the value of tensile strength of concrete . The
tensile strength obtained by flexure test is about 1.5 times the tensile strength determined
by the splitting test .
Art . 3- 13] Structural Concrete 69

The flexural strength for design purpose may be estimated as:

Flexural strength , fCT = 0.7 yJfck N / mm 2
where fc is the characterist ic compressive strength of concrete in N / mm .
2
^
The flexure tensile strength is used to find out the moment at first crack which
is required for calculating the deflection .
3- 12. Non- destructive tests: Many times, it is necessary to find the strength
of hardened concrete which is already acting as a structural member. For this , a few
non - destructive tests are available . Two important tests are :
( 1 ) Rebound hardness test (Schmidt hammer )
( 2 ) Ultrasonic pulse velocity test .
These tests are now briefly summarised.
(1) Rebound hardness test: For this test , a rebound hammer also called schmidt hammer
is used . The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. The
hammer consists of a plunger connected with a spring driven metal mass. The plunger
is held against at 90° to the smooth concrete surface, firmly supported and pressed .
This will impart a fixed amount of energy. Upon release, the metal mass rebounds ,
the plunger being still in contact with concrete . The distance travelled by the
metal mass or the amount of rebound is noted on a scale which gives an indication
of the concrete strength . Larger is the rebound, higher is the strength of concrete .
( 2 ) Ultrasonic pulse velocity test: This test is based on the principle that the velocity of
sound in a solid material is a function of the square root of the ratio of its modulus
of elasticity E to its density , p. If the velocity of sound through a solid media
is known , it is possible to correlate it with the strength of the solid media.
An ultrasonic pulse apparatus consists of a transmitter and a receiver which
are held against two faces of concrete . The apparatus generates pulses of
ultrasonic frequency which are transmitted through concrete by the transmitter.
On the other face , the receiver receives the pulses and the apparatus records
them. The velocity of the pulses is found which is correlated to the strength
of the concrete . Higher the velocity of pulses , greater is the strength of concrete .
:
3- 13. Stress- strain behaviour of concrete under short term loads
Typical stress- strain behaviour of concrete under short term loading ( normal speed of
machine on 28 days cured specimen ) is shown in fig. 3- 10. The stress - strain behaviour
of
of concrete is dependent on its strength , age at loading, rate of loading, properties
ingredients and the type and size of specimen .
40

E 30
Z
M
S 20
w
Eg 10
u
0 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
0.001
Strain
Stress- strain behaviour of concrete
FIG. 3- 10
 70 Reinforce d Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
From the above curves the following points should be noted .
( 1 ) Maximum compressi ve stress occurs approxim ately at a strain value of 0.002.
The value of stress at 0.002 strain is known as the strength of concrete . For
concrete , word strength usually means its compressi ve strength .
( 2 ) Lower strength concrete has greater ductility ( deformab ility ) than higher strength
concrete .
( 3 ) Failure strain varies from 0.003 to 0.005 . IS : 456 permits the maximum strain
in concrete in axial compressi on equal to 0.002 . For bending compressi on , the
stress - strain curve is exactly the same but maximum strain permitted is 0.0035 .
In design , the stress - strain curve is assumed parabolic upto strain value of
0.002 and then a straight line upto a strain value of 0.0035 ( refer to fig . 6 - 4) .
3- 14. Short term static modulus of elasticity: The young ’ s modulus for
an elastic material is defined as the ratio of stress to strain . The stress - strain behaviour
of an elastic material is a straight line upto the elastic limit . Concrete is not an elastic
material . Typical stress - strain curve of concrete is shown in fig . 3- 11. The stress- strain
behaviour of concrete is a straight line only upto 10 to 15 percent of its ultimate
slren th. If a tangent to the initial point is drawnT the slope of this line is known as
"

^
initial tangent modulus of concrete . As the stress - strain behaviour of concrete is not a
straight line , this modulus is of a little importanc e .
Now , suppose at any other point in a
curve , a tangent is drawn and the slope is
found out . This is known as the tangent a
modulus. The value of this modulus can be «— Initial tangent
used to measure the increment in strain for modulus .
an increment of a small value of stress .
C/0
Also , the strain calculated using this modulus
will not give the correct value of strain . al da
This modulus also cannot be used in design . dS
Tangent modulus = gg da
To obtain a satisfacto ry solution for al
the use in design , a straight line is drawn
from the origin to the point on the
stress - strain curve at which the deformati ons
are to be calculated . The slope of this Secant modulus of
line is known as the secant modulus and is elasticity of stress Oj =
of a practicab le value . The term modulus '
l
of elasticity of concrete means the secant E c
modulus only . To measure the modulus
of elasicity of concrete in laborator y , the ti Strain
6

concrete cylinder of 150 mm diameter x

Stress - strain behaviour of concrete
300 mm height is subjected to uniaxial
FIG . 3 - 11
compressi on as described below.
Measure the breadth , width and height of the specimen . Record
the capped cylinder in the machine and attach the its weight . Place
compresso meter as shown in fig . 3 - 12 .
The compresso meter consists of two mild steel flats bent
into the form of a circle or
a square . Four screws with sharp points serve
to hold the clamps at any desired
distance apart and not more than half the height of the
have two projecting bars welded on them and two dials specimen . The bottom clamps
on the bars . The plungers of the dials touch the
reading to 1 / 400 mm , are fitted
clamp and the relative movements
between the clamps , due to the movements of concrete , can
be obtained by taking
readings of the two dials and averaging the result .
Art. 3- 15 ] Structur al Concrete 71

1
Screw to hold
the specimen
T
TT

Concrete
cylinder
Dial gauge

Bar welded
to clamp
ct
= TT

L Square or
J circular clamp
Compressometer
Modulus of elasticit y test
FIG. 3 12 -
2
Apply the load continuo usly and without shock at a rate of 1.4 N / mm per minute
till the stress reaches a value of ( C ± 0.5 ) N / mm where C = 7o- of the average
2

compress ive strength of the cubes. The load shall be maintain ed at this stress for 2
at
least one minute and then shall be reduced graduall y to an average stress of 0.15 N / mm
when the reading is taken . The loading will be repeated for a second time as before .
The load will be applied graduall y till ( C + 0.15 ) N / mm and readings are taken . The
2
load will be reduced graduall y to 0.15 N / mm 2 and readings taken . The loading will
be again applied a third time and readings taken at approxim ately equal incremen ts
of strength upto ( C 4- 0.15) N / mm . The readings at C +
2 ( 0.15 ) N / mm 2 for the second
and third loading cycles should not differ by more than 5 percent ; otherwis e the
loading cycle should be repeated .
and
Strain at various loads for the last two cycles will be plotted against stress
of these gives the
straight lines drawn for each compres someter. The average slope than 15 %
modulus of elasticit y provided the individu al values do not differ by more
of the average value.
strength . The
The modulus of elasticit y is normally related to the compress ive
of concrete can be assumed as follows :
modulus of elasticit y
Ec = 5000
term static modulus of elasticity in N / mm and /<*
2 is the
where Ec is the short in N / mm 2 .
characte ristic cube strength of concrete
concrete mix , about
3 15 . Shrinkag e: As mention ed earlier , to get a workable
- . After the concrete
l
1.5 to 2 times water is added than that required for chemica
action
water within the concrete slowly evaporat es .
is cured , it begins to dry and the excessive ic contracti on
g in volume . The volumetr
This moisture loss results in concrete shrinkin sets is known as shrinkage.
due to drying when concrete
of the concrete per unit volume
This is an irreversib le process.
the constitue nts of concrete , size of
The total shrinkag e of concrete depends upon
environm ent , the total shrinkag e
the member s and environm ental conditio ns. For given
a
 72 Reinforce d Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
of concrete is most influence d by the total amount of water present in the concrete
at the time of mixing and to a lesser extent, by the cement content.
For plain concrete , shrinkage value can reach 0.0004 to 0.0007. For reinforced
concrete members, the resistance to shrinkag e is provided by the reinforce ment ana the
shrinkage value reach 0.0002 to 0.0003 According to IS : 456T tfin the absence of test data,
~~ ^
the approxim ate value of the total shrinkage strain for design may be taken as 0.0003 ” .
The shrinkage is a long process and continues for many years, particular ly for
mass concrete or thick elements . The shrinkage and shrinkag e strains near the surface
of the member is more than the shrinkage of internal particles as external particles
are open to atmosphe re . Because of this different ial shrinkage , self - balancing forces
are set up within the concrete resulting in shrinkag e cracks. The designer must provide
the shrinkage steel to prevent shrinkage cracks.
For calculatio n purpose , it may be assumed that half of the shrinkage takes place
during the first month and about three - quarters of shrinkage takes place in the first
six months . Note that shrinkage is unrelated to the applicatio n of loads .
Shrinkag e produces tensile cracking in any structural member which is restrained .
These cracks permit water to enter which deteriorat es reinforcem ent , reduces shear
strength and is detriment al to appearanc e. To minimize the cracking due to shrinkage ,
the following actions may be taken .
( 1 ) Use dense , non - porous aggregate s , low water - cement ratio and produce well
compacte d , low slump and well cured concrete.
( 2 ) Add shrinkage steel to concrete to reduce hair cracks formed due to shrinkage,
visible to naked eye .
( 3 ) Use constructi on and expansion joints to control the locations of cracks. The
constructio n and expansion joints are shown in fig. 3 - 13. When constructio n
joints are used to reduce the shrinkage , they should be located in regions of
low shear near mid - span .
Pour 1 Pour 2
Expansion joint filler

s
Y T

Key
I — 1 Dowel, one end greased
to prevent bond
( a ) Construction joint ( b ) Expansion joint
Control joints
FIG. 3- 13
3 - 16 . Creep: Creep is that property of concrete by
which it continues jo deform
with time under sustained stress. The total
,
deformat ion of a concrete element carT be
divided into two parts :
( 1 ) an initial, instantane ous deformat ion at
an applicati on of load
( 2 ) a time dependen t deformati on due to
creep .
The creep deformat ion is a long process. About 75
percent of the ultimate creep
deformat ion occurs during first year and continues "

However , it may be assumed that creep deformati ons are at a slower rate for many years .
complete d after 2 to 3 years .
Frequent ly creep is associated with shrinkag e as both are time
of concrete . The total strain of concrete dependen t properties
is indicated in fig. 3- 14. Note that true
strain decrease s with time as modulus elastic
of elasticity increases with time .
Art . 3- 16 ] Structural Concrete 73

Creep of concrete depends on

constituents of concrete , size of
member , environmen tal conditions, C3 Creep
the stress in concrete , the age at C/5

loading and the duration of loading. l

r* — Shrinkage
As long as the stress in concrete l
does not exceed one - third of its
characterist ic compressive strength , -
True elastic strain —* 1 Nominal elastic strain
T T
creep may be assumed to be Time
proportion al to the stress. 0
Effect of time on total strain
In the absence of experiment al FIG. 3- 14
data and detailed information on
the effect of the variables, the ultimate
creep strain may be estimated from
the following values of creep
coefficient,
ultimate creep strain
where creep coefficient = elastic strain at the age of loading

Age at loading Creep coefficient

7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
1 year 1.1

Note : The ultimate creep strain , estimated as described

above does not include the elastic strain .

The intermediate value of creep coefficient may be obtained by interpolatio n ,

assuming that the creep coefficient decreases linearly with the logarithm ( base 10 ) of
time in days ( refer to Ex . 3-7) .
The long term modulus of elasticity for concrete including creep value is given by :

£ ce =
Ec
1 + 0
where Ece = long term modulus of elasticity of concrete

Ec = short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete

0 = creep coefficient .
Fig. 3- 15 shows typical elastic and creep deformatio ns of concrete . Note the effect
of unloading where at certain time / j, the load is removed . Concrete experiences an
immediate elastic recovery and long time creep recovery but a residual deformation
remains.
The following points should be noted while designing the R . C . C . members in
connection with creep.
( 1 ) The long term deformation s may be 2 to 3 times the initial deformatio ns.
( 2 ) In R .C.C. columns supporting constant load , creep deformation causes initial
the
stress proportion al to time , in steel reinforcem ent, 2 to 3 times assuming
carried by non - cripping
steel remains elastic . With a lapse of time, the force
decreases by
steel gradually increases and the total force carried by concrete
an equal amount.
 74 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 3
It is proved experimenta lly that elastic theory of design under - estimates the
stress in steel . Therefore, the design of column is based on the capacity of
section rather than on limiting the permissible stresses .
( 3) When R . C . C. beams are reinforced in compression , additional stresses are
induced in bars due to increased strain level . These additional stresses in steel
should be taken into account while designing such beams ( refer to art. 5- 10 ) .

No load Specimens under -v

constant load v
B

Elastic
recovery I
Load removed
c
o Creep
w
l \

a
2
« —
E
J Creep K
recovery! \
1
^
D
i
1 I
I
Elastic I Non -recovcrable
deformation deformation
I
I
0 A i i E
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Age, months
Elastic and creep deformation s of concrete
FIG . 3- 15
The effect of creep can be reduced by
( 1 ) Using high strength concrete
( 2 ) Delaying the application of finishes , partition walls, etc .
( 3 ) Adding reinforcemen t
( 4 ) Steam curing under pressure .
3-17 . Durability of concrete: A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactoril y
in the working environment during its anticipated exposure conditions during service.
The materials and mix proportions specified and used should be such as to maintain
its integrity and , if applicable, to protect embedded, metal from corrosion. The environment
al
exposure conditions are defined in table 3 of IS : 456 and may be reffered . Some of
the conditions are given in table 3 - 4. Durability of concrete depends on its resistance
to deterioration and the environment in which it is placed . Usually the
concrete is
durable , however , lack of durability may be due to the following factors.
( 1 ) Use of inferior quality materials
( 2 ) Improper compaction and curing
( 3) Improper cover to reinforceme nt
( 4 ) Improper design and detailing.
The above factors are now briefly discussed below.
A r t . 3 - 17 ) Structural Concrete 75

TABLE 3 - 4
ENVIRON MENTAL EXPOSU RE CONDITI ONS

Environm ent Exposure conditions

Mild Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions,
except those situated in coastal area.
Moderate Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet .
Continuo usly under water , buried under non - aggressive soil / ground
water , etc .
Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain , alternate wetting and
drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensati on .
Very severe Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray , corrosive fumes or
severe freezing conditions whilst wet , buried under aggressive
sub - soil / ground water .
Extreme Surface of members in tidal zone members in direct contact with
liquid / solid aggressive chemicals.
The use of unsound cement may cause disintegr ation due to volume changes as
some chemical actions are delayed . The unsound aggregate s may react with atmosphe ric
gases or may show alkali aggregate reactions with cement. The resistance of concrete
to weatherin g, chemical attack , abrasion , frost and fire depends largely upon its quality
and constituen t materials .
TABLE 3 - 5
MAXIMU M CEMENT CONTEN T , MAXIMU M WATER - CEMENT RATIO
AND MINIMU M GRADE OF CONCRE TE FOR DIFFERE NT EXPOSU RES WITH
NORMAL WEIGHT AGGREG ATES OF 20 MM NOMINA L MAXIMU M SIZE
Plain concrete Reinforce d concrete

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Maximum Minimum

Exposure cement free water - grade of cement free - water grade of
content cement concrete content cement concrete
kg / m 3 ratio kg / m 3 ratio

220 0.60 300 0.55 M 20

Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
280 0.40 M25 360 0.40 M 40
Extreme
Refer to IS : 456 for more details.
concrete which may give an
Imprope r compacti on and curing produces permeab le and reduces the load carrying
ent
access to water which deteriorat es the reinforcem the concrete permeabl e are use
factors which make
capacity of the member. T he other
ratio . The minimum cement content,
of low cement content and high water - cement
m a x i m u m free water - cement ratio and
minimum grade of concrete for different exposure s
the values are stated in table 3- 5.
are given in table 5 of IS : 456 . Some of
for further details. With strong, dense
The complete clause may be consulted
aggregate s , a suitable low permeab ility
can be achieved by having a sufficient low
and
water cement ratio, by ensuring as
thorough compacti on of concrete as possible
methods .
of cement through proper curing
by ensuring sufficien t hydratio n
76 Reinforc ed Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
The concrete cover to steel reinforce ment in any R . C.C. member is very important .
Imprope r cover reduces bond and gives an access to water which corrodes the reinforce ment.
Also if the concrete is exposed to severe exposure of chemical attack etc ., the concrete
cover should be increased . The requireme nts for nominal concrete cover are given in
table 3- 6.
TABLE 3 - 6
NOMINA L COVER TO MEET DURAB ILITY REQUIR EMENT S
Exposure Nominal concrete cover in mm
Mild 20
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
Notes:
( 1 ) For main reinforce ment upto 12 mm diameter bars for mild exposure
the nominal cover may be reduced by 5 mm .
For more details refer to IS : 456
The designin g and detailing practice may be also sometime s responsi ble for disintegr ation
of concrete . The crack width of concrete should not be more than 0.3 mm for normal
structure s.
Based on this value , the reinforce ment spacing, etc., are recomme nded in IS : 456
and treated in chapter 8.
The nominal cover to meet specified period of fire resistance are given in table 16 A
of IS : 456 . For one hour fire resistance the cover values are given in table 3-7.
Durabili ty can be increased by reducing the permeab ility of concrete. The permeab ility
can be reduced by
( 1 ) using adequate cement content
( 2 ) using lowest possible water - cement ratio
( 3 ) adopting proper compactio n methods ensuring full compacti on
( 4 ) proper curing of concrete .
Corrosio n of reinforce ment can be reduced by
( 1 ) using adequate concrete cover. It is necessar y to ensure that minimum
required
cover has been provided to all elements everywh ere ;
( 2 ) by using corrosion resistant reinforce ment. In aggressiv areas
e , this is
In India, a few companie s manufac ture corrosion resistant deformed required .
bars .
TABLE 3- 7
NOMINA L COVER TO MEET SPECIFI ED PERIOD OF
FIRE RESISTA NCE
Fire resistance Nominal cover
Beams Slabs Ribs Columns
Simply Continuo us Simply Continuo us Simply Continuo us
supporte d supported supported
h mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1.0 20 20 20 20 20 20 40
Refer to IS : 456 for more details.
Art. 3 - 20 ] Structural Concrete 77

The following four methods are adopted to prevent the reinforceme nt from corrosion .
( 1 ) corrosion inhabitors are used as additives in concrete
( 2 ) surface sealants are used on the surface of concrete (silane, epoxy or methyl
mithacrylat e )
(3) reinforceme nts are coated with corrosion resistant material
( 4 ) cathodic protection ( powerful method to stop corrosion in salt contaminate d
bridge decks )
The reinforceme nt coating include the following:
( 1 ) cement slurry coating (adopted on sites by using skilled labours )
( 2 ) polymer coating
( 3) galvanised coating
( 4 ) fusion bonded epoxy coating.
To increase the durability of concrete, all required steps must be taken .
3- 18. Temperatu re change: Concrete expands with the rise of the temperature
and contracts with the drop of the temperature . Rise of temperature may produce
compressive stresses and drop of temperature may produce tensile stresses in a restrained
member. The designer should take care of these stresses. The minimum and secondary
reinforceme nt provided in slabs , etc ., are the temperature reinforceme nt and resist the
stresses due to temperature and shrinkage. The coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete depends on type of aggregate used with sandstone and quartzite aggregates
-6 per degree centigrade .
it is approximat ely 9 x 10 ~ 6 per degree centigrade to ll x 10
With lime -stone basalt
, and granite aggregate , it is lower and varies from 6 x 10 ~ 6 per
degree centigrade to 9 x 10 6 per degree centigrade . The coefficient of thermal expansion
“

of steel is 11.5 x 10 ~ 6 per degree centigrade which is a nearer value to that of concrete
and thus combination of concrete and steel is ideal for making reinforced concrete .
3- 19. Concrete quality control: In the design of reinforced concrete, the
strength of concrete is specified by the designer. The design is based on an assumption
that the concrete obtained will have strength equal to or greater than the specified
strength . The strength of concrete obtained on site will depend on many factors and
the results of concrete cubes may show considerabl e variability. This necessitates such
designing of the concrete mix that the concrete will produce an average strength
greater than specified . Also the cube test results during work should be checked to
control the quality. The following articles deal with the quality control of concrete by
testing the cubes .
3- 20. Sampling and strength tests of concrete: This article describes
the procedure for sampling and testing of concrete .
Sampling: Random sampling shall be adopted and shall be spread over total
concreting period to ensure the uniformity of concrete . One sample means 3 specimens
( may be cube, cylinder or beam ) . The strength of one sample means the average
strength of 3 specimens provided that individual test result does not differ by ± 15 percent
of the average result. Number of samples for a given grade of concrete to be taken
depends on the quantity of concreting to be3 done .3 Accordingl3 y 1, 2, 3 3 or 4 samples 3 and
are required respectivel y for 1 m 3 to 5 m , 6 m to 15 m , 16 m to 30 m
of
31 m 3 to 50 m 3 of concrete quantity. For large concreting volumes, the number 3 or part
samples shall be 4 plus one additional sample for each additional 50 m
. Also for
thereof . Minimum one sample shall be taken from each shift of concrete
minimum 4 samples are required .
accepting the strength of given grade of concrete ,
of the
for acceptance criteria so that if one
It is recommend ed to take total 5 samples available for
for some reason , the remaining 4 samples are
sample is to be discarded
checking the strength .
 78 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
Strength tests: To check the quality of concrete , strength tests of concrete are
performed . These include :
( 1 ) tests for compressiv e strength performed on 150 mm size cubes as explained
in art . 3 - 10 .
( 2 ) tests for modulus of rupture performed on concrete beams as explained in
art. 3- 11.
These tests are carried out at 28 days to specify the strength of concrete. Sometimes
it is necessary to get quicker idea of 28 days ' strength at earlier age of concrete .
Optional tests are performed at earlier age of concrete in addition to 28 days’ tests.
From the relations developed between earlier age strength and 28 days’ strength from
similar concrete , the 28 days’ strength of concrete can be estimated . These tests are
useful to ensure the final quality of concrete and also help in deciding time for
stripping of the form work . These tests are :
( 1 ) Modulus of rupture tests on beams at 72 ± 2 hours and at 7 days .
( 2 ) Compressi ve strength tests on cubes at 7 days.
Result of the above tests will be four or more values of samples to be used for
acceptance criteria as explained in art . 3 - 23. If a new proportion of a given design mix
concrete is required to be adopted , minimum 30 samples are required for statistical
-
analysis as explained i n art . 3 21.
3- 21. Statistica l analysis of test results: The design of concrete structure
should be based on characteris tic strength of the concrete . The difference between
cube strength and characteris tic strength of concrete should be clearly understood .
Cube strength refers to the strength of one cube whereas the characteris tic strength
refers to the guaranteed strength of the whole concrete mass. As per the definition , the
probability of test results being lower than specified characteris tic strength is 1 in 20
( i . e . 5 in 100) . Thus the results of one or two cubes cannot give the idea of characteris tic
strength of concrete .
To analyse the test results of material strengths like cube strength of concrete,
tensile strength of reinforcem ent , etc ., the statistical methods are used . The statistical
method to decide the cube strength of concrete is briefly set out as follows:
The concrete mass is imagined to be a collection of units all of which could be
tested ; such collection is referred to as population. The purpose of testing is to
supply
the information on the properties of parent population .
Let us consider that we have collected a set of n results or observation s such as
*1. xn which shows a scatter. The data are separated into groups by selecting a
length of interval of the variable. Find out the number of values of the variable which
fall in that group called frequency. Represent the group interval as abscissa
and the
frequency distribution as ordinate to obtain the frequency histogram of the test results.
The histogram represents the distributio n or dispersion of test results. The
area under
the histogram represents the total number of results.
( 1 ) Density function : Referring to fig. 3 - 16 where the histogram is drawn , we find that
if a large number of cubes were tested, a smooth curve could be drawn through the
peaks of rectangles. The curve represents the probability that the random variable
takes on any one of its admissible values and is known as density
function.
( 2 ) Normal distributio n : To obtain a density function , a
histogram is drawn as
explained. The results obtained from a histogram give good informatio n
the distributio n of the sample , but when this is applied to the regarding
parent population ,
it has only limited value . Also, the distributio n function
obtained experimen tlly
is usually awkward to handle in subsequen t manipulati
ons. This difficulty can
 -
Art. 3 21 ] Structural Concrete 79

be overcome by using the readymade distribution curves available in standard

statistical tables.

*— Density function
c
3
•
3
3
— Histogram
-E
O

-3<
/3

>>
c
aIt
5T
K
Om
\

Group interval
Frequency histogram and density function
FIG. 3- 16
Now, one has to find the standard distribution which is suitable to his observed
data .
Before applying a standard distribution curve to our results, let us discuss about
the standard deviation.
(3 ) Mean : Mean is a measure of central tendency or tendency of getting grouped
about a central value and defined as:
I xi
X
n
where x = the mean value ( sample)
X :i = individual value of a sample

n = total no . of values.
( 4 ) Standard deviation: The standard deviation or root mean square deviation of
a set of observations ( population ) is defined as :

=
I (X - n)2
5
V n
where s standarld deviation
=
x = individual value of an observation
p = the mean value ( population )
n = total no. of observations.
The standard deviation is a measure of dispersion or scatter of the values
about the mean value .
When the standard deviation of a limited number of specimens is to be estimated ,
).
the mean for the sample U ) will in general differ from the true mean ( population
the deviations from x a d not from the true mean p ( population ) , and
We calculate °
therefore put ( n - 1 ) instead of n in the denominator of the expression for the estimate
80 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
of s. The reason is that the sum of squares of deviations has a minimum value when
taken about the sample mean x , and is therefore smaller than it would be if taken
about the population mean \x
The best estimation for standard deviation is thus given by
S(* - X )2
5
n- 1
Having understood about the standard deviation , let us come back to the distribution
curve . The distribution curve chosen should be such that when average value of a
sample is used , it must not introduce a serious error. To fulfil this requirement, the
standard curve of distribution adopted is normal or Gaussian distribution curve. For
concrete cube test results, the assumptions of normal distribution is sufficiently close
to reality.
The equation of normal distribution curve is given by

y= 1
7
5) fc- '
'
a]
SyJ 2 71
The curve obtained is bell shaped as shown in fig. 3- 17.

C/5
c
<u
s
o
8c .
/5

o
o
Z

Compressive strength
Normal distribution curve
-
FIG. 3 17
It should be noted that the smaller value of standard deviation will result in a
curve with dominant peak , whereas a larger value will result in a flatter curve depending
upon the level of control exercised in the manufacture of concrete as most of the test
results are away from the average ( refer to fig . 3- 18 ) .

Very good
to Mean
JU
CL X
EC3
I
C/5
13.6 % i 13.6 %
O
34.1 % | 34.1 % I
cu Good 2.2 % i 2.2 %
l I I
o I I I
3
CT
D
(L Fair I
I
2s 2s
i

Compressive strength 3s 3s

Typical normal frequency Percentage of specimens in intervals of

curves for different one standard deviation
levels of control - Normal distribution curve
FIG. 3-18 FIG. 3- 19
Art. 3- 21 ] Structural Concrete 81

The normal distribution curve extends to plus minus infinity and is symmetrical
about the mean . The plus minus infinity indicates extremely low and extremely
high results, but in practice the probability of occurrence of such results is low
and therefore the normal distribution curve upto some finite portion is accepted
for our purpose .
The area under the curve between two selected points represents the number of
specimens that fall under that strength . We want to express this number as a percentage
of total samples. The total samples are infinity for the normal distribution curve. As
we deal with the limited number of samples, the area under the curve represents the
chance that the strength of an individual sample will lie between given limits. The
percentage of specimen considering the total no . of samples and normal distribution
curve is shown in fig. 3- 19 .
From fig. 3- 19, it can be shown that the area under the curve between the abscissa
x - s and x + s is 68.2 % of the total area under the curve , i .e ., probability of the cube
strength of any sample lying between x ± s is 0.68. Similarly other probabilities are
shown . It is clear that the probability of the cube strength of any sample lying
between x ± 3 s is 0.998 and there is only 0.002 probability for a result to fall
beyond x ± 3 s. Thus for all practical purposes of this graph , variation upto ± °° is
immaterial .
It can be shown that 95 percent of area under this graph lies between - 1.65 s and + ©o.
This means that there is only a 5 percent probability that a result would fall below
x - 1.65 s ( for material strength ) or would fall over x + 1.65 s ( for loads) .

>
o
s 5 % of results >
u
% 5 % of results
c

—
C
o V
a 3
cr
U*
D
U
-
m K x Strength x H Loads
1.65 s 1.65 s
(a ) For material strength ( b) For loads

Probability curves for characteristic values

FIG. 3- 20
The characteristic strength of material can be defined as
/ = /m - 1 65 5
where f = characteristic strength of material
/m = the mean strength .
For concrete , the equation can be written as
( 3- D
/c k = /r n - 1 6 5
where strength of concrete.
/ck is the characteristic
The above equation shows that not more than 5 percent of the test results fall
below /ck.
 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 3
82

Similarly , with regard to loads , the characteristic load F can be defined as

F = Fm + 1.65 5 (3- 2 )
where Fm is the mean value of load .
This equation shows that not more than 5 percent of the loads for given load
conditions would exceed F. In fact , as the data are not available for expressing the
loads in statistical terms, loads that have given safe designs in past shall be used and
are set out in relevant Indian Standards.
3 - 22 . Standard deviation: As per clause 9.2. 4 of IS : 456, the standard deviation
for each grade of concrete shall be calculated , separately.
(1 ) Standard deviation based on test strength of sample:
( i ) Minimum 30 samples should be obtained to calculate the standard deviation
as early as possible for newly prepared mix .
( ii ) If significant changes are made in production of concrete of a given
mix , standard deviation shall be separately calculated for such batches
of concrete .
( iii ) Everytime the changes are made , the values of standard deviation shall be
revised .
( 2 ) Assumed standard deviation: When sufficient data is not available to calculate
the standard deviation , following values may be adopted for normal controlled
concrete .

Grade of concrete Assumed standard deviation , N / mm 2

M 10 to M 15 3.5
M 20 to M 25 4.0

M 30 to M 50 5.0

If the quality controls are improper , these values shall be increased by 1 N / mm '2 .
Example 3 - 2.
The following data represents the strength of concrete cubes of the same grade of
concrete , prepared and tested in the same conditions. Plot a histogram of the distribution
of cube strength acu
in N / mm 2. Also find out the standard deviation of the results.
For convenience , the results are arranged in ascending order. Each result given here
is an average of three cube test results taken from same batch .

22.5 23.7 24.2 24.8 25 25.1 25.3 25.5 25.6 25.6

25.7 26.2 26.4 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 26.9 27.1 27.2
27.6 27.6 27.7 27.9 28.1 28.7 28.9 29.2 29.8 30.5
Solution:
Total frequency = 30
Minimum value = 22.5 N / mm 2
Maximum value = 30.5 N / mm 2.
Select group intervals at 1 N / mm 2 each and tabulate the frequency distribution as
shown below.
Art . 3- 22 ] Structural Concrete 83

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTI ON OF ocu

Sr. no . Class interval a C U’ N / mm 2 Frequency
1 22 - 23 1
2 23-24 1
3 24 -25 3
4 25 - 26 6
5 26 -27 7
6 27- 28 6
7 28 - 29 3
8 29- 30 2
9 30-31 1
Total 30

Sample no . Average xx A = * - xx A2 = ( i - *i ) 2
1 22.5 4.16 17.31
2 23.7 2.96 8.76
3 24.2 2.46 6.05
4 24.8 1.86 3.46
5 25.0 1.66 2.76
6 25.1 1.56 2.43
7 25.3 1.36 1.85
8 25.5 1.16 1.35
9 25.6 1.06 1.12
10 25.6 1.06 1.12
11 25.7 0.96 0.92
12 26.2 0.46 0.21
13 26.4 0.26 0.07
14 26.6 0.06 0.00
15 26.7 0.04 0.00
16 26.8 - 0.14 0.02
17 26.9 - 0.24 0.06
18 26.9 - 0.24 0.06
19 27.1 - 0.44 0.19
20 27.2 - 0.54 0.29
21 27.6 - 0.94 0.88
22 27.6 - 0.94 0.88
23 27.7 - 1.04 1.08
24 27.9 - 1.24 1.54
25 28.1 - 1.44 2.07
26 28.7 - 2.04 4.16
27 28.9 - 2.24 5.02
28 29.2 - 2.54 6.45
29 29.8 - 3.14 9.86
30 30.5 - 3.84 14.75

Total Ix ;i = 799.8 IA 2 = 94.72

 84 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
The histogram can be drawn
10 -
by using above data as shown
in fig. 3- 21. 9 -

The standard deviation is

calculated as follows : 8 -

The mean 7-
799.8 .
ir 6 -
X c
30 0>
E
5-
= 26.66 N / mm 2. o
8 .
c
/i
Standard deviation o
4 -

o
M772 Z 3-
( 30 - 1 )
2-
= 1.81 N / mm 2.
1-
0
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Compressiv e strength , N/ mm 2
FIG. 3- 21
3 - 23 . Acceptan ce criteria: While calculatin g the standard deviation , we
have considered n number of test results . It can be easily understoo d that larger
number of test results would tend to more accuracy. To take into account, the number
of specimens used , the equation (3- 1) is modified as:
'

1.65
/ck = fm - 1.65 (3- 3)
Here 1.65 takes into account the accepted proportion of low results, here 1 in 20
or 5 percent as accepted in the definition of characteri stic strength of
concrete .
For the concrete of Example 3- 2
n = 3 x 30 = 90
s = 1.81 N / mm 2
and f
Jm
_ 799.8
= 26.66 N / mm 2
30
1.65
/ck = 26.66 - 1.65 x 1.81 « 24 N / mm 2
V90
While the work is in progress, it is usual to cast 3 to 6 cubes
for testing. IS : 456- 2000 uses the value of n
— of a given batch
4 for acceptanc e criteria. Accordin gly
a minimum of four number of consecutiv e cubes shall be
tested to comply with the criteria.
Substitut ing n = 4 in equation ( 3-3)

1.65
/ck = fm ~ 1.65 s
7T
= fm - 0.825 r
i.e . /ck = /rn - 0.825 X
or fm = /ck + 0.825 s
(3- 4)
Art . 3- 23 ] Structural Concrete 85
Equation (3- 4 ) shows that the mean of 4 specimens tested shall be equal to ( or more than )
fck + 0 - 825 5
i . e. /m fck + 0 - 825 5 ( 3-5 a )
To take into account, the possibility of the value of any cube strength being much
less, the minimum strength of any sample , fmin , shall be
/min fck " 0.825 5 ( 3-5 b )
Based on the above equations , the acceptance criteria for strength of concrete shall
be as follows :
( 1 ) Mean of the 4 non - overlapping consecutive test result, fm
fm 0.825 5
where 0.825 s { 3 N / mm 2 for M 15 grade
< 4 N / mm 2 for M 20 grade and above.
( 2 ) The individual test result , fn
fn t fck “ 3 N / mm 2, for M 15 grade
t fck ~ 4 N / mm 2, for M 20 grade and above.
Example 3 - 3 .
For M 20 grade concrete , test assumed standard deviation s = 4 N / mm 2. Then
0.825 s = 0.825 x 4 = 3.3 N / mm 2

-
£ 4 N / mm 2
4 N / mm 2.
0.825 5 =
Solution :
The acceptance criteria are :
( i ) fm > 20 + 4, i . e ., /m > 24 N / mm 2
( ii ) fn t 20 - 4, i.e., /n < 16 N / mm 2.
When 4 specimens are tested with expected grade M 20 and if one of the specimen
has fewer strength , say 18 N / mm 2, then the mean strength of the remaining specimens
will be
24 x 4 - 16
3
= 26 N / mm 2.
It may be noted that large number of specimens give better idea of /ck . In case
if more specimens are tested , equation ( 3- 3) may be used in place of equation 3- 5 ( a) .

Example 3 - 4 .
In a concrete work , concrete of grade M 20 ( f c k = 20 N / mm 2 ) is to be used . The
standard deviation for this grade of concrete from table 3- 9 is 4.0 N / mm 2 . In the
course of testing concrete cubes, the following results are obtained from 4 non - overlaping
consecutive cube tests , tested at 28 days, in N / mm 2.
27.8, 26.7, 23.7, 18.2 in N / mm 2.
Discuss the acceptance of the results.
 86 Reinfo rced Concre te - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
Soluti on :
The mean of 4 non - overlap ing, consecu tive test results

fm = 27.8 + 26.7 + 23.7 + 18.2 = 24.1 N / mm 2.

4
Also , /min = 18.2 N / mm 2.
From accepta nce criteria ,
fm fck + 0.825* or /ck 4- 4 N / mm 2
> 20 + 0.825 x 4 or 20 + 4 N / mm 2
23.3 N / mm 2, or 24 N / mm 2
i . e. fm > 24 N / mm 2 ( compl ies )
Also , /min fck “ 4
i . e. /rnin > 16 N / mm 2 ( compl ies )
All results are accept able .
Examp le 3 -5 .
Four non - overla ping consecu tive cube test results in N / mm 2 at 28
days testing are :
37.8 , 42.5 , 39.8, 40.7 , N / mm 2. Determ ine for what ,
/ck the results can be accept ed .
Soluti on :

fm = ±1 (37.8 4- 42.5 4- 39.8 4- 40.7) = 40.2 N / mm 2

For M 30 to M 50 grade concret e ,
* = 5 N / mm 2
fck = fm ~ 0.825 * = 40.2 - 0.825 x 5 = 36.07 N / mm 2
and
i .e .
/ck = /m 4 - = 40.2 - 4 = 36.2 N / mm 2 ,
/ck = 36 N / mm 2
For individ ual results,
/min > 3 6 - 4, i.e., 32 N / mm 2
The results are compl ied for
/ck = 36 N / mm 2.
Exam ple 3 - 6 .
A nomina l mix of grade M 20 is to be adopte on
decide d to use volum e batch mixing. Find d site by using table 3 - 2 . It is
out the volum etric propor tions for the mix .
Consid er the bulk densit y of cement, sand and
gravel as 1440 kg/ m 3, 1600 kg / m 3 and
1600 kg/ m 3 respec tively.
Soluti on:
First find out the proport ions by mass .
Cemen t 1 bag = 50 kg.
From table 3- 2 , total quantit y of dry aggreg
ate ( fine 4- coarse ) require d = 250 kg.
Select ing ratio of fine to coarse aggreg ate
by mass as 1 : 2
sand requir ed = ~ x 250 = 83.33 kg
o
gravel requir ed = - x 250 = 166.67 kg.
Using water - cement ratio 0.55,
water requir ed = 0.55 x 50
= 27.5 kg.
 Structural Concrete 87
A r t . 3- 2 3 ]

To convert mass into volume , divide the mass by bulk density.

Then water required = 27.5 litres
cement = 50 kg
so
0.0347 m 3
1440 =
sand = 166.66 kg
83.33
1600 = 0.052 m 3
gravel =
233.33 kg
166.66 0.104 m 3.
1600 =
It may be approximated to proportion 1 : 1.5: 3 ( 1 cement: 1.5 sand : 3 gravel by volume )
with water - cement ratio as 0.55 by mass ( 27.5 litres of water ) .
Note: The proportions above are obtained by considering the volume on dry basis .
If sand contains moisture , suitable modifications for bulking of sand shall be done .
This is explained in Example 3-7.

Example 3 - 7.
It is found that sand contains water. Explain how will you modify the proportions
of ingredients of example 3- 6, i . e ., 1: 1.5:3 by volume.
Solution :
When the sand contains water , it bulks. The increased volume of sand should be
.
taken into account . Also the water - cement ratio should be suitably modified
Take 1 litre graduated cylinder and gently fill in the available sand upto 500 ml
.
Add to it some water and stir it gently . Add some more water and continue stirring
till all the particles of sand are settled down . The volume of settled ( saturated ) sand
( ).
is equal to the volume of dry sand. Suppose , the volume of saturated sand is 400 ml say
500
Bulking factor = 400 1.25
Considering the bulking of sand , the proportion of sand required will be
1.5 x bulking factor = 1.5 x 1.25 = 1.875.
Find out the percentage of water present in sand . Calculate the amount of water
present in sand in 1.875 measures. Suppose 1.875 measures of sand contain 0.85 litres
of water , then , water required will be
0.55 x 50 - 1 = 26.65 litres .
By using 300 mm x 300 mm x 380 mm measuring box , the proportions of
ingredients by volume may be taken as follows:
cement 1 bag (equals one measuring box)
sand 1.875 measures
gravel 3 measures ( dry )
water 26.65 litres .
Example 3 -8 .
Find the creep coefficient, when , the age at loading of concrete is 20 days. Also
find out the long term static modulus of elasticity for concrete of M 20 grade.
88 Reinforce d Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 3
Solution :
Age at loading, days log 10 /0 Creep coefficien t
7 0.8451 2.2
28 1.4472 1.6
20 1.3010 ( ?)

Creep coefficien t = 1.6 + 0.6 x log 28 -

log 20
log 28 - log 7
1.6 + 0.6 x 0.1462 1.75.
0.6021
The long term modulus of elasticity of concrete
£c
Ece = 1 + 0
where Ec = 5000 V7T = 5000 V20 = 22361 N / mm 2
9 = 1.75
£c e 22361
= 1 1.75 = 8131 N / mm 2 .
+
Example 3 - 9.
Find out the long term modulus of elasticity of concrete of grade M 20
at different
ages from 1 to 12 months.
Solution :
The creep coefficie nt at various age of loading should be found
out as in Ex . 3- 9
and hence , the modulus of elasticity of concrete can
be worked out . The results are
tabulated in table 3- 8.
TABLE 3 - 8
LONG TERM MODUL US OF ELASTIC ITY OF CONCRE TE OF M 20
GRADE
Age at loading , Creep coefficien t Long term modulus of
months elasticity of concrete, N / mm 2
1 1.60 8600
2 1.46 9090
3 1.38 9395
4 1.32 9638
5 1.28 9807
6 1.24 9983
7 1.21 10118
8 1.18 10257
9 1.16 10352
10 1.14 10449
11 1.12 10548
12 1.10 10648
Note: It can be seen from table 3- 8, that as the age of concrete increases ,
the modulus of elasticity increases and hence, the true elastic strain
decreases with the time ( also refer to fig . 3- 14 ) .
Que. 3] Structural Concrete 89

QUESTIONS III
(1) Which factors will you consider while deciding the strength of concrete to be
used for a given work ?
(2) Discuss the design mix and nominal mix concretes .
( 3) Why is the mass batching superior to volume batching for measurement of materials
in production of concrete ?
(4) Explain the importance of compaction while preparing concrete .
(5 ) What is curing ? How is it done ? How does it influence the strength of concrete ?
( 6) Which factors should be considered while deciding the stripping time of formwork ?
( 7) What is workability ? How is it measured in practice ?
( 8) Explain segregation and bleeding of concrete.
(9 ) What is a slump ? How is it measured ?
( 10 ) Define compacting factor.
( 11 ) Which are the factors that influence the workability of concrete ?
( 12 ) What is the major parameter that determines the strength of concrete ?
( 13 ) Explain water - cement ratio law.
( 14 ) Can concrete be always made stronger by adding more cement without any
regard to water , compaction and curing ?
( 15 ) Discuss the factors influencing the strength of concrete .
( 16 ) Explain why the tensile strength of concrete is much less than the compressive
strength .
( 17 ) What is a modulus of rupture of concrete ? How is it measured ?
( 18 ) Sketch a typical stress - strain curve of concrete and show how you will find the
modulus of elasticity of concrete from this curve .
( 19 ) What is shrinkage ? What is the major factor that influences the magnitude of
shrinkage ?
( 20 ) What problems are created due to shrinkage ? How can they be overcome ?
( 21 ) What is a control joint ?
( 22 ) Define creep . List two negative effects of creep .
( 23 ) How does creep affect the modulus of elasticity of concrete ? What is a long term
modulus of elasticity of concrete ?
( 24 ) What steps can be taken to reduce the creep ?
( 25 ) What type of concrete is required for high durability ?
( 26 ) Discuss the factors reducing durability of concrete .
( 27 ) How is the durability of concrete increased ?
( 28 ) What is the effect of temperature on concrete ?
( 29 ) How is the quality of concrete checked on site ?
( 30 ) Define standard deviation for samples.
( 31 ) Why is the normal or Gaussian distribution curve accepted for analysing the
cube test results ?
 90 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 3

EXAMPLES III
*
( 1) Calculate the proportion of ingredients of concrete of grade M 20 by using nominal
mix concrete with 20 mm size coarse aggregate and sand confirming to
( a ) Zone I
( b ) Zone II
( c ) Zone III
[ Ans. By mass ( a ) 1 : 2 :3 ( b ) 1: 1.66 :3.33 and ( c ) 1 : 1.43: 3.57 ,
maximum w / c ratio for all cases should be 0.6.)
( 2 ) The bulk densities of cement , coarse and fine aggregates are 1440 kg / m 3, 1456
and 1716 kg / m 3 respectively. Calculate the proportion of ingredients of concrete
by volume using nominal mix of M 20 grade concrete. Size of the coarse aggregate
is 20 mm while the sand confirms to ( a ) zone I ( b ) zone II and (c ) zone III. Use
the calculations of example ( 1 ) .
( Ans. w / c ratio for all cases is 0.6 by mass , ( a) 1 : 1.98: 2.52,
( b ) 1 : 1.64 : 2.79 ( c ) 1 : 1.41:3.)
( 3 ) A concrete cylinder of 150 mm diameter x 250 mm height has its compressive
strength of 16.17 N / mm 2. Determine its equivalent cube strength .
[ Ans. 19.5 N / mm 2.)
( 4 ) Calculate the modulus of rupture of a concrete beam of size 100 mm x 100 mm
x 500 mm tested on a span of 400 mm subjected to two equal and symmetrical
point loads placed at third points. The load causing the failure (each of the point
load ) is 38 kN and the failure occurs in the constant moment zone . Also calculate
the modulus of rupture if failure occurs at 115 mm from one of the support. What
will you conclude if the failure occurs at 105 mm from one of the support ?
[ Ans. ( a ) 30.4 N / mm 2, ( b ) 26.22 N / mm 2, ( c ) Discard the result.)
( 5 ) The following data represents the strength of concrete cubes of the same grade
of concrete , prepared and tested in the same conditions . Plot a histogram of the
distribution of cube strength acu in N / mm 2. Also find out the standard deviation
of the results .
18.5 19.6 20.5 21.7 22.2 22.8 23.0 23.1 23.3 23.5
23.6 23.7 23.8 24.2 24.4 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9 25.1
25.2 25.6 25.7 25.8 25.9 26.0 26.2 26.7 26.8 26.9
[ Ans. s = 2.06 N / mm 2 . )
(6) In a concrete work , concrete of grade M 20 is to be used . The standard deviation
for this grade of concrete is adopted as 3.6 N / mm 2. In the course of testing
concrete cubes, the following results are obtained from four non - overlapping
consecutive cube tests , tested at 28 days in N / mm 2 ) :

26.7 26.2 24.8 18.5

Discuss the acceptance of the results .
[ Ans. All specimens accepted for M 20 grade concrete.)
( 7) Find out the characteristic strength of results in example ( 6 ) . Also state whether
any results are to be rejected .
[ Ans. The whole lot is acceptable for /c = 20.05 N / mm 2, say fzy = 20 N / mm 2.)
^
 hapter DESIGN FOR FLEXURE:
FUNDAMENTALS
K4
4- 1. Introductory: This chapter deals with the fundamentals of design of RCC
beams for flexure. A beam is primarily a flexural member and therefore it is usually
designed for flexure and checked for other parameters Jjkeshear , bond , etc. The
design principles that apply to a simple beam can be extended forcTesigning complicated
elements ~4tke continuous beams , slabs , footings , etc . Therefore , we shall study the
fundamentals of flexure design with the help of a beam . The beam may have different
shapes, however , rectangular shape of the beam is most common for its simplicity in
casting and will be studied in detail .
4- 2. Review of theory of simple bending: Consider a simply supported
beam of span l and having a rectangular cross -section of width B and depth D as
shown in fig . 4 - 1.

H-
dx — Vertical plane of loading
iU-44 d
Neutral plane
- Neutral plane
f D
/
b
i
N-
b
/
(a )
^
/777 77

(b )
B
(c )
FIG . 4 - 1
Consider two vertical sections a - b and c - d at a distance dx along the length of the beam
cut from the unstressed beam . With the application of load inducing sagging moment in
this case , the beam will bend . The top fibre ad of the segment abed will shorten in length
and the bottom fibre be will elongate . The segment abed is separately shown in fig. 4 - 1 ( b) .
Referring to fig. 4 - 1 ( b ) , it will be observed that fibre ad is shortened and fibre be
is elongated but the fibre ef at depth x as shown is neither shortened nor elongated .
_
The horizontal plane ( before bending) in which fibre ef lies is known as neutral plane
orneufraT surface ^
-
The intersection of the neutral plane and the cross section of the heam -is called _
the neutraTaxis ( NJL ) , which is located at a distance x from the extreme compression
fibre as shown in fig. 4 - 1 ( c ) .
The depth of neutral axis , x, is defined as its distance from extreme compression
fibre . As per the theory of simple bending, if the beam is homogeneous, neutral axis
will pass through the centroid of the section . For reinforced concrete ( which is not
homogeneous material ) beam , the neutral axis will not pass through the geometric
centroid of the section but will depend on the amount of reinforcement placed .
As the applied moment is sagging, there exists compression above the neutral axis
and tension below the neutral axis in the cross - section .
For a given cross- section subjected to moment M , the stress / in any fibre located
at a distance y from neutral axis , ( compressive in compression zone and tensile in
My
tension zone) is given by classic - flexure formula /= j- , where / is the moment of
inertia of the section about the neutral axis .

J
92 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 4
Alternatively the moment of resistance of the section will be the least of
fj fj
and where fc and f { are the permissible stresses in tension and compression
yc yt
and yc and yt are respectively the distances of extreme compression and extreme
tension fibres from the neutral axis .
Derivations of the above relations can be found from any standard text - book on Strength
Materials. ( Refer to Mechanics of Structures Vol . I by H . J. Shah and S. B . Junnarkar )
.
4-3. Practical requirements of an R .C.C beam: Before starting the design
reinforced concrete beams for flexure , a study of practical requirements is necessary.
Important practical aspects are: size of the beam , cover to the reinforcement and
spacing of bars . These are discussed below.
.
4- 4 Size of the beam: In most cases , the size of a beam depends on
architectural requirements, e .g., width of the beam may be governed by the thickness
of a wall running parallel to the beam so that a beam can flush with the wall.
Depth of the beam may be governed by the clear height required under the beam .
Where these restrictions are not imposed , designer should consider economy of the
formwork . Width and depth of the beam will then depend on the factors affecting
the economy of the formwork .
Where the depth is decided by design loads and moments, it is necessary to see
that it is not varied from beam to beam , for example in one big hall containing ten
beams , if ten different sizes of beams are chosen , the formwork will be costly and the
structure will not look aesthetic. A designer having sufficient knowledge and practice
will be able to select the size of the beam fulfilling all architectural and structural
requirements at a first trial .
When the economy in formwork is considered , the usual widths of beam are :
115 mm , 230 mm , 250 mm , 300 mm and 350 mm , or more if required . For an isolated
rectangular beam , the depth may be a whole number in a multiple of 5 mm . For usual
slab- beam construction , the depth of rib (clear depth under the slab) is governed by
the size of the formwork . The total or overall depth of the beam is the sum of depth
of flange slab ( Df ) and the depth of the web or rib ( Z) w) , i.e., D = Df + Dw . The depths
of web are usually 230 mm , 250 mm , 300 mm , 350 mm , 375 mm , 400 mm , 450 mm ,
500 mm , 600 mm , etc. Fig. 4 - 2 ( a ) and fig. 4 - 2 ( b ) define Z), Z) f, Z) w, b and bw .

d
D D D
Dw
Bar diameter
• • Cover to
H- b -H h* K- b -H reinforcement
bw
(a) ( b) (c)
FIG . 4 - 2
- 5. Cover to the reinforcement: A concrete cover shall have to be provided
to the reinforcement for the following reasons:
( 1 ) to protect the reinforcement from weather and fire, so that it does not corrode
or melt, and
( 2 ) to ensure the grip of concrete over reinforcement so that they act as one and
resist the loads .
Art . 4 - 5] Design for Flexure : Fundamentals 93

Cover ( concrete cover ) is defined as the minimum distance between the surface of
-
concrete to the outside of the reinforcement. Thus in fig. 4 - 2 ( c ) , we have
"
"

Overall depth D = effective depth d + bar radius + cover.

Here, the cover is called clear cover.
Also Effective cover = D - d = bar radius + clear cover.
Effective depth is defined as the distance from extreme compression fibre to the
centroid of tensile reinforcement .
The thickness of cover shall be different for different elements, and for various
conditions . According to IS : 456, clause 26.4 , the reinforcement shall have a nominal
concrete cover which is equal to the design depth of concrete cover to all steel
reinforcements including links. ( The word link is used to denote secondary reinforcement,
viz ., stirrup in the beam and tie in the column .) It should not be less than the diameter
of the bar. It should satisfy the durability requirement (refer to table 3-6 ) and also fire
resistance, where necessary ( refer to table 3-7 ) . The additional requirements of concrete
cover for columns and footing are discussed in respective chapters .
[ For the purpose of designing beams and slabs in this book , mild exposure is considered.
Accordingly , the beams have minimum clear cover of 20 mm to the stirrups. If the
~
maximum diameter of tHe stirrup i s assumed to be 10 mm for normal cases7 tKe
"'

minimum clear cover to the main reinforcement may be taken as 30 mm. Refer to
table 16 of IS : 456 for cover used in different exposures.
The concrete cover to the reinforcement can be provided using reinforcement supports
at the bottom and sides of the reinforcement throughout. This will keep a space equal to
the thickness of support between the concrete and formwork . When concrete is placed ,
the reinforcement will get the concrete cover.
=
Thickness required cover Wire r
In cheaper construction , pieces of tiles are used
as reinforcement supports in beams and slabs. In
//, 7
7«
slabs, sometimes coarse aggregates ( kapchi ) are also
used as supports. This is not the correct way of
providing adequate cover throughout .
In good constructions , the reinforcement support
Thickness
\ Wi .

is prepared from cement - sand mortar. A typical Reinforcement support

support is shown in fig. 4 - 3. FIG . 4 -3
A cement - sand mortar of the proportion 1 : 2 is prepared using sufficient quantity
of water for mixing. It is then laid on a steel plate which is previously oiled . Thickness
of this layer is as per requirement , e. g., if it is used for slab, 15 mm thick layer is
used or if it is used for beam , 30 mm thick layer is prepared . With a sharp knife , then ,
the mortar is cut in squares of approximate size 50 mm x 50 mm . At the centre of
the square , a twisted binding wire is inserted . This is allowed to set. Next day all the
pieces are taken and immersed in water. After a curing of 28 days , they get sufficient
strength and can be used as reinforcement supports.
Where the use of this support is required , the wire of it is tied with reinforcement
of beam, column or slab as the case may be , at a spacing of 600 mm to 750 mm c / c.
This will ensure the required space between formwork and reinforcement and will give
adequate concrete cover when concrete is placed . A typical arrangement of reinforcement
supports for the beam is shown in fig. 4 - 4 . Readymade supports manufactured from
plastic are also available in the market .
In the interest of standard work , it is advisable to adopt the above- mentioned
method rather than using tiles or kapchi as reinforcement support.
94 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 4

r Reinforcement cage
rA
4
« }>
Formwork
t
[ Supports
1 Supports f
Formwork L- A
M 600 to 750 mm -—H
( a ) Reinforcement cage with supports ( b) Section A - A
FIG . 4 - 4
4- 6. Spacing of bars: The bars shall be placed in such a way that they allow
the concrete to enter when placed or a vibrator can be immersed . The minimum
spacing of bars shall be as follows :
( 1 ) The horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall be
equal to or more than :
( i ) the diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal
( ii ) the diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are unequal
( iii ) 5 mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate .
Note: When there is a congestion of reinforcement , smaller aggregate can be used to
comply this requirement .
( 2 ) When needle vibrators are used the horizontal distance may be reduced to two -
thirds the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate .
( 3) Minimum vertical distance between the rows of bars ( if used ) shall be 15 mm ,
two - thirds the nominal maximum size of aggregate ( Aagg ) or the maximum size of the
bar, whichever is the greatest .
The above requirements are shown in fig. 4 - 5. The requirements for maximum
spacing of bars are described in art . 8- 8. Note that when more steel area is required ,
the bars are arranged in more than one layer as shown in fig. 4.5.
Concrete cover
not less than
• specified cover
• <t> of bar i r •Not15lessmmthan
• <t> of bar
Not less than • —3 "h agg
• h agg + 5 mm
• b of bar
(a ) ( b)
FIG . 4 -5
4 - 7 . Design requirements of a beam: A beam is primarily a flexural
member and therefore in most cases , the design for flexure governs the overall design
of the beam . A beam also has to resist shear forces and for the life time service , it
should be checked for deflection and cracking. The bond between concrete and steel
must be perfect to transmit the forces. The beam may be subjected to torsion . Mainly
the beam is designed for
( 1 ) strength , and
( 2 ) serviceability.
Art . 4 -7 ] Design for Flexure : Fundamentals 95

The beam shall be strong enough to resist the applied loads and transmit the
forces from steel to concrete and vice versa. This strength requirement includes the
design for flexure, shear, torsion , axial forces ( tension or compression ) , etc . It also
includes the check for bond bet w e e n s teeT anH concrete.
The serviceability requirement demands the life time service of the beam (or a structure ) .
It should not have excessive deflection and cracking although it may be strong enough
to carry the loads.
We shall now discuss the fundamentals of a flexure design . For general discussion ,
a simply supported beam with one overhang is considered in this article . Fig. 4 - 6 ( a )
shows the loading on the beam , while fig. 4 - 6 ( b ) shows its bending moment diagram .
It can be seen that in portion AP, the bending moment is sagging, while in portion
PBC, the bending moment is hogging. Assume that the beam section is rectangular.
If you cut any section in zone AP, it is subjected to bending compression above
neutral axis and bending tension below neutral axis ( tension bottom ) . Concrete is very
strong to resist compression , but very weak to resist tension . Therefore, it requires
reinforcement in tension zone . Usually round steel bars are used for this purpose . The
reinforcement is shown at bottom side in elevation of fig . 4 - 6 ( c ) .
A P B C

( a ) Beam loading

1 -4- Maximum positive moment

A \P B c
Point of contraflexure
Maximum negative moment Y->

( b ) B.M.diagram

(c) Position of reinforcement

FIG . 4 - 6
Now consider the portion PBC of the beam , where P is the point of contraflexure.
The moment is hogging, therefore , the tension is at the top side while at bottom , there
exists compression . The reinforcement is thus required at the top side as shown in
fig . 4 - 6 (c) . Fig. 4- 6 thus shows the required positions of the reinforcement for flexure.
The above example is illustrated only to understand how we use concrete and steel
together for designing an R. C . C . beam for flexure . In actual detailing of this beam ,
we will see that it also requires providing and checking the reinforcement for shear,
bond , etc.
96 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 4
4-8 . Classification of beams: The beams are classified as :
( 1 ) Singly reinforced and doubly reinforced beams
( 2 ) Rectangular and flanged beams .
These are now discussed in brief .
( 1 ) Singly reinforced and doubly reinforced beams: Depending on the position of the
flexure reinforcement provided , the beams are classified as singly reinforced and
doubly reinforced . In fig. 4 - 6 , we observed that the reinforcement is provided in
tension zone , while in compression zone , concrete resists the applied forces .
If the concrete is strong enough to resist the applied bending compression, the beams are
reinforced in tension only. Such beams are called singly reinforced beams. Fig. 4 -7 ( a) shows
a singly reinforced beam . -
"

If the concrete in compression zone is unable to withstand all the compression

applied to it , it is reinforced in compression zone also. If the size of the beam is restricted
for example, and if the beam is subjected to a large moment, this may be required.
When the beam is additionally reinforced in compression zone also, it is called doubly.
reinfofcefTbeam. A doubly reinforced section is shown in fig . 4 -7 ( b ) .
Thus in short, in singly reinforced beams, concrete resists compression while steel
resists tension . In doubly reinforced beams, steel bars are provided in compression
zone also to give additional strength in compresion .
K b
T d ..

mu
D d D d

• •
(a ) Singly reinforced beam (b) Doubly reinforced beam
FIG . 4-7
( 2 ) Rectangular and flanged beams: The cross - section of a beam may have rectangular ,
triangular , circular, tee or ell shape. Rectangular sections are popular for their simplicity
and ease of formwork . Thus , in most cases , we come across the rectangular beams.
In usual beam and slab constructions ( refer to fig. 1 - 1 ) where the beam and the
slab are cast together and where the slab reinforcement crosses the beam reinforcement
and vice - versa , the beams and slabs are called monolithic1 Monolithic means that they
structurally act together as one , so that the overall depth of the beam is the depth of
rib plus the depth of slab . As they are monolithic, some or all slab concrete can be
used as a part of the beam and can be employed to resist compression if there exists
compression on slab side .
When the slab concrete is employed to resist compression of the beam, the beam is called
a flanged beam. It may have a tee or an ell shape . Refer to fig. 4 - 8.
The above definition of flanged beams needs more explanation . If the beams are
rectangular in section ( no monolithic slab accompanying it ) , they are designed as
rectangular beams ( R beam ) . This is by virtue of its shape where concrete is available
in compression zone . For the flanged beams, which are flanged by virtue of their
shapes, concrete may not be always available in compression zone .
Consider again the case of beam of fig. 4 - 6. Let the beam be a part of the usual
monolithic beam and slab construction . In zone AP, where the bending moment is
Art . 4 - 9 ] Design for Flexure : Fundamentals 97

sagging, compression is at the top . The slab concrete exists at the top and because of
its monolithic nature , it can resist the compression of the beam . This section can be
designed as a flanged beam .
Compression in slab
— Compression in slab — Tension

j' l
Tension
.
m Tension Compression

( a ) R beam ( b ) Tee beam (c ) Ell beam ( d ) R beam

FIG . 4 - 8
Now consider the portion PBC of the beam , where the bending moment is negative
( hogging) . Again , by virtue of its shape , the cross - section is flanged ( tee or ell ) , but
where the slab concrete is available , there exists tension . As we have already seen that
concrete is very weak in tension , the slab concrete does not help the beam in resisting
the forces. In this case , the beam shall be designed as a rectangular beam .
Thus rectangular beams are those which are rectangular in section and also the flanged
sections where slab concrete exists in tension zone. Whereas the flanged beams will mean the
beams where slab concrete is employed to resist compression.
For our further study , the flanged beams will mean the beams where slab concrete
is employed to resist compression .
Sometimes, by virtue of the placement of slab reinforcement , the slab concrete
becomes ineffective for resisting compression . We shall examine such cases with our
study of continuous beams.
We may summarise the required conditions for a beam section to behave as a
flanged one , as follows :
( 1 ) Slab and beam should be monolithic .
( 2 ) The slab exists on compression side of the beam , and
( 3 ) The slab spanning is perpendicular to that of the beam spanning.
4- 9. Effective width of a flanged beam: Consider a normal - tee - beam - slab
construction floor plan as shown in fig. 4 - 9. Note that beams Bj and B $ are L beams
while beams B % are T beams . ( For further discussion refer to art . 8 - 17 ) . For some
architectural reasons , beam has been inverted . The beam B ± shall be designed as
a rectangular beam . The reason is that the slab is lying in a tension zone and slab
concrete is not useful in resisting compression .
When the spacing of beams is increased ( i . e . , l \ is increased ) , the concrete of slabs ,
far from the centre line of the beam , will become ineffective in resisting the compression .
Similarly if the spacing is decreased , all the concrete of the slab may be effective in
resisting compression . Thus, all the concrete of flange cannot always be considered as
resisting compression . IS : 456, clause 23.1. 2 gives following formulae for finding out
the effective flange width of T or L beams .
These formulae being empirical , may sometimes give absurd results . The flange
width to be used for calculation shall not be greater than the actual width of flange ,
b where
b = bw + half the sum of clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side .
98 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 4

Refer to figs. 4 - 10 (a ) and 4- 10 ( b ) . B3 B3

For T beams:
n n T
bf = —^
0
+ + 6 D( .
BI B2 B2 B2 B2
>b
^-7 ^ ^ l > 2 l\
For L beams :
k
^ \\ \\ \\
~
h —
12
4- bw 4- 3 Z) f A
i
A
> .b
For isolated beams refer to B3 B3
figs . 4 - 10 ( c ) and 4 - 10 ( d ) .
^
0
N—^ —1 1 /1 — —l \ H
For T bems b f “ - bw .
4 (a ) Plan
*b0 4- 4

>b U LT U
For L beams b f
0.5 l0
4 - £w
>4-K lc H \< l c —H-H— / c H-K I Q H-K
bw bw bw bw bw
*0 4- 4 ( b ) Section
b
T and L beams
> b
FIG . 4 - 9
H— bf K bf H

*
X
Df Df

h<- bw-H H- bw —H
( a ) T beam ( b ) L beam
K b >4 b H
X
Df Df
I
I

bw -H h<- bw —H
( c ) Isolated T beam ( d ) Isolated L beam
Fig. 4 - 10
where bf =
effective flange width
/Q =
distance between points of zero moments in the beam , which is equal
to the effective span of the beam for simply supported beams and
may be assumed as 0.7 times the effective span of the beam for
continuous beams
bw = width of web
Df = thickness of flange
b = actual width of flange .
However in any case , the value of b { shall not exceed the actual width of flange .
Art . 4 - 10 ] Design for Flexure: Fundamentals 99

Example 4 - 1 .
In fig. 4- 9, if /| = 3 m and / = 8 m , determine whether the beams are flanged
or rectangular. If the beam is flanged , state the type and determine the flange widths.
The floor is monolithic with the beams . Consider b w = 250 mm in all cases and
Df = 120 mm .
Solution :
The conditions for the beams being flanged or rectangular are checked and flange
widths for flanged beams are calculated in table 4 - 1 .
Table 4 - 1
TESTING A BEAM FOR BEING FLANGED
Beam Monolithic Flange on Slab spans Beam Flange width
No . compression perpendicular type calculations
side to that
of beam

B1 \/ V V Ell bf '—o
12
+ bf + 3 D r
' ‘
= + 250 + 3 x 120
= 1276 mm

>
* -2—
—3000 -
12 o< , i . e .,
+ 10
1625 mm
bf = 1276 mm
B2 V V V Tee bf = —
L
6
4 *

bf1 + 6 Df1
8000
4- 250 + 6 x 120
6
= 2303 mm
> 3000 mm
b f = 2303 mm
B3 V V x Rectangular
B4 V X V Rectangular
Comment : If needed , beam B 3 can be made to act as an ell beam , by providing
extra slab reinforcement as per art. 11 -7.

4- 10. Balanced, Under- reinforced and Over- reinforced design: Depending

on modes of failure of a beam , three types of design are possible , viz . , balanced ,
under - reinforced and over - reinforced design . These are now briefly discussed .
( 1) Balanced design: In this type of design , the section is so proportioned that the
steel and concrete both reach their maximum permissible values of stresses ( or design
strengths) at the same time . Thus , at some value of loads, both the materials will fail
at the same time. The failure in this case is a balanced failure .
Consider a rectangular , singly reinforced and balanced beam as shown in fig. 4 - 11 ( a ) .
The reinforcement area in tension , i4 st , provided is of such an amount that at some
value of moment , stresses in steel and concrete reach their permissible values ( or
design strengths) at the same time . Note that this beam is not a homogeneous beam
100 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 4

like a steel beam . The concrete in tension zone is not able to resist the tension . The
neutral axis will not be at the mid - depth , but depends on the amount of reinforcement .
This mean,s that if you increase the steel area , the depth of neutral axis will increase
and vice - versa.
Depth of neutral axis is defined as the distance x, of the neutral axis from extreme
compression fibre . The neutral axis in this case is known as balanced or critical
neutral axis. The depth of balanced or critical neutral axis is denoted by x ai or xcr .
The steel area provided in this case is called balanced steel area and the ^
percentage of reinforcement is /> t , bal Refer to fig. 4 - 11 ( a ) .
-
h«— b H _— b —H
b<

}x f
cr
y|
x _ T 1
1
d d

A st , bal A st

—
Ast A st.bal Ast < A st.bal Ast > A st.bal
( a ) Balanced - reinforced
( b ) Under (c) Over - reinforced
FIG . 4 - 11
( 2 ) Under - reinforced design: In most of the cases, we provide a larger section
than required for a balanced design . In other words , we usually provide smaller
area of the steel than required for a balanced design . If the beam section of
fig. 4 - 11 ( b ) is reinforced with the steel area /lst < Asij,ai \ the depth of neutral axis
will be less than the balanced depth , i . e., x < xcr . Little thinking will show that
in such a case , full capacity of concrete is not utilised . At some value of loads,
~~
the stresses in steel will reach at its perrtiTssible or Resign value and fails ; while
"

concrete stress is less than its permissible value. The failure in this case ^i ailed
tension failure and the design is referred to as under - reinforced. Note that steel is
a ductile material and yields before failure . Thus the under - reinforced section
suffers large deflections and concrete in tension zone cracks extensively before
Kuure ^ The failure i is case is a ductile failure.
( 3 ) Over - reinforced design : In this type of design , the steel area provided is more
than what is required for balanced design . Consequently , Ast > Astja[ . This is shown
in fig. 4 - 11 ( c ) where the depth of neutral axis is more than that of balanced neutral
axis , i . e. , x > xcr . It can be seen that in this case , the full capacity of steel is not
utilised . At some value of loads the stresses in concrete will reach at its permissible
value and fails , while stress in steel is less than its permissible value. The failure in
this case is called compression failure and the design is referred to as over - reinforced.
Note that concrete is a brittle material and therefore the failure will be brittle and sudden .
A beam , if under - reinforced , gives notice before failure as the steel yields and
concrete i n tension zone shows cracks . If it is over - reinforced , concrete fails first .
Prior to failure , concrete does not give notice as it does not yield . Thus , over -
reinforced beam may collapse without giving a notice when over - loaded . Therefore ,
normally balanced or under - reinforced design is preferred . The mode of failure in this
case will be ductile . In fact, we should design the structure as ductile as possible , so
that in case of failure due to overloads, it gives notice before failure and preventive
measures can be taken . IS : 456 stipulates all provisions to see that the designed
structure is ductile as per the importance of structure.
Note that the under - reinforced beam does not mean that it is under - designed . This
statement will be discussed in detail after learning the design of the beam .
Art . 4 - 11 ] Design for Flexure : Fundamentals lOl

4- 1 1 . C r a c k i n g m o m e n t : The cracking moment or nominal flexural strength of a

beam is defined as the moment which causes the tensile stress in concrete equal to the
[ ^J
tensile strength of concrete given by its modulus of rupture /cr = 0 . 7 yjfQ . This
means that if a concrete beam is not reinforced , it acts as a homogeneous beam until
the cracking moment occurs and fails .
The cracking moment Mcr is given by the classical flexure formula :

^ cr = fcr X
^, t
where Zt is section modulus in tension .
For a rectangular beam of width b and depth D ( overall depth ) , the cracking
moment is given by
l
Mcr = fCT x £Z> 2
^
Let a 230 mm x 600 mm rectangular section cast with M 25 grade concrete be
subjected to flexure . The cracking moment of the beam is calculated as follows :
( 4- 1 )

fCT = 0.7 y / 25 = 3.5 N / mm 2

1 1
l M> = 3.5 x i x 230 x 6002 x io-6 kNm
2
Mcr = /cr ><
o
= 48.3 kNm .
Now consider a reinforced concrete beam . Let the above beam be reinforced with
some reinforcement in tension zone . When a gradual moment of 48.3 kNm is applied ,
i . e . , a cracking moment is applied , the concrete starts cracking . The stress in steel
reinforcement just before concrete cracking is very small as compared to its permissible
stress that may be considered having negligible . When the tensile stress in extreme
tension fibre of concrete approaches its modulus of rupture , it is assumed to be
cracked and cannot resist any tensile stress . Thus , all the tensile force resulting from
the applied moment shall be resisted by the steel reinforcement . In general , we may
say that the steel reinforcement is stressed only after the concrete starts cracking . If the
applied moment is 25 kNm , the steel will not be stressed . At 48.3 kNm moment , the
stress from concrete will be transferred to the steel reinforcement by bond between
concreteand steel . Note that at this moment , all the tensile forces are resisted by steel
and none by concrete as it has cracked .
Following the actual calculations , since the beam is reinforced , its cracking moment
will be little larger then 48.3 kNm , however , for simplicity , we may say that cracking
moment depends only on the modulus of rupture of concrete .
The above explanation of transferring stress by bond from concrete to steel may
be applied for all kinds of stresses , viz . , bending stress , shear stress , torsion , etc .
Example 4 - 2 .
Determine the bending stresses in the extreme fibres of an R . C . C . beam of fig . 4 - 12
subjected to a bending moment of 20 kNm . The concrete is of M 20 grade . Also obtain
its cracking moment .
Solution :
/«
1 x 230 x 4503
12
= 1.747 x 109 mm 4
fCT = 0.7 V20 = 3.13 N / mm 2
102 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

Mcr =
/cr
y
'
3.13 x 1.747 x 109
g
22.5
= 24.3 x 106 Nmm
Applied moment = 20 kNm
24.3 kNm .
< Mcr .
—
The reinforcement will not be stressed ( in fact stress in
reinforcement will be very small ) and the beam will act as
a homogeneous concrete beam . 230
My FIG . 4 - 12
/.m a x/g
10 x 225
_ 20 X
= °
2.576 N / mm 2.
1.747 x 10 °
Due to symmetry , the maximum stresses in concrete in compression and tension
are both the same.
fcb = ft = 2.576 N / mm 2
and /st = 0 ( unstressed ).
Note: When moment exceeds Afcr , the total tensile force will be resisted by steel and none
by concrete .
4- 1 2 . B e n d i n g o f a n R . C . C . b e a m : Let us now consider an R .C. C . beam of
a relatively larger span so that bending stresses are predominent and shear stresses
may have limited effects . Let it be loaded gradually to failure and let us observe the
stages through which it passes before failure. It will be noticed that the beam will pass
through the following three stages :
( 1 ) Uncracked concrete stage .
( 2 ) Concrete cracked - elastic stresses stage .
( 3 ) Ultimate strength stage .
These stages will be now briefly discussed .
( 1 ) Uncracked concrete stage: In this stage , the beam is loaded just to the verge of
cracking but remains uncracked . When the applied moment is small, bending tensile
stress in concrete is low. When this is less than its modulus of rupture , the beam
behaves like a homogeneous beam . The stress at any fibre is given by the well - known
classic flexure formula
My
i .e . / = 77
g
where / g is the gross moment of inertia and y, the distance of the fibre from
neutral axis. This is uncracked concrete stage. Its limiting condition is one , when
concrete is subjected to the stress /cr, and concrete starts cracking . Refer fig. 4 - 13. As
shown earlier in art . 4- 11, the cracking moment with usual notations is given by
cr = /cr x
^ /cl /c2
Tyc
D D

r
b b /cr
(a ) Uncracked stage ( b) Cracking starts
Fig. 4 - 13
Art. 4 - 12 ] Design for Flexure : Fundamentals 103

( 2 ) Concrete cracked - elastic stresses stage : As the moment increases from Mcr ,
concrete in tension zone cracks and is unable to resist any tension . The total tension
will be now resisted by the steel . The change of tensile force from concrete to steel
is sudden and steel must be capable of resisting this sudden force, or the section will
fail . The failure would be brittle .
Assume that the section is sufficiently reinforced with reinforcement so that the
transfer of tensile force is possible . Now increase the moment. With the increase in
bending moment , the stresses in steel and concrete both will increase . The stresses and
strains for this stage are shown in fig . 4 - 14 . Note that the stress in concrete varies
linearly from the neutral axis to the extreme compression fibre .
£cb /cb

es >~ /sl

( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

Elastic stresses stage
FIG. 4- 14
This stage continues as long as /c = 0.5 fc and /st < /y, where fy = yield stress
^ ^
of the steel . This second stage is the elastic stresses stage which is usually observed
under the service load conditions .

£c /cb

St
*- /st

(a ) Beam section ( b ) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

Ultimate strength stage
FIG . 4 - 15
(3 ) Ultimate strength stage: If the moment is further increased , the stress diagram
of concrete is no longer a straight line but has a shape as shown in fig. 4 - 15 , although
the strain diagram is a straight line even at the failure. The tensile cracks formed at
the bottom start moving upward till the failure takes place . The type of failure
depends on the amount of reinforcement placed in tension zone .
If the beam is under - reinforced , the reinforcement will yield . Deflections will be
excessive and extensive cracks will form . This will continue until the concrete in
compression zone cracks and failure takes place . If the beam is over - reinforced , the
stresses in concrete will reach to the design values and failure will take place characterised
by sudden brittle failure of the beam .
The elastic design of the beam is based on the behaviour of stage 2 and limit state
method of design is based on the behaviour of stage 3.
104 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 4
The elastic design or working stress method of design for flexure is considered in chapter 5 and
the limit state method of design for flexure is considered in chapter 6 . In most of the chapters
to follow , limit state method of design will be followed .
4 - 1 3. D e s i g n m e t h o d s: In India , before 1964 , most of the structures were
designed by working stress method. In working stress method , it is assumed that concrete
and steel are elastic . At the worst combination of working loads , the stresses in
materials are not exceeded beyond permissible stresses . This method is frequently
referred to as WSD , working stress design .
The second revision of IS : 456 ( IS : 456 - 1964 ) introduced Ultimate load method
of design in appendix , and was at once adopted by many design offices for it gave
more economical results than working stress method . In this method , the inelastic
behaviour of concrete is taken into account and therefore, reserve strength of concrete
can be used leading to the economical designs. In design , the loads on the structure
are increased by suitable load factors and the structure is loaded with these increased
loads called ultimate loads . For materials ( steel and concrete ) , the ultimate behaviours
are taken into account . The ultimate load method leads the designer to economy ; but
at the same time , to very slender sections , larger deflections and larger crack widths
in concrete . This created a necessity of refining the method to achieve rational approach
to the design of R . C . C . structures .
The third revision of IS : 456 ( IS : 456 - 1978 ) took into account , the above facts
and introduced Limit State method of Design ( LSD ) replacing the ultimate load method .
Most part of the code ( in this book , code means IS : 456 if not specified ) is based on
limit state method . This method takes into account, all the drawbacks of ultimate load
method . Working stress method is however retained in this revision of the code . Limit
state method has become very popular and most of the structures are now designed
by limit state method .
The fourth revision of IS : 456 ( IS : 456 - 2000) adopts limit state method for design .
However , the working stress method is retained and included in annex B of the code ,
thereby reducing its importance in actual designs .
Working stress method is however , of great importance. For calculations of serviceability
'

requirements like deflection and crack width under service load conditions to determine
flexural stiffness El of the flexural members , and for designing a few structures like
liquid retaining structures and highway bridges , WSD method is used . It is therefore
necessary to study this method .
This book is written for degree students of civil engineering. We shall therefore
mainly study the subject by using limit stress method . Most of the book is based
on limit state method . However , basics of working stress method are explained in
chapter 5.
 hapter DESIGN FOR FLEXURE:

- 5 3:
WORKING STRESS METHOD

5- 1. Permissible stresses: As stated earlier , in working stress method, the

stresses in materials are not exceeded beyond their permissible values . The permissible
stresses are found by using suitable factors of safety to the material strengths ; e.g., for
concrete in compression in bending, a factor of safety equal to 3 is considered on
characteristic strength of concrete and a factor of safety equal to 1.8 is considered on
the yield strength of mild steel reinforcement in tension due to bending.
Permissible stresses for different grades of concrete and steel as given by IS : 456.
Some of the values are given in tables 5 - l and 5- 2 . For complete details the code shall
be referred .
TABLE 5 - 1
PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN CONCRETE
Permissible stress Permissible stress in bond
Grade of in compression , N / mm 2 ( average ) for plain bars
concrete
Bending Direct in tension , N / mm 2

( 1) (2) ( 3) (4)
^ cbc °cc ^ bd
M 20 7.0 5.0 0.8
M 25 8.5 6.0 0.9
M30 10.0 8.0 1.0
Note : The bond stress given in column 4 shall be increased by 25
percent for bars in compression .
From table 5 - 1, it can be observed that for a given grade of concrete , acc < acbc,
e., a greater factor of safety is adopted for direct stress than for a bending stress.
i.
When a cross - section is subjected to bending stress , the stress induced on it is
variable , being maximum at extreme fibre and zero at neutral axis .
When the maximum stress exceeds the permissible value , the extreme fibre
will not fail actually but will transfer the additional force to the inner fibre which
has a lower stress. When the section is subjected to a direct stress, all points of
the section have uniform stress having no scope for such a transfer of the force .
It is for this reason that larger factor of safety is adopted for direct stress than
the bending stress .
In case of steel reinforcement of small diameters, the stress will be uniform
for direct stress as well as for bending stress. Therefore in steel bars, the permissible
stresses in bending and direct stresses are the same for lower diameter bars up to
20 mm diameter. For diameter more than 20 mm , permissible tensile stress in steel
is usually reduced ( refer to table 5 - 2 . )
Increase in permissible stresses: When stresses due to wind ( or earthquake) , temperature
and shrinkage effects are combined with those due to dead , live and impact loads, the

above permissible stresses may be exceeded upto a limit of 33 ~ percent . Wind and
seismic forces need not be considered as acting simultaneously.
106 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
TABLE 5 - 2
PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN STEEL REINFORCEMENT
Sr. Type of stress in Permissible stresses in N / mm 2
No . steel reinforcement
High yield strength
deformed bars
confirming to
IS : 1786 - 1985
( Grade Fe 415 )

(i) (2 ) (3)

(i ) Tension ( ast or asv ):

( a ) Upto and including 230
20 mm
( b ) Over 20 mm 230
( ii ) Compression in column 190
bars ( osc)
( ii ) Compression in bars in The calculated compressive stress in the surrounding
' a beam of slab when the concrete multiplied by 1.5 times the modular ratio or
compressive resistence of asc whichever is lower
the concrete is taken into
account :

-
5 2. M o d u l a r r a t i o: The modular ratio m, of steel and concrete is defined as
modulus of elasticity of steel
modulus of elasticity of concrete
It is stated in art . 2 - 3 that the modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel is
200 kN / mm 2 ( i . e . , 2 x 105 N / mm 2 ) .
In art. 3- 14 , we noted that the short term modulus of elasticity of concrete is given
by Ec = 5000 yjfc • Also the long term modulus of elasticity of concrete was shown
^
to be Ece = ( i + 0) ’Ec where 0 is the creep coefficient given in art. 3- 16.

In examples 3- 7 and 3-8, we noted that the long term modulus of elasticity increases
with the time . Thus , modular ratio as defined above decreases with time .

For example , modular ratio for M 20 mix at one month ’s age will be 2 x 105 = 23.25
8600
2 x IQ5
and at the age of 12 months, it will be .
10648 = 18.78 It should be clear that for
the design work , long term modulus of elasticity of concrete shall be taken into
account for calculation of modular ratio .

IS : 456 stipulates that for the design with working stress method , the value of

modular ratio m shall be taken as m 280

3 0cbc
where ac ^
c is the permissible stress in
concrete in bending compression ( refer to table 5- 1 ) . This empirical formula particularly
takes into account , the long term effects such as creep.
Art . 5 - 3 ) Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 107

If we consider M 20 grade concrete for which ac ^ c = 7 N / mm 2, then the modular

280 280
ratio m = = 13.33. If we determine E for concrete , Ec, by using this
3 cjcbc 3x7
value of m, we get
£s _
2 x 105
15004 N / mm 2,
= m13.33 =
the value is much more than the long term modulus at 12 months.
5- 3. Design for flexure- assumptions: The following assumptions are made
for a section resisting bending moment in elastic theory.
( 1 ) At any cross section , plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.
This assumption forms the basis of elastic theory. The transverse sections
( the sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam ) are plane before the
bending loads are applied to the beam . These sections remain plane and normal to the
axis after the loads are applied . Thus in the strain diagram , the strain at any level of
Uie cross - section is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis . Experiments
show that even at just prior to failure , this assumption is true.
( 2 ) All tensile stresses are taken up by reinforcement and none by concrete .
As stated earlier , concrete is very weak in resisting tension . Therefore , the force
resisted by concrete in tension zone is neglected being very small . In a few cases ,
however , it becomes necessary to consider this resistance , e .g . , in design of liquid
retaining structures . Presently , we shall neglect the tensile strength of concrete .
(3) The stress -strain relationship of steel and concrete under working loads is a straight line.
The stress - strain diagram of steel is fairly linear under working loads , but the
stress - strain diagram of concrete is not linear right from zero stress . However , it is
reasonably accurate to assume it as a straight line upto stress in concrete equal to
0.5 /ck - In this method , a factor of safety equal to 3 is considered for concrete stress,
therefore , under working stress , it may be reasonable to assume a straight line variation
for concrete stress - strain .
( 4 ) There exists a perfect bond between steel and concrete.
For transferring the stress from concrete to steel or from steel to concrete , it is
necessary that there exists a perfect bond between the two materials . For the design
of flexure , we shall assume this ; however, for complete design of beam we shall check
whether the bond is perfect or not . If not , we shall make modifications in design ,
usually by reducing the diameter of the reinforcement and thus increasing surface area
of the steel available for bond with concrete . This topic is separately treated i n chapter 7.
280
(5) The modular ratio m has the value where ocbc is permissible compressive
3 ^cbc
stress due to bending in concrete in N / mm 2.
This assumption is separately treated in previous article 5 - 2 .
We will now discuss singly reinforced and doubly reinforced beams. We shall
derive formulae for balanced rectangular sections. We will also discuss about flanged
beams in the articles to follow.
In singly reinforced beams , concrete resists compression while steel resists tension .
In doubly reinforced beams, steel bars are provided to give additional strength in
compression . The theory will be derived for balanced section .
 108 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 5

SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS ]

5- 4. Derivation of formulae for balanced design: Consider a singly
r reinforced
beam as shown in fig. 5- 1 ( a ) . The strain diagram is shown in fig. 5- 1 ( b ) and
the stress diagram is shown in fig. 5- 1 ( c ) . Define :
Ast , bal = reinforcement area provided for balanced section
ocbc = permissible stress in concrete in bending compression
ast = permissible stress in steel in tension
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
gcbc
ec = strain in concrete in extreme compression fibre =
Ec
est = strain in steel = 5st ° st
where m is the modular ratio
Es mEc
b = width of beam
d = effective depth which is definedas the distance from extreme compression
fibre to the centroid of tensile reinforcement
x = depth of neutral axis which is defined as the distance of neutral axis
from extreme compression fibre. For balanced sections it is denoted
by xCT or * baI.
Z = lever arm which is defined as the distance between centroid of compressive
force to the centroid of tensile force .

cc = ^Eccbc
c
— -H acbc K-
. :: jc
Compression zone
cl 3
Tension zone

= °Es
st
-H £
sl

(a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

Singly reinforced balanced rectangular section

FIG. 5 - 1
* To find neutral axis
From the strain diagram
* bal _ ^ cbc / Ec ^cbc
d ^ bal tfst / £s
solving for * bal
°st
^ CTcbc 1
* bal _ ^ ^cbc 1 °st _ d = d. (5- la )
""
l+ ———
^^ cbc
i . e. * bal = M
Art . 5 - 4 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 109
where the constant
1
k = (5- lb)
1+
^cbc
and is known as neutral axis constant .
280
Substitute m
3 c*cbc
1
Then k =
1+
<*st x
^ 280
^cbc
^cbc
1
i .e. k = ( 5 - lc ) .
1 + 0.0107 ast
Equation (5 - lc ) suggests that the value of constant k and hence the value of
balanced neutral axis does not depend on the grade of concrete but on the permissible
stress in steel. For mild steel having ast = 140 N / mm 2, k = 0.4 and for reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 having ast = 230 N / mm 2, k = 0.29.
* To find lever arm
From the stress diagram
kd
Z = d - * bal = d -
3 3
( lr\
d = jd (5 - 2 a )
\ 0J
where the constant

J 1- -
= (5 - 2 b )
3;
^
and is known as lever arm constant .
* To find total forces
Define C = total compression
and T = total tension
1
then C = 2 X Qcbc X b X
* bal

^ bal
2
^cbc ( 5- 3a )
and T -^ st.bal (5-3b)
* To find moment of resistance of section
Capacity of a section to resist the moment is known as its moment of resistance
( M . R . ) . This is equal to
total compressive force x lever arm
OR
total tensile force x lever arm , whichever is smaller.
For a balanced section , both will have the same value .
110 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Considering the compressive forces
M . R . = total compression x lever arm

^ bal =

= ^
\°
2

1
*
^ cbc
cbc -
• b • * bal

b . k d. j d

kj b d*
x ( jd )

V*~* ^
~ cbc
>

'V4al = Qj> al h d l (5- 4 a)

where the constant
1
Qj^ al kj (5- 5 )
2 ^ cbc
and is known as moment of resistance factor for balanced rectangular section .
Considering the tensile forces
M . R. = total tension x lever arm

^ bal = (^ .bal ° st • st ) X ( jd)

( 5 - 4 b)
jd
* To find steel area
^ ,bal st O st

For a balanced section

^bal ^.
' st bal ® sl
• jd
M bal
^ st bal
,
ost x j d
( 5- 6 a )

100 Ast
Define
bd
where p t is percentage steel .
For a balanced section

P t. bal = 100 X ^ stb dbal

,
100 X ^ bal
*
1
Td -
Ost j d

Zb , bal
100 x
\
CTst x j d
CTcbc x k x j x b d
X
2

bd
50 ocbc x k
Z’t. bal
Ost
50 k ocbc
(5 - 6 b )
Ost
* To design balanced section
For a given design moment M , consider M = A/ j,a|. If width b of the beam is assumed
M
d = ^bal
and steel area
Q, balX
^ Qjbal xb

M
^ st
^ s> t, bal =
ost j d
Art . 5 - 4 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 111

For convenience in design , area of group of bars are given in table 5- 3.

TABLE 5 3 -
AREA OF GROUP OF BARS ( mm 2)

Diameter Number of bars in group

( mm )
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

6 28 56 84 113 141 169 197 226

8 50 100 150 201 251 301 351 402
10 78 157 235 314 392 471 549 628
12 113 226 339 452 565 678 791 904
16 201 402 603 804 1005 1206 1407 1608
20 314 628 942 1256 1570 1834 2198 2512
25 491 981 1472 1963 2453 2944 3435 3926

Example 5 - 1 .
Determine the effective depths for the beam sections of fig. 5- 2.
230 230 +
h* * H-
X J
f f
500 d 500 d

• • 1
L- 3- 16 <J>
—1 ISIS
L- 5- 160
(a) ( b)
FIG . 5- 2
Solution :
For fig. 5- 2 ( a), cover 30 mm
D = 500 mm
d = 500 - 30 ( cover ) - 8 ( upto centroid of reinforcement )
ie ., d = 462
mm (1)
For fig. 5 - 2 ( b )
If all the reinforcement bars are provided in a single layer, the concreting will
be difficult . Therefore, two layers of bars are provided . Clear distance between two
layers shall be 20 mm or more. The centroid of reinforcement is assumed at centre
of two layers.
d = 500 - 30 ( cover ) - 16 (first layer ) - 10 ( centre of two layers )
= 500 - 56 = 444 mm ( 2)
Note: If exact centroid of bars is calculated it is nearer to the first layer , i .e., at 52.4 mm
from bottom of the beam instead of 56 mm ( 30 + 16 + 10 = 56 mm ) as
assumed above . The exact effective depth is 500 - 52.4 = 447.6 mm instead of
444 mm as calculated above . Such accuracy is usually not considered in design .
The distance 56 mm is called “ effective cover ” .
112 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

Example 5 - 2 .
Calculate the design constants for the following materials considering the balanced
design for singly reinforced section . The materials are grade M 20 concrete and mild
steel reinforcement .
Solution :
For M 20 mix , acbc = 7 N / mm 2 I
2
for mild steel ,
° st = 140 N / mm
280 280
m 13.33.
5 ^cbc 3x7
1
Then , neutral axis constant k =
1 + CTst
^ CTcbc
1
140 = 0.4
1+
13.33 x 7
k 0.4
lever arm constant j = i
3
1
3
= 0.866, say 0.87.
M . R . constant £b . \l = X
° cbc * * X j
1
x 7 x 0.4 x 0.866 = 1.21
2
50 ocbc k _
50 x 7 x 0.4
1.0 .
/* t , bal 140
Design constants for two combinations of materials are given in table 5 - 4 .
TABLE 5 - 4
DESIGN CONSTANTS FOR BALANCED SECTION
Concrete grade Steel grade ^ cbc k Qbal /* t , bal
° st J
M 20 Fe 250 7 140 0.4 0.87 1.21 1.00
M 20 Fe 415 7 230 0.29 0.90 0.91 0.44
Note: The combination M 20 grade concrete with Fe 415 grade steel is the most
common combination used in practice.

Example 5 - 3 .
For a rectangular beam of size 250 mm wide x 520 mm effective depth , find out
the balanced depth of neutral axis , balanced lever arm , balanced moment of resistance
and balanced steel area. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
b = 250 mm From table 5 - 4 for M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 steel
d= 520 mm k = 0.29 , j = 0.90
a cbc= 7 N / mm 2 & al = 0.91
ast = 230 N / mm 2 . /> t , bal = 0.44
Art . 5 - 4 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 113

Depth of balanced or critical neutral axis

= k d = 0.29 x 520 = 150.8 mm .
Lever arm = j d —
0.9 x 520 = 468 mm .
Moment of resistance of balanced section
= £bal W 2
= 0.91 x 250 x 5202 * 10-6 = 61.52 kNm .

Also , st , bal
’.
/ t bal * b d
100
0.44 x 250 x 520
100 = 572 mm 2.
Example 5 - 4.
A simply supported rectangular beam of 4 m span carries a uniformly distributed
load of 26 kN / m . The width of the beam is 230 mm . Find the depth and steel area
for balanced design . Use M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement.
Solution :

Maximum moment . M = 26 x
8
£ 230

= 52 kNm .
For balanced section Q = 121.
^ ai M
Effective depth required d =
<ibal X b
52 x 106
= 432.3 mm
1.21 x 230
M 52 xl 06
and steel area st , bal
°st i d 2 140 x 0.87 x 432.3
= 988 mm .
Provide 5 no . 16 mm diameter bars giving area of 5 x 201 = 1005 mm 2 , in two
layers.
Overall depth of beam = 432.3 + 10 + 16 + 30 ( cover ) = 488.3 mm .
The designed section is shown in fig . 5 - 3. As overall depth is not a whole number ,
it is rounded on higher side.
D = 490 mm , d = 490 - 30 ( cover ) - 16 - 10 = 434 mm .
Example 5 - 5 .
Check whether the beam section designed in example 5- 4 is balanced , under - reinforced
or over - reinforced .
Solution :
For the designed section
b = 230 mm
d = 434 mm
Asl = 1005 mm 2.
114 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
100 Ati 100 x 1005
The percent area pt = = 1.007.
bd 230 x 434
For M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement
Pt , bal 1.00 from table 5- 4 .
Here Pt > Pt , bal
e.
i.
^ ^^
• st st , bal -
Therefore the section is over - reinforced .

5 - 5 - Transformed area method: A beam section as shown in fig. 5 - 4 ( a ) is

subjected to a moment M . Find out the maximum stresses in concrete and steel .
Fig. 5- 4 ( b ) , Fig. 5 - 4 (c ) and Fig. 5 - 4 ( d ) represent the strain diagram , the stress diagram
and the transformed section . A transformed section is a section in which the steel area
is replaced by an equivalent concrete area . A transformed section consists of a single
material , therefore , theory of simple bending can be applied . The transformed section
may be of steel when concrete is replaced by steel or it may be of concrete when steel
area is replaced by concrete . It is usual to replace steel area by concrete , hence a
transformed section would mean to a homogenous concrete section .
fo\
H — b —H p
CC = rT
~

Hc
)

14
d
N
Compression zone
A

Tension zone

Ast
C f »t
CSt - Es
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram ( d ) Transformed section

Transformed area method - singly reinforced beam

FIG . 5 - 4
In fig. 5 - 4 ( d ) , the actual concrete in tension zone is absent because we have
assumed that concrete carry tensile force . Thus all tensile force will be carried by steel .
At the centroid of steel reinforcement , the surrounding concrete being elastic and
having perfect bond with steel
strain in steel = strain in concrete .
Let /st and f ' c be the stresses in steel and concrete respectively at the level of
centroid of steel . ^
Strain in concrete = strain in steel

/ cb _ /st
Es Ec
/st = mf ' cb -
Now force in steel = A { fs { = ylst . m. f ' c (i)
^ ^
If this steel is to be replaced by an equivalent concrete area ( transformed area ) ,
the equivalent concrete will carry the same force .
Art . 5 - 5] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 115

Now the force in equivalent concrete

= transformed area x /'cb (2)
Equating ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
transformed area x /'cb = A St * «• /'cb
transformed area = m ylst.
* To find neutral axis
As the theory of simple bending can be applied , the neutral axis is the centroidal
axis of the transformed section . To determine the centroidal axis , the moments of
composite areas may be taken about any selected axis , e . g., top of the section . Then
S Ax I Ay
the formula x or y can be applied . In present case , it is easier to
IA ZA
take moments of transformed areas about neutral axis itself , hence x = () .
Z Ax
Thus , x = 0
LA
i . e ., Z Ax = 0.
x
Here, we have A| = bx, xi 2
= = [d x)
and
Then
A2
A \ X \ + A 2 *2 =
m
0
^ st > *2 ~ ~

i . e. A \ x i = - A 2* 2
* ( d - x) ( 3)
2 = mAsl
i
and bx

Taking moments of transformed areas about N. A .

b. x.
\ = mAa
Solution of this equation gives the value of x.
{d - *)

Method 1 :
lever arm , L. A .

M
stress in steel /st =
Asl d- -3
Stress in concrete :

From strain diagram' /cb / Ec X

/s< / £s d -x
/st _ /st
fcb
Es' Ec
X
d-x
£
m d-x
x
^
If M . R . of the section is desired , it can be found out as follows :
bx
M . R . with respect to compression = acbc ( L' A )
T
M . R. with respect to tension = ast ^4 st ( L. A.) .
116 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Method 2 ( Classic flexure formula ) :
Find out moment of inertia of the beam .
b x3
4= — + mAst (f d - x )* .
The stresses in the concrete and steel are given by
M .x
stress in concrete , /cb = 4
'

stress in steel , fst = m x

M [d - x)
4
Also the moment of resistance of the section shall be calculated as follows:
cbc Ac
M . R . w. r. t . compression = ^
M . R . w. r. t . tension = °st 4
m (d - x)'
Example 5 - 6 .
The dimensions of a rectangular beam section and the reinforcing steel provided
are shown in fig. 5 -5. The section is subjected to a characteristic moment of 30 kNm .
Determine the maximum stress in steel and concrete. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Also find out the M . R. of the section .
Solution :
For M 20 mix and mild steel m 13.33 =
transformed area of steel 13.33 x 603 =
= 8038 mm 2.
To find neutral axis , taking moments of transformed areaa about N . A .

200 A; x|= 8038 ( 460 - x)

100 A;2 + 8038 A: - 36987480 = 0
A:2 + 80.38 A: - 36975 = 0
which gives x 156.2 mm .
200

H
460
156.2

303.8
3- 16 0
= 603 mm 2 mAsl =
8038 mm 2
(a ) Section ( b) Transformed section

FIG . 5 - 5
Method 1 :

lever arm = 460 - 156.2

3 = 407.9 mm .
Art . 5 - 5 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 117

30 x 106 121.97 N / mm 2 .
Steel stress = 603 x 407.9

Concrete stress = —mf

a x
x —-
x

121.97 156.2
x
13.33 303.8
= 4.7 N / mm 2.
M . R . ( comp . ) = 7 x 200 x 156.2 x 407.9 x 10-6
2
= 44.6 kNm .
M . R . ( tension ) = 140 x 603 x 407.9 x 10 ~ ( )
= 34.43 kNm
M . R . of section = 34.43 kNm . (The smaller of the two values )
Method 2 :
1 x 200 x 156.23
4= + 8038 x 303.82
3
= 9.96 x 108 mm 4 .
30 x 106 x 156.2
Concrete stress fc
^= 9.96 x 108
= 4.7 N / mm 2.
x 106 x 303.8 x
Steel stress /st = 30 13.33 = 121.97 N / mm 2.
9.96 x 108
M . R. ( comp.) = 7 9.96 x 108 x 10 ~6 = 44.64 kNm
x
156.2
M . R. ( tension ) = 140 9.96 108 x 10 -6 = 34.43 kNm
x x
13.33 x 303.8
M . R. of section = 34.33 kNm (The smaller of the two values ) .
Example 5 - 7.
Explain the balanced , under - reinforced and over - reinforced design in context with
data of example 5- 6.
Solution :
(a) To decide the type of the beam:
Critical or balanced depth of N . A . = k d } where k = 0.4 ( M 20 , mild steel )
* cr = 0.4 x 460 = 184 mm
x = 156.25 mm
* < xCI .
The beam is under - reinforced (1)
100 Asi 100 x 603
Also Pt = bd 200 x 460 = 0.655

/’t . bal 1.0

Pi < /’ t . bal -
The beam is under - reinforced . (2)
Any one of the above check is satisfactory to decide the type of the beam .
118 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
( b ) Balanced design:
( 1 ) For given section
^b 1 = Qbal W2 = 1.21 x 200 x 4602 x 10 6
= 51.2 kNm .
'

a
/> t , bal x hd 1.0 X 200 X 460
s t , bal = 920 mm 2 .
100 100
( 2 ) For given moment
M 30 x 10 f )

d rcq
Q, bal * b 1.21 x 200 = 352.1 mm

when this depth is provided

30 x 10 ( )

700 mm 2
^
• st . bal = 140 0.87 x 352.1 =
x
/> t, bal x b d
or
^ st , bal
100
1.0 X 200 X 352.1
100 = 704 mm 2.
( c ) Over - reinforced design:
( 1 ) For given section
920 mm 2 .
=
^ • st , bal
area, e .g., 3- 20 <J)
If we provide larger = 942 mm 2, the beam becomes
-
over reinforced .
( 2 ) For given moment , if d = 352.1 mm is provided
From calculation ( 2 ) of balanced design , we have st bal = 704 mm 2.
If larger area, e .g., 3- 16 0 + 1 - 12 $ = 3 x 201 + 113 716 mm 2 is ^ >

provided it becomes over - reinforced .

,

Comment : The over - reinforced beam design is not permitted since it gives no
warning before failure when overloaded . Balanced design is practically not possible
because the exact area cannot be provided . In case ( c- 2 ) above , providing exact 704 mm 2
using available diameters is not possible. We also cannot provide lesser steel . When
we provide 716 mm 2, it becomes over - reinforced .
The balanced design is just a boundary and is used to distinguish between under -
reinforced design and over - reinforced design .
It is noted that the capacity of section , i . e ., A al f a g* ven section is fixed .
We must design the given section for M < ° ^
aj, so that even if you provide little
larger area than designed , the section will be under - reinforced . In ex. 21 - 6 above ,
M = 30 kNm , = 51.2 kNm . The reinforcement provided is slightly more than
required so that we get M . R . = 34.44 kNm . Even this is lesser than M \ and the
design is under - reinforced . ^
5 - 6. Types of problems: In singly reinforced beams, two types of problems
occur , viz . , analysis of the section and design of the section .
In first type of problems , the section properties are given , i . e . , size of the section ,
grade of concrete , area of steel and type of the reinforcement used . We need to
determine its neutral axis, type of failure and moment of resistance. Such calculations
are used to check the capacity of existing beams or to check the designed section .
In second type of problems , the applied moment , concrete grade and type of
reinforcement are given and we need to determine the tension reinforcement area and
Art . 5 - 7 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 119

provide the appropriate diameter and number of reinforcement . The section dimensions
may be given or we may need to determine . It is necessary to see that the designed section
is not over - reinforced .
Types of problems are now discussed in articles to follow.
5 - 7. Analysis of the section: When the section is given , following types of
problems may occur.
Type 1: To find out the depth of neutral axis for a given section and specifying
the type of beam .
( a ) If the section and actual stresses in the materials are given , find out the depth
of neutral axis using equation ( 5 - 1 ) for actual stresses .
1
x =
k d where k = •

1 +
/st
m fcb
If the section and steel area provided are given , find out neutral axis by taking
moment of transformed areas about neutral axis .

= m . A%i ( d - x).
( b ) Find out the depth of neutral axis for balanced section , also known as depth
of critical neutral axis using equation (5- 1 ) for permissible stresses of steel
and concrete .
1
x =
k d where k =
1 + ast
m acbc
( c ) If xac , uaj < ^critical’ the concrete is not fully stressed and the beam is under -
reinforced .
( d ) If xaclua| > ,
^critical the steel is not fully stressed and the beam is over - reinforced .
( e) If *actuaj = ^critical * steel and concrete are both stressed to their permissible
value for one particular moment and the section is balanced .
Type 2 : To find the moment of resistance for a given section .
( a ) Find the position of actual neutral axis and critical neutral axis as explained
in type 1 .
( b ) If A:actual < ^ critical * the section is under - reinforced and moment of resistance
is given by

( c ) If * acutai
M. R.
> ^ critical *
= Asi . °s f M) -
the section is over - reinforced and moment of resistance is
given by

M. R . = b . x . ^c b c * d - 43 r
2
Type 3: For the given moment and section of beam , to check the stresses.
This is explained in art. 5 -5.
Example 5 -8.
Determine the position of neutral axis of a reinforced concrete beam 230 mm wide
and 460 mm effective depth , if the stresses developed in concrete and steel are
6.3 N / mm 2 and 212 N / mm 2 respectively. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Also state the type of the beam .
120 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Solution :
For M 20 mix , m 13.33. —
Using equation (5 - 1 ) for actual stresses
1 1
k = = 0.284
1 +
/s , 1 + 212
m fcb 13.33 x 6.3
and x= kd
= 0.284 x 460 = 130.6 mm .
Depth of critical N. A. = 0.29 x 460 = 133.4 mm .
•
^ actual ^ ^ critical
.. *
The beam is under - reinforced .
Example 5 - 9 .
An R . C . C. beam , 300 mm wide and 460 mm effective
depth is reinforced with 4 no. 12 mm diameter bars in
tension as shown in fig. 5- 6 . Find out the depth of neutral K- 300 -H
axis and state the type of the beam . The materials are M 20 TX
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . 1 N _ A
Solution : 460
For M 20 mix , m 13.33
Ast = 4 x 113 = 452 mm 2. 4- 12 #
Let A; be the depth of neutral axis. FIG . 5 - 6
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
x
b x . - = m Ast ( d
- x) -
—
300
2
xz9 = 13.33 x 452 ( 460 - x)
. e. * + 40.17* - 18477 = 0
i 2

which gives x = 117.3 mm .

Depth of critical N . A . = 0.29 x 460 = 133.4 mm .
^ actual ^ ^ critical
.. *
The beam is under - reinforced .
Example 5 - 10 .
An R . C . C . beam 250 mm wide x 520 mm effective depth is reinforced with
3 no . 16 mm diameter bars in tension . Find out the depth of neutral axis and state the
type of the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
For M 20 mix , m = 13.33
Ast = 3 x 201 = 603 mm 2 .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis .
Art . 5 - 7] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 121

Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis K- 250-H

bi x
250
—
. . *2 = m
^ st (d ~ x) TX
i N A

2
x2 = 13.33 x 603 (520 - x) 520
i . e . x2
+ 64.3* - 33438 = 0
which gives x = 153.5 mm
3- 16 #
Depth of critical neutral axis
= 0.29 x 520 = 150.8 mm . FIG . 5 -7
^ actual
•
^ ^ critical
The beam is over - reinforced .
Example 5 - 11 .
Find the moment of resistance of
7 N / mm 2
the beam as shown in fig . 5 - 8 . Also K
230
H- l
state whether the beam is under - reinforced X
T
or over - reinforced . The materials used
are grade M 20 concrete and Fe 415 grade
T T
X 226 3

HYSD reinforcement . i
560
Solution :
For M 20 mix , acbc
Fe 415 steel , ast
—
=
7 N / mm 2
230 N / mm 2 3-20 # T
m= 13.33 ( a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram
As = { 3 x 314 FIG . 5 - 8
= 942 mm 2.
Let x be the depth of neutral axis.
Taking moments of transformed areas about N . A.
b.x. z
2 ^ = m Ait (d - x)

230 . x . 1 = 13.33 x 942 (560 - x)

2
115 7031842 - 12557 A:
x2 =
.-. x 2
+ 109.2 *- 61146 = 0
which gives x 198.6 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis
k d = 0.29 x 560 = 162.4 mm .
^ actual ^ ^ critical
Section is over - reinforced and concrete will fail first .
1
M . R.
2 ^ cbc * d - ±3
*

^ *

198.6
1 x 7 x 230 x 198.6
2 (560 3
x 10-fi
= 78.95 kNm .
M . R . of the section is 78.95 kNm .
122 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Example 5 - 12 .
Find the moment of resistance of beam section as shown in fig. 5 - 9. Also state
whether the beam is under - reinforced or over - reinforced . The materials used are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
K- 250 -H
For M 20 mix m 13.33
Ast = 4 x 113 = 452 mm 2.
133
8B J* i
and = 230 N / mm 2
° st 500
Let x be the depth of neutral axis .
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis •••• 4- 12 #
b. x. |= m Ast (d - x) FIG. 5- 9
9 SO 2
* = 13.33 x 452 ( 500 - x )
x2 = 24100 - 48.2 x
i.e . x2 + 48.2 x - 24100 = 0
which gives x 133 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis
= 0.29 x 500 = 145 mm .
^ actual
•
^ ^ critical
. . The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first.
*

M . R. = Aa. (' i )
= 452 x 230 ( 500 - x 10-6 = 47.37 kNm .

Example 5 - 13 .
Find the moment of resistance of the beam section as shown in fig. 5 - 10 . The
permissible stress in concrete in bending compression and steel in tension are respectively
5.6 N / mm 2 and 210 N / mm 2.
Solution :
280
For a given concrete mix m 16.66.
3 x 5.6
Ast = 4 x 201
= 804 mm 2 .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis.
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis

i.e .
which gives
x'2
+ 89.3 x
300 x .

-
^
x2
49115
x
=
=
=
16.66 x 804 ( 550
49115
0
181.4 mm .
- 89.3 x
- x)
Art . 5 -7 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 123

Now the depth of critical neutral axis H— 300 —H

1 .d
= kd = 181.4
1 +
m
°st „ N A

1
°c b c 550
x 550
1 + 210
16.66 x 5.6
= 169.2 mm . 4- 16 #
•
^ actual ^ ^ critical FIG . 5 - 10
/. The beam is over - reinforced and concrete will fail first.

M . R. acbc
= b. x. 2 M) 181.4
= 300 x 181.4 x M (l550 3
x 10-6
2
= 74.6 kNm .
Example 5 - 14 .
Find the moment of resistance of the beam section as shown in fig. 5- 11. Also state
whether the beam is under - reinforced or over - reinforced . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution : 150 150 150
K * H—H-*
For M 20 mix , m = 13.33 *

942 mm 2 JX :sr r

Asl = 3 x 314 =
i N A
b = 150 + 150 = 300 mm
500
d = 500 mm .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis.
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
b x.
x
mA i ( d ~ x )
50
I FIG . 5 - 11
3 - 20 #

2 = *

x'1 = 13.33 x 942 ( 500 x)

*2 = 41856 - 83.7 A:
i.e . X * + 83.7 A: - 41856 = 0
which gives x 167 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis = 0.29 x 500 = 145 mm .
^ actual > -^ critical
The beam is over - reinforced and concrete will fail first.

M . R.
1
2 CTcbc * d " 3 * ( )
= i X 7 x 300 X 167 ( 500 - x 10-6
= 77.91 kNm .
M . R. of the section is 77.91 kNm .
124 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

Example 5 - 15 .
A simply supported beam of size 230 mm x 600 mm overall depth is reinforced
with 4 no. 12 mm diameter bars . Find the safe uniformly distributed load on the beam
in addition to its self - weight on a span of 4 m . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
M- 230 -H
For M 20 grade concrete

m
280 13.33
X
1
_ II
3 x 7
4 x 113 452 mm 2 . 564
Asi = = 600
Considering mild exposure and 30 mm clear cover to
main reinforcement
•• • • 4- 12 #
d = 600 - 30 - 6 = 564 mm .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis . FIG . 5 - 12
Taking moment of transformed areas about N . A .
230 x x |= 13.33 x 452 ( 564 - x)
x2 = 29549 - 52.4 x
i . e. x 1 + 52.4 x - 29549 = 0
which gives * = 147.7 mm .
Depth of critical N . A. = 0.29 x 564 = 163.6 mm .
^ actual
•
^ -^ critical
.. *
The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first .

M. R . = .
4 st. ost (' - !)
230 ( 564
147.7 x 10 -6
452 x
3
= 53.52 kNm .
If the load on beam is w kN / m
w x 42
M = = 53.52
8
solving w = 26.76 kN / m .
Self - weight of beam = 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 = 3.45 kN / m .
Additional safe U . D . L. on beam
= 26.76 - 3.45 = 23.31 kN / m .
Example 5 - 16 .
A simply supported beam over a span of 4.5 m is reinforced with tension reinforcement
only. The beam is 250 mm wide and has an effective depth of 610 mm . It is reinforced
with 4 no. 20 mm diameter bars . Calculate the stresses in both the materials at the
centre of the span when the beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
Art . 5 -7 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 125
Solution : H- 250 -H h«- 250 -H
For M 20 mix , m = 13.33 T Tx J
189.8
Ast = 4 x 201 i _
= 804 mm 2 . 6 0
Transformed area of steel 420.2

= 13.33 x 804 4- 16 # = m A sl =
= 10717 mm 2 . 804 mm 2 10717 mm 2
To find neutral axis , taking moments ( a ) Section ( b) Transformed section
of transformed areas about neutral axis FIG . 5- 13
250 x . 4•
= 10717 ( 610 - x)
x2 = 52300 - 85.7 *
i . e. x2 + 85.7* - 52300 = 0
which gives x = 189.8 mm .
For the beam , maximum moment at centre

= 30 x 4.52 = 75.94 kNm .

8
Method 7 :
189.8
Lever arm = 610 - 3 = 546.7 mm .
75.94 x 106
/st = 172.7 N / mm 2.
546.7 =
Steel stress
804 x
Concrete stress fc = /st. x
x
^ m d-x
172.7 189.8 5.86 N / mm 2.
13.33 420.2 =
Method 2 :
1
/x = ~ x 250 x 189.83 + 10717 x 420.22
= 2.46 x 109 mm 4* .
75.94 x 10c x 189.8
Concrete stress fc
^ = 2.46 x 109
= 5.86 N / mm 2.
75.94 x 106 x 420.2 x 13.33
Steel stress fst =
2.46 x 109
= 172.9 N / mm 2.
Example 5 - 17.
A rectangular beam 230 mm wide x 560 mm effective depth is reinforced with
3 no. 16 mm diameter bars . Calculate the stresses in both the materials when a
bending moment of 50 kNm is applied . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
126 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

Solution : H-230 -H H-230 -H

For M 20 mix , m = 13.33
Ast = 3 x 201
= 603 mm 2 .
Transformed area of steel
= 13.33 x 603 m Ast =
= 8038 mm 2. 8038 mm 2
( a ) Section ( b ) Transformed section
Let x be the depth of neutral axis.
5 - 14
Taking moments of transformed area
about neutral axis

230 x . £ = 8038 ( 560 - x)

x 2 = 39142 - 69.9 *
which gives x = 166 mm .
For the beam , applied moment = 50 kNm .
Method 1 :
166
Lever arm = 560 - 504.67 mm.
3 =
50 x 10(i 164.3 N / mm 2.
603 x 504.67 =
Steel stress fsi =

Concrete stress fc =
^ —
f
m
x
x
d-x
164.3
13.33
166
394 =
5.19 N / mm 2.

7 x 230 x 166 x 504.67 x 10

M . R . ( compression ) =
2 = 67.44 kNm .
“
"

M . R . ( tension ) = 230 x 603 x 504.67 x 10~6 = 70 kNm .

M . R. of section = 67.44 kNm .
Method 2 :
1 x
4= 3
230 x 1663 + 8038 x 3942 = 1.6 x 10 ^ mm 4 .

50 x IQ6 x 166
Concrete stress fc
^= = 5.19 N / mm 2.
1.6 x 109
Steel stress fsi = 50
x 10 (i x 394 x 13.33
1.6 x 109
= 164.12 N / mm 2.
M . R . ( tension ) = 230 x 1.6 x 109 x 10-6 = 70.06 kNm .
13.33 x 394
7 x 1.6 x 109 x
M . R . ( compression ) = 10- = 67.46 kNm .
166 “
M . R . of section = 67.46 kNm .
Example 5 - 18 .
The moment of resistance of a rectangular R . C . C. beam of width b and effective
depth d is 1.0 bd 2 in Nmm units. Determine the value of and for the section .
The materials are M 30 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 500 .^
Art . 5 - 7 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 127

Solution:
For M 30 grade concrete , acbc = 10 N / mm 2
280 280
m
3 cbc 3 x 10 = 9.33
^
For Fe 500 grade steel , ast = 0.55 f y ( from IS : 456 )
i .e ., ast = 0.55 x 500 = 275 N / mm 2.
1 I
For a balanced section , k = = 0.253
275
1 +
m
° st 1 +
9.33 x 10
°cbc
- k
J = 1
^
3 = 0.916
1 1 x
Qjbsi\ ^ cbc • 10 x 0.253 x 0.916 = 1.16.
2 2
For the given section , MR = Q, M 2 = i .o bd 2, i . e., £ = 1.0
e<
Q, bal
The section is under - reinforced .
The neutral axis is determined from
.
bx * * = (d - x)
2
m Ast
e.
b x2 (1)
i.
^
2 [ d - *)
m St

The moment of resistance is given by

171 = ^ st

b x2
ast d - 3 r
^
Substituting for ,4 st from ( 1 ) , A/ = 2m ( d - x ) °« (' - !)
A ( M )* ost ( rf -
2 m ( </ - k d )

. e.
i. p . p. a . d i
° ( -D
i 4/ = 2m d (1 - k)
Also M = 1.0 b d 2
M 2 . k 2 ast ( 3 - A )
b d2 =
6 m (1 - k )
i .e. 6 m ( 1 - k ) = k 2 x ast ( 3 - k ) .
Now m = 9.33 and ast = 275
6 x 9.33 ( 1 - k ) = k 2 x 275 ( 3 - k )
k = 14.73 k2 - 4.91 3
1
*
i .e . 4.91 k - 14.73 k - + 1 = 0
3 2
*
Solving by trial and error , we get
k = 0.237
i . e. = 0.237 (2)
d
128 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

b . k2 d2
From ( 1 ) = 2m (d - x )

i .e . Pt bd b . k2 d2 k2 . b d
100 2m ( d - kd ) 2 (1 - k )
m
Pt k2
100 2m (1 - k )
50 k 2 50 x 0.237 x 0.237
and Pt = m (1 - k ) 9.33 ( 1 - 0.237 )
= 0.395

.
5 - 8 Design of the section: As discussed earlier , the design of a section may
be under - reinforced , balanced , or over - reinforced . In example 5 - 4 , we have determined
balanced depth and balanced steel area equal to 988 mm 2 . If we provide exactly
988 mm 2 area, the section becomes balanced . Using available bar diameters of 12 mm
and 16 mm , we may provide the reinforcement as under :
( i ) 9 - 12 b = 1017 mm 2
( ii ) 5- 16 <j) = 1005 mm 2.
In both the cases , the steel area provided is more than the balanced area and thus
the section becomes over - reinforced as calculated in example 5 -5. The over - reinforced
design is not preferred as it yields brittle failure , when over loaded . It may be realised
from this discussion that providing the reinforcement to get balanced section is usually
not possible . Also we cannot provide steel area that is less than required . Thus ,
practically in all cases , we need to design the under - reinforced section . The concept
of balanced design serves as a divider between the under reinforced and over - reinforced
designs . While designing the section , the balanced design gives us trial dimensions ,
using which we may design under - reinforced section .
In designing the section , the dimensions of the section have to be determined , or
they may be given . The section may be designed as follows. It is assumed that
materials of the beam are known for all cases .
(1 )
Out of
Dimensions not given: The moment of resistance of balanced section is Af al = Qbal • M 2
the two variables b and d , one must be known to us. It is usual to fix the width ^ -
of the beam considering the architectural requirement . Sometimes a relation between
b and d may be given , e .g., d = 2 b .
Once the width is fixed , the depth of balanced section is determined from
M
^ bal Q,bal X b '

Note that we assume M = M b where M is the applied moment. The trial section
^
thus obtained is b x d and is balanced one . To design an under - reinforced section , the
provided section should have larger aj than the applied moment . This can be
obtained by providing larger depth than that obtained above . Usually 5 to 10 percent
larger depth may be tried .
Using the new depth now section is designed as under- reinforced . Then
M = st St [ d. x)
° ^ - (i)
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
x
b.x. = mAst ( d - * )
2
b x2
( 2)
^ st ~
2m (d - x )
Art. 5 - 8 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 129

Substituting in ( 1 )

M =
ast
‘(
i x‘ (d - 1) ( 3)
x) 2m d -

Solution of equation ( 3) gives the value of x . Substituting this value in equation ( 2) , ylst
can be found out .
The method explained here, gives an exact amount of steel . This can also be found
out by using available design aids as explained in art . 5 - 9 .
However for speedy calculations , when M < M . R . i . e ., when under - reinforced
section is to be designed , steel are may be found from the equation
M
^ st =
.
° t id
where j of balanced section may be considered .
( 2 ) Dimensions are given : Applied moment A/, the section dimensions b, d are given .
Determine aj of the given section .

. bal = d2 -
i .e

If M < Aibab
^design Qi> al
as under - reinforced beam as explained in case ( a ) .
If M > Afbab section is designed as doubly reinforced as discussed in art 5 - 10.
If M = Affcab the section is balanced . As discussed earlier , it is usually not possible
to provide balanced section . Thus , in this also the section should be designed as a
doubly reinforced .
( i ) Checking the designed section : We have randomly increased d by 5 to 10 percent
so that the designed section becomes under - reinforced . However , after providing
the reinforcement , it is necessary to check whether the designed section is
under - reinforced . This can be checked simply by checking < pt , bal The
*

worked examples will clarify the above discussion .

( ii ) Overall depth : The overall depth may be obtained by adding the effective
cover to the effective depth . The clear cover may be obtained from table 3-7,
depending on type of exposure and fire requirements and adding to it the
diameter of stirrups . The stirrups are considered in Chapter 7. Presently , add 10 mm
considering 10 mm diameter of stirrup . Thus for mild exposure and 10 mm
diameter stirrups , the clear cover to main reinforcement shall be 20 + 10 = 30 mm .
Example 5 - 19 .
A cantilever beam of 2.5 m span carries a U . D . L. of 20 kN / m inclusive of its
self - weight . Design the beam for flexure , if it is reinforced in tension only. The width
of beam is half the overall depth . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
M = 20 x 2.52 = 62.5 kNm .
2
For M 20 mix and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415
Q al = 0 91
* -
j = 0.9
Mbal = M = < al . bd 2
62.5 x 106 = 0.91 x|x d 2
^
St*
130 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 5
1.374 x 108 = d 3
d = 516 mm
Increase the depth by 5%, i . e ., d = 1.05 x 516
541.8 mm .
Considering mild exposure , the clear cover to main
reinforcement is 30 mm . Assuming 12 mm diameter bars
D = 541.8 + 30 + 6 = 577.8 mm .
D
Consider D = 580 mm . Then b = = 290 mm . —
and d = 580 - 30 6 = 544 mm
M 62.5 x 10 u 555 mm 2.
= 230 x 0.9 x 544 =
° Jd
st
Provide 5 - 12 # = 5 x 113 = 565 mm 2 .
100 Asi 100 X 565
290 x 544 =
Pt « 0.358
bd
.
.Pt bal 0.44
As p < /> tibab the
{ section is under - reinforced .
The designed section is shown in fig. 5 - 15.
Example 5 - 20.
A simply supported beam of 6 m span carries a U . D. L. of 12 kN / m inclusive of
self - weight . The beam is 230 mm wide and the effective depth is of 580 mm. Find the
steel area . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415.
S o l u t i o n:
M = 12 x 62 = 54 kNm .
8
M . R . of balanced section , M = 0.91 x 230 x 5802 x 10-<i
^ a\ > 54 kNm .
70.4 kNm =
Design as under - reinforced section .
Alternatively ,
54 x 106
depth required = 0.91 x 230 = 507.9 mm < 580 mm provided .
/. Design as under - reinforced section .
Exact method :
M.R. G st • A st d - ±3
54 x 10 ( )
= 230 ^lst |d - which gives
704348 = Ast [ 3 d - x) (1)
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
230 x x x — = 13.33 4 st ( d
; - x)
„
71 St
— 8.63- *
.

d x
2
(2)
Art . 5- 9 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 131

Substituting in equation ( 1 )
8.63 x 2 x ( 3 x 580 - x )
704348 = ( 580 - x )
which on simplifying yields
x* - 1740 x2 - 81616 A: + 47337409 = 0.
The solution of this equation gives
x 148.7 mm .
8.63 x 148.72
Substituting in ( 2 )
^ — st
( 580 - 148.7 )
= 442 mm 2.
Approximate method :
Provided depth >
required depth . ( O. K .)
54 x IQ 6
st = 230 x 0.9 x 580 = 450 mm .
2
^
From the above two calculations, it can be observed that for practical purposes,
approximate method may be followed and is conservative for under - reinforced section .
However , if the exact method is to be followed , one may use the available design
tables . This is explained in art 5 - 9 .
Provide 4 - 12 # = 4 x 113 = 452 mm 2.
100 X 452
Pi = 230 x 580 = 0.34 %
A . bal = 0.44 %
Pi < / t bal '. under - reinforced section .
5 - 9. U s e o f d e s i g n a i d s: Referring to fig. 5- 1 , to find neutral axis , take
moments of transformed areas about N . A .

putting
b . kd .

^
4
Asi =
kl
= m
Pi bd

b d*
Asl

100
(d

Pim
- kd )

- k)
= 100
(1
Pi m
k2 = 50 I1 "
*)
k* +
m ,
Pi
k -
Pt m
50 =
0.
50
The positive root of this equation gives
~
Pi m p '1 m1 Pi m
k = 100
+
( 100 )2
+
50
(5 - 7 )

Now the moment of resistance of the under - reinforced section is given by

A bd
M. R. = M = Am- ° st x 4p) 100
x o»
' (‘ - 1)
M A °st k
(5 - 8 )
bd 2 100 3
Values of M have been tabulated against pt in tables 68 to 71 of SP: 16 .
bd2
132 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

Example 5 - 21 .
A simply supported rectangular beam of 4 m span carries a uniformly distributed
load including self - weight of 25 kN / m . If the beam is 250 mm wide x 450 mm
effective depth , find the steel area required at mid - span . The concrete is M 20 grade
and mild steel reinforcements are used .
Solution :
= 25 8 42
Design moment M
x

= 50 kNm
M 50 x 1 Q ( )

bd2 250 x 4502

= 0.988
From table 69 , SP: 16
100 Ast
bd
0.805 =
and 0.805 x 250 x 450
st ^ 100
”

= 906 mm 2.

provided 3 no . 20 mm d = 942 mm 2.
100 x 942
P t = 250 x 450
= 0.84 < 1.0 ( i .e ., /> t , bal )
Under - reinforced beam .
Example 5 - 22.
Check the section of example 5- 6 by using design tables .
Solution :
The section can be checked by t w o ways .
( a ) Maximum stresses in steel and concrete shall be less than the permissible
stresses . This is done in example 5 - 6.
( b ) The moment of resistance of the beam shall be greater than the applied moment .

We have 1 0 0 4t
Pt = bd
100 x 603
200 x 460
= 0 - 655 < /> tiba ,
where .
.P t bal 1.0

From table 69 , SP : 16 M
= 0.813
bd2
M R = M = 0.813 x 200 x 4602 x 10 ~ 6
= 34.4 kNm .
The M.R. of the section is greater than the applied moment . Also it is under - reinforced ,
since p { < /> t , bal Thus the section is safe .
-
Art . 5- 9 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 133

Example 5 - 23 .
Using equation 5 - 7 , plot the variation of k verses p{ . using M 20 grade concrete .
Clearly show the balanced values for ( i ) mild steel , ( ii ) HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
For M 20 grade concrete .Til 13.33.
- Pi m P t2 m 2 + P t m
From equation 5 - 7 , we have k = +
100 100 50
Substituting m = 13.33 and simplifying , we get
k =- 0.1333 pt +
^
0.0177 /> t2 + 0.2666 pl
The equation indicates that the depth of neutral axis does not depend on type of
(1)

reinforcement , however , as we have seen earlier , the balanced values depend on type
of the steel . The balanced values from table 5- 3 are:
Mild steel : k = 0.4 , /* t , bal 1.00
Fe 415 steel : k = 0.29 , /h , bal = 0.44 .
Consider different values of p { up to 1.5 % and determine k from equation ( 1 ) . The
values are tabulated below and plotted in fig . 5- 16 .
VARIATION OF k WITH pt FOR RECTANGULAR
SECTIONS WITH M 20 GRADE CONCRETE

Pi k Pi k Pi k
0 0 0.45 0.292 1.00** 0.400**
0.025 0.078 0.50 0.304 1.05 0.407
0.05 0.109 0.55 0.317 1.10 0.414
0.10 0.150 0.60 0.328 1.15 0.421
0.15 0.181 0.65 0.339 1.20 0.428
0.20 0.206 0.70 0.349 1.25 0.434
0.25 0.227 0.75 0.358 1.30 0.440
0.30 0.246 0.80 0.367 1.35 0.446
0.35 0.262 0.85 0.376 1.40 0.452
0.40 0.278 0.90 0.384 1.45 0.457
0.44 * 0.290* 0.95 0.392 1.50 0.463
* Balanced values for Fe 415 steel
** Balanced values for mild steel

k
A
0.51
0.4
Balanced
mild steel
0.3 i Balanced
Fe 415.
0.2 1
0.1
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5
Pi
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
FIG . 5 - 16
134 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 5

Example 5 - 24.
Using data of example 5 - 23, plot variation of with p{ .
Solution :
For under - reinforced and balanced section .
M
d= bd 2
A °, t k
100 3
For over - reinforced sections

Q,
2 ° cbc 3
k ( ]
)
( a ) M 20 grade concrete - mild steel
ast = 140 N / mm 2 ,
a c b c = 7 N / m m 2,
A . bal = 1 0
For pi = 0 to 1.0 ,

For
-
a i -* f > (• -!)
p = 1.0,
{ onwards up to 1.50 ( here )
Under - reinforced section

«- 5
* (‘ - I) Over - reiforced section
( b ) M 20 grade concrete, Fe 415 grade steel
Gcbc = 7 N / mm 2,
ost = 230 N / mm 2,

For
P t,bal = 4 4
°-
pi = 0 to 0.44

0, = 230 pt ( l -|) Under - reinforced section

For pi = 0.44, onwards up to 1.50 ( here )

a -- 35
*( - !)
The values of Q are calculated and tabulated below.
Over - reinforced section

The variation is shown graphically in fig . 5 - 17.

It can be seen that at
pi = 1.0 %
both curves meet and for higher values of p { y Q remains the same for both steel .
This is because , for over - reinforced sections the capacity of concrete governs .
It should be remembered that for the practical designs , the over - reinforced sections
should not be used .
Art. 5 - 9 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 135

VARIATION OF k AND Q WITH pt FOR RECTANGULAR

SECTIONS WITH M 20 GRADE CONCRETE

k
d k
d
Pi Pi
M .S . Fe 415 M .S. Fe 415
0 0 0 0 0.80 0.367 0.983 1.128
0.1 0.150 0.133 0.218 0.90 0.384 1.099 1.173
0.2 0.206 0.261 0.428 1.00 0.400 1.213 1.213
0.3 0.246 0.386 0.634 1.10 0.414 1.250 1.250
0.4 0.278 0.508 0.835 1.20 0.428 1.284 1.284
0.44 0.290 0.557 0.915 1.30 0.440 1.315 1.315
0.50 0.304 0.629 0.957 1.40 0.452 1.344 1.344
0.60 0.328 0.749 1.022 1.50 0.463 1.371 1.371
0.70 0.349 0.866 1.078

Q
( 1.5, 1.371 )
i
1.3 -
( 1.0, 1.21 )
1.2

1.1 l

1.0 t
( 0.44,0.915 )
0.9 -
0.8 \ Fe 415 M .S.

0.7 -
0.6 -L

0.5

0.4

0.3 -
0.2|

0.1 f

t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5
Variation of Q with
FIG. 5 - 17
136 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

5 - 10 - Introductory: For a design moment M, if the size of the rectangular
section is fixed and the moment of resistance of a singly reinforced section is less than M ,
there are two methods to design such beams :
( 1 ) Increase the concrete mix to increase the capacity of the section .
( 2 ) Reinforcements are provided in compression zone to give additional strength
to the concrete in compression . Such beams are called doubly reinforced beams.
A concrete structure when loaded , undergoes elastic as well as plastic deformation .
The plastic deformation is termed as creep. Elastic deformation is an instantaneous
process , while creep is a long process . The creep deformation of concrete produces
additional strain in compression steel and gradually raises the level of stress . To
account for this increase in stress , the modular ratio is increased . IS : 456 in table no . 22
( table no . 5 - 2 of this book ) states that the permissible stress for compression in bars
in a beam or slab when the compressive resistance of the concrete is taken into
account , shall be taken as the calculated compressive stress in the surrounding concrete
multiplied by 1.5 times the modular ratio or asc
whichever is lower where is the asc
permissible stress in compression in column bars .
Generally the use of compression steel is considered uneconomical . However , in
some special cases it can be advantageous. It has the following advantages :
( 1 ) It permits smaller size beams which look aesthetic .
( 2 ) It reduces the long term deflections and increases ductility of the beam .
( 3 ) It can be used as anchor bars for positioning the shear reinforcement , viz . ,
stirrups ( refer to chapter 7 ) .
( 4 ) As the compression reinforcement increases ductility of beam , they are provided
( even when not required for strength ) in the seismic zone to withstand repeated
reversals produced .
5- 11. Derivation of formulae for balanced design: A doubly reinforced
beam subjected to a moment M can be expressed as a rectangular section with tension
reinforcement Asij reinforced for balanced condition giving the moment of resistance
+ an auxiliary section reinforced with compression reinforcement ,4 SC and tensile
reinforcement Ast 2 giving moment of resistance A/2 .
Consider a rectangular doubly reinforced beam as shown in fig . 5 - 18 ( a ) . This
is equivalent to the section resisting M\ shown in 5- 18 ( b ) + section resisting A/2
shown in 5- 18 ( c ) where A/ j + Af2 = M . The stress diagram is shown in 5 - 18 ( e ) .
Transformed area of compression zone in terms of concrete area
= l .5 m Asc + bx - Asc = ( l .5 m - l ) Asc + bx (5- 9 )
It may be noted that Asc is deducted for the holes that concrete leaves for the
compression reinforcement . For finding out moment of inertia of the section also we
shall use ( 1.5 m - l ) for the same reason . For finding out the actual stress in compression
steel , we shall multiply the concrete stress around the bar by 1.5 m and not ( 1.5 m - l ) .

Stress in concrete at the level of steel in compression zone x - d'

= ^ cbc *

Taking moments of compressive forces about centroid of tensile forces to get M . R. of a beam
CTcbc
M. R . = ( 1.5 m - 1) Asc .
x
xd
~
ocbc. [ d - *1 + » • *• 2 M)
= ( 1.5 m - 1 ) Asc . -
X
f- -
where Q, bd 2 = as defined . ^ ocbc ( d d’ ) + QM*
Art . 5 - 12 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 137
< b >
id '
A SC * sc
d
+
A st A st
2

( a ) Section resisting ( b ) Section resisting (c) Section resisting

moment M moment M| moment M 2
CTcbc

Compression zone '§ Efc: (¥

C — C |+ c2
> cbc

Tension zone

*
T = T j + T2
Ast , + Ast 2
( d ) Section (e ) Stress diagram
Doubly reinforced section
FIG . 5 - 18
Now M = M\ + M2 <

x - d'
^ 2 ( 1.5771 — l) -^ sc & cbc
x ) (d - d' )
M2
(5 - 10a )

^
SC
( 1.5 « - l ) ocbc ( i- ) (d - d' )
Corresponding tension steel
M2
°.
A st 2 ( 5 - 10 b )
t ( d - d’ )

AS t l
Mi ( 5 - 10 c )
°st id (5 - 10 d )
A st
+ St 2= ^4 sti
^
5- 12. Transformed area method: A doubly reinforced beam and its transformed
section are shown in fig. 5 - 19.
/cb
Ec /cb r ( 1.5 m - 1 ) Asc
Compression zone d' jii
x Asc 3 X Ci
X

N A
d x-d
Tension zone x fcb d-x
Ast
/st
1 mAst

Es
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram (c ) Stress diagram ( d ) Transformed section
Doubly reinforced beam
FIG. 5 - 19
138 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Transformed area of compression zone = ( 1.5 m - 1) Asc + bx.
Transformed area of tension zone = m /lst .
Position of neutral axis can be found out by taking moments of transformed areas
about N . A .
bx . — + ( 1.5 m - 1 ) /lsc ( x - d' ) = m A% { ( d - x) ( 5 - 11 a )
Solution of this equation gives the depth of neutral axis x.
Method 1 :
Taking moments of compressive forces about tensile steel and equating to external B . M .
d'
M = ( 1.5 m - 1 ) ,4 SC x g -
At
feb x ( d - d' ) + bx .
r (* -!) ( 5- 1 lb )
( transformed stress in ( distance of
area ) concrete a t compression
level of steel from
compression steel ) tension steel )

where f . is the stress in extreme compression fibres of concrete .

^
Stress in compression steel /sc = ( H*) /*
1.5 m (5 - 1 lc )

= m fc ^ |^ )
Stress in tensile steel x (5 - 1 Id )
/st
Method 2 : Classic flexure formula :
Find moment of inertia of section
1
4 = 3 b x3 + ( 1.5 m - \ ) . Asc ( x - d' ) 2 + m Asi ( d - x ) 2 ( 5 - 12 a )
Then stresses in concrete and steel can be found out by

Stress in concrete fc = M .
x
( 5 - 12 b )
^ 4
Stress in compression steel /sc = 1.5 m x
M[x - d' ) ( 5 - 12 c )
4
M(d- x)
Stress in tension steel /st = m. ( 5 - 12 d )
4
5 - 13. Types of problems: In doubly reinforced beams , the following types of
problems occur.
Type 7: To find out the depth of neutral axis for a given section and specifying
the type of beam .
( a ) If the section and actual stresses in the materials are given , find out the depth
of neutral axis using the following equation (same as singly reinforced section )
l
x = kd where k = •

I +
/st
m fcb
If the section and steel area provided are given , find out neutral axis by taking
moments of transformed areas about neutral axis.

|+ (1-5 m - 1 )
bx . Asc [ x - d' ) = mAsl (d - x) .
( b ) Find out the depth of neutral axis for balanced section , and compare with
actual depth of neutral axis. Values of k shall be as per singly reinforced section .
Art . 5 - 13 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 139

( c ) If *ac ( ua| < *crjtjca| the concrete is not fully stressed and the beam is under - reinforced .
i

( d ) If ^actUal > ^critical * * he stee is not fully stressed and the beam is over - reinforced .
^
Type 2 : For given moment and section of beam to check the stresses .
This is explained in art . 5 - 15.
Type 3: To find out the moment of resistance of the given section .
( a ) Find out the depth of neutral axis and type of beam as explained in type 1 .
( b ) If Actual > ^critical * the section is over - reinforced and the M . R . is found out by
taking moments of compressive forces about centroid of tensile forces.
M . R. = Mi + M2 = \ acbc * * ( / - §) + (. < 1.5 m - 1) Asc acbc [ !L z ] ~ ( d - d' ) .
( c ) If • *actual < ^ critical .
the section is under - reinforced and the M . R . is found out
by taking moment of tensile force about centroid of compressive forces .
Here the centroid of compressive forces shall be found out .
Let Cj be the compressive force of concrete acting at y ± from extreme
compression fibre and C2 be the compressive force of compression steel
acting at y 2 frorn extreme compression fibre . Let fc be the actual compressive
stress in extreme compression fibre . ^
bx r _ x
y2 = d'
Then Ci
2 Jcb * y l 3
C2 = ( 1.5 m - 1 ) ^ sc lx - d'\ /rcb -y
l X ) ^ cx>1
1 +
+ C2
and lever arm = d - y
M . R . = Asl ost ( d - y ) .
Alternatively , Find out 7X of the beam .

M . R . ( compression ) = °cbc X 4 and M . R . ( tension ) = °st X Ix

m (d - x)’
Type 4 : To design the section .
( a ) Find M\ = Q b d 2 for singly reinforced section .
( b ) If M > A/ j , design as doubly reinforced section .
Find M2 = M - Mx .
M\ M2
( c ) Find
^ stl “

CTst j d
and Asi 2
ast id - n
^ st = ^ stl + ^ St 2
M2
and
^ sc =
( 1.5 m - 1 ) ocbc [ d - d' )
( d ) The designed section after providing the reinforcement shall be checked for
being under - reinforced . In doubly reinforced sections, this can be done by comparing
actual depth of neutral axis with balanced depht of neutral axix as usual .
Example 5 - 25 .
A rectangular beam 230 mm wide x 400 mm effective depth is subjected to a
moment of 42 kNm . The effective cover of compressive reinforcement is 40 mm . Find
out the reinforcing steel . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
140 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

acbc = 7 N / mm 2
230
H
40
IF x
400 N A

2- 16 # + 1 - 12 #

( a ) Section ( b) Stress diagram (c ) Reinforcement

FIG . 5 - 20
Solution :
For a singly reinforced balanced section
M \ = Qbal x b d 2 = 0.91 x 230 x 4002 x 10 ~6 = 33.5 kNm
(i
33.5 x 10
Astl
230 x 0.9 x 400
= 405 mm 12 .
Depth of N. A . x = xcr = k d = 0.29 x 400 = 116 mm
280
M 2 = 42 - 33.5 = 8.5 kNm and m =
< 13.33
3 x 7
M2
^ sc
( 1.5 m - 1 ) ocbc x

( 1.5 x 13.33 -
8.5 x 10f> ^
(^- ) x ( d - d' )
1 ) x 7 x 1 1 6 - 4 0 ( 400
116 ) - 40 )
= 271 mm 2.

Corresponding 8.5 x 10
A st 2
230 ( 400 - 40 )
° —
103 mm 2; .<4 SC = 271 mm 2

st = 405 + 103 = 508 mm .

2
^
Provide 2 - 16 # top bars = 402 mm 2 and 2 - 16 # + 1 - 12 # bottom bars = 515 mm 2 .
Actual depth of neutral axis is determined by taking moments of transformed areas
about N. A .
1
2
x 230 x 2 + ( 1.5 x 13.33 -
1 ) x 402 ( x - 40) = 13.33 x 515 ( 400 - x)
115 x 2 + 14504 x - 3051500 = 0
x2 + 136.3 x - 26535 = 0
which gives x = 108.4 mm < xcr ( O. K. )
Example 5 - 26.
A rectangular beam is reinforced 230 230
as shown in fig . 5 - 21 ( a ) . Find out
the maximum stress in concrete and
steel if it is subjected to a moment
T 40
4 +
2- 12 # 126.2 ;:
K
— 4294 mm 2

N. A.
of 42 kNm . 400
273.8
The materials are M 20 grade 8040 mm 2
concrete and HYSD reinforcement 3- 16 #
of grade Fe 415. Also find out the (a ) Section ( b) Transformed section
M . R . of the section . FIG . 5 - 21
Art . 5 - 13 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 141

Solution:
For M 20 grade concrete , m 13.33.
Compression steel /!sc = 2 x 113 226 mm 2
=
transformed area = ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 226 = 4294 mm 2
tension steel = 3 x 201 = 603 mm 2
transformed area = 13.33 x 603 = 8040 mm 2 .
To find the position of neutral axis, taking moments of transformed areas about N . A .
1 x 230 x
-
i.e . 115 x2 + 4294 A:
'
^ -
x 2 + 4294 ( x
171760 - 3216000 + 8040 A: = 0
x 2 + 107.25 x - 29459 = 0
40 ) = 8040 ( 400 - x )

which gives x = 126.2 mm .

Now critical = 0.29 x 400 = 116 mm
^actual > ^ critical
section is over - reinforced and concrete will fail first.
Method 1 :
Taking moments of compressive forces about tensile steel and equating to the
external B . M . using equation [5 - 11 ( b ) ]
- d'
M

Substituting, 42 x 106 = ( 1.5 x 13.33

= ( 1.5 m - 1) 4 SC

-
x x
x
1 ) x 226 x
126.2

+ 230 x 126.2
/cb X id -

126.2
d' ) + bx
- 40
/cb
( 400
.
^ ( d - i3 /
x ( 400 - 40 )
126.2 )
3 '
/cb
2
= 1055875 /cb + 5194687 fcb
which gives /cb = 6.72 N / mm 2 .
Steress in compression steel using equation [5 - 11 ( c ) ]
- d'
/sc = 1.5 m i (
/cb = 1.5 x 13.33 x
x
126.2 - 40
126.2
x 6.72

= 91.8 N / mm 2.
Stress in tension steel using equation [ 5 - 11 ( d ) ]
d - x 400 - 126.2
fst m fcb
x = 13.33 x 6.72 126.2 ) = 194.35 N / mm 2.
7
M . R . ( compression ) = x 42 = 43.75 kNm

M . R . ( tension ) =
^
^ 230
x 42 = 49.7 kNm
194.35
M. R . = 43.75 kNm .
Method 2 :
1
/x =
= ^ x 230 x 126.23 + 4294 x 86.22 + 8040 x 273.82
7.89 x 10 » mm 4 .
42 x 106 x 126.2
Concrete stress /cb = 7.89 x 108 = 6.72 N / mm 2 .
142 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 5
Stress in compression steel
1.5 x 13.33 x 42 x 106 x 86.2
/sc = 7.89 x 108
= 91.80 N / mm 2 .
Stress in tension steel
13.33 x 42 x 106 x 273.8
/st = 7.89 x 108
194.33 N / mm 2 .

M . R . ( compression ) = 7 x 7.89 x 108 x 10-6 = 43.76 kNm

126.2
M . R . ( tension ) = 230 x 7.89 x 108
13.33 x 273.8
= 49.7 kNm .
M . R . = 43.76 kNm .
Example 5 - 27.
A rectangular beam is reinforced N- 230-H K 230-H
as shown in fig. 5 - 22 ( a ) . Find out ? 11932 mm 2
2- 20 #
the moment of resistance of the section . 178.7
The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415.
f
271.3
19640 mm 2
Solution : 3-25 # T
For M 20 grade concrete ( a ) Section ( b ) Transformed section
G cbc = 7 N / mm 2
FIG . 5 - 22
280
m 13.33.
3 x 7
Transformed area of compression steel
= ( 1.5 m - \ ) ASC = ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 2 x 314 = 11932 mm 2 .
Transformed area of tension steel
= 3 x 491 x 13.33 = 19640 mm 2.
To find neutral axis , taking moments about N . A .
x2
230 + 11932 ( x - 40 ) = 19640 ( 450 - x )
Y
115 x2 + 11932 A: - 477280 = 8838000 - 19640 A:
115 A:2 + 31572 A: - 9315280 = 0
x 2 + 274.54 A: - 81002 = 0
which gives x 178.7 mm .
Depth of balanced neutral axis referring to table 5 - 1
= 0.29 x 450 = 130.5 mm < 178.7 mm .
The section is over - reinforced and concrete stress reaches the maximum value
first , then
M. R . = M \ + M 2 w h e r e
Mi =
= i
=
C\ x l e v e r

X 7 x 230
56.16 kNm
armj

X
=
^^
178.7
GC

450
^c . b . x | -
- 178.7
3
d £
3
x lO-6
Art . 5 - 13 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 143

M 2 = C 2 x lever arm 2 = ( 1.5 m - 1) -d Sc *|x - d ( d - d' )

acbc *
'

178.7 - 40 x (
178.7 j
= ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 628 x 7 x 450 - 40 ) 10- X 6

= 26.58 kNm
M = Mx + M2 = 56.16 + 26.58 = 82.74 kNm .
1 x
Alternatively Ix = 230 x ( 178.7 ) 3 + 11932 x ( 138.7 ) 2 + 19640 x ( 271.3) 2
3
= 2.1126 x 10 » mm 4
M. R. ( compression ) =
CTcbc 4 7 x 2.1126 x 109 x lO-6
x 178.7
= 82.75 kNm .
Example 5 - 28 .
A rectangular beam is reinforced K 230-H ht- 230 -H
7638 mm 2
as shown in fig. 5 - 23 ( a ) . Find out
the moment of resistance of the section .
J 40
ir
N
2-16 0 128.71
I
The materials are M 20 grade concrete A
450
and mild steel reinforcement . 321.3
Solution : 8040 mm 2
1 3-160
For M 20 grade concrete
acbc = 7 N / mm 2 ( a ) Section ( b ) Transformed section
280 FIG . 5 - 23
m 13.33
3 x 7
A JJC = 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2 3 x 201 = 603 mm 2 .
and As = {

Transformed area of compression steel = ( 1.5 m - 1 ) Asc

= ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 402 = 7638 m m 2\
Transformed area of tension steel = m Ast = 13.33 x 603 = 8040 mm 2.
To find neutral axis , taking moment about N . A .
x 2 4-
230 7638 ( x - 40) = 8040 ( 450
V - x) .
On simplification , this yeilds
*2 + 136.3 * - 34118 = 0 .
Solving for *, x 128.7 mm .
Depth of balanced neutral axis = 0.4 x 450 = 180 mm .
actual < critical
..
*
The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first .
To find lever arm , c . g. of the compressive forces is to be found out .
128.7 - 40
C, = 7638 X /cb = 5264 /cb
128.7
/cb
=
C2

jl =
230 x 128.7 x

40 mm , y 2 =
^
128.7
3
=
=
14800

42.9 mm
/cb
144 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

5264 /cb x 40 + 14800 /cb x 42.9

y
5264 /cb + 14800 /cb
= 2.14 mm .
Lever arm = d - y — 450 - 42.14 = 407.86 mm .
M . R. = Ast . asi . jd = 603 x 140 x 407.86 x 10 " 6
= 34.43 kNm .
Alternatively
1
/x = -3i x 230 x 128.73 + 7638 x 88.72 + 8040 x 321.32 = 1.0535 x 10 y.
As the section is under - reinforced , steel will fail first .
CTst 4 140 x 1.0535 x 109 34.43 kNm .
M . R.
m (d - x) 13.33 x 321.3
x 10 "

^=
Example 5 - 29 .
A rectangular beam is reinforced H- 230 -H h«- 230-H
as shown in fig. 5 - 24 ( a ) . Find out 17898 mm 2
the moment of resistance of the section .
X 401 3-20 # J
195.2
The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade
560
N A i
Fe 415.
364.8
Solution :
For M 20 mix , 3- 25 # 1 19635 mm 2

m 13.33 ( a ) Section ( b ) Transformed section

Asc = 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2 FIG . 5 - 24

Asi = 3 x 491 = 1473 mm 2.
Transformed area of compression steel
= ( 1.5 m - 1 ) sc ^ = ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 942 = 17898 mm 2.
Transformed area of tension steel
= m Ast = 13.33 x 1473 = 19635 mm 2 .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis .
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
x2
230 V + 17898 ( x - 40 ) = 19635 ( 560 - x ) .
2
On simplification this yields
x 1 -f 326.37* - 101839 = 0 .
Solving for x , x 195.2 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis = 0.29 x 560 = 162.4 mm .
•^actual ^ ^critical
The beam is over - reinforced and concrete will fail first .
M . R. = + M2
where Mi “

2 ^ ci c) ' b•x d - ±3
=|X 7 X 230 x 195.2 560

^ - 195.2
3
x 10 -(> = 77.80 kNm
Art . 5 - 13 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 145

Al<2 ( 1.5 /71

17898 x 7 x

= 51.80 kNm
1 ) ^4 SC • ® cbc

195.2 - 40
195.2
•

^
(
J
) <' - d‘ )
( 560 - 40 ) x 10 -6

M . R . = 77.8 + 51.8 = 129.6 kNm .

Example 5 - 30 .
A rectangular cantilever beam of size 230 mm width x 500 mm effective depth
is subjected to a bending moment of 80 kNm . Design the reinforcement for flexure .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
For a singly reinforced balanced section
M \ = Qbal b d '2 = 0.91 X 230 X 5002 x 10 ~ 6
= 52.33 kNm
52.33 x 106
*
2 stl —
230 x 0.9 x 500 =
506 mm 2 .
Depth of balanced neutral axis
kd = 0.29 x 500 = 145 mm
M 2 = 80 - 52.33 = 27.67 kNm
280 13.33
m
3 x 7
M2
=
( 1.5 m - 1 ) ocbc x ( x -x d ) x [ d - d )
'
'

27.67 x 10fi
( 1.5 x 13.33 - -
1 ) x 7 x 145 40 x ( 500
145 ) - 40 )
= 625 mm 2 .
27.67 x 106
262 mm 2
230 ( 500 - 40 ) =
Asi 2 =
Corresponding
625 mm 2
Asc =
506 + 262 = 768 mm 2.
Asi =
Provide 3- 20 # top bars = 942 mm 2
4 - 16 # bottom bars = 804 mm 2 .
Actual depth of N . A . is determined by taking moments of transformed areas about N. A .
±1 x 230 x 2 + ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 942 ( x - 40) = 13.33 x 804 ( 500 - x )
115 *2 + 28615 * - 6074580 = 0
x 2 + 248.8 x - 52822 = 0
which gives x = 136.9 mm
xCT < ( O. K . )
Note : It would be interesting to design this section by using limit state theory where it
is a singly reinforced section and requires 774 mm 2 tension reinforcement . Refer to
example 6-5 .
146 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

5 - 14 - Use of design aids: Referring to fig. 5- 18

= A/ bal + x ast ( d d' )
M = Mx + M2
^ st 2 ~

and
^ st = ^ stl +
^ st 2

bd M2 M2
where
^ stl = /> t bal x ; Ast2 = A
( d - d’ ) ' “
( l . 5 m - l ) ocbc . X
°« t [ d - d' )
The compression reinforcement can be expressed as a ratio of additional tensile
reinforcement area A st 2 -
4c ast ( d ~ d' ) ast l

where
Ast 2
x = kd.
( 1.5 m - 1) . ^
" be (
l l) v - n acbc
x
<1 5 » - » (‘ - h )
d'
Values of this ratio have been tabulated for defferent values of - j and CTcbc in
d'
table M of SP : 16 . Values of pt and pc for different for values of - j have been
M
tabulated against '1 in table 72 to 79 of SP: 16.
bd
Example 5 -31.
A rectangular beam of size 230 mm x 560 mm effective depth has to resist a
moment of 92 kNm . Find out the reinforcement . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Use design tables.
Solution : 230 -
K H
M 92 x 106 1.28 > 0.91.
X 40 2- 20 #
b d'1 230 x 5602
Design as a doubly reinforced beam .
d' _ 40 d' 560
d 560 =
0.09; use
a =
0.1. —
From table see table 50 of SP : 16
pt = 0.616 •• • • 4- 16 #
0.616 x 230 x 560 FIG . 5 - 25
st =
^ 100 = 793 mm 2 .
pc = 0.469
0.469 x 230 x 560
sc =^ 100 = 604 mm 2.
Provide 2 - 20 # compressive steel = 628 mm 2
and 4 - 16 # tensile steel = 804 mm 2.

FLANGED BEAMS
5 - 15 . Moment of resistance of a singly reinforced flanged beam:
The flanged beams were introduced in art. 4 -8. Refer to art. 4 - 8 before studying these
articles . The flanged beam may be a singly reinforced or doubly reinforced beam .
Doubly reinforced flanged beams are occasionally used in practice and are discussed
in art. 5- 18. However , this can be designed in a way similar to the doubly reinforced
rectangular beam .
In singly reinforced flanged beams , two possibilities are considered :
( 1 ) Neutral axis lies in flange ; ( 2 ) Neutral axis lies in web .
Art . 5- 15 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 147

( 1 ) Neutral axis lies i n flange : In this case the beam acts as a rectangular beam
of width bf because the concrete in tension zone is considered ineffective for resisting
tension . The moment of resistance of the balanced section (*criticai < Df ) is given by
M . R . = Q b { d '2 ( 5 - 13 a )
Alternatively , if the area of steel reinforcement is known , the depth of neutral axis
can be found out by taking moments of transformed areas about N . A .
bf . x2
2 = Ast { d - x ) ( 5 - 13 b )
x can be found out from this equation .

Then M. R. = b( . x . acbc
2 '
M) ( 5 - 13 c )

M . R . with respect to tensile force = Mst . ast .

( 2 ) Neutral a x i s lies i n web : When the N . A . lies in the web , the compression taken
M) ( 5 - 13 d )

by the web is very small as compared to the compression taken by the flange and is
usually neglected .
Fig. 5- 26 shows a singly reinforced T beam where N . A . lies in the web .
< bf H ^cbc
- Df x

H *
—
r y-^c - n acbc
<•

d
N Compression
Tension A st zone
zone
H— bw -H

( a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram

Singly reinforced T beam

FIG. 5 - 26
Depth of N . A. can be found by taking moments of transformed areas about N . A .
Of
b f D{ x - 2
= m AsX (d - x) .
Solution of this equation gives the depth of neutral axis x .
Let y be the distance of c.g. of compressive forces from top of the flange . Taking
moments about top fibres ( dividing trapezoid into two triangles )
Df D( , Of 2 D(

y
acbc •
T T '
°cbc •
2 '
3 ^ ebe ^
+ ^ ebe
Of Of 3
^e b e •
2
+ CTcbc *
2
°c b c + a 'e b e
Now
X - Df
G ebe
X ^ ebe
b 2n CTcbc
( X - Df
1+ 2
( X
-
- Df
acbc " ”
x
y
V
x
Of Df
~ x
X

x - Df T x - Df (5 - 14 )
^e b e CTcbc 1 +
X X
148 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

Lever arm = d - y

M . R . with respect to compression = b f . D f ^c b c ^ cbc (d - y) ( 5 - 15 a )

2
M . R . with respect to tension = y!sl ast ( d - ( 5 - 15 b )
y )
Note that when x = Df , any of the above condition can be applied . However , it
is easier to consider as N . A . lies in flange .
5 - 16 . Types of problems:
Type 1 : To find out the neutral axis .
( i ) If the section and the actual stresses in materials are given , find out the depth
of neutral axis by using equation (5 - 1 ) as for singly reinforced rectangular beam .
1
x = kd where k = •

1 +
/st
m fob
If depth of critical neutral axis is to be found out, r e p l a c e b y ast and f by acbc.
( ii ) If the section and steel area provided are given , first decide whether the N . A.
^
lies in flange or in web as follows :
Take moments of transformed area of concrete flange ( Mtc ) and transformed
area of steel { Mts ) about the bottom of flange .
Then
( a) if Mtc > 4fts, N . A . lies in flange ( x < Df )
( b ) if Mic = Mts, N . A. lies at bottom of flange ( x = D f )
( c ) if Mic < M i s y N. A . lies in web ( x > D f ) .
When neutral axis lies in flange , the depth of N. A . can be found out by taking
moments of transformed areas about N . A .
X
be x.
m Asi ( d - x) .
2 =
When neutral axis lies in web , the depth of N. A . can be found out by taking
moments of transformed areas about N . A . neglecting small concrete area in
web portion

be Dt X
2 = m / lst ( d - x).
Type 2 : To find out the moment of resistance of given section .
( i ) Find out the depth of critical neutral axis and actual neutral axis as explained
in type 1.
( ii ) Decide the mode of failure , i . e ., compression failure ( over - reinforced ) or tension
failure ( under - reinforced ) .
If ^ actual < ^ critical * ^e beam is under - reinforced
and if * actual
•
^ ^ critical’ beam is over - reinforced .
(iii ) If N . A . lies in flange , M . R. is given by

M. R. = Ast . ast y
( “
using equation ( 5 - 13 d ) . . . . when under - reinfrced
and M . R. = Q b ( d 2 using equation ( 5- 13 a ) , when over - reinforced .
^ aj
Art . 5- 16 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 149

( iv ) If N. A . lies in web , M . R . is given by

M . R. = A s t . ast (d - y ) using equation (5- 15 b )
when under - reinforced

and M . R. = b ( D f ^c b c ^ cbc (d - y ) using equation ( 5 - 15 a )

2
when over - reinforced .
Type 3: For the given moment and section of beam , to check the stresses .
Method 1 :
( i ) Find out the neutral axis of beam as explained in type 1.
( ii ) Find out the lever arm . If neutral axis lies in flange , lever arm = d - and —
if N . A . lies in web , lever arm —
d - y where j is a distance of c . g . of
compressive forces from extreme compression fibre .
( iii ) The stresses are found out as follows:
M
stress in steel = /st = x lever arm

stress in concrete
/s ,
d - x '

Method 2 :
( i ) Find out N . A . of beam as explained in type 1 .
( ii ) Find out moment of inertia of beam neglecting concrete in web portion .
bx 3
4 = + m Asi ( d - x ) 2
3
when N . A . lies in flange ,
Drf \2
and 4 = Yi b < D + b f D{
<
x - 2 )
+ m Asi { d - xY2
\

when N . A . lies in web.

The stresses in concrete and steel are given by

Stress in concrete fc ^ = 4
M (d - x)
Stress in steel /st = m.
4
Type 4: To design singly reinforced T / L beam for a given moment .
The resistance to compression of concrete slab in a flanged beam is very high
as compared to a rectangular beam . This gives much less depth required to resist
a given bending moment . The depth of T beam or L beam in practice depends on
many factors such as the cost of concrete , steel and formwork . The architectural
requirements also may decide the depth . Providing depth only by using moment
as a criterion will increase the steel requirement . The amount of shear reinforcement
also increases as discussed in chapter 7. This may prove uneconomical .
To design a flanged beam , the following steps may be followed :
( i ) Fix the width of the beam using architectural considerations. Also the width
shall be sufficient to accommodate the reinforcement fulfilling the practical
requirements of spacing of bars as explained in art . 4 - 6 .
150 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

1 1
( ii ) Assume overall depth of beam D = to JQ of the span and subtracting
effective concrete cover from overall depth , find out effective depth d.
Of
( iii ) Assume as a first trial , an approximate lever arm = d - '
2
( iv ) Reinforcement area may be found out from the equation
M
Ast =
CTst d - -Of2± J
( v)
Check the section either for moment of resistance or for actual stresses as
explained in type 2 and type 3.
E x a m p l e 5 -3 2.
A tee beam with rib width of 230 mm , H 1200 H
flange width of 1200 mm , thickness of
,i * i
100 105.1
flange 100 mm and effective depth of
500 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 20 mm
T N A T
diameter bars as tension reinforcement . 500
Find out the depth of neutral axis . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and
mild steel reinforcement . •• •• 4-20 4)
S o l u t i o n: K- 230 -H
For M 20 mix, m 13.33. FIG . 5- 27
To find the position of neutral axis, compare the moments of transformed areas of
flange and reinforcement about bottom of flange .
Ast = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2
Mtc = 1200 x 100 x 50 = 6 x 10«
Mis = 13.33 x 1256 x 400 = 9.37 x 10«
Mis > Mic
N . A . lies in web .
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis neglecting small concrete
in web portion
Of
b Df x
2 = m Ast (d - x)
1200 x 100 [ x - 50 ) = 13.33 x 1256 ( 500 *) -
i .e. lx - 50) = 0.1395 (500 -
x) = 69.76 - 0.1395 x
and x 105.1 mm .
E x a m p l e 5-33.
Find the moment of resistance of a tee i K 1800 H
^
beam as shown in fig. 5- 28. The materials ‘
120
are M 20 grade concrete and FiYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
S o l u t i o n: 460 x = 83.69 -1

Ast = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2. ' -

Taking moments of transformed areas ••• • 4- 20 #
of flange and reinforcement about bottom M- 230 -H
of flange FIG . 5- 28
Art . 5 - 16 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 151

Mtc = 1800 x 120 x 60 = 1.296 x 107

Mis = 13.33 x 1256 x ( 460 - 120 ) = 0.569 x 107
Mic > Mis
N. A . lies in flange .
Taking moments of transformed areas about N . A .
1800 x x
f = 13.33 x 1256 ( 460 - x)
x'2 = 8561 18.61 x
which gives x = 83.69 mm .
Depth of critical N . A . = 0.40 x 460 = 184 mm .
•
^ actual ^ ^ critical *

Under - reinforced beam .

[d |
- ) = 1256
^
83.69 x 10-6
M. R . = Ast . ast . x 230 460
3
124.83 kNm .
Example 5 - 34 .
A tee beam as shown in fig . 5- 29 is subjected to a moment of 180 kNm . Find out
the maximum stresses in the materials . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement.
1500 ( N.T.S.) H fcb
i K i
100 109.4 ^ 0.086 /cb
T
450
N A
T
340.6

i 4- 25 # i + -T
—
M 300 -H
( a ) Section ( b) Stress diagram
FIG . 5 - 29
Solution :
Asi = 4 x - x 252 = 1963 mm 2.
4
Taking moments of transformed areas of flange and reinforcement about bottom of flange
Mu = 1500 x 100 x 60 = 0.90 x 107
Mts = 13.33 x 1963 x 350 = 0.916 x 107
Mi , > Mtc
N. A . lies in web .
Taking moment of transformed areas about N . A. neglecting small concrete in web
1500 x 100 x ( x - 50 ) = 13.33 x 1963 ( 450 - x )
.i e. { x - 50 ) = 0.1744 ( 450 - x )
and x = 109.4 mm
* critical = 0.29 x 450 = 130.5 mm
X < * critical *

Under - reinforced beam .

152 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Method 1 :
The c . g. of compressive force from extreme compression fibre

y
/c b x M x M + 0,8 6 /c b x f x 2 x 3100
fcb * i °
+ 0.086 /cb x|
= 35.97 mm .
lever arm = 450 35.97 = 414.03 mm .
(i
180 x 10 221.5 N / mm 2 .
Stress in steel /st = 1963 x 414.03 =
221.5 X 109.4
5.34 N / mm 2.
Stress in concrete fc
^ = 13.33 340.6 =
Method 2 :
1
Ix = -L- x 1500 x 1003 + 1500 x 100 x ( 109.4 - 50 ) 2
+ 13.33 x 1963 ( 340.6 ) ^, neglecting small concrete in web portion
= 3.69 x 10!) mm 4.
180 x 10(i x 109.4 5.34 N / mm 2.
Stress in concrete fc ^ = =
3.69 x 109
Stress in steel fsi = 13.33 x 180
x 106 x 340.6
= 221.5 N / mm 2 .
3.69 x 109
Example 5-35.
A tee beam ( beam B2 of fig. 4 -9 ) of a concrete floor is loaded with 40 kN / m load
inclusive of self - weight . The tee beams are spaced at 3 m centres . The span of beam
is 6 m and simply supported . Thickness of slab is 100 mm . Design the beam for
flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
M = 40 x 6? 180 kNm . “ A
i
100
1970 i
99.42
8
Use
T
bw = 250 mm and 540
D = —1
of span
600 440.58

= 600 mm .
4-20 # + 2- 16 #
crcbc = 7 N / mm 2 ,
280 H- 250 -H
m 13.33
3 x 7 FIG . 5 -30
Using two layers of 20 mm diameter bars and 30 mm clear cover to main reinforcement
d = 600 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 540 mm .
Df
Assume lever arm = d - = 540 - 60 = 480 mm
2
(i
180 x 10 1630 mm 2 .
=230 x 480 =
Use 4 no. 20 mm diameter bars plus 2 no . 16 mm diameter bars .
4 st = 4 x 314 + 2 x 201 = 1658 mm 2.
The designed section shall now be checked for moment of resistance or for actual stresses.
Art . 5- 16 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 153

Maximum available width of flange = 3000 mm .

|+ i w +
Use
b( =
bf
Mlc
= 1970 mm .
6 Df =
^
= 1970 x 100 x 50 = 0.985 x 107
+ 250 + 6 x 120 = 1970 mm .

Mts = 13.33 x 1658 (540 - 100) = 0.984 x 107

Mu > Afts
N . A . lies in flange .
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis to find its position
1970 x x |= 13.33 x 1658 (540 - *) .
On simplification this gives
+ 22.44 * - 12116 = 0
*
2

which on solving gives * = 99.42 mm .

Method 1 :
Depth of critical neutral axis = 0.4 x 540 = 216 mm

^ actual < •^ critical

Under-reinforced beam .
99.42 x -(i
M . R. = Ast . °« [ d ~ f ) = 1658 x 230 x 540 - 3
10
193.29 kNm > 180 kNm ( O . K.)
Method 2 :
If /cb is the stress at the extreme compression fibre

1970 x 99.42 x
/cb
compressive force = f = 97929 /cb.
Equating M . R . of section to external B . M .
99.42
97929 /cb (540 3 = 180 x 106

/cb = 3.63 N / mm 2 < 7 N / mm 2 ( O. K. )

d - x 540 - 99.42
Stress in tensile steel fst m fcb • 13.33 x 3.63 x
x 99.42
= 214.43 N / mm 2 < 230 N / mm 2 ( O . K .)
Method 3:
1
4=
- ^ x 1970 x 99.423 + 13.33 x 1658 x 440.582
4.935 x 10 <J mm 4
180 x 106 x 99.42
fcb
4.935 x 109
= 3.63 N / mm 2 < 7 N / mm 2 ( O . K .)

.
/t =
180 x 106 x 440.58 x 13.33
4.935 x 109
= 214.2 N / mm 2 < 230 N / mm 2 ( O . K .)
154 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
Example 5 -36.
An isolated tee beam of flange width 2000 mm and rib width of 250 mm is loaded
with 20 kN / m load inclusive of self - weight . The span of beam is 8 m and simply
supported . Thickness of slab is 100 mm . Design the beam for flexure . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
M = 20 x 82 160 kNm .
8
Assume D = 1 of span = 800 mm .
10
Using two layers of 16 mm diameter bars and 30 mm clear cover to main reinforcement
d = 800 - 30 - 16 - 8 = 746 mm .

Assume lever arm = d - Of2 746 100

2 = 696 mm

x \ 0(
= 160
)

mm 2 .
^ 230 x 696 =
st 1000
Use 5- 16 # bars.
Asi = 5 x 201 = 1005 mm 2.
The designed section shall now be checked for moment of resistance or actual
stresses .
Actual width of flange = 2000 mm

and bf = ‘
o
+ =
8000
8000
+ 250 = 1250 mm .
+ 4 + 4
b 2000
Use br = 1250 mm .
Mlc = 1250 x 100 x 50 = 6.25 x 10 ^
Mis = 13.33 x 1005 ( 746 - 100 ) = 8.65 x 106
Mtc < Mu
Neutral axis lies in web .

T T ± K 1250 ( N.T.S.) — H
i fcb
“ 100
X
117.38 y^ 0.148 /cb
N A

746
800 628.62

5 - 16 # T
K- 250 -H
(a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram

FIG . 5 - 31
Art . 5 - 16 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 155

Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis, neglecting the web compression
1250 x 100 ( x - 50) = 13.33 x 1005 ( 746 - x ) .
Solution of this equation yields
x 117.3 8 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis
= 0.29 x 746 = 216.34 mm .

^ actual ^ ^ critical
The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first .
The c . g. of compressive forces from extreme compression fibre

/c b * if l » + 0 . 1 4 « /c b ,
x| l 1f x 2 x 100
3
y
fcb x + 0.148 /cb |
X
°
= 37.63 mm .
Lever arm = 746 - 37.63 = 708.37 mm .
Method 7 :
M . R. = Ast . ast ( lever arm )
= 1005 x 230 x 708.37 x 10 ~ 6
= 163.74 kNm > 160 kNm . . . ( O . K. )
Method 2 :
160 x 106
Stress in steel /st = 1005 x 708.37
= 224.8 N / ram 2 < 230 N / mm 2.
224.8 1 17.38
Stress in concrete fc ^ = 13.33 X 628.62
= 3.15 N / mm 2 < 7 N / mm 2 ( O. K . )
Method 3:
1
/x = x 1250 X 1003 + 1250 x 100 x ( 117.38 - 50 ) 2 +
Y2
13.33 x 1005 x 628.622
= 5.965 x 109 mm 4 .
160 x 106 x 1 17.38
Stress in concrete fc =
^ 5.965 x 109
= 3.15 N / mm 2 < 7 N / mm 2.

13.33 x 160 106

x x 628.62
Stress in steel /st = 5.965 x 109
= 224.8 N / mm 2 < 230 N / mm 2 ( O . K.)
Example 5 - 37.
An ell beam of effective flange width 750 mm , rib width 250 mm , thickness of
flange 100 mm and effective depth of 450 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 20 mm
diameter bars. Find out the moment of resistance of the beam . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
156 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 5

K 750
1 1
100 123
^z
* cb
0.187 /cb
V
450
N A
I
327

•••• 4- 20 # i -T
*
H- 250 -H

( a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram

FIG . 5 - 32
Solution :
For M 20 mix , m = 13.33
Asi = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2
Mtc = 750 x 100 x 50 = 3.75 x 10(i
M s = 13.33 x 1256 x 350 = 5.86 x 106
{

Mts > M u
x > Df ( i . e . N . A . lies in web )
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
Of m 4 sl ( d - *)
b( D ( X
2 =
7 5 0 x 100 [ x - 50) = 13.33 x 1256 ( 450 - x) .
Solution of this equation gives
x 123 mm .
Depth of critical neutral axis
= 0.29 x 450 = 130.5 mm .

^ actual
•
^ ^ critical *

The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first .

The c .g. of compressive force from extreme compression fibre , neglecting web concrete

x i£0 x|
1 0 IM 2 x 100
/cb + 0.187 /cb X X
3
y

Lever arm
= 38.58 mm .
= 450 -
/cb

38.58 = 411.42 mm
X

^ + 0.187 /cb x

M . R . = ^4 st . ast ( lever arm ) = 1256 x 230 x 411.42 x 10 ~ ( )

= 118.85 kNm .
Example 5 - 38 .
A slab of clear span 3 m is simply supported on two edge beams. The load on one
of these ell beams is 20 kN / m inclusive of self - weight and the span of beam is 6 m .
Design the beam for flexure . Width of rib is 250 mm and thickness of flange is
100 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Art. 5 - 16 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 157

Solution :
1 1 x
Assume D span = = 6000 = 600 mm .
10
^
Assuming 16 mm diameter bars in one layer and 30 mm clear cover to main
reinforcement
d = 600 30 - 8 = 562 mm

20 x
62 = 90 kNm .

Approximately lever arm

M =

= d -
^o

— = 562 - 50 = 512 mm .
90 x IQ6 764 mm 2.
Approximate steel area =
230 x 512 =
Provide 4 - 16 # = 804 mm 2.
The designed section will now be checked .
Width of flange shall be lesser of :
(i ) 3000
250 + 1750 mm
2
/ ,
6000
( ii ) b{ = + 3 D{ + bw = 12 + 3 x 100 + 250 = 1050 mm .

Adopt bf = 1050 mm .
For M 20 mix , m = 13.33
A st = 4 x 201 804 mm 2
=
Mtc = 1050 x 100 x 60 = 6.3 x 10*
Mts = 13.33 x 804 x 462 = 4.95 x 106
Mtc > A
*ts
Neutral axis lies in flange .
Let x be the depth of neutral axis.
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis neglecting web compression
x2
1050
Y = 13.33 X 804 ( 562 - x )
x2 =
11472 - 20.41 x
On solving this yeilds x 97.4 mm .=
Depth of critical neutral axis = 0.29 x 562 = 163 mm .
^ actual < -^ critical
The beam is under - reinforced and steel will fail first.
Lever arm = 562 -
97.4
3 —
529.5 mm .
M. R . = 804 x 230 x 529.5 x 10 6 "

= 97.9 kNm > 90 kNm ( O . K.)

The design is verified . Alternatively the stresses in concrete and steel may be
found out as explained in previous examples .
Note: If the ell beam is an isolated one , torsion is induced and section shall be designed
for torsion also . In present case , the slab is simply supported which does not
induce any torsion .
158 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

1050 fcb
i i
“ N 1A 100 97.4
T
600 562 464.6

• • • • 4- 16 # T
H- 250 -H
(a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram
FIG . 5 -33

.
5 - 17 Doubly reinforced flanged beams: Sometimes the flanged beams
need compression reinforcement for the following reasons:
( 1 ) The area of the flange may not be sufficient to carry the compression induced .
( 2 ) The B . M . is very large and the size of the beam is restricted . Also , the mix
of the concrete may not be increased .
In the above cases, the flanged beams are also reinforced with compression reinforcement
to increase their moments of resistance . Corresponding tensile reinforcement shall
also be increased . The doubly reinforcement flanged beams can be handled in a way
similar to the doubly reinforced rectangular beams .
Let us now analyse and design the doubly reinforced flanged beams . Two cases are
considered :
( 1 ) N . A. lies in flange
( 2 ) N . A. lies in web .
A flanged beam ( tee or ell ) with usual notations is shown in fig . 5 - 34 when N . A .
lies in flange . Fig . 5 - 34 ( a ) shows the beam section , fig . 5 - 34 ( b ) shows the stress
diagram when stresses are unknown whereas fig. 5 - 34 (c) shows the stress diagram when
stress in extreme compression fibre is the permissible stress , i . e . , acbc.

bf
r Asc c2 fcb
I
Df 41 |
iiii ails
*X 7^C 3
X-d r
X
f cb
C3 T T
* - x - d'
X °cbc
X

^ bw
-
vJ- Asi
->^ /st
<-T —
< T
/st (= asl , if balanced )
(a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram ( c ) Stress diagram
(stresses unknown ) (./ cb " G'cbc )
"

Doubly reinforced flanged beam : N . A. lies in the flange

FIG . 5 -34
A flanged beam with usual notations is shown in fig. 5 - 35 when the N . A . lies
in the web . Stress diagrams when concrete stresses are not known , and when
extreme concrete stress is equal to permissible stress , are shown in fig. 5 - 35 ( b )
and fig. 5 - 35 ( c ) .
Art . 5 - 17 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 159

bf

^ ecvr/ -- c
/cb
Dr 1
d —it Q
c =[7^c >
C? at- hc
'

3
/ x d"
* X - d'fcb
X
f
X ^cbc
d

• *T~ Ast
/« /sl ( or asl , if balanced )
( a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram (c ) Stress diagram
( stresses unknown ) =^
( /cb cbc )

Doubly reinforced flanged beam : N . A. lies in web

FIG . 5 - 35
Four types of problems are now considered .
( 1 ) To determine the depth of N . A. and decide the type of beam ( under - reinforced
or over - reinforced ) .
( 2 ) To determine the M . R. of the section .
( 3 ) To determine the stresses in the materials.
( 4 ) To design the beam .
Each of the above are now discussed below.
Type 1 : To determine the depth of N . A . and decide type of the beam : Two
cases are considered .
( a) If the stresses in the materials are known , we have from the stress diagram
/cb x
/st d - X

Solving this equation , we get the depth of neutral axis x.

( b ) If the section is given , initially assume * = Df .
Taking moments of transformed areas about assumed N . A . ( i . e . , about the
bottom of the flange ) , we have

If
Mtc =
Mts =
We then have
b ( Df x

Mic > A/ts , then

^(d
+ (1.5 m - 1 )
- -Of )

x < Df and
Asc ( D { - d’ )

N . A. lies in flange
If Mtc = iWts, then x = Df and N . A. lies in flange
( at bottom )
If Mic < A/ts , then x > Df and N . A . lies in web.
(i ) x < Df
Taking moments of transformed areas about N . A.
bfX x|+ ( 1.5 m - 1 ) Asc [ x - d' ) = m Asi ( d - x) (1)
160 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 5

( ii ) x > Df
Taking moments of transformed areas about N. A .
Df
b[ Df 2 )
+ ( 1.5 m - 1 ) ^4 sc ( x - d' ) = m Asi ( d
x - - x) ( 2)
V
Equation ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) gives the depth of N . A .
Now * cr = kd with usual notation .
under - reinforced section
If x
^ cr
If x x cr balanced section
If *> xcr over - reinforced section .

Type 2: To determine the M . R . of the section . : The N . A. may lie in the flange
or it may lie in the web .
( i ) When N . A . lies in flange :
x
^ A st & st dA ~
3
for under - reinforced and balanced section .
x being the centroid of the compressive forces

M = bf x x ^c b c
2 (* - §) + ( 1- 5 m - 1 ) x Asc . !—JL 0 cbc [d - d' )
for over - reinforced and balanced section .
( ii ) When N. A. lies in web:
( a ) Over - reinforced and balanced sections :
Determine the stresses in concrete at various levels considering the
stress in extreme compression fibre be acbc.

Stress at level of Asc =

x - d'
® cbc
x
x - D
f
Stress at bottom of flange = ^ cbc *

*
The M . R. is found by taking moments of compressive forces about the
centre of tensile reinforcement . The forces and moment arms neglecting
small web compression are given as under :
Force Moment arm
D{
C,

C2
=

- 2
b f D{

1
b( D{^ x -
X
D
f
® cbc

x - d'
/, = d -

l<2 d — 2
3

rj Df

C3 = (1.5 T T z - 1) Asc . ® cbc l3 = d - d’

The M . R.
( b ) Under - reinforced section:
— Cj / j + C2 /2 T C3 /3.

In this case, concrete stress has not reached to ocbc and steel will fail
first. Let the stress in the extreme compression fibre be h - The compressive
forces and their distances from the extreme compression fibre are given
as under.
^
Art . 5 - 17 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 161

Distance from
Force extreme compression fibre

fcb 1
Ci - b{ Df —
C2 - l
2
bfDf -
x - D
f
— fcb y2 =
C3 = ( 1.5 m - 1) Asc . yi- = d'

The centroid of all the three forces from the extreme compression fibre
is given by
C\ J\ + 2 >2 + C3 y3
y
Cl + C2 + C3
^
The lever arm is given by
L . A. = d - y
The M . R . is given by
M . R. = A s t ast [ d - y ).
Type 3: To determine the stresses in the materials :
The beam section and the applied moment are given . The moment of inertia of the
section is obtained as follows :
x < Df
4= b x 3 + ( 1.5 m - 1) Asc [x - d’ Y2 + m As { {d - x\2
x > Df
Dct Y2
4 = f2 + 4 Df x “ + ( 1.5 m - 1 ) 4 sc [ x - d ’ ) '2
y
2 )
(d - x ) 2.
The stresses in the materials are given as follows with usual
+ m
^
notations .
st

M . x
/cb =
'
M [x
x
- d ')
x 1.5 m
/sc = 4
M (d - x)
and /st = x m.
4
Type 4: To design the beam :
Given bf , Df , d, concrete mix , type of reinforcement and applied moment .
( i ) Calculate xCT = kd, with usual notation .
( ii ) Determine the M . R . of a singly reinforced flanged beam , as follows :
Df xCT
In this case , the beam will act as a rectangular beam of width bf . M\ is given by
Mx = b ( d> e
162 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [C h . 5

Df < *cr
I n t h i s c a s e Afj i s g i v e n b y

°—c b c D *c r - Df
M\ = b { D { d - -3L{ J 1
+ 2 bi Di
*cr ^ cbc (rf - §
L e t t h e a p p l i e d m o m e n t b e M. T h e n
(a) If M < M\ d e s i g n a s a s i n g l y r e i n f o r c e d s e c t i o n
%

( b ) I f M > Mi , d e s i g n a s a d o u b l y r e i n f o r c e d s e c t i o n
Let M 2 = M - Mx .
<

D e s i g n t h e b e a m a s a b a l a n c e d s e c t i o n f o r m o m e n t Afj . T h e b a l a n c e d
t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r Afj i s g i v e n b y t a k i n g m o m e n t s o f t r a n s f o r m e d
a r e a s a b o u t N. A .
Df *c r M\
^
•
stl
CTst d - ^3c r
Df < xCI
Of
bf Df A; c r ( d - x ), n e g l e c t i n g s m a l l w e b a r e a
2
m
^ stl
b( D f Dr
*« “ “
2
^ stl - m [d - x)
T h i s g i v e s t h e t e n s i l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r A/ j . T h e a d d i t i o n a l t e n s i l e
r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r M2 i s g i v e n b y
M 2,
A st 2 ' •
°A s t [+d -A d )
St =
Then
^ sti
The additional compression reinforcement is given by
st2 *

M2
^ sc =
xct -
/ \
d
(1.5 m - 1) acbc
*cr
[ d - d' ) -
The depth of neutral axis of designed section shall be less than that of critical
n e u t r a l a x i s s o a s t o g e t u n d e r- r e i n f o r c e d d e s i g n.
Example 5 - 39 .
A t e e b e a m with r i b w i d t h 2 3 0 m m, flange w i d t h o f 1 6 0 0 m m, thickness of flange
1 0 0 m m a n d e f f e c t i v e d e p t h o f 4 0 0 m m i s r e i n f o r c e d w i t h 2 n o. 1 6 m m d i a m e t e r b a r s
a s c o m p r e s s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d 4 n o. 2 0 m m d i a m e t e r b a r s a s t e n s i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t.
D e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h o f n e u t r a l a x i s a n d t y p e o f b e a m. T h e m a t e r i a l s a r e M2 0 g r a d e
c o n c r e t e a n d H Y S D r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f g r a d e F e 4 1 5.
Solution:
F o r M 2 0 m i x, m = 13.33
A s c = 2 x 201 = 402 mm2
/lst = 4 x 3 1 4 = 1 2 5 6 m m 2 .

T o f i n d o u t t h e l o c a t i o n o f n e u t r a l a x i s, c o m p a r e t h e m o m e n t s o f t r a n s f o r m e d
a r e a s o f f l a n g e c o n c r e t e a n d r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a b o u t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f l a n g e.
Art. 5 - 17 ] Design for Flexure: Working Stress Method 163

Mlc = 1600 x 100 x 50 + ( 1.5 x 13.33 - 1 ) x 402 x 60 = 8.46 x 106

Mls = 13.33 x 1256 x 300 = 5.02 x 10 f>
Mte > Mts N . A . lies in flange .
Taking moments of transformed areas about neutral axis
b{ . x .
|+ ( 1.5 m - 1 ) Asc ( x - d' ) = mAst (d - x)
1600.x .|+ 19 x 402 ( x - 40 ) = 13.33 x 1256 ( 400 - x)

Simplifying, x 2 + 9.55 x - 382 = 8360 20.9 *

i .e . x 2 + 30.45 x - 8742 = 0 .
- 30.45 + V35895
Solving 2 = 79.5 mm .

The depth of neutral axis = 79.5 mm .

Now * cr = 0.29 x 400 = 116 mm
X < xcr
The beam is under - reinforced .
< 1600 H
- 2- 16 #
“
ioo |79.5 40 +

400

• ••• 4 -20 #
N- 230 -H
FIG . 5 -36
Example 5 - 40.
Determine the M . R . of the section of example 5 - 39. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
M 1600 ( N.T.S. ) fob
100 40 t N. A. 79.5 ^ C2
t 0.497 /cb
400

•• • •- - 4-20 #
T
230 /,«
m
( a ) Section ( b) Stress diagram
FIG . 5- 37
Solution :
Referring to fig . 5 - 37
1
- =
Cl =
^ /cb 1600 79 5 63600 /cb
X X

C2 = ( 1.5 X 13.33 - 1 ) X 0.497 fch x 402 = 3796 fch

79.5
yi 3 =
26.5 mm and y 2 = 40 mm
164 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5

+ C2 >' 2
y ^ CJVl
1
| + Cy
63600 /cb x 31.66 + 3796 /cb x 40
63600 /cb + 3796 /cb = 33.13 mm

L. A . = d - y = 400 - 33.13 = 366.87

M . R. = A s l ost ( d - y ) = 1256 x 230 x 366.87 x IQ-6 = 106.54 kNm .
Example 5 - 41.
Determine the stresses induced in the materials for the section of Example 5 - 40 ,
when it is subjected to a B . M . of 96 kNm .
Solution :
x < Df

bi X3 O5m - 1) (* - d’ ) 2 + mAsl id XY2

+ ’
^ sc -

=|X 1600 X 79.53 + 19 X 402 ( 79.5 - 40) 2 + 13.33 x 1256 ( 400 - 79.5) 2
= 2 x 109 mm 4*.
Stresses in the materials are :
Mx 96 x 10(i x 79.5 3.82 N / mm 2.
/cb =
4 2 x 109
M ( x - d' )
/sc = x 1.5 m
4
96 x 106 ( 79.5 - 40 ) x 1.5 x 13.33 = 37.91 N / mm 2
2 x 109
M (d - x)
x m
At = 4
96 x 106 ( 4 00 - 79.5 )
x 13.33 205.1 N / mm 2 .
109 =
2 x
Example 5 - 42.
Design a flanged beam of size 300 mm x 500 mm effective depth to resist a
bending moment of 330 kNm . Flange width is 1500 mm and depth of flange is
100 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade fe 415 .
1500 ( N.T.S.)
^cbc
;- Df Qcbc
T ioo 40 |
II
'

4 F5
cr ^
* x-D Xcr
N. A.
500

H* 300 H 4
m
( a ) Section ( b ) Stress diagram
FIG . 5 - 38
Art . 5 - 17 ] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 165

S o l u t i o n:
xcr = 0.29 x 500 = 145 mm > Z) f.
The moment of resistance of a singly reinforced balanced section is given by

Afj = hDf . ^c b c
2
d ~ *>
^
(
2 J
+
2
l
b f D{ x *cr - Df
*cr
& cbc - D, )
[d |
7 ( 145 100
=

=
1500 x 100 x

236.25 + 70.6 = 306.85 kNm .

2
500 - 50 +

^ X
x 1500 x 100 x

(
7 500 -|x 100 )
145
x 10-6

M2 = M - = 330 - 306.85 = 23.15 kNm .

Taking moments of transformed areas of singly reinforced balanced section about N . A .
D cf
b ( Df
2 J = mAst 1 xcr
( d - xcr )
1500 x 100 ( 145 - 50 ) = 13.33 .dst (500 - 145)
3011 mm 2
Additional tensile reinforcement for M2
dst 1 —
M2 23.15 x IQ6
A st
2 ( d - d' ) 230 ( 500 - 40 )
= 219 mm 2.
°st
^ st = ^ st l + Ast 2 = 3011 + 219 = 3230
Provide 3- 28 # 3-25 # = 3 ( 616 + 491 ) = 3321 mm 2.
h+ 1500
100 40
2- 20 #
J T *t I f
500
573

28
== » •• •• ••
f- 30

H
3-28 # + 3-25 #

230
( a ) Section
FIG . 5 - 39
Corresponding compression reinforcement is given by
M2
A sc
Xcr - d
/ \
( 1.5 m - 1 ) 0cbc ( d - d' )
*cr
23.15 x 106
19 x 7 x 145 - 40 ( 500 - 40 ) = 523 mm 2 .
145
Provide 2 - 20 # = 2 x 314 = 628 mm 2.
The designed section is shown in fig. 5-39 .
166 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
5 - 18. Slabs: Slabs are the plate elemets having the depth D much smaller than
its span and width . They are usually carrying uniformly distributed loads from floors
and supported on walls or beams. Slabs are primarily flexural members and designed
in the same way as the beams . They are treated separately in Chapter 10 .
. .. . .

EXAMPLES V
(l) Answer the following :
( a ) How many 20 mm diameter tension bars can be adjusted in a beam of
200 mm width in one layer ? ( .Ans. 3. )
( b ) Why is the over - reinforced design not advisable ?
( c ) What is the transformed area ?
( d ) Explain how the actual or available width of flange of tee beam is not always
effective in carrying compression .
)
( e In some type of concrete , permissible stress in compression in bending is
12.7 N / mm 2 . Find out the value of m. ( Ans . 7.35 )
(2) Determine the position of neutral axis of a reinforced concrete beam 250 mm
wide x 360 mm effective depth , if the stresses developed in concrete and steel
are 6.5 N / mm 2 and 174 N / mm 2 respectively. The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Also determine the type of the beam .
( Ans . x = H 9.5 mm , over - reinforced . )
( 3) An R . C . C. beam 200 mm wide x 460 mm effective depth is reinforced with 3 no .
20 mm diameter bars . Find out the position of neutral axis and state the type of
the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 . ( Ans . x = 185.6 mm , over - reinforced . )
(4) A concrete beam 300 mm wide x 420 mm effective depth is reinforced with a steel
reinforcement having a safe tensile stress of 115 N / mm 2 . If the concrete grade
M 20 is used , find the depth of critical neutral axis . ( Ans . x = 188.16 mm . )
( 5) An R . C . C . beam of size 230 mm wide x 660 mm effective depth is reinforced
with 4 no . 20 mm diameter bars. Find out the moment of resistance of beam .
Also state whether the beam is under - reinforced of over - reinforced . The materials
are M 30 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( Ans . x = 213.3 mm , over - reinforced , M . R . = 131.2 kNm .)
( 6) Solve the above Example ( 5 ) if 3 no . 20 mm diameter bars are used .
( Ans . x = 189.6 mm , under - reinforced , M . R . = 129.3 kNm . )
( 7) An R . C . C . beam of size 300 mm wide x 620 mm effective depth is reinforced
with 5 no . 12 mm diameter bars. Find out the moment of resistance of the beam .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans . = 73.94 kNm .)
(8) An R .C . C. beam of size 200 mm wide x 560 mm effective depth is reinforced
with 4 no . 16 mm diameter bars . Find out the moment of resistance of the beam ,
if permissible stresses in concrete in bending compression and steel in tension
are respectively 5.2 N / mm 2 and 215 N / mm 2 . ( Ans . = 55.92 kNm . )
(9) A rectangular R. C . C . beam of size 350 mm width x 450 mm effective depth is
reinforced with 4 no . 16 mm diameter bars . Find the safe concentrated central
point load on a simple span of 3.6 m , which the beam can resist in addition to
its self - weight . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415. ( Ans . = 68.1 kN . )
Ex . 5] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 167

( 10 ) A simply supported rectangular beam over a span of 3.6 m is reinforced in

tension only. The beam is 230 mm wide and has an effecitve depth of 510 mm .
It is reinforced with 4 no . 16 mm diameter bars. Calculate the stresses in both
materials at the centre of span when a beam carries a uniformly distributed load
of 36 kN / m inclusive of self - weight . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
mild steel reinforcement . ( .Ans. /cb = 6.4 N / mm 2 , fst = 161.1 N / mm 2 . )
( I D Solve the above Example ( 10 ) , if M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 are used . ( Ans . /cb = 5.91 N / mm 2 , /st = 137.94 N / mm 2.)
( 1 2 ) A simply supported beam of 4.8 m span is carrying a uniformly distributed load
of 28 kN / m inclusive of its self - weight . Find out balanced depth and steel area
for balanced section , if it is reinforced in tension only. The width of beam is
230 mm and the materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement .
( Ans . d = 538.3 mm , As =
{ 1230 mm 2. )
( 13 ) A simply supported rectangular beam of 5 m span carries a uniformly distributed
load of 16 kN / m inclusive of its self - weight . It also carries a central point load
of 16 kN . Find the depth and steel area for balanced design . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans . b = 230 mm , d = 578.3 mm , ^4 st = 585 mm 2. )
( 14 ) A simply supported rectangular beam of 4.2 m span carries a uniformly distributed
load including self - weight of 16 kN / m . If the beam is 230 mm wide x 460 mm
effective depth , find the steel required at mid - span . Use design tables. The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement .
( Ans . p = 0.58, >4 st = 614 mm 2.)
{

( 15 ) A beam of size 250 mm x 600 mm effective depth is reinforced with 4 no.

12 mm diameter bars . It is subjected to a bending moment of 60 kNm . Check the
section using design tables . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. ( Ans . M . R . = 57.15 kNm , unsafe . )
( 16 ) A rectangular beam 200 mm wide x 460 mm effective depth is subjected to a
moment of 60 kNm . The effective cover of compressive reinforcement is 40 mm .
Find out the reinforcing steel . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. ( Ans . Asc = 550 mm 2, ^4 st = 628 mm 2. )
( 17 ) A doubly reinforced rectangular beam of overall size 230 mm width x 550 mm
depth is reinforced with 2 no . 20 mm diameter bars at top and 4 no . 20 mm
diameter bars at bottom . Find out the moment of resistance of the beam . If this
beam is subjected to a moment of 72 kNm , find the maximum stresses developed
in concrete and steel . Consider d = 500 mm , d ' = 50 mm . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans . 94.3 kNm , fc = 5.76 N / mm 2, fsc = 84.73 N / mm 2, /st = 125.74 N / mm 2 . )
^
( 18 ) A rectangular beam of size 230 mm width x 610 mm effective depth is reinforced
with 2 no . 20 mm diameter bars at top and 5 no . 20 mm diameter bars at bottom .
Find out maximum stresses developed in concrete and steel if it is subjected to
a moment of 120 kNm . Consider d ' = 50 mm . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and mild steel reinforcement .
( Ans . fch = 5.23 N / mm 2, /sc = 81.4 N / mm 2, /st = 117.7 N / mm 2 .)
( 19 ) A rectangular beam of size 350 mm x 500 mm effective depth is reinforced with
3 no . 20 mm diameter bars at top and 5 no . 20 mm diameter bars at bottom . Find
out the moment of resistance of the section . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . ( Ans . = 130.3 kNm . )
168 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 5
( 20 ) A rectangular beam of size 230 mm width x 565 mm effective depth is subjected
to a negative bending moment ( tension at top ) of 95 kNm . Find the reinforcement
for flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415. Use design aids. ( Ans . Asc = 640 mm 2 , As{ = 810 mm 2 . )
( 21 ) A tee beam with rib width 230 mm , flange width of 1200 mm , thickness of flange
75 mm and effective depth of 460 mm is reinforced with 4 no. 16 mm diameter
bars in tension . Find out the depth of neutral axis. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Also determine whether the beam is
under - reinforced or over - reinforced .
( Ans . x = 82.16 mm , under - reinforced . )
( 22 ) A tee beam rib width of 300 mm , flange width of 1650 mm , thickness of flange
80 mm and effective depth of 365 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 20 mm diameter
bars in tension . Find out the position of neutral axis and state the type of beam .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. x = 76.5 mm , under - reinforced . )
( 23 ) Solve the above Example ( 22 ) , if now the beam is reinforced with 4 no . 28 mm
diameter bars . ( Ans. x = 112.76 mm , over - reinforced . )
( 24 ) A tee beam with rib width 350 mm , flange width of 1450 mm , thickness of flange
100 mm and effective depth of 410 mm is reinforced with 4 no. 20 mm diameter
bars in tension . Find out the moment of resistance of the section . Also , find out
the M . R. if it is reinforced with 5 no . 25 mm diameter bars . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans. x = 110.12 kNm , 210.4 kNm .)
( 25 ) A tee beam with rib width 300 mm , flange width 1650 mm , thickness of flange
100 mm and effective depth of 460 mm is reinforced with 4 no. 25 mm diameter
bars in tension . Find out the maximum stresses developed in materials if it is
subjected to a bending moment of 180 kNm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans. /cb = 4.86 N / mm 2, /st = 215.6 N / mm 2. )
( 26 ) An isolated T beam has an actual width of 1200 mm and web width of 350 mm .
Thickness of flange is 120 mm and overall depth is 600 mm . The span of beam is
5 m and carries a uniformly distributed load inclusive of selt - weight of 25 kN / m .
Find the steel area required . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans. 693 mm 2, 3- 16 # + 1 - 12 # = 716 mm 2, M . R. = 85.86 kNm . )
( 27 ) An L beam having web width 230 mm and overall depth 500 mm of a concrete
floor is loaded with 25 kN / m load inclusive of self - weight. The beams are spaced
at 3.2 m centres. The span of beam is 6 m and simply supported . Thickness of
flange is 100 mm . Design the beam for flexure . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( Ans. 1223 mm 2, 4 - 20 # , M . R . = 121.4 kNm . )
( 28 ) An isolated inverted T beam of a combined footing has an actual width of flange
1800 mm and web width of 500 mm . Thickness of flange is 300 mm and the span
of beam is 4.2 m . The slab is at the bottom of the beam and the loadings are
upwards . The net soil pressure on beam is 170 kN / m . Design the beam for
flexure. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415. ( Ans. For D = 750 mm , 8- 20 # at top may be adopted . )
Ex . 5] Design for Flexure : Working Stress Method 169

( 29 ) An isolated L beam with actual flange width of 900 mm , rib width of 250 mm ,
depth of slab 120 mm and overall depth of 500 mm is subjected to a load of 16 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight . The span of the beam is 6 m and simply supported . Design
the reinforcement for flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
[ Ans. 802 mm 2 , 4 - 16 # , M . R. = 77.5 kNm may be adopted . )
( 30 ) A tee beam with rib width 230 mm , flange width 1500 mm , thickness of flange
100 mm and effective depth of 510 mm is simply supported and has a span of 4.8 m .
The loading on the beam is 30 kN / m inclusive of self - weight . Design the beam for
flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415 . [ Ans. 816 mm 2 , approximately , 4 - 16 # gives M . R . = 89.47 kNm . )
( 31 ) A tee beam with flange width 1500 mm , depth of flange 100 mm and effective
depth of 500 mm is reinforced in compression with 2 no . 20 mm diameter bars
at an effective cover of 50 mm , and 6 no . 20 mm diameter bars as tension
reinforcement. Determine the depth of neutral axis and the type of the beam . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. x = 114.5 mm , neglecting web concrete ; under reinforced . )
( 32 ) An ell beam with flange width 850 mm , web width 250 mm flange thickness of
100 mm and effective depth of 500 mm is reinforced with compression reinforcement
of 2 - 16 # at d' = 50 mm , and tensile reinforcement of 3- 20 # . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Determine the
depth of neutral axis and the type of beam .
[ Ans. x = 136.24 mm , neglecting web concrete ; under - reinforced . )
( 33 ) A tee beam with flange width 1200 mm , thickness of flange 80 mm and effective
depth of 350 mm is reinforced with 2 - 20 # compression bars at d.' —
3- 20 # tension bars . Determine the depth of neutral axis , type of the beam and
40 mm and

moment of resistance of the section . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. x = 62.94 mm , under - reinforced , M . R . = 95.2 kNm , neglecting web compression . )
( 34 ) Determine the stresses in the materials for the beam section of Example 5 - 33,
when it is subjected to a B . M . of 50 kNm .
( Ans . fcb = 3.68 N / mm 2, /sc = 25.48 N / mm 2 , /st = 223.73 N / mm 2 . )
 hapter
LIMIT STATE METHOD
L 61
6- 1. Inelastic behaviour of materials: In chapter 5, we have designed the
sections for flexure by using elastic theory , i . e . , by considering the straight line
behaviour of materials adopting suitable factors of safety. For concrete , being a brittle
material, the factor of safety was applied on failure stress , i . e., on the characteristic
strength of concrete . For steel , being a ductile material , the factor of safety was
applied on its yield strength or on the proof stress when no definite yield point was
known .
Let the factor of safety on material strength be p. If the working load on the
structure is W , its failure load will be p W. This is true only if the materials are
fully elastic upto failure . Figures 6 - l ( a ) and 6- 1 ( b ) show the stress - strain diagrams
of concrete and mild steel respectively. It can be seen that the behaviour of concrete
is inelastic right from low stresses , while mild steel is perfectly elastic and follows
Hooke’s law approximately up to the yield stress , then it has an inelastic behaviour.
This means that the behaviour of a structure made up of these two materials cannot
remain elastic at higher loads . The failure load of the structure may be less than
pW as in case of the columns and more than p W as in case of the beams . Thus
although the factor of safety assumed in elastic theory is p, the actual factor of
safety in terms of failure loads on the structure is much different. Thus to determine
actual collapse load on the structure , it is necessary to take into account , the
inelastic behaviour of the materials .
a
Ultimate stress
/u Yield stress
fy
Failure
Lower yield stress

O 8 O 8
( a ) Concrete ( b ) Mild steel

Stress - strain diagrams

FIG . 6 - 1
6 - 2. Ultimate load theory: The theory which takes into account, the inelastic
strains of the material before failure is called ultimate load theory. Using this theory
the failure loads on the structure can be calculated . The ratio of the failure loads
to that of working load is called load factor. As against the factor of safety applied
to stresses in elastic theory , the load factor is applied in ultimate theory which gives
better understanding of the load carrying capacity of the given structure . The load
factor at once gives the idea of excess load that the given structure would carry
before failure .
The stress - strain diagrams of all types of steel can be idealised into well defined
graph . However , the stress - strain diagram of concrete is not very well defined due to
variation of quality of concrete . This is why many research workers, including Dr. V.S. Thattey
of M .S. University , have proposed different stress -strain diagrams for concrete . Several
Art . 6 - 2 ] Limit State Method 171

important diagrams are due to Mensch , Dyson , Whitney and Jensen . Amongst all ,
Whitney ' s diagram was very well adopted due to its simplicity.
Consider a singly reinforced rectangular section of a beam as shown in fig. 6 - 2 ( a ) .
As we have noted in elastic theory , the strain diagram of the beam is a straight line
even at higher loads corresponding to failure . The strain diagram is shown in fig. 6 - 2 ( b ) .
Now using the accepted stress - strain diagram of concrete such as that of fig. 6 - 1 ( a ) ,
the stress diagram can be drawn as shown in fig. 6 - 2 ( c ) . The diagram OABC of
fig. 6 - 2 ( c ) is called the stress block . Note that the strain diagram of compression side
of fig. 6 - 2 ( b ) and stress block of fig. 6 - 2 (c) are related by graph of fig. 6 - 1 ( a ) , however ,
these cannot be actually plotted , unless ecbc or a cbc is known .

X I
< b H
^ cbc C
—^ —
M cbc H
B

A
N. A.
D . O

• A si
£ st
a St

( a) Section ( b) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

FIG . 6 - 2
The stress - block can be drawn by two different ways:
( 1 ) By fixing maximum stress in extreme compression fibre in concrete .
( 2 ) By fixing maximum strain in extreme compression fibre in concrete .
a,. al

B
°cbc i
^cbc
A t
i
i

o Jc o >
£ cbc 8 8cbc 8

(a ) Fixing ( a ) Fixing £ cbc

acbc
Using - diagram
CT 8 of concrete to draw stress - block
FIG . 6 -3
These are discussed as follows :
(1 ) By fixing maximum stress in extreme compression fibre in concrete: The maximum
stress acbc is fixed and ecbc is determined from accepted stress - strain diagram
of concrete as shown in fig . 6 - 3 ( a ) . The strain - diagram of the section is then
drawn as shown in fig. 6 - 2 ( b ) . Using the compression part of this strain diagram
and the stress - strain diagram of fig. 6- 3 ( a) , the stress diagram of concrete in
compression is now drawn . The strain in steel at the level of steel reinforcement
is determined from strain diagram of fig . 6 - 2 ( b ) and corresponding stress in
steel is determined from accepted stress - strain diagram of steel such as that of
fig. 6 - 1 ( b ) . By using the properties of stress- block and equilibrium conditions ,
172 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

the section can be analysed . The ultimate load theory as adopted by IS : 456- 1964
takes into account , this method of drawing the stress block where acbc = 0.55 FCR .
( 2 ) By fixing maximum strain in extreme compression fibre in concrete: The maximum
strain in extreme compression fibre in concrete , £ cbc » fixed and strain diagram
of fig . 6 - 2 ( b ) can be drawn . Now using the accepted stress - strain diagram of
concrete such as that of fig. 6 - 3( b ) and the compression part of the stress - strain
diagram , the stress block of fig. 6 - 2 ( c ) can be drawn . The strain in steel at the
level of steel reinforcement i s determined from strain diagram of fig. 6 - 2 ( b )
and corresponding stress in steel is determined from accepted stress - strain diagram
of steel such as that of fig . 6 - 1 ( b ) . By using the properties of stress - block and
equilibrium conditions , the section can be analysed . The whitneys stress - block
is based on this method where £ cbc = 0.003 or 0.3 % is adopted .
The ultimate load theory as discussed above takes into account the inelastic behaviour
of the materials, which resulted in economical design . At the same time , it resulted
in slender sections , large deformations and larger crack widths in concrete . This
created the necessity of refining the method so that in addition to strength , the
structure would be serviceable also .
6 - 3 . L i m i t s t a t e m e t h o d : The limit state method as adopted by IS : 456 - 1978
and IS : 456 - 2000 is nothing but the modified ultimate load theory which takes into
account the drawbacks of the ultimate load theory. In limit state method , the attention
is given to the acceptable limit before failure as against the ultimate load theory which
gives the load factor on failure load of the structure . The limit state method is now
discussed in detail and will be adopted for most other chapters to design the RCC
elements and RCC structures.
A limit load is defined as the maximum load that can be applied to a-structure
’ "

^
before collapse begins . With a dllCtile Thaterial this condition will not occur until the
' '

yield point has been reached throughout the most highly stressed section in statically
determinate structures .
Limit state means the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements
before failure .
Limit analysis is the method of determining the load that causes actual collapse of
the structure to impend or results in excessively large deformations . It may be noted
that the concept of limit analysis is not applicable to brittle materials , some ductility
must always be present . Concrete is a brittle material , however reinforced concrete
possesses some ductility due to the presence of reinforcing steel . Also the code takes
a number of provisions while designing and detailing of RCC structures to increase
its ductility . Limit state method can therefore be applied to RCC structures .
The design based on limit state method as against the ultimate load theory takes
into account the safety and also serviceability criteria . In ultimate load theory , we
consider the failure state of the material , whereas in limit state method we consider
the limit state of the structure . The aim of the design based on limit state method as
stipulated by the code is to see that the structure will not become unfit for the use
during its expected life span .
The achieve the above aim , the structure should be loaded with limit loads ( also
called factored loads ) as against the ultimate loads in ultimate load theory. Similarly
the limit strength of the materials shall be considered as against the ultimate strength
of materials in ultimate load theory. Design values i . e . , design loads and design
strength of materials shall be specified by applying appropriate safety factors to their
characteristic values. In short , the structure should be loaded with limit loads and the
limit strength of materials shall be considered in design .
A r t . 6 - 6] Limit State Method 173

It is now necessary to consider the limit state of collapse and limit state of
serviceability as applied to RCC designs .
6 - 4. Limit state of collapse: This limit state refers to the strength of the
structure . A structure or its part should be strong enough to resist the applied design
loads . This is called limit state of collapse .
The limit state of collapse includes the design for axial forces , flexure , shear ,
torsion , buckling, etc. Thestrength of each section must be more than the applied
stresses on that section due to all expected combination ol loads .
6 - 5 . Limit state of serviceability: The structure or its part thereof shall be
serviceable during its expected life span . The serviceability corresponds to the deflection
and cracking of the structure .
Deflection: Excessive deflections that can reduce the efficiency of the structure
must be avoided .
Cracking: Concrete structures have innumerable cracks, however if the crack
widths are larger , the appearance of the structure will be affected . Also ingress ,

of water and gas from the atmosphere can cause rusting of reinforcement Fox-
normal concretestructures, the surface crack width of 0.3 mm is acceptable . ^
It may happen that the structure is strong and safe to resist applied design loads
but is not serviceable. Increasing the section dimensions usually solves the problem .
6- 6 . Characteristic and design values and partial safety factors:
These are explained as below.
(1) Characteristic strength of materials: The strength of the material below which
not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall is known as the
characteristic strength of the material and is denoted by f
The characteristic strength for concrete ( fc ) shall be in accordance with table 3- 1,
^
The characteristic strength for steel (fy ) shall be assumed as minimum yield
stress or 0.2 percent proof stress .
( 2 ) Characteristic loads : The value of load which has a 95 percent probability of
not being exceeded during the life of the structure is known as characteristic
load and is denoted by F.
The characteristic loads shall be worked out using statistical methods. Since data
are not available to express the loads in statistical terms , the loads that have
given safe designs in past shall be used and are set out in relevant Indian
Standards .
( i ) Characteristic dead loads are due to the weight of the structure itself .
These shall be found out using the unit weights of materials as given in
IS : 875 - 1987 ( Part I ) .
( ii ) Characteristic live loads and wind loads in the absence of statistical data ,
shall be taken from IS : 875 - 1987 ( Part II and Part III ) .
( iii ) Characteristic seismic loads in the absence of statistical data shall be taken
from IS : 1893 - 2002 ( Part I ) .
(3 ) Partial safety factors: These are the factors which when applied to loads and materials
give the design values . The partial safety factors take i n t o account the possible

^
overloads the kind of limit state and inaccurate assessment of the effects of loading.
These are setout in table 18 of IS : 456 accordingly the partial safety factors
for various loads shall be as follows:
174 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

TABLE 6 - 1
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS
( A ) Partial safety factors ( Yf ) for loads.
Partial safety factors
Sr . Description
no .
Serviceability *
Collapse ( Short term )
1 Gravity loads
DL 1.5 1.0
LL 1.5 1.0
2 DL + WL ( or EL ) combination
( i ) For normal case
DL 1.5 1.0
WL ( or EL ) 1.5 1.0
( ii ) For checking stability against
overturning / stress reversal
DL 0.9 1.0
WL ( or EL ) 1.5 1.0
3 DL + LL 4- WL ( or EL ) combination
DL 1.2 1.0
WL 1.2 0.8
WL ( or EL ) 1.2 0.8
* For long term effect only permanent loads like dead load and a few live loads likely
to be permanent should be considered .
( B ) Partial safety factors ( ym ) for materials.
Material Partial safety factors
For concrete 1.5
For steel 1.15
Note: Higher values of partial safety factors may be applied for particular importan
structures as decided by engineer- in - charge .

( 4 ) Design values: The design values are obtained when partial safety factors are
applied to characteristic loads and strengths . These are obtained as below.
( i ) Materials: The design strength of the materials, is given by
/-
/d = 77
Ym
(6- 1)
where f = characteristic strength of the material
Ym = partial safety factor appropriate to the material and limit
state being considered .
( ii ) Loads : The design load F is given by
FA = Fyf ^ ( 6 - 2)
where F = characteristic load
Yf = partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and
the limit state being considered .
Art . 6 - 7 ] Limit State Method 175

6- 7. Limit state of collapse: Flexure:

Assumptions: These are set out in clause 38.1 of IS : 456 and explained below. For
complete details the code shall be consulted .
( 1 ) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending .
This assumption means that strain at any point on the cross - section is directly
proportional to its distance from the neutral axis. Refer to fig. 6 - 5 ( a ) .
( 2 ) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is taken
as 0.0035 in bending. Refer to fig . 6 - 4 and fig. 6 - 5 ( a ) .
( 3 ) The stress strain diagram of concrete is parabolic from strain value of zero to
0.002 and corresponding stress value of zero to FCR . The stress now remains
constant and strain increase to 0.0035 as indicated in fig. 6 - 4 . Since the concrete
is a brittle material , the compressive strength of concrete shall be taken as
0.67 JLJL . Then applying the partial safety factor for material , ym = 1.5 the
design flexural strength ot concrete shall be
0.67 /ck
1.5
= 0 - 4 4 6 /ck -

CA
Parabolic curve
—
,
T
/ck
b
C/3

0.67 /ck

/ck
0.67
A B *m

D C Strain
O 0.002 0.0035
Stress - strain curve for concrete
FIG . 6 - 4
The strain diagram and design stress block are separately shown in fig. 6 - 5. The
design stress block parameters are as follows:
Area of stress block = 0.36 /ck * u
Depth of centroid of compressive force from the extreme fibre in compression = 0.42 xu
where /ck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete
depth of neutral axis.
xu =
The stress block parameters are derived as follows:
As the strain in concrete is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis , the
depth of parabolic portion , referring to fig. 6 - 5
 :^^ 0=0^ ] 5
^

176 O ,0 0 3 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

O '
0 O ~L C ty 0.002 *u 4
OD = x2 = <
0.0035 7
and the depth of rectangular portion
3 x
DC = * i = * u j xu 7 U• ^
2 x 0 446 4
Area of parabolic portion =
3 - fQk x - xu
= 0.17 /ck A:ii -
Area of rectangular portion = 0.446 /ck x |
7 *u
= 0.19 /ck x u -
Total area of stress block = 0.17 /ck xu + 0.19 /ck * u
= 0.36 /ck xu ( 6 - 3a )
0.446 /ck
- 0.0035 B
0.42 xu
xi
- 0.36 4k xu
x2 ^ — A.

0.87 fy
0.87 fyJ
+ 0.002
Es
( a ) Strain diagram ( b ) Stress diagram
FIG . 6 - 5
Let y be the distance of centroid of stress block from the extreme compression fibre ,

d-' ( 0.17 /ck *u ) ( *! + |2 ) + 0.19 /ck

X *u
*
•1

2
then y
0.36 /ck *u
3
Substituting *1 x
7 u
and x i< —
Tj * u and simplifying
y = 0.416 xu 0.42 xu — (6- 3 b)
( 4 ) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored .
( 5 ) The representative stress- strain curve for different type of steel used are given
in fig . 6 - 6 ( a ) and 6 - 6 ( b ) . For design purpose the partial safety factor ym equal
to 1.15 shall be applied .
Close observation of these curves shows that for mild steel the stress is proportional
to strain upto yield point and then upto failure , the strain increases at a
constant stress /y .
Note that this is not the actual stress - strain curve for mild steel , but is idealized
for design purpose . For mild steel , the design stress will be 250 217 N / mm 2
1.15 =
for the strain value of 217
= 0.00109 and above ( i . e . , upto failure ) .
2 X 105
 177

Method
Limit State
Art . 6 -71 i/i

fy
0.975 fy ]I
IT
\ Jf y V-
0.95 /y Y
0.90 /y r
__ __ _-_ fy
1.15

0.85 /vt
0.80 /y \

2
5 mm
2 * io < '
t
Es =

Strain
0.004
0002
0.003
o.oooi - o .ooi
0.0003 ed bar
0.0007 (a) Cold -
worked deform

/v
«/ J

5 JL
1.15

Es = 2 x l
05 N / m m

Strain
O

Stress
__
(b) *®W S
tee\ bar

lneiastAc
Nil
strain
^

0 -80 fy 0.0001
0 -85 /y 0.0003
0.90 fy 0.0007
0.95 fy o .ooio
0.975 Zy 0.0020
teinf °rce rrrent
1.00 fy
stress- strain
rTottveT^
6
p.epresen tati^e ElG - 6 -
178 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

For cold - worked deformed bar ( and also for TMT bar ) , the stress is proportional
to strain upto a stress of 0.8 /y. Thereafter , the stress - strain curve is defined
as tabulated in fig. 6 - 6.
To find out the stress for a given strain value , a stress - strain graph shall
be drawn using the above values . For plotting the graph , stress - strain relation
may be assumed as a straight line between above defined points e .g. , for Fe 41.5
0.8 x 415
grade steel , at 0.8 fy the strain will be = 0.00166 and at 0.85 /y ,
2 x 105
0.85 x 415 + 0.0001
the strain will be = 0.00186 and between these two
2 x 105
points the stress - strain relation is assumed as a straight line . For the given
strain , now stress can be found out from the graph . The stress - strain curves for
cold - worked deformed bars are shown in fig. 6 - 7.

Strain

Stress - strain curves for cold - worked steels

FIG . 6 -7
Art . 6 - 7 ] Limit State Method 179

To draw the design stress - strain diagram the same procedure is followed . Thus if
the stress level is 0.9 /y ( e . g. , for Fe 415 grade reinforcement )
0.9 x 415
design stress =
1.15 = 324.8 N / mm 2
324.8
and strain = + 0.0003 = 0.00192.
2 x 105
The points on design stress - strain curve for HYSD reinforcement shall be as
follows :
Fe 415 grade steel
Stress level
Stress level Design stress = 1.15
Strain

upto 0.80 / yci a G/ E

0.80 /vd 288.7 0.00144
0.85 /yd 306.7 0.00163
0.90 /yd 324.8 0.00192
0.95 /yd 342.8 0.00241
0.975 /yd 351.8 0.00276
1.0 /yd 360.9 0.00380

Fe 500 grade steel

Stress level
Stress level Design stress = 1.15
Strain

upto 0.80 /yd a G/ E

0.80 /yd 347.8 0.00174
0.85 /yd 369.5 0.00195
0.90 /yd 391.3 0.00226
0.95 /yd 413.0 0.00277
0.975 /yd 423.9 0.00312
1.0 /yd 434.8 0.00417
Fe 550 grade steel
Stress level
Stress level Design stress = 1.15
Strain

upto 0.80 /yd G G/ E

0.80 fyd 382.6 0.00191
0.85 /yd 406.5 0.00213
0.90 /yd 430.4 0.00245
0.95 /yd 454.3 0.00297
0.975 /yd 466.3 0.00333
1.0 /yd 478.3 0.00439
( 6 ) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall
not be less than :
fy
+ 0.002 (6 - 4 )
1.15 Es
where /y = characteristic strength of steel and Es = modulus of elasticity of steel .
This assumption restricts the depth of neutral axis, as explained below :
180 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6
From the strain diagram ( refer to fig. 6 - 5 )
Xuymax 0.0035 0.0035
d 0.87 fy 0.8 7 /y
0.0035 + + 0.002 0.0055 +
Es Es
Considering E = 2 x 105 N / mm 2 for all steels
Xu ,m a x 700 (6-5)
d 1 100 + 0.87 fy
For mild steel , fy = 250 N / mm 2
Xuymax 700
= 0.53.
d 1100 + 0.87 x 250
X \i y m a x
For other steels may be found out in the same way. The limiting values
d
of depth of neutral axis for different grades of steel based on the above assumption
are as follows :
x u ,m a x
fy d
250 0.53
415 0.48
500 0.46
550 0.44

SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

6- 8. Derivation of formulae: A singly reinforced rectangular beam section ,
strain diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 6 - 8. The formulae for balanced
section are derived by using the above assumptions as follows:
* To find neutral axis :
Total compression = total tension
0.36 /ck xu b = 0.87 fy
0 - 87 fy
^ st

Asl
*u = 0.36 ( 6- 6 a )
/ck b
Note that the value of depth of neutral axis as obtained by equation ( 6 - 6 a) should
not exceed x u m a x for a given section . If
' > x u» m a x the depth of neutral axis shall
xu
be taken as x u m a x. This automatically restricts the use of over - reinforced sections .
’
ec = 0.0035
0.446 /ck t
T Txu Compression
zone
o.42 x u ; ;
C = 0.36 /Ck xub

d L» A.
<- Tension
zone d - 0.42 xu
Ast T = 0.87 fy ASI
c 0.87 /y
r- + 0.002
Es
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

Singly reinforced beam

FIG . 6 - 8
 A r t . 6 - 8] Limit State Method 181
* To find lever arm :
From the stress diagram , the lever arm
Z = ( d - 0.42 xu ) (6-6b )
* To find moment of resistance:
( 1 ) For a balanced section
M . R. = total compression x lever arm
= total tension x lever arm .
Considering the compressive forces ( under reinforced and balanced sections )
Mu = 0.36 /ck b xu ( d - 0.42 xu )
= 0.36 1 - 0.42 - f fck bd 2 ( 6 - 6c )
d
For a limiting value , substitute x u , max for xu and Mu lim for Afu .
x , max
Au Xuymax
Then Mu Jim = 0.36
d
1 - 0.42 d /ck
= Qjim bd 2 (6 -7a)
where the constant

Qjim
bd 2
Xu , m a x *u , max
= 0.36 1 - 0.42 /ck ( 6-7 b)
d d
And is known as limiting moment of resistance factor for balanced rectangular section.
For M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel
Qjim = 0.36 x 0.48 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.48) x 20 = 2.76
For different combinations of materials , the values of Qj{ m have been tabulated in
table 6 - 2 .
TABLE 6- 2
LIMITING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE FACTOR Qlim N / m m 2
FOR SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
/ck , N /mm2 /y, N / mm 2
250 415 500 550
15 2.22 2.07 2.00 1.94
20 2.96 2.76 2.66 2.58
25 3.70 3.45 3.33 3.23
30 4.44 4.14 3.99 3.87
( 2 ) For an under - reinforced section
Now considering tensile forces ( for under - reinforced sections )
Mu = 0.87 /y Ast ( d - 0.42 *u) (6 - 7 c)
0 - 87 fy Asi
Substituting *u = 0 - 36 /ck b

d
0.42 x 0.87 /y 4,
Mu = 0.87 /y Ast 0.36 /ck b
fy 4 t
= 0.87 /y Ast d 1 - (6 -7d )
i
bTU
V )
Q -
182 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Dividing both the sides by 0.87 fy bd 2
Ma At fy At '
bd
1 - '
0.87 fy bd 2 /ck bd y

A
Substituting /lst = 100
f \2
_A_
/
A •/ y
0.87 /y b d 2 U 00 J /ck 100 ,
which on re - arranging gives
fy ( Pt f r 100
A 1 + Mu = 0
/ck 100 0.87 /y bd 2
which on solving gives

1 - 1 - 4.6 X
Wu
•

A V /ck irf 2
100 fy
2
/ck
1 - . 1 - /4.6 4 d'1
Pt = 50
\ ck
( 6 - 10)
fy 1 /ck
The positive value of the root of equation will give larger area of steel than
and hence it is not considered .
From equation ( 6 - 10 ) , for given values of fy and fc and for different values of
Mu ^
the reinforcement percentage p { can be plotted or tabulated . SP : 16 contains
bd 2 ’
charts 1 to 18 and tables 1 to 4 based on the above equation .
In SP: 16 , the exact value of distance of c . g. .of compressive force from extreme
compression fibre ( 0.416 xu ) is considered which yields the expression
4.6
1.005 - 1.005 - X
/ck bd 2
Pt = 50
fy / /ck
Table 6 - 3 shows various values of pt for fy = 250 N / mm 2 and 415 N / mm 2 with
M 20 grade concrete mix based on above equation .
To find limiting reinforcement :

Substitute
Jim
for
Mu in equation ( 6 - 10 ) .
bd 2 bd 2
For M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel

Qjim = 2.76 from table 6 - 2

bd 2

Then Pt ,lim = 50
1
20v
- 1 - 4.6 x
415 / 20
2.76
= 0.96.
Art . 6 - 8] Limit State Method 183

For different combinations of materials, values of /I m have been tabulated in table 6 - 4 .

Values to remember : The most common combination of materials is M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement ( CTD or TMT bars ) of grade Fe 415 . Design
constants for this combination must be remembered . Here Qjim 2.76 ,
p ( jim = 0.96, fck = 20 N / mm 2, /y = 415 N / mm 2.
TABLE 6 -3
REINFORCEMENT PERCENTAGE, pt FOR SINGLY REINFORCED SECTIONS
/ck = 20 N / mm 2
MJbd 2 /y, N / mm 2 MJbi* fyy N / mm 2
N / mm 2 250 415 N / mm 2 250 415
0.30 0.140 0.085 2.16 1.164 0.701
0.35 0.164 0.099 2.18 1.177 0.709
0.40 0.188 0.114 2.20 1.190 0.717
0.45 0.213 0.128 2.22 1.203 0.725
0.50 0.237 0.143 2.24 1.216 0.733
0.55 0.262 0.158 2.26 1.230 0.741
0.60 0.286 0.172 2.28 1.243 0.749
0.65 0.311 0.187 2.30 1.256 0.757
0.70 0.336 0.203 2.32 1.270 0.765
0.75 0.361 0.218 2.34 1.283 0.773
0.80 0.387 0.233 2.36 1.297 0.781
0.85 0.412 0.248 2.38 1.311 0.790
0.90 0.438 0.264 2.40 1.324 0.798
0.95 0.464 0.280 2.42 1.338 0.806
1.00 0.490 0.295 2.44 1.352 0.814
1.05 0.517 0.311 2.46 1.366 0.823
1.10 0.543 0.327 2.48 1.380 0.831
1.15 0.570 0.343 2.50 1.394 0.840
1.20 0.597 0.359 2.52 1.408 0.848
1.25 0.624 0.376 2.54 1.423 0.857
1.30 0.651 0.392 2.56 1.437 0.866
1.35 0.679 0.409 2.58 1.451 0.874
1.40 0.707 0.426 2.60 1.466 0.883
1.45 0.735 0.443 2.62 1.481 0.892
1.50 0.763 0.460 2.64 1.495 0.901
1.55 0.792 0.477 2.66 1.510 0.910
1.60 0.821 0.494 2.68 1.525 0.919
1.65 0.850 0.512 2.70 1.540 0.928
1.70 0.879 0.530 2.72 1.555 0.937
1.75 0.909 0.547 2.74 1.570 0.946
1.80 0.939 0.565 2.76 1.585 0.955
1.85 0.969 0.584 2.78 1.601
1.90 1.000 0.602 2.80 1.616
1.95 1.030 0.621 2.82 1.632
2.00 1.062 0.640 2.84 1.647
2.02 1.074 0.647 2.86 1.663
2.04 1.087 0.655 2.88 1.679
2.06 1.099 0.662 2.90 1.695
2.08 1.112 0.670 2.92 1.711
2.10 1.125 0.678 2.94 1.727
2.12 1.138 0.685 2.96 1.743
2.14 1.151 0.693 2.98 1.760
Note: Blanks indicate inadmissible reinforcement percentage.
184 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
TABLE 6 - 4
LIMITING PERCENTAGE OF REINFORCEMENT ptlim
FOR SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
/ck /y , N / mm 2
N / mm ^
250 415 500 550
15 1.32 0.72 0.57 0.50
20 1.75 0.96 0.76 0.66
25 2.19 1.20 0.95 0.83
30 2.63 1.44 1.14 0.99
6 - 9 . G e n e r a l v a l u e s : The limiting moment of resistance factor Mujim and
limiting reinforcement ptjjm as obtained in art . 6 -8 depend on /y and fc both . Values
of these factors may be remembered when fc and /y are fixed for a given work . ^
^
However , when we talk in general form , it is necessary to derive the values which are
Xu , max
free from fc and depend only on /y , because the values of depend on /y and
^ d
not on /cjc . In this way we get two important indices, viz . , limiting moment of resistance
index and limiting reinforcement index . These are now derived as follows:
Limiting moment of resistance index :
Xu , max Xu , max
From equation ( 6 - 7 a ) Jim = 0 - 36
d
1 - 0.42 d /ck bd 1

Muslim = 0.36
*u , max
1 - 0.42
Xu , max
(6-8)
/ck bd 2 d d

The constant
Muslim is known as limiting moment of resistance index. This can be
/ck bd\u , max A

obtained by substituting - for different grade of steel .

d
*u , max
•
For mild steel = 0.53
d
Mu ,lim
= 0.36 x 0.53 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.53)
/ck bd 2
= 0.148.
For Fe 415 grade HYSD steel
*u , max
d = 0.48

^ u , lim
= 0.36 x 0.48 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.48 )
/ck bd 2
= 0.138 .
For Fe 500 grade HYSD steel
*u , max = 0.46
d
M \x Jim
= 0.36 x 0.46 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.46 ) = 0.133.
/ck
Art . 6 - 10 ] Limit State Method 185

*u , max
For Fe 550 grade HYSD steel ,
d = 0.44

Jim
= 0.36 x 0.44 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.44) = 0.129.
/ck bd2
For ready reference , these values are tabulated in table 6- 2.
Limiting reinforcement index :
From equation ( 6 -7 c ) Mu = 0.87 fy Asi d i -
0.42 xu
d
pt bd
Substituting = 100

Mu =
0.87
fy Pt bd 2 1 “
0.42 xu
100 d
Mu 100 1
Pt fy = bd 2 X X
0.87
1 -
0.42 xu )
d
Dividing both the sides by and writing equation for limiting moment
Ptjim fy 100 1
x X
/ck /ck bd 2 07 0.42 x\i , max
1 - d
Xuymax
- 0.42 * d
Xu , max 100 u , max
•

= 0.36
d
1 - 0.42 d
X
07 X 1
xu , max (6 -9 )
= 41.38
d
Pi , lim fyy
The constant
/ck — is known as limiting reinforcement index .

Ptjim fy r
For mild steel , = 41.38 x 0.53 = 21.93.
/ck
For different grades of steels , these values have been tabulated in table 6 -5.
TABLE 6 - 5
LIMITING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE AND REINFORCEMENT INDEX FOR
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
fyy N / mm 2 250 415 500 550
Mujim
0.148 0.138 0.133 0.129
/ck
P t j i m fy
21.93 19.86 19.03 18.20
/ck
6- 10. Types of problems: Three different types of problems are considered
for singly reinforced rectangular beams :
Type 7 : To find out the depth of neutral axis and specifying the type of beam .
For a given section , equate total tension and total compression and thus find out
the depth of neutral axis using equation ( 6- 6 a )
186 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
0.87 /y Ast
i . e. *u
0 36 /ck b -
Also find out the limiting value of depth of neutral axis * u , max using limiting
value of
Xutmax
d
Then If xu < x u , max the section is under - reinforced
If xu = xumax the section is balanced
If xu > x u , max the section is over - reinforced and adopt
* u = Xutmax -
Alternatively the reinforcement percentage pt shall be compared with pt nm -
Then If pt < the section is under - reinforced
If pt = pijim the section is balanced
If pt > pt nm the section is over - reinforced .
)

Type 2 : To find out moment of resistance for a given section .

( 1 ) Find out the depth of the neutral axis and the type of the beam as discussed
in type 1.
( 2 ) For over - reinforced and balanced sections , obtain moment of resistance by
using equation ( 6 -7 a ) .
( 3 ) For under - reinforced sections, obtain moment of resistance by using equation
( 6 - 6 c ) , ( 6 -7 c ) or ( 6 - 7 d ) .
Type 3: To design a singly reinforced rectangular section for given width and
applied factored moment.
The width is usually decided by the functional or architectural requirements. To
decide the depth , first determine the balanced depth .
Mu
^ bal Qjim X
^
If the balanced area is found with this depth , difficulty will arise while providing
the reinforcements . Selecting exact number of reinforcement with available diameter
is hardly possible . We cannot provide lesser area . If we provide larger area , the
section becomes over - reinforced . Therefore , the under - reinforced design should be
followed by using larger depth than balanced one .
If fact the balanced design of the section provides us a guideline to arrive at a
practical solution .
The following procedure may be adopted as one of the alternatives for depths upto
1000 mm to arrive at a practical solution .
( 1 ) Assume 5 % larger effective depth for d 500 mm ( case 1 ) and 10 % larger
depth for 1000 mm > d > 500 mm ( case 2 ) .
( 2 ) Assume one layer of 20 mm diameter bars for (case 1 ) and two layers of 20 mm
diameter bars for ( case 2 ) .
( 3 ) If the clear cover to main reinforcement is 30 mm
effective cover = 30 + 10 = 40 mm for case 1 (assume one layer of 20 d )
= 40 + 20 = 60 mm for case 2 (assume two layer of 20 <t> )
( 4 ) The overall depth can be obtained as
Doverall = d + 40 mm for case 1
= d + 60 mm for case 2 .
Art . 6 - 10 ] Limit State Method 187

(5 ) The value thus obtained shall be rounded upto nearest 25 m m .

( 6 ) Now d - overall^ —^
0 mm for case 1
= - overall 60 mm f r case 2.
^ “
°
( 7 ) Determine
bd 2 ’
pt and Asi , using equation (6- 10) as per the case of under - reinforced
section . Also determine Astjim.
( 8 ) Select the bar size and number such that Asi > Asi re ( juire (i and also 4 st < i

Type 4: To find the steel area for a given factored moment .

( 1 ) For a given ultimate moment (also known as factored moment ) and assumed
width of section , find out d from equation ( 6 -7 a )
Mu
d = Qjim x >
'

*
This is a balanced section and balanced steel area may be found out using
equation ( 6 - 7 c ) . Alternatively , pt /lm may be obtained from table 6 - 4 .
( 2 ) For a given factored moment, width and depth of section .
Obtain Mulim = Qjim bd '1 .
If
Mu < Mu lim : design as under - reinforced as explained in type 3.
If Mu = Malim : design as balanced section as explained in ( 1 ) above .
If Mu > MuJlm : redesign the section either increasing the dimensions of section
or design as doubly - reinforced beam .
For under - reinforced section , the steel area can be obtained by using equation
( 6 -7 c ) , ( 6 -7 d ) or ( 6 - 10 ) .
Example 6 - 1 .
A rectangular beam 230 mm wide and 520 mm effective depth is reinforced with
4 no . 16 mm diameter bars. Find out the depth of neutral axis and specify the type
of beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415 . Also find out the depth of neutral axis if the reinforcement is increased to
4 no . 20 mm diameter bars.
Solution :
Case 7 : Ast = 4 x 201= 804 mm 2.
Total compression = 0.36 fc bxu = 0.36 x 20 x 230 xu = 1656 xu .
Total tension
^
= 0.87 fy 4 st = 0.87 x 415 x 804 = 290284 N .
i

Equating 1656 xu =
290284
*u 175.3 mm .
Limiting value of neutral axis
Xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 520 = 250 mm
* u < x u , max -
Section is under - reinforced
and *u = 175.3 mm .
Case 2 : Ast = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2.
Total compression = 0.36 x 20 x 230 xu = 1656 xu .
Total tension = 0.87 x 415 x 1256 = 453479 N .
188 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

Equating 1656 xu = 453479 => xn = 273.8 mm .

Here *u >* u ,max > i . e . , over - reinforced section

* u = Xuymax = 250 mm .
Example 6 - 2.
A singly reinforced rectangular beam of width 230 mm and 460 mm effective
depth is reinforced with 3 no . 20 mm diameter bars. Find out the factored moment
of resistance of the section . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415. Also find out the factored moment of resistance if it is reinforced
with 5 no . 20 mm diameter bars.
Solution :
Case 1 : Asj = 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2.
Total compression = 0.36 fc b xu = 0.36 x 20 x 230 xu = 1656 xu .
^
Total tension = 0.87 /y /!st = 0.87 x 415 x 942 = 340109 N .
Total compression = total tension
=
1656 xu = 340109 > * u = 205.4 mm
X \i , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 460 = 220.8 mm .

*u < .
x u max'
The section is under - reinforced and * u = 205.4 mm .
Mu = 0.87 /y Asi ( d - 0.42 *u )
= 0.87 x 415 x 942 ( 460 - 0.42 x 205.4) x 10 ~6 kNm
= 127.12 kNm .
Alternatively , 0.36 /ck b xu ( d - 0.42 xu )
Mu =
= 0.36 x 20 x 230 x 205.4 ( 460 - 0.42 x 205.4 ) x 10 "6

= 127.12 kNm .
Case 2 : /lst = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2 .

Total compression = 0.36 /ck b xu = 0.36 x 20 x 230 xu = 1656 xu .

Total tension = 0.87 / Ast = 0.87 x 415 x 1256 = 453479 N.
Total compression = total tension
1656 xu = 453479 => xu = 273.8 mm
X \i , max =
220.8 mm
X u > x u , max -
Section is over - reinforced . Use xu = 220.8 mm .
Lever arm Z = d -
0.42 xu = 460 - 0.42 x 220.8 = 367.2 mm .
Mu = 0.36 /ck b xu z
= 0.36 x 20 x 230 x 220.8 x 367.2 x 10 ~6 kNm
= 134.2 kNm .
The actual stress in steel , /s , when the section is subjected to Mujim is determined
by equating total tension and total compression .
Then 1256 fs = 1656 x 220.8
i .e . fs = 291.1 N / mm 2, as against 0.87 /y = 0.87 x 415 = 361 N / mm 2.
Art . 6 - 10 ] Limit State Method 189

Example 6 - 3 .
A singly reinforced rectangular beam is subjected to a bending moment of 36 kNm
at working loads . The width of the beam is 200 mm . Find the depth and steel area
for balanced design . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement .
Solution :
Factored moment = 1.5 x 36 = 54 kNm .
From table 6 - 2 MuJim = 2.96 M*.
54 x 106
d = 2.96 x 200 = 302 mm .

Steel area can be found out by using equation ( 6-7c ) .

Mu = 0.87 /y Ast d 1 - 0.42 -*uj .

For balanced section

xu Xu , m a x
= 0.53.
d d
Substituting 54 x 106 = 0.87 x 250 Ast x 302 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.53)
= 57995 Asi
Ast = 1057 mm 2 .
Alternatively ,
This is a balanced section , therefore , from table 6 - 4
Ptjim ~ 1.75
1.75
= 100 x 200 x 302 = 1057 mm 2.
A st
Provide 3- 20 0 + 1 - 16 0 = 3 x 314 4- 201 = 1143 mm 2
D = 302 + 10 + 30 = 342 mm
provide overall depth = 350 mm .
Supplementary details: Compare this example with Ex . 5 -3 designed by using working
stress method . While using limit state theory , there is a saving in concrete. There may
or may not be increase in cost of total steel while using limit state method for
rectangular beam . In general, the limit state method provides an economical solution .
The other advantages are:
( 1 ) Light sections are used which reduce the dead weight of the structure .
( 2 ) Light sections appear aesthetic .
Note: This example explains the design of a balanced section . However , at the end of
the design , we are not sure whether the section is under - reinforced . We have
provided slightly more area which makes the section over - reinforced . As we have
slightly increased depth also , the final result may be that the beam would be
under - reinforced . We are however , not sure unless we analyse the section .
The practical section is therefore usually designed as under - reinforced as explained
in type 3-
Example 6 - 4.
Design a singly reinforced rectangular beam for an applied factored moment of
120 kNm . Assume the width of the section as 230 mm . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
190 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Solution :
Afu = 120 kNm fy = 415 N / mm 2
b
/ck =
— 230 mm
20 N / mm 2
Qjim = 2.76
Pt ,bal = 0.96
Mu 120 x 106 434.8 mm .
= 2.76 x 230 =
Balanced depth d
Qjim x
Increase this depth by 5%
^
and add 40 mm effective cover.
D = 1.05 x 434.8 + 40 = 496.5 mm .
Nearest multiple of 25 mm = 500 mm .
Let D = 500 mm . Assume one layer of 20 mm diameter bars .
d = 500 - 30 ( cover ) - 10 ( upto centroid of reinforcement)
= 460 mm .
120 x 106
bd2 230 x 460 x 460 = 2.47

43 x 2.47
Pt = 50
1 -
V-
20
1
415 / 20
= 0.826

0.826 x 230 x 460 874 mm 2.

^ st ~
100 =
0.96 x
230 x 460 = 1016 mm 2.
^ st , lim 100
Provide 3- 20 # = 942 mm 2 .
Thus A st , required < A st , provided < A st Jim-
Finally we have b x D = 230 mm x 500 mm
st = 3 - 20 # = 942 mm .
2
^
Example 6 - 5 .
A rectangular cantilever beam of size 230 mm width x 500 mm effective depth is
subjected to a bending moment of 80 kNm at working loads. Find the steel area required .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Factored B . M . Mu = 1.5 x 80 = 120 kNm
Mn lim = 2.76 bd 2 = 2.76 x 230 x 5002 x 10 ~6 kNm
= 158.7 kNm
Mn < Mu Mm-
The beam is under - reinforced .
To find steel area , using equation ( 6 -7 c )
fy At
= 0.87 fy Ast d 1 -
120 x 106 0.87 x 415 x 500 1-
415 A t ,
= ^ st 230 x 500 x 20
- 32.57
= 180525 Ait A
^
t .
Art . 6 - 10 ] Limit State Method 191

Dividing both sides by 32.57 and simplifying

A*t - 5543
^ st + 3684372 = 0
which on solving gives
A st = 773 mm 2 .

1 - 1 - 4.6
fck
X
bd *
Alternatively , P t = 50
fy / /ck
120 x 10( )

bd 2 230 x 5002
= 2.09

4.6 x 2.09
1 - V1 - 20
/> , = 50 415 / 20
= 0.673
0.673 x
230 x 500 = 774 mm 2 .
100 ^ St ~

The value of p { also can be found out by using table 6-3.

Note: Design this section by using elastic theory where it is a doubly reinforced
section . Refer to example 5- 27.

Example 6 - 6 .
A beam 230 mm wide x 400 mm effective depth is reinforced with 3 no . 16 mm <J)
mild steel bars in tension . Compare both the flexural capacities Mu and the strain in
steel when ( a ) M 20 mix is used and ( b ) M 25 mix is used . Comment on the calculations.
Solution :
Case ( 1 ) M 20 mix
Find neutral axis , ylst = 603 mm 2 , b = 230 mm , d = 400 mm
0.36 x 20 x 230 * u = 0.87 x 250 x 603
* u = 79.2 mm
Xu , max = 0.53 x 400
= 212 mm
* u < * u , max under - reinforced
Mu = 0.36 x 20 x 230 x 79.2 ( 400 - 0.42 x 79.2 ) x 10 ~6
= 48.1 kNm .
Strain in concrete = 0.0035

Strain in steel = strain in concrete x

d xu -
*u
400 - 79.2
= 0.0035 x 79.2 = 0.01418
Case ( 2 ) M 25 mix
0.36 x 25 x 230 xu = 0.87 x 250 x 603
xu = 63.4 mm
Xu , max= 0.53 x 400 = 212 mm
xu < x u , max under - reinforced .
192 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

Mu = 0.36 x 25 x 230 x 63.4 ( 400 - 0.42 x 63.4 ) x 10 ‘6

= 49 kNm .
Strain in concrete = 0.0035
Strain in steel =
400 - 63.4
0.0035 x = 0.01858 .
63.4
Comment : Increase of 33 percent strength of concrete gives increase in M . R . equal to 1.9
percent . The tensile force remaining the same , the increase in moment is
because of the increase in the lever arm . However the strain in steel has
increased appreciably. This results in more ductile beam , which resists more
deflection before the failure .
Example 6 - 7.
A singly reinforced rectangular beam of 5 m span is simply supported and carries \

a characteristic dead load of 18 kN / m and live load of 12 kN / m in addition to its self

weight. Design the beam for flexure at mid - span . Also, find out the section in the span
where half the reinforcement can be curtailed theoretically. The materials are M 20
grade concrete and CTD bars of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
The reinforcement is CTD bars, i .e ., cold twisted deformed bars. This is an HYSD
bar , hence treated in the same manner. As we have noted in chapter 2 , HYSD bars are
available as CTD bars and TMT (Thermo Mechanically Treated ) bars .
Consider width of the beam equal to 230 mm . The depth may be assumed as
1
JQ to of the span . Take D = 600 mm . Note that this depth is assumed for load
^
calculation . It may be necessary to revise the depth after some calculations .
We have /ck = 20 N / mm 2
fy = 415 N / mm 2
(him = 2.76.
Loads on beam :
Dead load = 18 kN / m
Live load = 12 kN / m
self weight 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 « 4 kN / m
Total 34 kN / m .
34 x 52
^ max 8
106.25 kNm

Mu = 1.5 x 106.25 = 159.375 kNm .

Assuming two layers of 20 mm diameter bars
d. = 600 - 30 ( cover ) - 20 - 10 = 540 mm .
Mu 159 , 375 x IQ6
bd 2 230 x 540 x 540
= 2.38 < 2.76 singly reinforced .
There is no need to revise the section .

Pi = 50
1 -
v
1 - 4201
415 / 20
X 2.38
= 0.789
Art . 6 - 10 ] Limit State Method 193

0.789 x 230 x 540

= = 980 mm 2
^ st 100
pijim = 0.96, from table 6 - 4
0.96 x
230 x 540 = 1192 mm 2.
100
Provide 2 - 20 # + 2 - 16 # = 2 ( 314 + 201 )
= 1030 mm 2.
^ required ^ ^ provided < ^ ,lim
st , st , st ( O . K. )
Now , half the bars are required to be curtailed . To curtail 1 - 20 # + 1 - 16 # , let
us find out the theoretical point of cut off .
1030
A
^ st
i(
remaining )
" N
= —y = 515 mm 2.
100 515 x
Pt = 230 x 540 = 0.414 .
Substitute this value in equation of pv

l -. l - M x
0.414 = 50 \ 20 bd2
415 / 20

Solving, 1.3657
bd2
Mu = 1.3657 x 230 x 5402 x 10 "6
= 91.59 kNm .

M =
Mu = 61.06 kNm .
1.5
Equate this moment with moment at distance x from the support .

Reaction at support = 34 x |= 85 kN .
34 x 2
Mx = 8 5 x - 2 = 61.06.
Simplifying x2 - 5 A: + 3.592 = 0 .
Solving x = 0.87 m or 4.13 m .
Thus half the bars can be curtailed theoretically at 0.87 m from either support.
Note: This distance is theoretical one . The actual curtailment in practical beam is done
by observing a few rules which are discussed later on . The curtailment induces
complicated stresses at the point of curtailment, therefore , the bars are curtailed
at some distance ahead , i .e . , beyond the point of theoretical curtailment , where
lesser moment exists.
Example 6 - 8 .
A simply supported rectangular beam of 8 m span carries a uniformly distributed
load of 23 kN / m , inclusive of its self - weight . Determine the reinforcement for flexure.
The materials are M 30 grade concrete and TMT bars of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
To determine the design constants , use design indices which depend on grade of
steel and not on grade of concrete .
194 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

From table 6 - 5, for Fe 415 grade reinforcement

Jim
= 0.138
/ck
Pi Jim fy
and 19.86 .
/ck
For M 30 grade concrete
him =
( 0.138 x 30 = 4.14 ;
19.86 x 30 1.44.
Pi Jim 415
For the present case
23 x 82
M= 8
184 kNm
1.5 x 184 = 276 kNm .
Mu =
Adopt b = 250 mm .
276 106 x
Balanced depth d =
4.14 x 250
= 516.4 mm .
Assume 10 % larger depth and 60 mm effective cover
D = 1.1 x 516.4 + 60 = 628 mm .
Use D = 650 mm , d = 650 - 60 = 590 mm .
Mu 276 x 106
bd2 250 x 590 x 590 = 3.17

1 - 1 - 476
30
x 3.17
Pi = 50 415 / 30
1.02

^ st
100 — 1.02
x 250 x 590 = 1505 mm 2
1.44 x
st Jim 250 x 590 = 2124 mm 2
100
Provide 5 - 20 # = 5 x 314 = 1570 mm 2.

^ st,required < ^ st,provided < A st Jim ( O. K. )

Example 6 - 9 .
Determine the main reinforcement for a simply supported one - way slab of span
3 m carrying a uniformly distributed load of 5.5 kN / m 2 inclusive of self - weight .
Thickness of slab is 100 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Clear cover to main bars may be taken as 15 mm .
Solution :
The slab is a plate element which is designed as a beam of 1 m width . Consider
1 m length of slab . The load on the slab is equal to 5.5 x 1 = 5.5 kN / m .

M = 5.5 x 32 = 6.19 kNm / m

8
Mu = 1.5 x 6.19 = 9.28 kNm / m .
Art . 6 - 11 ] Limit State Method 195

Using 10 mm # bars
d = 100 - 15 - 5 = 80 mm
b = 1000 mm
MU _ 9.28 X IQ6
1.45.
bd 2 1000 x 802
From table 2 , SP: 16 ( or table 6 - 3 )
100 As
fit =bd = 0.443
0.443 x
^ st 100
1000 x 80 = 355 mm 2.
Area of 8 mm diameter bar = 50 mm 2 .
355
No . of 8 mm diameter bars per metre = = 7.1, say 8.
Ast = 8 x 50 = 400 mm 2.
Note: In slabs usually the spacing of bars is specified . In this example , 7.1 bars are
1000 140 mm .
required in 1 m length of slab . Therefore spacing of bars is
7.1
6 - 1 1 . F a i l u r e o f R . C . C . b e a m in f l e x u r e: Consider a simply supported
rectangular R . C. C . beam of constant cross - section loaded with a central point load .
The beam is reinforced in tension only. The load is progressively increased to failure.
While discussing the failure of an R . C . C. beam in flexure , the effect of shear is
neglected as it has a little influence on the moment capacity of the beam . Also the
maximum compressive strain in outermost fibre of concrete at failure is taken as
0.0035. Depending on the steel area provided for flexure , following three different
modes of failure are possible .
( 1 ) Over - reinforced beam : compression failure
( 2 ) Under - reinforced beam : tension failure
( 3 ) Beam with very small amount of steel .
Case 1 . Over - reinforced beam : compression failure :
For an over - reinforced beam the loading diagram , deflection diagram , section at
mid - span and strain diagram and stress - strain diagram for a section at mid - span are
shown in fig. 6 - 9.
Steel area provided in this case is more than what it is required for a balanced
design . Because of the larger steel area , the neutral axis is positioned close to the
tensile reinforcement . When the load is progressively increased , the stresses and strains
in steel and concrete increase . The increase in strain in outermost fibre of concrete
is more than strain in steel because it is positioned farther from neutral axis than
steel. The rate of increase of stress in concrete at early stage is higher but afterwards
it is slower as shown in fig. 6 -9 . As the stress in steel increases , the total tension also
continuously increases. To have an equilibrium of total tension and total compression ,
the neutral axis further shifts towards tension steel and increases the concrete area in
compression to increase the total compression . This increases strain in concrete.
The rate of increase of strain in concrete is much higher , while the steel is well
within elastic limits. Failure of beam occurs when the maximum compressive strain in
outermost compression fibre reaches 0.0035. Failure starts at the point of maximum
bending moment by crushing of concrete in compression zone through a large depth
and is known as compression failure.
196 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6

Pa Pu
Concrete crushes

/ \
/ \
/ i \

//
Q / / / br )n
ec = 0.0035 /y Steel

/c
Balanced N .A . :/5
v;
i) Concrete
Actual N .A . failure
I i
i i
>
es £ s Ey 0.0035 Strain

FIG . 6 - 9
Stress in steel may not have yet reached to yield stress and therefore the deflection
of beam ( indicated as 8 j ) is relatively small (as compared to that with under - reinforced
beams ) . Comparison of deflections for under - reinforced and over - reinforced beams of
same dimensions and same loading conditions is indicated in fig. 6 - 10. Note that the
deflection of under - reinforced beam at failure (indicated as 82) is very large than 81.

Load Sudden compression failure

« Over- reinforced
Ultimate load
r- Under- reinforced
T
t

/
/
Progressive tension
failure
—^
/
/
7

*
O 5i $2 Deflection

Comparision of deflection for under - reinforced and over - reinforced beams

FIG . 6 - 10
Failure of over - reinforced beam is sudden and does not give notice before it
occurs as the concrete is brittle and does not yield . Falling concrete due to failure of
such beams or slabs can overload the other members of the structure which may fail
due to overloading. This kind of design is uneconomical because the available strength
of steel is not effectively used . Also it is unsafe as in case of overload the failure is
sudden and does not give time for the occupants to take necessary action . Therefore,
the design of an over - reinforced beam is restricted by the code .
Case 2 . Under - reinforced beam : tension failure :
For an under - reinforced beam the loading diagram , deflection diagram , section at
mid - span and strain diagram and stress - strain diagram for a section at mid - span are
shown in fig. 6 - 11.
Art. 6 - 11 ] Limit State Method 197

Steel area provided in this case is less than what it is required for a balanced
design . Because of the moderate percentage of steel area , neutral axis is positioned
close to compression zone . When the load is progressively increased , strain in steel
and concrete increase . It is experimentally verified that even when the concrete is
heavily cracked , the strain diagram is linear . Increase in strain in steel is much higher
than the strain in concrete as the strain varies linearly from neutral axis and the
neutral axis is nearer to compression zone . At service load the stress and strain in
steel are indicated in fig. 6 - 11 ( e ) as /stl ( approximately half the yield stress ) and £ j .
Corresponding strain in concrete is lower than Ej . At this level , deflections are small
and tension cracks in concrete are invisible to the naked eye (conditions assumed in
elastic design ) .

Pu
i
Steel yields
^ -- A
^
4 K A

^
/
/7 7 n // / / / / / rr J 'v /77 / 777

( a ) Loading (b) Deflection

Stress
£c = 0.0035
/ 2 Steel
Final N .A. 3
fy
Initial
Balanced
— — N.A.
N.A . At l 1
i
!i Concrete
Failure

//
/ /
2
/ / i i
3
-*
-H £ ,i h«- £ y 0.0035 e 3 Strain
<—»
£y
£3

(c) Section ( d ) Strain diagram (e) Stress-strain diagram

Under - reinforced beam : tension failure

FIG . 6 - 11
With the further increase in load , stresses and strains in steel and concrete increase .
At a particular load , stress and strain in steel reach to yield point while the strain in
concrete is below 0.0035 as the strains vary linearly from neutral axis . At this load
the beam does not fail as it has still a capacity to develop the moment . Because of
the property of the steel to yield it can resist extensive deflections . There are extensive
cracking and deflections in tension zone before failure occurs .
With the further increase in load , the strains in concrete and steel increase . The
additional strain in concrete causes the concrete away from neutral axis to be stressed
in non - linear range and the total compression increases . Additional strain in steel
causes the steel to yield but cannot increase the stress level and therefore total tension
remains constant . To have an equilibrium ( i . e . , total compression = total tension ) , the
neutral axis shifts towards the extreme compression fibre thereby reducing the total
compression and increasing the lever arm . This increases the total moment of resistance
of the beam . The beam collapses when the strain in concrete is 0.0035 .
From this discussion , it can be observed that before failure , the beam resists
extensive cracking in tensile zone and very high deflections . This gives sufficient
warning before failure to the occupants for taking precautions against damages . As the
198 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6
failure is initiated by cracks in tension zone and yielding of steel , it is termed as
tension failure. The failure in this type of beam ( under - reinforced ) is ductile and only
this kind of design is acceptable .
Case 3 . Beam with very small amount of steel :
This kind of beam occurs when the section of beam is large and loading is very
small . According to design method , this requires a very small amount of steel . If such
a beam is progressively loaded , the mode of failure is brittle. Because of loading the
tensile stress in steel and surrounding concrete in tension zone increases . When the
stress in concrete in tension zone reaches to its modulus of rupture , it starts cracking
and releases the force it carries . The steel reinforcement provided should be able to
resist this additional force . If not , the steel will snap and the beam will fail suddenly.
The mode of failure is thus brittle . To prevent this kind of failure , some minimum
reinforcement shall be provided .
Consider a rectangular beam of size b x d with usual notation as shown in
fig. 6 - 12 . The cracking moment of the beam is
bd 2 I bd*
^cr = / cr X l = 0.7 X (i)
At cracking, all tensile force is transfered to steel at depth d. Then from fig. 6 - 12 ( b ) ,
lever arm = d - (M ) 5
~P d. For steel reinforcement
o
M = A % x 0.87 fy x|d (2)
Equating ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , we get
A o - i 6 V7T
bd fy
Based on this calculation IS : 456 - 2000 ( clause 26.5.1.1 ) recommends minimum tension
steel as follows :

- •
J_ d d

d
d
2

d
rc /
:: 3 2 6

Jo- d (lever arm)

2
1 T

(a ) Section ( b) Stress diagram

FIG. 6 - 12
The minimum area of tension reinforcement shall not be less than that given by
the following expression :
0.85
bd fy
where As = Minimum area of tension reinforcement
b = breadth of beam
d = effective depth
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement in N / mm 2 .
Art. 6 - 13 ] Limit State Method 199

6- 12. Code provisions to prevent the brittle failure: The approach of

IS : 456 is to design a ductile beam . To prevent the brittle failure of beam in flexure ,
following measures are specified :
( 1 ) Use of over - reinforced beam is restricted by limiting the depth of neutral axis.
( 2 ) Minimum area of reinforcement is specified which prevents the snaping of bars
in case of overloading ( refer to art. 6 - ll case 3).
The above provisions prevent the brittle failure in case of overloading and ensure
the ductile behaviour of the beam .
6- 13. Computer programmes: With the increased use of computer in all
areas , the students must be conversant with computer programming for R . C . C . design
work also. Such programmes may be created by using FORTRAN , EXCEL, VB or
any other package . It is expected that the students reading this book are conversant
with the programming in FORTRAN language. We shall prepare a few fortran programmes
for different problems in this chapter. It is instructive to note here that if you write
a successful computer programme , your fundamental of the subject will be very
clear .
Programme 1
Prepare a computer programme to find out the moment of resistance of a singly
reinforced rectangular section .
Solution :
Step 7 : The section is given , hence we know the following data :
Width of the beam b in mm
Effective depth d in mm
Concrete grade /ck in N / mm 2
Steel grade fy in N / mm 2
Modulus of elasticity of steel in N / mm 2
Area of reinforcement Ast in mm 2

The first step is to read this data .

Step 2 : Determine the depth of neutral axis by the following equation :
0.87 /y Ast
*u = 0 36 fck b
-
Step 3: Determine the balanced depth of neutral axis , i .e ., xu max by the following
equation :
0.0035
X \i , max
0.87 /y d
0.0055 +
4
Step 4 : Compare xu with x u , mar Then
if *u < x u , max
*u = * u, and
if > A:u , max

*u Xu ,maxm
200 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Step 5: Determine the moment of resistance by the following formula :
Mu = 0.36 /ck b xu ( d - 0.42 xu )
The programme is now written , compiled and executed as follows :
c File name Progl.for
Real Mu
Write(* , * )'This programme determines the moment of resistance'
Write(* , *)'of a singly reinforced rectangular section'
Write( * , * )'Give the sectional properties b , d Ast , Fck ,Fy and *
#

Write( * , * )'Es respectively with usual notation and units , i .e.'

Write(* , *)'width and effective depth in mm , reinforcement area'
Write(* , *)'in square mm; Fck , Fy and Es in N/sq. mm'
Read (* , *)b, d , Ast , Fck , Fy , Es
Xu = (0.87*Fy*Ast)/(0.36*Fck*b)
Xumax = 0.0035*d /(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
-
If (Xu Xumax) 10 , 20 ,30
10 Xu =Xu
Write ( * , *) 'The beam is under reinforced'
Go to 40
20 Xu=Xu
Write ( * , * ) 'The beam is balanced'
Go to 40
30 Xu=Xumax
Write ( * , *)'The beam is over reinforced , and Xu=Xumax'
40 Mu = 0.36*Fck * b*Xu*(d -0.42 *Xu)*1.0E-06
Write ( * , 50) b, d , Ast , Xu , Mu
50 Format( / , 3X , 'b = 'F6.2,IX ,'mm',6X,'d = 'F6.2 ,IX ,'mm' , /
11X , 'Ast = 'F7.2 ,IX ,'sq.mm ', /
12X , 'Xu 'F6.2 ,IX ,'mm', 5X ,'Mu ='F8.2 , IX ,'kNm')
Stop
End

The sample run of the programme after compiling it is as follows:

C: \> Progl

This programme determines the moment of resistance

of a singly reinforced rectangular section
Give the sectional properties b,d , Ast ,Fck ,Fy and
Es respectively with usual notation and units, i.e .
width and effective depth in mm , reinforcement area
in square mm ; Fck , Fy and Es in N/sq. mm
230. 460. 339. 20. 415. 200000.
The beam is under reinforced
b = 230.00 mm d = 460.00 mm
Ast = 339.00 sq.mm
Xu = 73.91 mm Mu 52.50 kNm
Stop -
Program terminated.
Art. 6 - 13] Limit State Method 201

Programme 2
Prepare a computer programme to design a balanced singly reinforced
section . Given data : b in mm , applied factored moment Afu in kNm , fc y /y ,
Esy in N / mm 2 . ^
Solution :
Step 7: Determine the balanced depth of the beam :
From equation 6 - 5
Xu , max 0.0035 (i)
d 0.87 /y
0.0055 +
From equation 6 -7 b Es
xu ymax X\i y m a x
Qjim = 0.36 1 - 0.42 /ck ( 2)
d d
The balanced depth d is given by
Mu (3)
d = Qjim x b
Step 2: The balanced reinforcement area can be found out as follows :
= 0.87 /y Atulim ( d - 0.42 x u , max;

— - 0.42 xu d
ymax
-
0 87 fy Ast ,lim 1 d
Note that Mu = jitn for this example.
Mu
^ sty lim
0.87 /y d
xUy max
d
1 - 0.42
The programme may be now written , compiled and executed as follows:
c File name PROG2. for
Real Mu
Write ( * * )'This programme designs the flexure'
#

Write ( * , * ) 'reinforcement of a singly reinforced'

Write( * , * )'balanced rectangular section'
Write( * , * )'Give the data of the problem:'
Write ( * , * )'b in mm , Mu in kNm , Fck , Fy and Es in N /sq.mm'
Read ( * , * ) b, Mu , Fck, Fy , Es
Xumbyd = 0.0035 / ( 0.0055 + 0.87 *Fy/ Es )
Qlim = 0.36 * Xumbyd * ( 1.0 - 0.42 * Xumbyd ) * Fck
d = Sqrt ( Mu * l . 0 E6 / ( Qlim * b ) )
Astlim = Mu * l.0 E6 / ( 0.87 * Fy * ( 1.0 - 0.42 * Xumbyd ) * d )
Write ( * , 10 ) b , d , Mu, Astlim
10 Format ( / , 3 X ,'b = 'F6.2 , IX,'mm', 8X ,'d = 'F6.2 , IX, 'mm', /
12 X ,'Mu 'F 5.2 , IX, 'kNm', 3 X ,'Astlim = 'F8.2 ,' sq. mm .')
Stop
End
202 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
The sample run of the programme after compiling it is as
follows:

C:\>Prog2
This programme designs the flexure
reinforcement of a singly reinforced
balanced rectangular section
Give the data of the problem:
b in mm , Mu in kNm , Fck ,Fy and Es in N/sq.mm
230. 60. 20. 415. 200000.

b 230.00 mm d = 307.69 mm
Mu 60.00 kNm Astlim = 676.15 sq. mm.
Stop - Program terminated.

Programme 3 :
Prepare a programme to design a singly reinforced rectangular section .
Solution :
The balanced design of a section is a separation line between under - reinforced and
over - reinforced design . The over - reinforced design is not permitted by the code . It we
design a balanced section , the actual beam becomes over - reinforced . This is because
the provided area is usually more than balanced area as available bar diameter may
not provide exact area . Hence under - reinforced design is usually followed . However,
the balanced values shall be used to provide a separation between under - reinforced
and over - reinforced design .
Step 7: The width of the beam is usually governed by architectural requirement or
available formwork . Therefore it is included in data . Read the values of b,
A/u , fzk , fy , Es with usually notations and units.
Step 2 : Decide Qjim, p t j j m and the balanced depth aj of the beam as explained in
programme 2.
Step 3 : To decide the depth of beam .
( 1 ) To obtain under - reinforced design , use the depth about 5 % larger for
*4> al 500 mm and 10 % larger for d ]
^ ^
500 mm . These will be now
referred as case 1 and case 2.
( 2 ) Assume one layer of 20 mm diameter bars for case 1 and two layers
of 20 mm diameter bars for case 2. Assume 30 mm clear cover for
normal case and determine overall depth of the section .
( 3 ) Round up this value such that the overall depth is a multiple of 25 mm .
( 4 ) Determine the effective depth .
Step 4 : Now determine the area of reinforcement from the following formula:

1 - 1 - 4.6 X
Mu
\ /ck bd2
P t = 50
fy / /ck

pt b d
^ st “
100 ’
Step 5: Also calculate the balanced steel area Ast for this section .
^ ai
Art . 6 - 13 ] Limit State Method 203

Step 6 : T h e o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m m e i s b, D , fc fy , Afu , Asl, a n d Ast j i m with a n o t e

“ select t h e n u m b e r a n d d i a m e t e r of t h e bars^ s u c h that t h e provided r e i n f o r c e m e n t
a r e a i s n o t less t h a n /lst a n d n o t m o r e t h a n i4s t /i m
Note: T h e s e p r o g r a m m e s a r e w r i t t e n f o r t h e beginners a n d h a v e s o m e limitations. I n fact,
a f t e r p r e p a r i n g s o m e programmes o f this n a t u r e , you c a n modify t h e p r o g r a m m e s
a s p e r y o u r c o n v e n i e n c e.
T h e p r o g r a m m e i s n o w w r i t t e n , c o m p i l e d a n d e x e c u t e d a s f o l l o w s:
c F i l e n a m e PROG 3 . f o r
R e a l Mu
Write ( * , * ) 'This programme designs the depth of the '
Write ( * * ) ' beam and reinforcement for flexure of a '
#

Write ( *, * ) ' singly reinforced rectangular section '

Write ( * ,* )
W r i t e ( * , * ) ' G i v e t h e d a t a o f t h e p r o b l e m: '
W r i t e ( * , * ) ' b i n mm , F c k , F y a n d E s i n N / s q . mm , '
W r i t e ( * , * ) ' a n d M u i n kNm '
R e a d ( * , * ) b, F c k , F y , E s , Mu
Write ( *, * )
X u m b y d = 0 . 0 0 3 5 / ( 0 . 0 0 5 5 + 0 . 8 7*F y / E s )
Q l i m = 0 . 3 6 * X u m b y d* ( 1 . 0 - 0 . 4 2 *X u m b y d ) *F c k
p t l i m= 4 1 . 3 8 *F c k *X u m b y d / F y
d b a l = S q r t ( M u * l . 0 E6 / ( Q l i m*b ) )
I f ( d b a l . LE. 500 . ) Then
d= l . 0 5*d b a l
D o v e r a l l =d+ 4 0 .
ND = ( D o v e r a l l / 2 5 . ) +1.
D o v e r a l l = F l o a t ( ND* 2 5 . )
d=D o v e r a l l-4 0 .
Else
d= l .1 0* d b a l
D o v e r a l l =d + 6 0 .
ND = ( D o v e r a l l / 2 5 . ) +1.
D o v e r a l l = F l o a t ( ND* 2 5 . )
d=D o v e r a l l -6 0 .
Endif
Q =M u * l . 0 E 6 / ( b* d *d )
p t = ( 5 0 . * F c k / F y ) * ( 1 . 0 -s q r t ( 1 . 0 - 4 . 6 *Q / F c k ) )
A s t = p t * b* d / 1 0 0 .
A s t l i m = p t l i m * b* d / 1 0 0 .
W r i t e ( * , 1 0 ) b , D o v e r a l l , Mu , A s t , A s t l i m
10 F o r m a t ( 2 X , ' b = % F7 . 2 , ' mm ' , 3 X , ' D o v e r a l l 'F8.2 ,' mm'/
1 1X , ' Mu %
F 7 . 2 , ' kNm ' X / 4X Ast =
, 3 , , ' ' F8 . 2 , ' s q . mm . ' , /
1 1X , ' A s t l i m = ' F8 . 2 , ' s q . mm . ' )
Write ( * , * )
Write ( * , * ) 'Select the number and diameter of the '
Write ( * , * ) ' reinforcement such that the provided area i s '
Write ( * , * ) 'not less than Ast and not more than Astlim. '
Stop
End
204 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6

The sample run after compiling the programme is as follows:

C:\>Prog3
This programme designs the depth of the
beam and reinforcement for flexure of a
singly reinforced rectangular section

Give the data of the problem :

b in mm , Fck , Fy and Es in N/sq.mm ,
and Mu in kNm
230. 20. 415. 200000. 450.

b =230.00 mm Doverall = 1000.00 mm

Mu 450.00 kNm
Ast = 1560.21sq. mm.
Astlim = 2056.57 sq. mm.

Select the number and diameter of the

reinforcement such that the provided area is
not less than Ast and not more than Astlim.
Stop -
Program terminated.

Programme 4
Write a computer programme to design a number of singly reinforced rectangular
sections for flexure. Data: b, d, fc , fy , Es and Mu with usual notations and units. The
^
material properties shall be the same for all problems.
Solution :
For proper execution of the programme , the data file and the output file are created .
Step 7: Create data file and output file .
Step 2 : Read the material properties.
Step 3: The output will be created in tabular form . The top heading line shall be
written in output file before executing the programme . The following lines
shall be written .
( 1 ) Note : For all problems , fcy. = N / mm 2, '

fy = N / mm 2, b, d, and
, 2 units.
Ast are in mm mm and mm
( 2 ) The tabular form may be as follows :
Beam No. Mu b D Ast Astjim.
Step 4 : Find out the followings :
Xu , max 0.0035
d 0.87 fy
0.0055 +
Es
Xu , max *u , max
Qjim = 0.36
d
1 - 0.42 /ck
d
/ck *u , max
•
from eq . ( 6 - 8)
Pt ,lim = 41.38 X
fy d
85 from case 3, art.6- 9.
Pi ,min
fy
Art . 6 - 13 ] Limit State Method 205

Step 5: Now read the data and execute the problems one by one using DO loop .
The reinforcement area ;4 st shall also be compared with Asi min.
( 1 ) Read b, D\ > Mu . As d and D are the same for computer , Dx is used for
overall depth .
( 2 ) If Dx > 575 mm
d = D\ - 60 mm
Di < 575 mm
d= D1
40 mm . -
This is as per our discussion of programme . Now , calculate the followings:
Mu ,Um = Qjim * b X d2
If Mu > Mu [ im design as doubly reinfored .
Mu
0. = hi 2
i
\-
- i 4.6 x
fck a
Pt = 50
fy / fck

Pi bd
^ St ~
100
Ptjim * by. d
st , lim
100
. = A ,lim * b x d
and A
100
Ast < A st, min '

Also check that pt > pl max where pl max = 4.0.

(3) Out put: MUi b, Dy Ast,
Step 6 : Computer wiil now read the next data and execute the programme . The
execution will be continued for all values of DO loop .
At the end , the output shall contain a note as follows:
Select the number and diameter of the reinforcement such that the provided area
is not less than Ast and not more than
The programme is now written , compiled and executed as follows:
c File name PROG4.for
c This programme designs the reinforcement for flexure
c of nbeam (number) no.singly reinforcea rectangular
c sections for given width , overall depth and applied
c factored moment. Material properties arci same for
c all beams.
c
c Data file: 1st line -
Fck , Fy,Es in N/sq. mm;
c 2nd line -
nbeam No. of beams to be designed);
(
c 3rd line onwards n( Beam No. ), Mu(moment in kNm );
206 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
c b(width of beam in mm) ; dl(overall depth in mm).
c All the four data should be in one line.
Real Mu , Mulim
Open(1 ,File='Prog4.dat')
Open(2 ,File='Prog4.out')
Read(l , * ) Fck ,Fy , Es
Write (2 ,10) Fck ,Fy, Es
10 Format(IX ,'For all beams , Fck = 'F6.2 ,' N/sq. mm',/
11X ,'Fy = * F6.2,' N/sq. mm ',2X,'and', /
11X ,'Es ' F10.2 ,' N/sq. mm .', 2X , /
11X ,'b and D are in mm' , /
llX ,'and Ast , Astlim are in sq. mm.', /)
Write(2 , 20)
20 Format('Beam Mu b D Ast Astlim')
Xumbyd = 0.0035/(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
Qlim = 0.36 *Xumbyd*Fck*(1.0 - 0.42*Xumbyd)
ptlim=41.38*Fck*Xumbyd/Fy
ptmin=85./Fy
ptmax=4.0
Read(1, *)nbeam
Do 50 k=l , nbeam
Read(1, *)n , Mu , b ,Dl
-
d=Dl 35.
If(D1.GT.575.) d=Dl 60.-
Mulim = Qlim*b*d*d*l.OE-6
If(Mu.GT.Mulim) Go to 40
Q=Mu*l.0E6/(b*d *d)
-
pt=(50.* Fck/Fy)*(1.0-sqrt(1.0 4.6*Q/Fck ))
Ast =pt*b*d /100.
Astlim = ptlim*b*d/100.
Astmin = ptmin*b*d/100.
Astmax = ptmax*b*d /100.
If ( Ast.LT.Astmin) Ast=Astmin
Write(2 ,30)n,Mu , b,dl , Ast , Astlim
30 Format( / ,'B', 12 , IX ,F6.1 , 2(2X , F6.1 ), 2(F7.0))
If(Ast.GT.Astmax)then
Write(2 , 35)
35 Format(' Ast > Astmax
Endif
— revise the section.')

Go to 50
40 Write(2 , 45)n
45 Format(/ ,'B' , 12 , 3X ,'Mu > Mulim , hence, design'/
110X ,'as a doubly reinforced beam.')
50 Continue
Write(2 , * )
Write(2,*)'Select "the number and diameter of the'
Write(2 , *)'bars such that the provided area is not'
Write(2 , *)'less than Ast and not more than Astlim.'
Stop
End
 Art . 6 - 14 ] Limit State Method 207

The data file is as follows:

20. 415. 200000.
\ 5
1 . 76.0 230. 500.
2 102.5 230. 450.
3 64.5 150 . 400 .
4 117.8 250 . 525.
5 162.0 230 . 670 .

The output file is as follows:

For all beams , Fck = 20.00 N / sq. mm
Fy = 415.00 N / sq. mm and
Es 200000.00 N / sq . mm.
b and D are in mm
and Ast , Astlim are in sq. mm .

Beam Mu b D Ast Astlim

B 1 76.0 230.0 500.0 502. 1022.

B 2 102.5 230.0 450.0 837 . 912.

B 3 Mu > Mulim, hence , design

as a doubly reinforced beam.

B 4 117.8 250.0 525.0 765. 1170.

B 5 102.0 230.0 670.0 831. 1351.

Select the number and diameter of the

bars such that the provided area is not
less than Ast and not more than Astlim. ^

DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS

If the applied moment is greater than the M . R . of a singly reinforced section , there
can be three alternatives :
( 1 ) If possible , increase the dimensions of the section , preferably depth .
( 2 ) Higher grade concrete can be used to increase the M . R . of the section .
( 3 ) Steel reinforcement may be added in compression zone to increase the M . R.
of the section. This is known as doubly reinforced section .
We shall now derive the formulae for balanced doubly reinforced sections .
6 - 1 4 . D e r i v a t i o n o f f o r m u l a e: A doubly reinforced beam section , strain
diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 6 -9. A doubly reinforced beam subjected
to a moment Mu can be expressed as a rectangular section with tension reinforcement
AsiJim reinforced for balanced condition giving moment of resistance Mujim + an
auxiliary section reinforced with compression reinforcement Asc and tensile reinforcement
Ast 2 giying a moment of resistance Mu 2 such that
Mu ~ MuJim + Mu2 -
208 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6
For the moment Afu /Im the tension steel Astjjm is found out as explained for singly
reinforced beams . For the additional moment Mu 2 , the additional tension steel and
compression steel are provided such that they give a couple of moment Mu 2 .
Let the compression reinforcement be provided at a depth d ' from the extreme
compression fibre . Then lever arm for additional moment will be d - d ' .
Considering tension steel
Mu2 = st 2 * 0.87 /y ( d - d' )
^ ( 6 - 11 a )
Considering compression steel

where
u2 =
^ .
(/ c - fee ) ( d - d' )
Ast 2 = area of additional tensile reinforcement
( 6 - 1 lb )

Asc = area of compression reinforcement

/sc = stress in compression reinforcement
C
fee = compressive stress in concrete at the level of compression steel .

0.0035 0.446 /ck

j d :::: f C2
x u.max Compression
( - u.max
0.0035 1 - 1 C|
zone
d X
d - d'
Tension
zone
A si
* T
0.87 /y 0.87 f y
+ 0.002
Es
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram (c ) Stress diagram

Doubly reinforced beam

FIG. 6 - 13
Now additional tension = additional compression
0.87 /y Ast 2 = ^ (/sc - feefee) )
sc

A st 2
• C/sc
^sc 0.87 ~
( 6 - 1 lc )
/y
Any two of the above equations may be used to find out the values of Asc and Asl 2.
The total tensile reinforcement

To solve the
^ -^ .
• st st /im 4
^
*

2 st *

above equations, one needs the value of

Referring to /cc and /sc.
d'
fig. 6- 13 ( b ) , the strain at the level of compression reinforcement will be 0.0035 1 ~ A “

uymax
To find the strain at the level of compression reinforcement , the stress in concrete
for this strain (fcc ) can be obtained from stress - strain curve of concrete of fig. 6 - 4.
d'
-
For the value of T upto 0.2, and for all types of steel , fcc is equal to 0.446 fc .
^
(This corresponds to the straight portion of curve upto a depth of y xu.) Thus, the
value of fcc can be found out.
The strain in compression steel is the same as the strain in concrete at the
level of compression steel . Using this value of strain, the stress in steel can be
 Art. 6 - 15 ] Limit State Method 209

found out from the representative stress - strain curves for reinforcement from
fig. 6 - 6 and fig. 6 - 7.
To simplify the procedure of finding out the stress in compression reinforcement,
let us find out the stress for different values of - j .
a
For mild steel, * u , max = 0.53 d.
d'
d =
For 0.2
Strain at the level of compression reinforcement
= 0.0035 (l - = 0.00218 .
Design stress in mild steel for strain of 0.00109 and above ( i . e . upto failure ) is
d*
217 N / mm 2. Therefore , for all values of from 0 to 0.2 , the stress /sc will be taken
J
as 217 N / mm .2
For HYSD steel of grade Fe 415
Xu , max = 0.48 d.
d'
For 0 05
d "
strain at the level of compression steel
0.05
= 0.0035 1 - 0.48 = 0.003135.
Stress in compression steel for this value of strain from fig. 6 -7, is 355 N / mm 2.
d’
Similarly for other values of - j stress in compression steel can be worked
d*
out. Design stresses in compression reinforcement (/sc ) for different values of and
different grades of steel have been tabulated in table 6 - 6. For intermediate value of
-dj' , the next higher value may be used for finding out fsc from table 6 - 6 .
TABLE 6 - 6
STRESS IN COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT /sc, N / mm 2 IN DOUBLY
REINFORCED BEAMS
d'
fy d
N / mm 2
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.20
250 217 217 217 217
415 355 353 342 329
500 424 412 395 370
550 458 441 419 380

-
6 15 . Types of problems: Two basic types of problems in doubly reinforced
beam are discussed below.
Type 1: To find out the moment of resistance of a given section .
Referring to fig . 6- 13 ( c) , the equilibrium of forces yields an equation
total compression = total tension
i .e. C\ + C'2 = T
••• 0 36- /ck bxu + Asc ( fsc - fce ) = 0.87 fy Ait ( 6 - 12 )
210 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
The stresses fsc and fcc may be found out assuming balanced conditions , i .e ., for
d*
7 uPto 0.2, fcc = 0.446 /ck and fsc may be found out using table 6 -5. Substitute the
values in equation ( 6 - 12 ) and find out x i r Find x u , max and type of beam .
The moment of resistance of the section can be found out by taking moments of
compressive forces about the centroid of tensile reinforcement . Note that if the section
is over - reinforced , the depth of neutral axis obtained will be more than x\i , max In such -
cases, * u Xu , max shall be used for calculations .
Then Mu = 0.36 /ck bxu ( d - 0.42 *u ) + Asc ( fsc fcc ) ( d d' ) ( 6 - 13 a ) - -
The value of fcc is very small as compared to the value of /sc and can be
neglected .
Then Mn = 0.36 /ck bxu [d - 0.42 x j + AiC /sc ( d - d' ) ( 6 - 13 b )
Alternatively , find out the c . g . of compressive forces and calculate lever arm z •

Mu = 0.87 /y st * ( 6 - 13 c )
Then
^
Type 2 : To find out reinforcement for flexure for a given section and factored
moment.
( 1 ) Find out Mujim and reinforcement Asijim for a given section by using the
equations
Mu Jim = Qjim b d 2 = 0.36 /ck bxu , max [ d - 0.42 X u , max )

and
K Jim
st Jim
0.87 /y [ d - 0.42 X u , max ) '
o\ -
( 2 ) Obtain moment Mu 2 = Afu - Mujim -
( 3 ) Find compression steel from equation fit**})
K .2 = ^ sc { fsc ~ fcc ) [ d - d% 7
Neglecting fcc * •
i.

Mu2
sc •
fsc ( d - d ' )
( 4 ) Corresponding tension steel ^4st 2 may be found out from

A st 2
Ac fsc
‘
0.87 fy
(5)
^ st -^ st Jim + -^st 2 *

Note: In above cases , area of concrete in compression zone is taken as b xu instead of

[ b xu - Asc ) . Asc is neglected being a small value.
( 6 ) Provide the reinforcement . Little larger margin should be kept while providing
the compression reinforcement so as to get under - reinforced section .
( 7 ) For a designed section , determine xu and xu , max and type of the beam . If it is
over - reinforced , revise the section in view of ( 6 ) above .
Example 6 - 10 .
Find the factored moment of resistance of a beam section 230 mm wide x 460 mm
effective depth reinforced with 2 - 16 mm diameter bars as compression reinforcement
at an effective cover of 40 mm and 4- 20 mm diameter bars as tension reinforcement
as shown in fig. 6 - 14 . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement.
Art . 6 - 15 ] Limit State Method 211

Solution :
b = 230 mm A sc = 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2
d = 460 mm i4 st = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2.
d' = 40 mm
Equating total forces 230
0.36 fck
§
bxu + ^lsc /sc = 0.87 fy ^ sl 0.0035
d 40
d 460
= 0.087 , next higher value 0.1
may be adopted .
fsc = 217 N / mm 2 from table 6 -6 .
Substituting
4- 20 0
0.36 x 20 x 230 *u + 402 x 217 ( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram
= 0.87 x 250 x 1256
FIG . 6 - 14
which gives 1656 A: u = 273180 - 87234 = 185946
*u = 112.29 mm
X \i , max = 0.53 d = 0.53 x 460 = 243.8 mm
X u C X u , max’
Hence , section is under - reinforced .
*u 112.29 mm .
Taking moments of compressive forces about centroid of tensile reinforcement
Mu = 0.36 /ck bxu ( d - 0.42 xu ) Asc fsc ( d - d ’ )
= 0.36 x 20 x 230 x 112.29 ( 460 - 0.42 x 112.29 ) x 10 ~ 6
+ 402 x 217 x ( 460 - 40) x 10 " 6

= 76.76 + 36.64 = 113.4 kNm .

Example 6 - 11 .
Find out the moment of resistance of a beam section of Ex . 6 - 10, if the materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
b—
Asc =
230 mm , d = 460 mm and d ' = 40 mm .
402 mm 2 and ^4 st = 1256 mm 2
Equating total forces , total compression = total tension
0.36 /ck bxu + Asc fsc = 0.87 fy Asi .
For —d
j = 0.1, /sc = 353 N / mm 2 from table 6 - 6
Substituting
0.36 x 20 x 230* u + 402 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 1256
1656 *u + 141906 = 453479
which gives xu 188.15 mm and x u , max = 0.48 x 460 = 220.8 mm .
*U < X n , max -
section is under - reinforced and xu = 188.15 mm .
 212 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
The moment of resistance can be found out by taking moments of compressive
forces about centroid of tensile reinforcement.
Mu = [ 1656 A:U ( 460 - 0.42 *u ) + 141906 ( 460 - 40 ) ] x 10 ~ 6.
Substituting *u = 188.15 mm
Mu = 118.70 + 59.60 = 178.3 kNm .
Example 6 - 12 .
Jy- / Find the factored moment of resistance of a beam section 300 mm wide x 450 mm
X^/effective depth reinforced with 2 - 20 mm diameter bars as compression reinforcement
at an effective cover of 50 mm and 4 - 25 mm diameter bars as tension reinforcement.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
b = 300 mm Asc = 2 x 314 = 628 mm 2
d = 450 mm Ast = 4 x 491 = 1964 mm 2.
d ' = 50 mm /sc = 342 N / mm 2
d' 50
0.11, next higher value 0.15 may be adopted .
d
^
450 =
Equating total forces
0.36 /ck bxu + Asc fsc = 0.87 fy st
^
0.36 x 20 x 300 xu + 628 x 342 = 0.87 x 415 x 1964
2160 xu + 214776 = 709102
*u = 228.85 mm
Xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 450 = 216 mm
*U > x u max
}

Over - reinforced section , and *u Xu ,max = 216 mm .

The moment of resistance can be found out by taking moments of compressive
forces about centroid of tensile reinforcement .
Mu = [ 2160 *u ( 450 - 0.42 xu ) + 214776 ( 450 - 50 ) ] x 10 ~ 6
Substituting xu = 216 mm
Afu = 167.63 + 85.91 = 253.54 kNm .
/ Example 6 - 13 .
A rectangular beam of size 230 mm wide x 500 mm effective depth is subjected
to a factored moment of 200 kNm . Find the reinforcement for flexure. The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
MuJim = 2.76 x 230 x 5002 x 10 ~ 6 = 158.7 kNm .
Mu 2 = 200 - 158.7 = 41.3 kNm .
Let the compression reinforcement be provided at an effective cover of 50 mm .
d' 50
d = 500 =
0.1.
Stress in compression steel from table 6 - 6.
fsc = 353 N / mm 2.
Mu2 41.3 x 106
Now A sc = 260 mm 2.
/sc [d - d' ) 353 ( 500 - 50 )
Art . 6 - 15 ] Limit State Method 213

Corresponding tensile steel

A st 2 ^0.87 fsc
• sc 260 x 353
0.87 x 415 =
254.2 mm 2
/y
Jim 158.7 x 106
^
• st, /im
X\i , max 0.87 415 x 500 ( 1 - 0.42 x 0.48 )
x
0.87 fyd 1 - 0.42
= 1101.1 mm 2
Asc =260 mm 2, provide 2 - 20 # = 628 mm 2
1101.1 + 254.2 = 1355.3 mm 2 , provide 5 - 20 # = 1570 mm 2.
^4 st =
For the designed section , determine xu by equating total compression and total tension .
0.36 fckbxu + Ascfsc = 0.87 fyAst
i .e . 0.36 x 20 x 230 *u + 628 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 1570
*u = 208.43 mm
Also Xu ,max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 500 = 240 mm
*u < x U y j n a x
The beam is under - reinforced . The design is accepted .
Example 6 - 14 .
If the section of example 6- 2 case ( 1 ) is also reinforced with compression steel of
2 - 16 mm # bars, at d ' = 40 mm , find out the limiting moment of resistance and
comment on both the sections .
Solution :
For singly reinforced section,
Mu = 127.12 kNm from example 6- 2.
d' _ 40
460 =
0.087, say 0.1
d
/sc = 353 N / mm 2
For doubly reinforced section ; equating the forces
0.36 /ck b xu + Asc fsc = 0.87 /y Ast
0.36 x 20 x 230 xu + 2 x 201 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 942
1656 xu + 141906 = 340109
xu = 119.7 mm
X \i , max = 0.48 x 460 = 220.8 mm

^ 0.36
u , max
X under - reinforced .
Mu = -
/ck b xu ( d 0.42 xu ) + sc /sc ( d - d ' )
^
= 0.36 x 20 x 230 x 119.7 ( 460 - 0.42 x 119.7) x 10 6 "

+ 402 x 353 x ( 460 - 40) x lO 6 "

= 81.22 + 59.6 = 140.82 kNm .

Comment:The M . R . does not increase significantly because the M . R . of under - reinforced
section is controlled by the tensile strength of steel . However the compression
steel increases beam ’s ductility and reduces creep . Its use is beneficial in case
of earthquake resistant structures.
214 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
TABLE 6- 7
REINFORCEMENT PERCENTAGES FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS
/ck = 20 N / mm 2, /y = 415 N / mm 2
M J b d2 d' / d = 0.05 d' / d = 0.10 d' / d = 0.15 d' / d = 0.20
N /mm2
Pi Pc Pi Pc Pt Pc Pi Pc
2.77 0.958 0.002 0.958 0.002 0.959 0.003 0.959 0.003
2.80 0.967 0.011 0.968 0.012 0.968 0.013 0.969 0.015
2.90 0.996 0.042 0.998 0.045 1.001 0.049 1.004 0.054
3.00 1.025 0.072 1.029 0.077 1.034 0.084 1.038 0.093
3.10 1.055 0.103 1.060 0.109 1.066 0.119 1.073 0.132
3.20 1.084 0.133 1.091 0.142 1.099 0.154 1.108 0.171
3.30 1.113 0.164 1.122 0.174 1.131 0.190 1.142 0.210
3.40 1.142 0.194 1.152 0.207 1.164 0.225 1.177 0.249
3.50 1.171 0.224 1.183 0.239 1.197 0.260 1.212 0.288
3.60 1.200 0.255 1.214 0.271 1.229 0.295 1.246 0.327
3.70 1.230 0.285 1.245 0.304 1.262 0.331 1.281 0.366
3.80 1.259 0.316 1.276 0.336 1.294 0.366 1.315 0.405
3.90 1.288 0.346 1.306 0.369 1.327 0.401 1.350 0.444
4.00 1.317 0.376 1.337 0.401 1.360 0.437 1.385 0.483
4.10 1.346 0.407 1.368 0.433 1.392 0.472 1.419 0.522
4.20 1.375 0.437 1.399 0.466 1.425 0.507 1.454 0.561
4.30 1.405 0.468 1.429 0.498 1.457 0.542 1.489 0.600
4.40 1.434 0.498 1.460 0.530 1.490 0.578 1.523 0.640
4.50 1.463 0.528 1.491 0.563 1.523 0.613 1.558 0.679
4.60 1.492 0.559 1.522 0.595 1.555 0.648 1.593 0.718
4.70 1.521 0.589 1.553 0.628 1.588 0.683 1.627 0.757
4.80 1.550 0.620 1.583 0.660 1.620 0.719 1.662 0.796
4.90 1.580 0.650 1.614 0.692 1.653 0.754 1.696 0.835
5.00 1.609 0.680 1.645 0.725 1.686 0.789 1.731 0.874
5.10 1.638 0.711 1.676 0.757 1.718 0.825 1.766 0.913
5.20 1.667 0.741 1.707 0.790 1.751 0.860 1.800 0.952
5.30 1.696 0.772 1.737 0.822 1.783 0.895 1.835 0.991
5.40 1.725 0.802 1.768 0.854 1.816 0.930 1.870 1.030
5.50 1.755 0.832 1.799 0.887 1.849 0.966 1.904 1.069
5.60 1.784 0.863 1.830 0.919 1.881 1.001 1.939 1.108
5.70 1.813 0.893 1.861 0.952 1.914 1.036 1.974 1.147
5.80 1.842 0.924 1.891 0.984 1.946 1.071 2.008 1.186
5.90 1.871 0.954 1.922 1.016 1.976 1.107 2.043 1.225
6.00 1.900 0.985 1.953 1.049 2.012 1.142 2.078 1.264
6.10 1.930 1.015 1.984 1.081 2.044 1.177 2.112 1.303
6.20 1.959 1.045 2.014 1.114 2.077 1.213 2.147 1.342
6.30 1.988 1.076 2.045 1.146 2.109 1.248 2.181 1.381
6.40 2.017 1.106 2.076 1.178 2.142 1.283 2.216 1.421
6.50 2.046 1.137 2.107 1.211 2.175 1.318 2.251 1.460
6.60 2.075 1.167 2.138 1.243 2.207 1.354 2.285 1.499
6.70 2.105 1.197 2.168 1.276 2.240 1.389 2.320 1.538
6.80 2.134 1.228 2.199 1.308 2.272 1.424 2.355 1.577
6.90 2.163 1.258 2.230 1.340 2.305 1.459 2.389 1.616
7.00 2.192 1.289 2.261 1.373 2.338 1.495 2.424 1.655
7.10 2.221 1.319 2.292 1.405 2.370 1.530 2.459 1.694
Art . 6 - 17] Limit State Method 215

6- 16. Use of design aids: While designing, the section is assumed as balanced .
The expression for the moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section may be written as follows:
Mu = KJim + Ait2 (0.87 /y) ( d - d' ).
Substituting A
Pi 2 ^ d
st 2
100
Pt ‘2 bd
= Mujim + 100
(0.87 fy ) (d - d' )

Mu Pi 2 bd (0.87 ) l - t
bd 2 bd2
+
100 / ,
where pt 2 is the additional percentage of tensile reinforcement.
P t == Pulim + Pt‘2
' N
0.87 fy
and Pc - Pt 2
v
fsc ~ fee J

For different values of the steel percentage p { and pc are tabulated for different

values of for M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel in table 6 -7.
bd2
Example 6 - 15 .
Design the steel reinforcement for the data given in Ex. 6 - 13 using design tables.
Solution :
Afu = b = 230 mm ,
200 kNm , d = 500 mm
Concrete : M 20 and Steel : Fe 415
d
= 0.1
MU = 200 X 106
= 3.48.
d' bd 2 230 x 5002
From table 50 of SP : 6 ( table 6 - 7 )
p{ = 1.177 and pc = 0.233

^ st — 1.177 x
100
230 x 500 = 1354 mm 2
0.233 x
and 230 x 500 = 268 mm 2 .
SC
100
.
6-17 Computer programmes for doubly reinforced rectangular sections:
We shall now prepare a few programmes for doubly reinforced rectangular sections .
Programme 5
Write a computer programme to find the design stress in compression bar of a
doubly reinforced rectangular section .
Solution :
As the section is given , we have the data: 5, d, d ' Asc, Ast , f c /y, Esy etc .
Step 1 : Assume the section as balanced and determine xu
max/ d and xu , max - Determine
the strain esc
, at the level of compression reinforcement.
Step 2 : Determine the stress in reinforcement following the stress - strain diagrams
as follows :
216 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
For mild steel
fy fy
At the stress Strain e = 1.15
1.15 ’ Es
For the strain esc in reinforcement, we have

i f Esc < E a
E x Es
1.15
fy
i f Esc > E a
1.15
*

For HYSD bars :

Determine strains at various design stresses ,
design stress stress level
Strain = + inelastic strain and Design Stress = 1.15
Determine the strains at every stress level as defined by the code .
Now interpolate the stres for esc of the reinforcement where £ sc is determined in
step 1. The programme is executed as given below. Note the stresses in reinforcement
for various d ' / d and compare with table 6 - 6 .

c File name Prog5.for

c This programme determines the stresses in compression
c reinforcement of a doubly reinforced rect. section.
c Give sectional properties d ,d2 ,Fy and Es respectively
c with usual notation and units.
c
OPEN( l , File='Prog5.dat')
OPEN(2,FILE='Prog5.out')
Write(2 ,4)
4 Format(2X ,'NPROB Fy D2 D Fsc', /)
Read(1, *)nprob
DO 100 k = l , nprob
Read(1 , * )d , d2 , Fy , Es
Xumax = 0.0035*d/(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
esc=0.0035*(1.0-d2/Xumax)
c
c Determination of stresses in compression reinforcements
If(Fy.LE.250.) then
Go to 5
Else
Go to 6
Endif
c
5 e= fy/(1.15*Es)
If(esc.LE.e) then
Fsc=esc*Es/l.15
Else
Fsc =Fy/l . 15
Endif
Go to 7
 -
Art . 6 17 ] Limit State Method 217

c
6 el=0.8*Fy/(1.15* Es)
e2=0.85*Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0001
e3 =0.90*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0003
e4=0.95*Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0007
e5= 0.975 *Fy /(1.15*Es) + 0.0010
e6=Fy/(1.15* Es)+0.0020
If(esc.LE.el )then
Fsc =esc*Es/l.15
Elself((esc .GT.el).and.( esc .LE.e2)) then
- -
Fsc=(0.8*Fy+(esc el )*0.05 *Fy/(e2 el))/1.15
Elself((esc.GT.e2).and.(esc .LE.e3)) then
-
Fsc =(0.85*Fy+(esc e2)*0.05*Fy/(e3 e2))/1.15 -
Elself((esc.GT. e3).and.(esc.LE.e4)) then
- -
Fsc =(0.9*Fy+(esc e3 )*0.05*Fy/(e4 e3 ))/1.15
Elself(( esc.GT.e4).and.(esc.LE.e5)) then
Fsc=(0.95*Fy+(esc-e4)*0.025*Fy/(e5 e4))/1.15 -
Elself(( esc.GT.e5).and.(esc.LE.e6)) then
-
Fsc=(0.975*Fy+(esc e5)*0.025*Fy/(e6-e5))/1.15
Elself (esc.GT.e6) then
Fsc=Fy/l.15
Else
Endif
c
7 Write(2 , 50)k ,Fy , d2 ,d ,Fsc
50 Format(2X ,13 , 2X ,4(IX ,F8.2))
100 Continue
Stop
End

The data file is as follows:

18
1000 . 50. 250. 200000.
1000 . 100 . 250. 200000 .
1000. 150. 250. 200000.
1000 . 200. 250. 200000 .
1000 . 300. 250. 200000 .
1000 . 400. 250. 200000.
1000 . 50. 415. 200000.
1000. 100 . 415. 200000.
1000. 150. 415. 200000.
1000 . 200. 415. 200000 .
1000 . 50. 500. 200000.
1000. 100 . 500. 200000 .
1000. 150. 500. 200000 .
1000. 200. 500. 200000 .
1000 . 50. 550. 200000 .
1000 . 100 . 550. 200000.
1000 . 150. 550. 200000 .
1000. 200 . 550. 200000.
218 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
The output file is as follows:

NPROB Fy D2 D Fsc

1 250.00 50.00 1000.00 217.39

2 250.00 100.00 1000.00 217.39
3 250.00 150.00 1000.00 217.39
4 250.00 200.00 1000.00 217.39
5 250.00 300.00 1000.00 217.39
6 250.00 400.00 1000.00 150.43
7 415.00 50.00 1000.00 355.09
8 415.00 100.00 1000.00 351.94
9 415.00 150.00 1000.00 342.46
10 415.00 200.00 1000.00 329.02
11 500.00 50.00 1000.00 423.81
12 500.00 100.00 1000.00 411.65
13 500.00 150.00 1000.00 395.25
14 500.00 200.00 1000.00 370.77
15 550.00 50.00 1000.00 458.79
16 550.00 100.00 1000.00 442.34
17 550.00 150.00 1000.00 420.25
18 550.00 200.00 1000.00 383.53

Programme 6
Prepare a Fortran programme to determine the moment of resistance of a doubly
reinforced rectangular section .
Step 1: Read the data : b , d, Asc , Ast , Fc Fy and Es with usual notations .
^
Step 2 : Using the procedure of programme 5, determine the stresses in compression
reinforcement.
Step 3: Determine the stress in concrete at the level of compression reinforcement,
by using the following simple relation
3
if 2
^ 7 , max' fee = 0 - 446 /ck
3
and d 2 > - j X u , max » f e e = 0.
i . e . neglect
fcc being small quantity.
Step 4 : Determine the actual depth of neutral axis by equating
C = r,
where C = 0.36 /ck b xu - Asc fcc + Asc fsc
T = 0.87 /y A ,t
0.87 /y 4t -
4,c ( fsc f c c ) -
*u 0 - 36 f c k b
Compare this xu with x u ,max and determine the type of the beam , i . e ., under - reinforced ,
balanced or over - reinforced . It the beam is over - reinforced , we have xu = xu max .
Step 5 : Determine the moment of resistance by taking moments of compressive
forces about the centre of tensile reinforcement .
Art . 6 - 17 ] Limit State Method 219

The programme is prepared and executed as follows :

c File name Prog6. for
c This programme determines the moment of resistance of a
c doubly reinforced rectangular section. Give the sectional
c properties b,d , d2 , Asc , Ast , Fck ,Fy and Es respectively with
c usual notation and units, i.e. width and effective depth
c in mm , reinforcement area in square mm ; Fck , Fy and Es in
c N/sq. mm.
c
Real Mu
OPEN(1 , File='Prog6.dat')
OPEN(2 , FILE='Prog6.out')
Read(1 , *)nbeam
DO 100 k = l ,nbeam
Read(l , * )b, d , d2 , Asc , Ast ,Fck , Fy , Es
Write(2 ,4)k
4 Format(IX ,'Beam no. B'I2)
Xumax = 0.0035*d /(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
-
esc=0.0035*(1.0 d2/Xumax)
c Determination of concrete stress at the level of Asc
Xl =3.*Xumax/7.
If(d2.LE.Xl)Then
Fcc= 0.446*Fck
Else
Fcc=0.
Endif
c Determination of stresses in compression reinforcements
If(Fy.LE.250.) then
Go to 5
Else
Go to 6
Endif
5 e=Fy/(1.15*Es)
If(esc.LE.e) then
Fsc =esc*Es /l.15
Else
Fsc=Fy/l.15
Endif
Go to 7
6 el=0.8*Fy/(1.15*Es)
e2=0.85*Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0001
e3 =0.90* Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0003
e4=0.95*Fy/(1.15 * Es) + 0.0007
e5=0.975*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0010
e6 =Fy/(1.15*Es)+0.0020
If(esc.LE.el)then
Fsc =esc* Es/l.15
220 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6
Elself(( esc .GT.el ).and.(esc.LE.e2)) then
-
Fsc=(0.8*Fy+(esc el)*0.05 *Fy/( e2 el ))/1.15 -
Elself(( esc .GT.e2).and.(esc.LE.e3)) then
Fsc=(0.85 *Fy+(esc -e2)*0.05*Fy/(e3 -e2))/1.15
Elself(( esc.GT.e3).and.(esc.LE.e4)) then
Fsc=(0.9*Fy+(esc -e3 )*0.05*Fy/(e4-e3 ))/1.15
Elself((esc .GT.e4).and.(esc .LE.e5)) then
-
Fsc =(0.95 *Fy+(esc e4)*0.025*Fy/(e5 -e4))/1.15
Elself(( esc .GT.e5 ).and.(esc .LE.e6)) then
Fsc=(0.975*Fy+(esc -e5)*0.025*Fy /(e6-e5))/1.15
Elself(esc.GT.e6) then
Fsc=Fy/l.15
Else
Endif
c Determination of Xu
7 -
Xu=(0.87*Fy*Ast Asc*(Fsc -Fcc ))/(0.36*Fck* b)
-
If (Xu Xumax) 10,20,30
10 Xu=Xu
Write(2, *) 'The beam is under reinforced'
Go to 40
20 Xu=Xu
Write(2 , *) 'The beam is balanced'
Go to 40
30 Xu=Xumax
Write(2, *) 'The beam is over reinforced , hence Xu=Xumax'
40 -
Mu =(0.36*Fck*b*Xu*(d 0.42* Xu)+Asc*(Fsc-Fcc)*(D d2))*1. E 6 - -
Write(2, 50) b , d , Asc , Ast , Xu , Mu ,Fsc
50 Format(3X ,'b = 'F6.2 ,IX ,'mm', 8X , 'd 'F6.2 ,IX , 'mm', 5X , /
11X ,'Asc
12X ,'Xu 'F6.2 , IX ,'mm' ,2X ,'Mu '
_
'F7.2 ,IX , 'sq.mm',2X , 'Ast = 'F7.2 ,IX ,'sq. mm ', /

1F8.2 , IX , 'kNm', 2X ,'Fsc 'F7.2 ,IX , 'N/sq. mm' , /)

100 Continue
Stop
End
The data file is as follows:

3
230. 460. 40. 402. 1256 . 20. 250. 200000 .
230. 460. 40. 402. 1256 . 20 . 415. 200000.
230. 400. 50. 402. 1256. 20. 415. 200000.

The output file is as follows:

Beam no. B 1
The beam is under reinforced
b = 230.00 mm d = 460.00 mm
Asc = 402.00 sq.mm Ast = 1256.00 sq.mm
Xu 114.36 mm Mu 113.21 kNm Fsc 217.39 N/sq. mm
Art. 6 - 17 ] Limit State Method 221

Beam no. B 2
The beam is under reinforced
b 230.00 mm d = 460.00 mm
Asc 402.00 sq.mm Ast = 1256.00 sq.mm
Xu 190.37 mm Mu 177.86 kNm Fsc 352.76 N/sq. mm

Beam no. B 3
The beam is over reinforced , hence Xu=Xumax
b = 230.00 mm d 400.00 mm
Asc = 402.00 sq.mm Ast = 1256.00 sq. mm
Xu = 191.64 mm Mu 149.02 kNm Fsc = 347.34 N/sq. mm
Programme 7
To design a rectangular beam for a given applied moment. The size of the section
and type of materials used are given .
Solution :
The programme shall design singly reinforced as well as doubly reinforced sections .
The important points are summarised as follows :
( 1 ) Determine If Afu < design the beam as singly reinforced section ,
as done in programme 4 .
( 2 ) If Mu > Mu [irm design as doubly reinforced section. Assume d <± = 50 mm for
all cases . For particular case , the programme may be revised , or this should
be taken into account while providing the reinforcement.
( 3 ) For doubly reinforced sections
Mu = Mu Jim + Mu2
M u2
^ sc = ( - f c c ) ( d - d2 )
/sc
Pl ,lim x b x d
^ st Jim
100
Mu2
A st 2
0.87 /y ( d - d2 )
- st ^ st / i m -^
st 2‘ . '

^
Also check whether /lsc or 4 st is greater than their maximum values, i .e ., 4 percent.
i

If this happens , provide a note to revise the section .

The programme is listed below. Note the programme carefully.
c File name PROG7.for
c This programme designs the reinforcement for flexure
c of nbeam (number) no. rectangular sections for given
c width , overall depth and applied factored moment.
c Material properties are the same for all beams.
c Data file: 1st line - Fck , Fy , Es in N/sq. mm;
c 2nd line nbeam (No. of beams to be designed);
c 3rd line onwards n(Beam No.), Mu(moment in kNm);
c b(width of beam in mm) ; dl(overall depth in mm).
c All the four data should be in one line.
222 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6

Real Mu , Mulim , Mu2

Open(1 ,File='Prog7.dat')
=
Open(2 ,File 'Prog7.out')
Read(l , * ) Fck , Fy , Es
Write (2 , 1)Fck , Fy , Es
1 Format(IX , 'For all beams , Fck 'F6.2 ,' N/sq. mm', /
11X ,'Fy = 'F6.2 ,' N/sq. mm \2X,'and',/
11X ,'Es ' F10.2 ,' N/sq. mm.', 2X , /
11X ,'b and D are in mm', /
llX ,'and Ast , Astlim are in sq . mm.' , / )
Write(2 , 2)
2 Format('Beam Mu b D Asc Ast Astlim')
Xumbyd = 0.0035/(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
Qlim = 0.36*Xumbyd*Fck*(1.0 - 0.42*Xumbyd)
ptlim =41.38*Fck *Xumbyd/Fy
ptmin=85./Fy
pcmax=4.0
ptmax=4.0
Read(1, *)nbeam
Do 100 k =l , nbeam
Read(1 , * )n, Mu , b,D1
-
d=Dl 40.
If(D1.GT.575.) d=Dl 60.-
Xumax= Xumbyd *d
Mulim = Qlim*b*d*d*l.OE-6
If(Mu.GT.Mulim) Go to 6
Q=Mu*l.0E6/(b*d *d)
-
pt =(50.* Fck/Fy)*(1.0 sqrt(1.0-4.6 *Q/Fck))
Ast=pt*b*d /100.
Astlim = ptlim*b*d/100.
Astmin = ptmin* b*d/100.
Astmax = ptmax* b*d/100.
If (Ast.LT.Astmin) Ast=Astmin
Asc = 0.0
Write(2 , 3 )n, Mu , b, dl , Asc , Ast , Astlim
3 Format(/ ,'B', 12 , IX ,F6.1 , 2(IX ,F6.1 ),3(F6.0))
If (Ast.GT.Astmax) Go to 4
Go to 100
4 Write (2 , 5)
5 Format(2X ,'As Ast > Astmax , revise the section.')
Go to 100
c When Mu > Mulim , the program will design a doubly
c reinforced beam. D2=50 mm is assumed for all cases.
6 d2=50.
-
esc=0.0035*(1.0 d2/Xumax)
c Determination of concrete stress at the level of Asc
Xl=3.*Xumax/7.
If(d2.LE.XI)Then
Fcc= 0.446 *Fck
Art . 6 - 17 ] Limit State Method 223

Else
Fcc =0.
Endif
c Determination of stresses in compression reinforcements
If(Fy.LE.250.) then
Go to 7
Else
Go to 8
Endif
7 e = Fy/(1.15*Es)
If(esc.LE.e) then
Fsc =esc*Es/l.15
Else
Fsc=Fy/l.15
Endif
Go to 9
8 el=0.8 *Fy/(1.15*Es)
e2=0.85*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0001
e3 =0.90*Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0003
e4=0.95*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0007
e5=0.975*Fy/(1.15*Es) + 0.0010
e6=Fy/(1.15*Es)+0.0020
If(esc.LE.el)then
Fsc=esc*Es /l.15
Elself((esc .GT.el).and.(esc.LE.e2)) then
- -
Fsc=(0.8*Fy+(esc el)*0.05 *Fy/(e2 el))/1.15
Elself((esc .GT.e2).and.(esc.LE.e3 )) then
-
Fsc=(0.85*Fy+(esc e2)*0.05*Fy/(e3-e2))/1.15
Elself((esc .GT.e3 ).and.(esc.LE.e4)) then
- -
Fsc =(0.9*Fy+(esc e3 )*0.05 *Fy/(e4 e3))/1.15
Elself((esc .GT.e4).and.(esc.LE.e5)) then
- -
Fsc =(0.95 *Fy+(esc e4)*0.025*Fy/(e5 e4))/1.15
Elself((esc .GT.e5).and.(esc.LE.e6)) then
-
Fsc=(0.975*Fy+( esc-e5)*0.025*Fy /(e6 e5))/1.15
Elself(esc .GT.e6 ) then
Fsc=Fy/l .15
Else
Endif
c Determination of reinforcements.
9 Mu2 Mu - Mulim
Astlim = ptlim *b*d /100.
-
Asc = Mu2*l.0E06/((Fsc -Fcc)*(d d2))
Ast2= Mu2*1.0E06/(0.87*Fy*(d -d2))
Ast=Astlim + Ast2
Astmax =ptmax* b*d/100.
Ascmax = pcmax*b*d/100.
Write(2 ,10)n , Mu , b, dl , Asc , Ast , Astlim
10 Format( / ,'B' I2 ,IX,F6.1 ,2(IX,F6.1 ) , 3(F6.0))
(

If (Asc.GT.Ascmax) Go to 20
Go to 100
224 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 6

20 Write( 2 , 30 )
30 Format ( 2 X , 'As AsoAscmax , revise the section.')
Go to 100
100 Continue
Stop
End

The data file is as follows:

20. 415. 200000.
3
1 200. 230. 500.
2 420. 300. 750.
3 160. 230. 600.

The output file is as follows: d

For all beams , Fck = 20.00 N / sq. mm
Fy = 415.00 N / sq. mm and
Es = 200000.00 N / sq. mm.
b and D are in mm
and Ast , Astlim are in sq. mm .

Beam Mu b D Asc Ast Astlim

B 1 200.0 230.0 500.0 444. 1442. 1022.

B 2 420.0 300.0 750.0 93 . 2081. 1992.

B 3 160.0 230.0 600.0 0. 969. 1198.

~
| FLANGED BEAMS ]
6 - 1 8. I n t r o d u c t o r y: A tee beam ( or an ell beam ) can be considered as a
rectangular beam with dimensions £ w x D plus a flange of size { b [ - Z» w ) x Z) f . This
is indicated in fig. 6 - 15, where beam ( a ) is equivalent to beam ( b ) + beam ( c ) .
The flanged beam analysis and design are analogous to doubly reinforced rectangular
beam . In doubly reinforced beams , additional compressive force is provided by adding
reinforcement in compression zone , whereas in flanged beams, this is provided by the
slab concrete . Note that the slab concrete can provide this resistance only if it is
situated in the compression zone . Also , the spanning of the slab must be perpendicular
to that of the beam .
In some cases , if the spanning of the slab is parallel to that of the beam , some
portion of the slab can be made to span in the direction perpendicular to that of the
beam by adding some reinforcement in the slab . Such cases are treated in art. 11 -7.
The beam of fig. 6- 15 ( a ) can be thought of as a singly reinforced beam ( b ) plus
beam ( c ) which provides additional compressive force.
A flanged beam also can be doubly reinforced . However , doubly reinforced flanged
beams are rare as a large amount of compressive resistance is provided by the slab .
The design of doubly reinforced beams is treated in art . 6 - 21.
 Art . 6 - 20 ] Limit State Method 225

K bf H bf H

lDf A ] .. Df
A

D D +
1
—
< H
b w bw bw
(a ) ( b) (c )

FIG . 6 - 15
The moment of resistance of a tee beam of fig. 6- 15 ( a ) is a sum of the moment
of resistance of beam ( b ) plus the moment of resistance of beam ( c ) .
Similarly the steel area required for beam ( a ) shall be equal to the sum of the steel
required for the beam ( b ) and the steel area required for beam ( c ) .
6- 19. Position of neutral axis: For a flanged beam , the neutral axis either
* ( a) lies in flange or ( b ) lies in web . For a given section , to decide whether the neutral
axis lies in flange or web, the flange force and the total tension may be compared as
explained below.
As a first approximation , let us assume that the neutral axis lies at the bottom of
flange .
Now , total compression
Fu = 0.36 /ck bf Df and total tension

Then
Ft =. 0.87 /y Ast.

( i ) if Fic > Fis\ neutral axis lies in the flange

( ii ) if Fic = Fis\ neutral axis lies at the bottom of the flange
( iii ) if Fic < Fts; neutral axis lies in the web .
By equating total compression with total tension , the actual depth of neutral axis
can be found out . Total compression shall be found out as explained in art . 6 - 18 for
different possible cases. To find out the type of the beam , x u ,max shall be found and
compared with actual value of neutral axis x u *

Then
( i ) if * u < *u. majr:* the section is under - reinforced
( ii ) if * u xu max -* ' the section is balanced
( iii ) if xu > x u ymax;* the section is over - reinforced and
xu = Xu ,max *

6- 20. Derivation of formulae: Depending upon different values of xu and Df ,

four different cases are discussed below for a flanged beam .
Case 1: Neutral axis lies in flange ( xu < Df ) .
When the neutral axis lies in the flange , the size of the compression zone becomes
bf x * u . As concrete does not resist any tension , the width of tension zone has no
effect on the M . R . of the section . Therefore , this beam can be thoughout of as a
rectangular beam of dimensions bf x d. The formulae derived for rectangular beams
shall be applied . They are summarized below.
226 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Let Mu nm j = moment resisting capacity of a flanged beam
( 1 ) For a singly reinforced flanged beam :
( i ) Equating total compression and total tension
0.87 /y Ast
*u = 0.36 ( 6 - 14 a )
/ck if
( ii ) For under - reinforced section
Mu = 0.87 fy Asi ( d - 0.42 xu ) . . ( 6 - 14 b )
or Mu = 0.36 fck b { xu (d - 0.42 xu ) ( 6 - 14 c )
( iii ) For balanced or over - reinforced section
= 0 36 /ck bt x u ,max [ d - 0.42 x u , max ) ( 6 - 14 d )
or .
Mu lim , T =° - 87 fy Ast llm [ d - 0.42 X u , max ) ( 6 - 14 e )
( 2 ) For a doubly reinforced flanged beam :
(i ) Mu - = /sc ^ sc ~ d' ) ( 6 - 15 a )
( ii ) ( 6 - 15 b )
^ stl st , lim

( iii ) A st 2 ^ SC /sc " ( 6 - 15 c )

0.87 /y
( iv ) ( 6 - 15 d )
^ st
^ stl -^ st2
Case 2 : Neutral axis lies in web ( xu > D () : the section is balanced ( limiting
value of the moment of resistance ) .

0.446 /ck
i
Df
K bf 0.0035 H

j XU
Xu I t 4
I Compression zone xu
d iI «
7

-- 4 Tension zone
ASt
0.87 fy ^ 0.87 f y
+ 0.002
Es
(a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 6 - 16
A tee beam section , strain diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 6 - 16. It
can be seen that when the thickness of flange is small, that is less than about 0.2 d,
,

the stresses in flange are uniform or nearly uniform .

( When mild steel is used , the stresses in concrete are uniform upto - x 0.53 d =
0.227 d\ when HYSD steel of grade Fe 415 is used , the stresses in concrete are uniform upto
- x 0.48 d = 0.206 d and when HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 500 is used, the stresses
in concrete are uniform upto -3 x 0.46 d
= 0.197 d. )
A r t . 6- 2 0 ] Limit State Method 227

When the thickness of flange exceeds 0.2 d, the stresses in the flange are not
uniform . According to expressions given in Appendix E - 2 of IS : 456, the allowance
D
for non - uniform stresses are made when in the equations considering -j{- < 0.2 d %

Df is replaced by yf
where yt = 0.15 xu -I- 0.65 Df but not greater than Z) f ( 6 - 16 )
D{
( 1 ) When - - < 0.2
a 4
The depth of the rectangular portion of the stress block is more than flange
thickness and thus stresses in flange are uniform having a value of 0.446 /ck .
Total tension = 0.87 fy As { ( 6 - 17 a )
Total compression = compression in rectangular beam of size bw x d + compression
in rectangle of size ( bf - b „) x Df
= 0.36 /ck b „
x (£f - b ) ( 6 - 17 b )
x\i , max + 0.446 /ck „
Limiting moment of resistance of the section can be found out by taking moment
of compressive forces about centroid of tensile reinforcement Then
= x u , max ( d - 0.42 ) + ( w)
Jim , T 0.36 /ck bw ^f ^ “

x 0.446 D[ ( 6 - 17 c )
/ck d
To find out the steel area y! ,
l 2
for this case , total tension and compression are
st / m
equated . Then
0.87 /y AsUim = 0.36 /ck iw A:u , max + 0.446 /ck ( if - iw ) Df
0 - 36 /ck bwx u , max + 0.446 /ck ( if - iw ) Df
st , lim ( 6 - 17 d )
0.87 fy

( 2 ) When -f > 0.2

d
The rectangular portion of stress block in this case is assumed to be equal to
Total tension = 0.87 fy Astjim ( 6 - 18 a )
Total compression = 0.36 /ck bw x u , max + 0.446 /ck x ( b{ - bj yf ( 6 - 18 b )
Limiting moment of resistance of the section can be found out by taking moments
of compressive forces about centre of tensile reinforcement . Then

^ utlim, T 0.36 /ck bw X u , max [d - 0.42 x max )

^
yf )
/ck ( if - iw)
^ ( 6 - 18 c )
+ 0.446 x y{ -
2
To find out the steel area total tension and total compression are equated .
This gives
+ 0.446 /ck ( if - iw ) y(
0.36 /ck bwx u , max
^ st Jim
0.87 fy
( 6 - 18 d )

Note that for a given width of flange , width of web and effective depth ; if the
thickness of flange is increased , a larger value of meoment of resistance is obtained
£f
i . e ., case —> 0.2 yields larger value of moment of resistance than case
d
< 0.2 .
228 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 6
Case 3: Neutral axis lies in the web , section is under - reinforced .
For finding out limiting moment of resistance , the formulae were simplified for
Df < D{
j 0.2 and —— > 0.2 as discussed in case 2 . When the section is under - reinforced ,
a a
the moment of reisistance shall be found out using actual stress block . The stress block
3
for concrete shows a uniform stress upto a depth of - xu and then a parabolic shape .
These cases are discussed below .
( 1 ) D( < | *u
In this case , the stresses are uniform in flange .
Total compression = 0.36 fck b „ * u + 0.446 /ck ( bf - b j) Z) f ( 6 - 19 a )
Total tension = 0.87 fy Asl ( 6 - 19 b )
To find out xu , total compression and total tension are equated .
To find out the moment of resistance of the section , the moments of compressive
forces are taken about centroid of tensile reinforcement .
Mu = 0.36 /ck bw xu ( d - 0.42 xu ) + 0.446 /ck ( b { - bw )

r,
Referring to fig . 6 - 15 , for the given moment Mu , the steel area Asl required for
beam ( a ) shall be treated as the sum of the steel area 4 stl required for beam ( b ) i
( 6 - 19 c )

resisting moment A/ Uj and the steel area Asi 2 required for beam ( c ) resisting moment
Mu 2 such that
Mu 1 ^u 2 ( 6 - 20 a )
and st
For beam ( c ) , equating the
^ stl
^2 st
total compression and total tension
( 6 - 20 b )

0 - 446 /ck ( b { - b j D { = 0.87 fy Ast 2 .

0.446 /ck ( b{ - bw ) D{
A st 2 ( 6 - 20 c )
0.87 /y
Df
Mu 2 = 0.446 /ck ( bf -
2 bw ) Df \d( 6 - 20 d )
-

For beam ( b ) , the approach will be the same as for singly reinforced beam . We have

M ui = Mu - Mu 2 and

1 - 1 - 4.6 ^b dui2
100 Astl /ck ( 6 - 20 e )
= 50
bd fy / /ck

( 2) D{ > | xu
In this case , the non - uniform stresses in the flange shall be taken into account and
the above formulae ( 6 - 19 ) shall be used replacing Df by yf .
Total compression = 0.36 /ck bw * u + 0.446 /ck ( bf - b „) ( 6 - 21 a )
Total tension = 0.87 fy Ast ( 6 - 21 b )
where yt = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Z f .)
Art . 6 - 20 ] Limit State Method 229

Equating total compression and total tension , xu can be found out .

Moment of resistance
Mu = 0.36 /ck 2> w xu (d - 0.42 xu ) + 0.446 /ck ( bt - bj
y(
x yf ( 6 - 21 c )

To find out the steel area for a given moment Mu in this case , the approach as
described for case ( i ) cannot be used because the value of xu is not known and hence
yf cannot be calculated . However , by assuming a trial depth of neutral axis , the
approach in ( i ) can be used . A simplified approach is explained below. This approach
may be used for design of a flanged beam for any case.
( i ) The dimensions of a flanged beam are usually determined by using a practical
concept or a depth of to
H) ^ mes sPan * s assumed . This is explained
in art . 5 - 17 type 4.

( ii ) Assume the approximate lever arm d - —D-

[
and find the steel area from the
following formula :
Mu
=
0.87 /y [d - 2
( iii ) Provide the steel as found from ( ii ) . Find out the depth of neutral axis and
the moment of resistance which shall be greater than or equal to the applied
moment .
( iv ) If moment of resistance is less than the applied moment , revise the section .

For case ( i )
f *u i .e.
^ — *u

For case ( ii ) Df > f *u •• . . . i .e.

l D( > *ir
7
For a given section - Z) f is a constant quantity. If the reinforcement is increased ,
the moment of resistance also increases as long as its value is below the limiting
moment of resistance . As the reinforcement increases, xu also increases . Thus for a
given section , the first case will give a larger moment of resistance than the second
case . This explanation will be helpful in the analysis of a flanged beam .
Case 4 : Neutral axis lies in the web and the section is over - reinforced .
When the section is over - reinforced , the moment of resistance shall be M u j i m and
this can be obtained in a way similar to that explained in case 2.

( i ) When —D <
a
(
0.2 , use equation ( 6 - 17 )

( ii ) When —Dr- >

7
a
0.2 , use equation ( 6 - 18 ) .
Example 6 - 16 .
A tee beam of effective flange width 1200 mm , thickness of slab 100 mm , width
of rib 300 mm and effective depth of 560 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 25 mm
diameter bars . Calculate the factored moment of resistance . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
230 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Solution :
Ast = 4 x 491 1964 mm 2 .
To find whether the neutral axis lies in the flange or the web , flange compression
and tensile force are compared .
Ftc - 0.36 /ck bf D {
= 0.36 x 20 x 1200 x 100 x 10 * 3

= 864 kN 1200

Fis = 0.87 fy Asl 100 |[

= 0.87 x 415 x 1964 x 10 ~3
= 709 kN 560
Ftc > Fu
Neutral axis lies in flange . T

Equating the forces - 4-25 #

total compression = total tension H* 300 M
0.36 /ck bfxu = 0.87 fy Asi FIG . 6 - 17
0.36 x 20 x 1200 xu = 0.87 x 415 x 1964
8640 *u = 709102
xu = 82.07 mm < 100 mm (O . K. )
Xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 560 = 268.8 mm .
X u < X u , meix -
Section is under - reinforced .
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 xu )
= 0.87 x 415 x 1964 ( 560 - 0.42 x 82.07 ) x 10 ~6 = 372.65 kNm .
Alternatively , Mu = 0.36 /ck b { xu { d - 0.42 x j
= 0.36 x 20 x 1200 x 82.07 ( 560 - 0.42 x 82.07) x 10 ' 6

= 372.65 kNm .
Example 6 - 17.
Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the section of Ex . 6 - 16, if it is reinforced
with 5 no. 25 mm diameter bars.
Solution :
A si = 5 x 491 = 2455 mm 2.
To find the position of neutral axis
F [ c = 0.36 /ck bf Df = 0.36 x 20 x 1500 x 100 x 10 3 = 864 kN *

F [ s = 0.87 fy As { = 0.87 x 415 x 2455 x 10 ~3 = 886.4 kN

Ftc ^ Fts
Neutral axis lies in web .
3
Assume Df > y xu
y { = 0.15 * u + 0.65 D { = 0.15 xu + 0.65 x 100 = 0.15 * u + 65.
Art . 6 - 20 ] Limit State Method 231

Now , total compression 0.36 fc bw xu + 0.446 fc ( bf - bw ) yf

=^ ^
0.36 x 20 x 300 *u + 0.446 x 20 x 900 ( 0.15 *u + 65)
=
2160 xu + 1204.2 xu + 521820
=
= 3364.2 *u + 521820.
Total tension = 0.87 /y Ast = 0.87 x 415 x 2455 = 886378.
Equating 3364.2 xu + 521820 = 886378
which yields , *u = 108.36 mm
3
xu = 46.44 mm < Df ( OK . )
Now , xu < x \i , max -
Section is under - reinforced .
yf= 0.15 x 108.36 + 65 = 81.25 mm

Mu = 0.36 /ck bw xu (d - 0.42 x j + 0.446 /ck ( b ( - bw ) yi d >f

-^
‘2
= 0.36 x 20 x 300 x 108.36 (560 - 0.42 x 108.36 ) x 10 ~ 6 + 0.446
x 20 x 900 x 81.25 (560 - 40.63) x 10 6 '

= 120.42 + 338.77 = 459.2 kNm .

Example 6 - 18 .
Find the factored moment of resistance for the section of Ex . 6 - 16 if it is reinforced
with 6 no . 28 mm diameter bars . Assume that effective depth remains the same .
Solution :
6 x 616 3696 mm 2.
^ = =
A5
From Example 6- 17 , it can be observed that N . A . lies in web .
Assume D( < 3j xu-
Total compression = 0.36 fcy bw xu + 0.446 fc ^ ( bf - bw ) Df
= 0.36 x 20 x 300 xu 4- 0.446 x 20 x 900 x 100
= 2160 xu + 802800 .
Total tension = 0.87 /y Ast = 0.87 x 415 x 3696 = 1334441.
Equating 2160 *u + 802800 = 1334441
= 246.13 mm
3
105.48 mm > Df ( O K.)
Xu , max = 0.48 x 560 = 268.8 mm
< *u ,max-
Section is under - reinforced .
Dr
Mu = 0.36 /ck bw xu (d - 0.42 xu ) + 0.446 /ck x ( bt - b j x D { d
2
= 0.36 x 20 x 300 x 246.13 (560 - 0.42 x 246.13) x 10-6
+ 0.446 x 20 x 900 x 100 (560 50) x 10-*5 -
= 242.76 + 409.43 = 652.19 kNm .
232 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Example 6 - 19.
A tee beam as shown in fig. 6 - 18 is subjected to a factored moment of 400 kNm .
Design the steel reinforcement for flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution : K 1650
We assume here that the section will be singly
reinforced .
Alternatively , we may first find out for 500
| 100
^
the section , from table 6 - 8 as explained in art . 6 - 21.
b{ 1650
We have
250 =
6.6
H- 250 -H
100
500 =
0.2 FIG . 6 - 18
d

= 0.588 . . . . f r o m table 6 - 8
/ck K * 2
Mu lim T = 0.588 x 20 x 250 x 5002 x lO 6 ”
= 735 kNm .
< Mu ,lim,T
Design as a singly reinforced section .
To start with , assume lever arm

Z = d - Of2 = 500 - 50 = 450 mm .

(i
400 x 10
Approximate = 0.87 x 415 x 450
= 2462 mm 2.
Provide 5 - 25 # ; Ast = 5 x 491 = 2455 mm 2.
The approximate design is now checked .
To find lever arm
Fic = 0.36 fck b { D ( = 0.36 x 20 x 1650 x 100 x 10 3 = 1188 kN
"

Fis = 0.87 fy Asi = 0.87 x 415 x 2455 x 10 3 = 886.4 kN .

"

^tc > Ft
Neutral axis lies in flange .
.
Equating the forces
0.36 /ck if xu = 0.87 fy Asi
0.36 x 20 x 1650 xu = 0.87 x 415 x 2455
xu = 74.61 mm < 100 mm ( O . K.)
Xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 500 = 240 mm
xu C x u , max -
Section is under - reinforced .
Mu = 0.87 /y Ast ( d - 0.42 *u )
= 0.87 x 415 x 2455 (500 - 0.42 x 74.61 ) x 10 " 6

= 415.4 kNm > 400 kNm ( O. K. )

The design is satisfactory.
Art . 6 - 20 ] Limit State Method 233

Alternatively , Mu = 0.36 /ck if 0.42 xu ) *u ( d -

= 0.87 x 20 x 1650 x 74.61 (500 - 0.42 x 74.61 ) x 10 ~6
= 415.4 kNm .
Example 6 - 20.
In Example 6 - 19, if now the factored moment is increased to 525 kNm , design the
reinforcement for flexure .
Solution :
Approximate lever arm = d - = 500 - 50 = 450 mm .
£

x 106
Approximate = 0.87525
x 415 x 450 =
3231 mm 2 .
Provide 3 - 28 # + 3 - 25 # ;
Ast = 3 (616 + 491 ) = 3321 mm 2.
0.36 x 20 x 1650 x 100 x 10 3
To find neutral axis Ftc = 0.36 fck if Df = ‘

= 1188 kN
Fls = = 0.87 x 415 x 3321 x 10 ~3 = 1199 kN
0.87 fy ^ st
< ^ ts
Neutral axis lies in web .
3
Assume Df > 7 *u
jf = 0.15 xu -f- 0.65 D [ = 0.15 xu 4 0.65 x 100
*
= 0.15 xu 4- 65.
Now , total compression
= 0.36 + 0.446 /ck ( b { - bw ) y (
/ck bw xu
= 0.36 x 20 x 250 xu + 0.446 x 20 (1650 -
250) x (0.15 *u + 65)
= 1800 xu + 1873.2 xu + 811720 = 3673.2 *u + 811720.
Total tension = 0.87 fy /lst = 0.87 X 415 x 3321 1199047.
Equating, 3673.2 xu + 811720 = 1199047.
xu 105.45 mm
3 ( OK.)
- xu = 45.19 mm < Df
Also xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 500 = 240 mm .
Now , xu <
A: u , max'

Section is under - reinforced .

yf = 0.15 x 105.45 4 65 = 80.82 mm
yf
Mu = 0.36 /ck bwxu (d - 0.42 xu ) + 0.446 /ck [ b ( - bw ) yf x dA(
2
= 0.36 x 20 x 250 x 105.45 (500 -
0.42 x 105.45) x 10-6
+ 0.446 x 20 ( 1650 - 250) x 80.82 500 -
80.82
(
x 10-6
2
= 86.50 + 463.86
= 550.36 kNm > 525 kNm ( O K .)
234 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Example 6 - 21 .
In Ex . 6 - 2 (3 , now the factored moment is increased to 700 kNm . Design the
reinforcement for flexure . Also find out the limiting moment of resistance of the section .
Solution :
Approximate lever arm = d -
A = 500 - 50 = 450 mm .
2
()
700 x
Approximate As = 0.87 x 41510x 450 = 4308 mm 2.
{

Provide 4 - 28 # 4- 4 - 25 # = 4 ( 616 4- 491 ) = 4428 mm 2.

It can be seen from the above examples that the neutral axis lies in the web.

Assume n(
D .> -3 xu -
From Ex . 6 - 20 .
total compression = 3673.2 xu 4- 811720
total tension = 0.87 x 415 x 4428 = 1598729 N .
Equating, 3673.2 * u 4- 811720 = 1598729
* u = 214.26 mm
X \i ,max = 240 mm .
Section is under - reinforced .

Also I7 *u |x 214.26

= 91.82 mm < Df (O. K. )

Jf
Now Mu = 0.36 /ck bwxu (d - 0.42 *u ) + 0.446 /ck [ b{ - bj yf x d -^2
yf — 0.15 xu 4
*
65 = 0.15 x 214.26 4- 65 = 97.14 mm

Mu = 0.36 x 20 x 250 x 214.26 ( 500 - 0.42 x 214.26 )

97.14
+ 0.446 x 20 ( 1650 - 250) x 97.14 (500 2
x 10-6
=
158.13 + 54762
705.75 kNm > 700 kNm
= ( O . K .)
Limiting moment of resistance :
D{
100
500 =
0.2 .
d
Using equation ( 6 - 17 c )

Mu .l i m S ~ 0.36 /ckbwxu , max [ d - 0.42 *u , max) + (*f *w) * D{ x 0.446 /ck

" d - Bl2 -'
= 0.36 x 20 x 250 x 240 (500 - 0.42 x 240) x 10~ 6
+ 1400 x 100 x 0.446 x 20 ( 500 - 50) x 10 ~6
= 172.45 + 561.96 = 734.4 kNm .
Art. 6 - 21 ] Limit State Method 235

6- 21. Use of design aids: While preparing the design table for flanged beam ,
the limiting moment of resistance of a flanged beam is found out by using equation
bf
( 6 - 17 c ) or ( 6 - l 8 c ) . For different values of —Of and T
—
K
, the limiting moment of

resistance factors have been worked out and tabulated in SP : 16 .

/ck K d1
Few values from SP : 16 are presented in table 6 - 8 for reference . For further
details , SP : 16 may be consulted .
Area of tensile reinforcement may be found out without any appreciable error as :
Mu
^ — st
0.87 fy d -
Df
, when Mu < Mu / . im

2 )
Example 6 - 22 .
A flanged beam of effective width 1000 mm , thickness of slab 100 mm , width of
rib 200 mm and effective depth 400 mm is subjected to a factored moment of 300 kNm .
Determine : ( i ) whether concrete section is adequate without compression reinforcement
( ii ) tension reinforcement Asi .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
if
1000 D{ 100 0.25 .
400 =
5 and
200 =
K d
From table 58, SP: 16 ( or from table 6 - 8 ) for these values
ylim ,T
= 0.507
/ck bw dP
M \i , lim , T = 0.507 x 20 x 200 x ( 400) 2 x lO "6
= 324.5 kNm .

No compression reinforcement is required .

300 x 106 2374 mm 2 .
st
^ “
0.87 x 415 ( 400 - 50 )
=
Provide 5- 25 # = 2455 mm 2 .
Example 6 - 23 .
In a normal tee - beam slab construction , the beams are spaced at 3.0 m c / c and
simply supported on 6 m span . The characteristic loads supported by 120 mm thick
slab are ( 6 + 4 ) kN / m 2, being a combination of DL and LL respectively. In addition
to the loads from the slab , an intermediate beam supports a wall load of 12 kN / m and its
self - weight . Design the beam for flexure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Also determine the location where 30 to 50 % reinforcement
( depending on number of designed reinforcement ) can be theoretically curtailed .
Solution :
As the beams are supported at 3 m c / c , an intermediate beam will be in charge of
3 m wide slab . ( Note that for edge beam , half the load will be transferred from slab . )

As the span of the beam is 6 m , the depth of beam may be

/ /
t 0 JQ *i . e . ,
500 to 600 mm . Adopt depth of rib = 450 mm , then overall depth = 450 + 120 = 570 mm .
Also adopt the width of beam bw = 230 mm .
^
236 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
TABLE 6 - 8
LIMITING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE FACTOR, Mu > /lm, r / ( /ck
SINGLY REINFORCED T- BEAMS, N / mm 2 ^ ^2)
w FOR

f y = 415 N / mm 2
bf / b y,
D(/ d
4.0 6.0 8.0

0.11 0.277 0.370 0.463

0.12 0.289 0.390 0.490
0.13 0.301 0.409 0.518
0.14 0.312 0.428 0.545
0.15 0.324 0.448 0.571
0.16 0.335 0.466 0.598
0.17 0.346 0.485 0.624
0.18 0.357 0.503 0.649
0.19 0.368 0.522 0.675
0.20 0.379 0.540 0.700
0.21 0.388 0.554 0.721
0.22 0.395 0.566 0.737
0.23 0.402 0.577 0.753
0.24 0.408 0.588 0.768
0.25 0.415 0.600 0.784
0.26 0.422 0.611 0.800
0.27 0.428 0.622 0.815
0.28 0.435 0.632 0.830
0.29 0.441 0.643 0.845
0.30 0.448 0.654 0.860
0.31 0.454 0.664 0.875
0.32 0.460 0.675 0.890
0.33 0.466 0.685 0.904
0.34 0.473 0.696 0.919
0.35 0.479 0.706 0.933

The loads on the beam shall be calculated as follows:

DL LL
Load from slab = 3 (6 + 4 ) 18 + 12 kN / m
Wall load 12 + 0 kN / m
Self - weight of rib = 0.23 x 0.45 x 1 x 25 2.59 + 0 kN / m
Total 32.59 + 12 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 ( 32.59 + 12 ) ^ 67 kN / m .
67 x 6
Reactions =
2 = 201 kN
M u , max 67 x 62 = 301.5 kNm .
8
Art . 6 - 22 ] Limit State Method 237

For the tee beam Is

'o
i f = -g- + 6 Df + bw
6000
+ 6 x 120 + 230 = 1950 mm
6
d = 570 - 30 - 20 - 10
= 510 mm ( two layers of 20 mm diameter bars.)
bf 1950
230 =
8.48
iw
D< 120
d 510 = 0.235

= 0.805 from table 6 - 8

/ck iw d 2
20 x 230 x 5102 x 10 6
tlim, T = 0.805 x "
= 963.15 kNm
< Mu iim T

0.87 /y d -
V 2 >

301.5 x IQ6
= 1856 mm 2.
0.87 x 415 ( 510 60 ) -
Provide 6 - 20 # = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2. Let 4 - 20 # be provided in first layer and
2 - 20 # be provided in second layer .
Now a few bars are required to be curtailed . If 3 bars are curtailed , it is 50 °/o
curtailment and if 2 bars are curtailed , it will be 33 % curtailment . Let 2 bars of
second layer be curtailed . Let the theoretical point of cut off be at x from left support.
For remaining bars, 4 st = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2, and
i

d = 570 - 30 - 10 = 530 mm .
The M . R . of this section = 0.87 x 415 x 1256 (530 - 60) x 10 ~6 = 213.13 kNm .
This occurs in a beam at x
x2
where 201 - 67 = 213.13
2 *
i . e. x2 -
6.36 = 0
6x
which on solving gives X \ = 1.37 m and x <± = 4.63 m .
Theoretical point of cut off for 2 - 20 # bars is thus 1.37 m from either supports.
Note that this is not the actual point of cut off . It has to pass through a few checks
which will be discussed in chapters to follow.

6 - 2 2 . D o u b l y r e i n f o r c e d f l a n g e d b e a m s: Sometimes, the flanged beams

are designed as doubly reinforced , when the size of the section cannot be increased
and > Mu Also, to increase the ductility of the section , compression reinforcement
is provided as in the case of earthquake resistant structures or the structures resisting
shock or impact. The doubly reinforced flanged beams can be analysed and designed
in a way similar to the doubly reinforced rectangular beams. The following worked
examples will explain the method .
 238 JSC Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Example 6 - 24 .
Determine the moment of resistance
of the section shown in fig. 6- 19 . The materials h 1000
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD J - 2- 20 #
reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
I i i
100 *
Solution :
A sc = 2 x 314 = 628 mm 2 , 400 360 ^ 40

A = 6 x 491 = 2946 mm 2 ,
i
i
d' 40 1
- 6- 25
d 360 = 0.11 H^- 250 -^
#

/sc = 353 N / mm .2 FIG . 6 - 19

To determine the location of N . A .
Fic = 0.36 /ck b { D { + Asc /sc
= (0.36 x 20 x 1000 x 100 + 628 x 353 ) x 10 3 = 941.68 kN . "

Fts = 0.87 x 415 x 2946 x 10~ 3 = 1063.65 kN

^ tc < ^
ts
N . A . lies in web .
3
Assume Df > y *u
y ( = 0.15 xu + 0.65 Df = 0.15 xu + 65 .
Total compression = C { -f - C 2 + C 3

b T b , V i AC , ( v = 036 x 20 x 250 x * u + 628 x 353 + ( 1000 - 250)

" x 0.446 x 20 x ( 0.15 xu + 65 )
+ t bf -
.

K O .L C h k

Equating
^
^
2 8 0 3 . 5 xu + 656534 ) N.
Total tension = 0.87 x 415 x 2946 = 1063653 N .

2803.5 * u + 656534 = 1063653

*u = 145.2 mm .
3
3 x
145.2
7 7 *u
= 62.2 mm < D f (O . K .) .
yf = 0.15 x 145.2 + 65 = 86.78 mm .
Moment of resistance = I C x lever arm

°
= - 36 fck bw xu ( d - 0.42 xu) + AiC /sc [ d - d' )
yf
+ ( if - b j x 0.446 fck x yf d -
2
= 0.36 x 20 x 250 x 145.2 ( 360 - 0.42 x 145.2 ) x 10 -6
+ 628 x 353 ( 360 - 40) x 10 6 + 750 x 0.446 x 20
"

x 86.78 x 360 ( 86.78 x

10-6
2
= 78.15 + 70.94 + 183.81 = 332.9 kNm .
Art . 6 - 22 ] Limit State Method 239

E x a m p l e 6- 2 5 .
Calculate the amount of reinforcement
for the flanged section with bf = 800 mm ,
O , 100 mm , D 400 mm and
-* 800 — 2-25 #
T
bw = 200 mm to develop the moment of f T IOO 40 1
resistance of 250 kNm . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
L
400 3 5
I
S o l u t i o n:
First find out Mujim j for the section .
11 «
L 5 -25 #
All dimensions are in mm 200
800
4 FIG . 6 - 20
K 200
100
T - ( 400 - 65 ) = 0.3,

assuming effective tension cover = 65 mm , i . e . , d = 335 mm .

From table 6 - 8

^ u y l i m ,T
= 0.448 .
/ck iw d 2
Mujim , T = 0 448 X 20 X 200 X 3352 x 10-6
= 201.1 kNm
201.1 x 10(>
A st 1 = 1954 mm 2
0.87 x 415 335 - 100
2
Mu 2 = 250 - 201.1 = 48.9 kNm .
48.9 x 106
A St 2
0.87 x 415 ( 335 - 40 )
= 459 mm 2.
i4 st = 1954 4- 459 = 2413 mm 2.
Provide 5- 25 # = 5 x 491 = 2455 mm 2.
d' _ 40
= 0.12 .
d 335
fsc = 342 N / mm 2.
Mu 2
A
“ fsc ( d ~ d' )
48.9 x IQ6 485 mm 2 .
342 ( 335 - 40 )
=
Provide 2 - 20 # = 2 x 314
= 628 mm 2 .
The designed section shall be checked for moment of resistance.
3
Assume Df > 7 *u
yf = 0.15 xu + 65 mm .
240 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
Total compression = 0.36 /ck bw xu + 0.446 fc
^ ( bf x- 20b „)x yf600+ xAsc(0.15
fsc
= 0.36 x 20 x 200 x xu + 0.446 xu + 65)
+ 628 x 342
= 2242.8 * u + 347880 + 214776
= 2242.8 xu + 562656
Total tension = 0.87 /y /lst = 0.87 x 415 x 2455 = 886378.
Equating the two
2242.8 * u + 562656 = 886378
* u = 144.34 mm .
3
- xu = 61.86 mm < ( OK.)
Df
Also , x u ,max = 0.48 x 335 = 160.8 mm
X u C X u , max
Under - reinforced section . I
yf = 0.15 x 144.34 + 65 = 86.65 mm .

Mu = 0.36 /ck bw xu ( d - 0.42 ^ u ) + sc fsc [ d ^ - d' )

+ 0446 /ck ( b , - bj y , ( rf|

- -j
= 0.36 x 20 x 200 x 144.34 x (335 - 0.42 x 144.34) x lO 6 "

+ 628 x 342 x (335 - 40 ) x lO 6 + 0.446 x 20 x ( 800 - 200)

"

86.65
x 86.65 x 335 - j x 10-6

= 57.03 + 63.36 + 135.26

= 255.65 kNm > 250 kNm ( O . K. ) .
6 - 23. Sections subjected to reversal of moments: During earthquake ,
the beams are subjected to the reversal of moments . Consider a beam which is a part
of a multi - storeyed frame subjected to gravity as well as earthquake loads . Refer to
fig. 6 - 21. Consider section x - x of beam Bi which is subjected to a hogging moment
due to gravity loads. When earthquake forces (or wind forces) are acting, it will be
subjected to sagging moment . Our aim is to design the section as well as to determine
the moment capacities and M * of the designed section .
bf = 1200
d ' = 72 6-28 # = 3696 mm 2

y - " 120 * •• r
556 mm
B1 B2 B3 528 mm

x TTT7
44 mm
3-28 # = 1848 mm 2
H- 300 -H
( a ) Part frame of a multi -storeyed building ( b) Section x-x of beam B i
FIG. 6 - 21
Art . 6 - 23 ] Limit State Method 241

Define :
M = hogging moment capacity of the section
Af * = sagging moment capacity of the section
The procedure for designing and determining the moment capacities of section for
hogging as well as sagging moments are now briefly described .
( a ) Hogging moment : When the section is subjected to a hogging moment , it is
designed as a rectangular beam since the slab concrete is situated in tension
zone . Usually a doubly reinforced section is designed so that the bottom bars
can be used to resist a sagging moment due to reversal of moment . After
providing the reinforcement , the hogging moment capacity , MJj1 may be determined
by usual method .
( b ) Sagging moment : When the section is subjected to a sagging moment , it is
designed as a rectangular beam or as a flanged beam if it fulfils the requirements
of flanged beam , since the slab concrete is situated in compression zone . The beam
is doubly reinforced since the reinforcement already exist in compression zone .
The sagging moment capacity M
^
may be determined by usual methods .
However , the equilibrium equation to determine the neutral axis may yield
negative value of xu due to a large area of compression reinforcement . To
determine M . R . of such a section , we may consider that the c . g. of compressive
forces be the same as the c . g. of compression reinforcement . This gives the
M . R . of the section as :
Mu = 0.87 fyAst (d - d' ) ( 6 - 22 )
Example 6 - 26 .
Determine the hogging moment capacity and sagging moment capacity M *
of the section of fig . 6 - 21 ( b ) . The materials are M 25 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
( a ) Hogging moment capacity . MJ
The beam acts as a rectangular beam , we have
d‘ 44
bw = Asc = 1848 mm 2
528 =
300 mm , ^ 0.08 « 0.1,
d
d = 528 mm Ast = 3696 mm 2 fsc = 353 N / mm 2.
d' = 44 mm
Comparing total tension and total compression
036 /ck w * u +
* c /sc = 0.87 fyAsl
0.36 x 25 x 300 *u + 1848 x ^
353 = 0.87 x 415 x 3696
xu = 252.6 mm
Xu , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 528 = 253.4 mm
*U < *u , max
The beam is under reinforced .
-
Mu = 0.36 /ck wxu [ d 0.42 xu ) + A % J%C { d - d’ )
*
= [0.36 x 25 x 300 x 252.6 (528 - 0.42 x 252.6) + 1848 x 353 (528 - 44) ] x 10 ~6
= 287.75 + 315.73 = 603.48 kNm .
£
Here Af = Mu = 603.48 kNm (1)
242 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
( b ) Sagging moment capacity M *
The beam acts as a flanged beam . We have
d’
bw = Asc = 3696 mm 2
d =
300 mm 0.129 0.15
d = 556 mm Ast = 1848 mm 2 fsc = 342 N / mm 2 .
d' = 72 mm bf 1200 mm
Now total compression = total tension
3
Assume 7 *u <
0 - 36 fckbwxu + 0.446 fck [ b { - b j xu + sc /sc = 0.87 fyAsi
0.36 x 25 x 300 * u + 0.446 x 25 ( 1200 - 300 ) * u + 3696 x 342
^
= 0.87 x 415 x 1848
12735 * u = - 596812
* u = - 46.86 mm .
* u is negative due to large compression supplied by Asc .
Consider lever arm = ( d - d' )
Then K = 0.87 fyAsi ( d - d' )
= Mu = 0.87 x 415 x 1848 (556 - 72 ) x 10 ~6
= 322.93 kNm
= 322.93 kNm (2)
6 - 2 4. C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e s f o r f l a n g e d s e c t i o n s: Two programmes
are given here .
Programme 8 determines Mujim T of the given section .

Two cases, viz . ,

—OfOf
a
p < 0.2

and
d
> 0.2 are considered .
Note that Mu nm j is a moment which determines whether compression reinforcement
is required .
Programme 9 determines the moment of resistance of a given flanged section .
This programme determines the moment of resistance of both the singly and
doubly reinforced sections.
It also considers a case when ^4 SC » ^4 st. For such a case , consider xu =
Afu = 0.87 fyAst ( d - d 2 ) . ^ anc*
Note that if bf = b „ and D { = 0 are substituted , the same programmes can
determine the moment of resistance of rectangular sections .
After learning these programmes you should be able to write down a complete
programme to design any beam , rectangular or flanged and singly reinforced or
doubly reinforced beam .
As an exercise problem , write a Fortran programme to design a beam rectangular
or flanged and singly reinforced or doubly reinforced .
Art . 6 - 24 ] Limit State Method 243

The programme given in this chapter are although written for students to understand
the fundamental principles of design , they can be very well adopted in design offices
with slight modifications as per one’s requirements.
Programme 8
c File name Prog8.for
c This programme determines the limiting moment of
c resistance MulimT of a flanged section. Data file:
c No. of problems Nprob in first line. Next give the
c sectional properties bw, d , bf ,Df ,Fck , Fy and Es
c respectively with usual notation and units , i.e. mm
c and N/sq. mm units in subsequent lines.
Real MulimT
Open(1,File='Prog8.dat')
Open(2 , File='Prog8.out')
Write(2 , 5)
5 Format(' No. bw d bf Df MulimT')
Write(2 ,6)
6 Format(' mm mm mm mm kNm' , /)
Read(1 , *)Nprob
Do 120 k = l , Nprob
Read(1 , *)bw , d , bf , Df , Fck ,Fy , Es
Xumax = 0.003 5*d/(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
If •(Xumax.GT.Df) Go to 10
-
MulimT = 0.36 *Fck*bf*Xumax*(d 0.42*Xumax)*1. OE 6 -
Go to 100
10 Ratio Df /d
-
If (Ratio 0.2)20 , 20 , 30
20 -
A1=0.36*Fck*bw*Xumax*(d 0.42*Xumax)*1. OE-6
A2=0.446*Fck *(bf -bw)*Df *(d -0.5*Df )*1.0E-6
MulimT = Al + A2
30 yf =0.15*Xumax+0.65 *Df
If(Yf.GT.Df )Yf =Df
-
A3=0.36*Fck*bw *Xumax*(d 0.42*Xumax)*1.0E-6
- -
A4=0.446 *Fck *(bf bw)*yf *(d 0.5*yf)*1.0E-6
MulimT = A3 + A4
100 Write(2, 110)k , bw,d , bf , df , MulimT
110 Format(I2,2(2X , F6.2), 3(IX ,F7.2), /)
120 Continue
Stop
End
The data file is as follows:
4
230. 500. 1000. 250. 20. 415. 200000.
230. 500. 1000. 150. 20. 415. 200000 .
230. 500. 1000. 100. 20. 415. 200000 .
230. 500. 1000. 80. 20. 415. 200000 .
244 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
The output file is as follows:

No. bw d bf Df MulimT
mm mm mm mm kNm

1 230.00 500.00 1000.00 250.00 688.86

2 230.00 500.00 1000.00 150.00 555.53

3 230.00 500.00 1000.00 100.00 467.52

4 230.00 500.00 1000.00 80.00 411.19

Programme 9
c File name Prog9. for
c This programme determines the moment of resistance
c of a flanged section. Data file: No. of problems
c Nprob in first line. Next give sectional properties
c bw , d , bf Df , Asc , Ast ,Fck ,Fy and Esc respectively with
#

c usual notation and units , i.e. mm and N/sq. mm units

c in subsequent lines. The programme is general , and
c for singly reinforced flanged beam , Asc and D2 = 0.
c
Rea1 Mul , Mu2 , Mu
Open(1 , File='Prog9. dat')
=
Open(2 , File 'Prog9.out')
Write(2 ,1)
1 Format(' No. bw d bf Df Mu')
Write(2, 2)

2 Format(' mm mm mm mm kNm' , /)
Read(1 , *)Nprob
Do 120 k =l , Nprob
Read(1 , * )bw , d ,d2 , bf , Df , Asc , Ast , Fck , Fy , Es
Xumax = 0.0035*d /(0.0055 + 0.87*Fy/Es)
If (Asc.EQ.0.) Go to 8
c
c Determination of concrete stress at the level of Asc
Xl =3.*Xumax/7.
If(d2.LE.XI)Then
Fcc=0.446*Fck
Else
Fcc=0.
Endif
c Determination of stresses in compression reinforcements
-
esc=0.0035*(1.0 d2/Xumax)
If(Fy.LE.250.) then
Go to 5
Else
Art . 6 - 24 ] Limit State Method 245

Go to 6
Endif
c
5 e= fy/(1.15*Es)
If(esc.LE.e) then
Fsc =esc * Es/l.15
Else
Fsc=Fy/l . 15
Endif
Go to 10
c
6 el =0.8*Fy /(1.15*Es)
e2=0.85*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0001
e3=0.90*Fy/(1.15* Es) + 0.0003
e4=0.95*Fy/(1.15 *Es) + 0.0007
e5=0.975*Fy /(1.15* Es) + 0.0010
e6 =Fy /(1.15*Es)+0.0020
If(esc.LE.el)then
Fsc =esc* Es/l.15
Elself((esc .GT.el).and.(esc .LE.e2)) then
-
Fsc=(0.8*Fy+(esc el)*0.05 *Fy/(e2-el ))/1.15

Elself(( esc .GT.e2).and.(esc .LE.e3 )) then

-
Fsc =(0.85 *Fy+(esc -e2)*0.05*Fy/( e3 e2))/1.15
Elself((esc.GT.e3 ).and.(esc.LE.e4)) then
-
Fsc=(0.9*Fy+(esc e3 )*0.05*Fy/( e4 -e3 ))/1.15
Elself((esc.GT.e4).and.(esc.LE.e5)) then
- -
Fsc=(0.95 *Fy+(esc e4)*0.025*Fy /(e5 e4))/1.15
Elself((esc.GT.e5).and.(esc.LE.e6)) then
-
Fsc=(0.975*Fy+(esc-e5)*0.025 *Fy /(e6 e5))/1.15
Elself ( esc .GT.e6) then
Fsc=Fy/1.15
Else
Endif
Go to 9
8 Fsc=0.0
Fcc=0.0
9 Ftc=0.36*Fck *(bf*Df -Asc )+Fsc *Asc
Fts=0.87*Fy*Ast
If(Fts.GT.Ftc)Go to 60
c Determination of Xu
c
10 -
Xu=(0.87*Fy*Ast Asc*(Fsc-Fcc))/(0.36*Fck*bf )
If Xu.LE.d2 Go to 80
-
If ( Xu Xumax) 20 , 30, 40
20 Xu=Xu
Go to 50
30 Xu =Xu
Go to 50
246 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
40 Xu=Xumax
50 Mu=(0.36*Fck * bf * Xu*(d-0.42*Xu)
: +Asc *(Fsc -Fcc )*(d - d2))*l.E 6 -
Go to 100
c Determination of xu when N. A. lies in flange.
c Assume Df > (3 /7)xu: and yf = 0.15*Xu+0.65*Df
c
60 XI =0.87*Fy*Ast-0.446*Fck*(bf -bw)*0.65 *Df Asc*Fsc -
X2= 0.36*Fck *bw+0.446 *Fck *(bf -bw)*0.15
Xu=Xl/X2
X3=(3./7.)* Xu
If(Df .LE.X3 ) Go to 70
yf =0.15*Xu+0.65*Df
If(yf .GT.Df)Then

yf=Df
- -
X3 =(0.87*Fy*Ast 0.446 *Fck *(bf bw)*Df - Asc*Fsc)
X4=(0.36*Fck*bw )
Xu=X3 /X4
Endif
Mul =0.36*Fck *bw*Xu*(d-0.42*Xu)*1.0E 6 -
-
Mu2= 0.446 *Fck *(bf bw)*yf*(d -0.5*yf)*1.0E 6 -
Mu3 =Asc*Fsc*(d-D2)*1.OE 6 -
Mu=Mul+Mu2+Mu3
Go to 100
70 -
X5=0.87*Fy*Ast 0.446 *Fck*(bf -bw)*Df-Asc*Fsc
X6 = 0.36*Fck* bw
Xu=X5/X6
Mul =0.36 * Fck *bw*Xu*(d -0.42*Xu)*1.0E 6 -
-
Mu2=0.446 *Fck*(bf bw)*Df *(d 0.5*Df)*1.0E 6- -
Mu3 =Asc*Fsc*(d -D2)*1.0E 6 -
Mu =Mul +Mu2 + Mu3
80 Mu =0.87*Fy*Ast *(d-d2)*1.OE 6 -
100 Write(2 ,110 )k , bw , d , bf , df , Mu
110 Format(I2 2( 2X F6.2), 3(IX , F7.2) , )
/ /

120 Continue
Stop
End

The data file is as follows:

16
230. 520. 0. 230. 00. 00. 804. 20 . 415. 200000 .
230. 520. 0. 230. 00 . 00. 1005. 20. 415. 200000.
230. 460. 0. 230. 00. 00 . 1256. 20. 250. 200000.
230. 460. 0. 230. 00. 00 . 1570. 20. 250. 200000 .
230. 460. 40. 230. 00. 402. 1256. 20. 250. 200000 .
230. 460. 40. 230. 00. 402. 1256. 20. 415. 200000.
300. 532. 60. 300. 00. 3437. 1884. 25. 415. 200000.
Ex . 6 ) Limit State Method 247

300 . 560. 0. 1500. 100 . 00. 1964. 20. 415. 200000.

300. 560. 0. 1500. 100 . 00. 2455 . 20. 415 . 200000.
300 . 560. 0. 1500. 100. 00. 3321. 20. 415 . 200000.
250. 500 . 0. 1650. 100. 00. 2455. 20. 415. 200000 .
250 . 500. 0. 1650. 100 . 00. 2946. 20. 415. 200000 .
250. 500. 0. 1600. 100 . 00. 3473. 20. 415. 200000.
250. 500 . 0. 1600. 100 . 402. 3473. 20. 415. 200000.
250. 500 . 0. 1600. 100 . 616 . 3473. 20. 415. 200000.
250. 500 . 0. 1600 . 100 . 942 . 3473. 20. 415 . 200000.

The output file is as follows:

No. bw d bf Df Mu
mm mm mm ram kNm

1 230.00 520.00 230.00 . 00 129.58

2 230.00 520.00 230.00 . 00 155.29
3 230.00 460.00 230.00 . 00 106.74
4 230.00 460.00 230.00 . 00 127.50
5 230.00 460.00 230.00 . 00 113.21
6 230.00 460.00 230.00 . 00 177.73
7 300.00 532.00 300.00 . 00 321.06
8 300.00 560.00 1500.00 100.00 377.54
9 300.00 560.00 1500.00 100.00 465.82
10 300.00 560.00 1500.00 100.00 616.55
11 250.00 500.00 1650.00 100.00 415.41
12 250.00 500.00 1650.00 100.00 491.83
13 250.00 500.00 1600.00 100.00 570.96
14 250.00 500.00 1600.00 100.00 581.76
15 250.00 500.00 1600.00 100.00 587.63
16 250.00 500.00 1600.00 100.00 595.78

EXAMPLES VI
Note: In the data of the following examples , all values of moment , shear etc . , are
factored ones . Solve all the examples by using limit state method .
( 1 ) A rectangular beam 200 mm wide and 450 mm effective depth is reinforced with
3 no . 16 mm diameter bars . Find out the depth of neutral axis and specify the
type of beam .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Also find out the depth of neutral axis if the reinforcement is increased to 3 no.
20 mm diameter bars . Determine the M . R. in each case .
[ Ans. ( i ) 151.19 mm , under reinforced , 84.15 kNm ;
(ii ) 215.60 mm , over reinforced , 111.6 kNm .]
( 2 ) A singly reinforced rectangular beam is subjected to a factored bending moment
of 75 kNm . Find the balanced section and steel area. The materials are M 20
grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement . With the same size of beam , design
it for flexure if the HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 is used .
[ Ans. b x d = 230 mm x 332 mm , (i ) Asi = 1340 mm 2 , balanced ;
(ii ) Doubly reinforced , Asc = 55 mm 2, Asl = 780 mm 2 . ]
248 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 6
( 3 ) A singly reinforced rectangular beam 230 mm wide x 600 mm effective depth
is reinforced with 3 no . 25 mm diameter bars. Find out the factored moment of
resistance of the section . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel
reinforcement . Also find out the moment of resistance if the materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
[ Ans. ( i ) 193.46 mm , under - reinforced , 166.91 kNm ;
( ii ) 287.46 mm , over - reinforced , 228.15 kNm . ]
( 4 ) Find the moment of resistance of a beam section 230 mm wide x 500 mm
effective depth reinforced with 2 no. 20 mm diameter bars as compression reinforcement
at an effective cover of 40 mm and 4 no . 25 mm diameter bars as tension
reinforcement . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement .
Also find out the moment of resistance of the section if the HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 is used . [ Ans. 186.09 kNm , 257.89 kNm . ]
( 5 ) A rectangular beam of size 230 mm wide x 565 mm effective depth is subjected
to a factored moment of 250 kNm . Find the reinforcement for flexure. Assume d' = 40 mm .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel . Also find out the reinforcement
for flexure , if the HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 is used . Compare the
economy for designed sections . [ Ans . ( i ) Asc = 291 mm 2, Ast = 2564 mm 2 ;
( ii ) Asc = 263 mm 2, ,4 st = 1493 mm 2 .]
( 6 ) A tee beam of effective flange width of 1800 mm , thickness of slab 100 mm ,
width of rib 230 mm and effective depth of 500 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 25
mm diameter bars . Calculate the factored moment of resistance . The materials
fare M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. 338.26 kNm . ]
( 7 ) Find out the factored moment of resistance for a section of Ex. ( 6 ) , if the reinforcement
is increased to ( i ) 6 no . 28 mm diameter bars ( ii ) 7 no . 28 mm diameter bars.
[ Ans . 611.34 kNm , 700.07 kNm . ]
( 8 ) A tee beam of effective flange width of 1800 mm , thickness of slab 100 mm ,
width of rib 230 mm and effective depth of 500 mm is subjected to a factored
moment of 500 kNm . Design the reinforcement for flexure . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Also design the
reinforcement for flexure if the moment is increased to 650 kNm . Find out the
limiting moment of resistance of beam .
[ Ans . ( i ) 5- 28 mm # , Mu = 515.94 kNm
( ii ) 7- 28 mm # , Afu = 700.07 kNm
( iii ) Mujim = 788.64 kNm . ]
( 9 ) A flanged beam of effective flange width of 800 mm , thickness of slab 100 mm
width of web 250 mm , and effective depth of 460 mm is reinforced in compression
with 2 - 20 # bars ( d ' = 40 mm ) and in tension with 4 - 28 # bars . Determine the
moment of resistance of the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. [ Ans. Mu = 368 kNm . ]
( 10 ) Design a flanged beam to develop the moment of resistance of 320 kNm if
bf = 1000 mm , Df = 100 mm , d = 360 mm and bw = 250 mm . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. Asc = 2 - 20 # at d ' = 40 mm , Asi = 6- 25 # and Mu = 332.45 kNm . ]
 L0*
hapter SHEAR AND
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
E 7 3

.
7-1 Shear in structural members: The section of a structural member may
be subjected to shear force due to flexure, punching or torsion. Accordingly, the shear
may be flexural shear , punching shear or torsional shear .
(1) Flexural shear: The shear associated with change of bending moment along the
span is known as flexural shear. The beams are usually subjected to flexural
shear. For beams, the flexural shear is commonly referred to as ‘shear’.
( 2 ) Punching shear : The shear associated with the possibility of punching a thin
member by a concentrated load is called punching a shear. A slab carrying a
concentrated wall load , a beamless floor slab supported directly by columns
( called flat slab ) or a footing slab carrying a concentrated column load are
subjected to punching shear.
For the member subjected to both the above types of shear , the flexural shear
-
is referred to as one way shear whereas the punching shear is referred to as
two - way shear. A footing slab carrying concentrated column load is subjected
to both these shears .
(3 ) Torsion shear : When a member is subjected to torsion , it is subjected to torsion
shear. In RCC structures , the torsion shear is usually accompanied with flexural
shear.
The beams are the line ( uni - dimensional ) elements and are usually subjected to
flexural shear , and sometimes with torsion shear also . The slabs are the plate elements
and usually subjected to flexural shear. However , sometimes they are subjected to all
the types of shears as in case of restrained two - way slabs and the flat slabs.
The beams are classified as shallow and deep depending on the ratio of effective
span /, to overall depth, Z), i .e . , - jj ratio . Accordingly the beams are classified as deep if

^
-

D
/
<
<
2 , for simply supported beams .

2.5, for continuous beams.

The beams are otherwise classified as shallow. The former part of this chapter
deals with the design of shallow beams for flexural shear or simply it deals with the
design of beams for shear. Usually the shear failures of shallow RCC beams may not
lead to immediate failure , however it considerably reduces its flexural strength and
thus there is a state of impending shear failure . Hence the shear design is considered
as limit state of collapse .
If the shear failures take place before flexural failures, they are brittle and occur
without warning. Hence the safety margins provided on design shear strength are
larger than that provided on design flexural strength . At failure loads , the flexural
failure will take place prior to shear failure , thus , the ductile failure of the beam is
ensured .
In design of sections for flexure , we have assumed that there is a perfect bond
between concrete and steel. In the later part of this chapter we shall learn to check
whether the bond between these material is perfect. This bond is ensured by a length
of the reinforcement embedded in concrete called development length. In the later part
of this chapter we shall discuss about development length .
250 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

-.
7 2 F l e x u r e a n d s h e a r i n h o m o g e n e o u s b e a m: A simply supported
homogeneous , prismatic beam and its section A- A are shown in fig. 7- 1. Consider a
small element at level x- x, distant y from the neutral axis.

CO kN / m

( a ) Beam

V M
H- b -H amax
X max

lyrax
"

4 E iy •A
a
amax

( b ) Longitudinal Section (c) Section A-A ( d ) Bending stress (e ) Shear stress

distribution distribution
Flexure and shear in homogenous beam
FIG . 7- 1.
From the knowledge of materials , we know that this element is subjected to a
normal bending stress a and shear stress T . The flexure and shear stress distribution
across the section are given as follows :
Referring to fig. 7- 1,
let b = width of the section A - A
D = depth of the section A - A
M = applied B . M . at the section A - A
V = applied S. F. at the section A - A
moment of inertia of the section A - A
1
I = = bD *
The bending stress distribution is given by
^
My
a (i)
/
D
The maximum bending stress occurs at y = Ty from N . A ., which is compressive
at extreme top fibre and tensile at extreme bottom fibre and is given by

^ max I *
z
(2)

1
where Z = -op b Z)2, the modulus of section ,
The shear stress distribution is given by
VAy
T (3)
lb
Art . 7- 3] Shear and Development Length 251

where A= partial area of the section outside the fibre , as shown in figure
y = distance of centroid of A from N . A.
The average shear stress on the section is
v
Tflt,s bD
(4)
The maximum shear stress occurs at N . A ., given by
3 V (5 )
^ max 1.5 T avg
2 bD
The shear stress is zero at extreme fibres .
The bending stress and shear distributions are shown in fig. 7- 1 .
7- 3. Shear in reinforced concrete beams - Elastic theory: Consider
a short length 5 * of an R . C . C . beam as shown in fig. 7- 2 . Let M and V be the moment
and shear at section 1 - 1, and M + 5 M and V + 5 V the moment and shear at section 2 - 2 .
H b-H — H-6 X H
2
H- T H —
J C C + 8C

dN A
x
±
V + 8V
z ) N A

i A st M M + 5M

T
4 >
T + 5T

(a ) Section ( b) Short length 5x (c) Forces on 8x (d ) Shear stress

distribution
Shear in R . C . C. beam
FIG . 7- 2
Taking the moment of forces about side 2 - 2
u> ( S * ) 2
M + V . 5* - 2
- M - 5 M = 0 as the section is in equilibrium .

H> ( 5 A: ) 2
is a very small quantity and can be neglected .
2
- 5M =
0 o r V 8 * = 8 M.
F8x
Now moment of resistance with respect to compression
= 8 C . z where z is lever arm ; and
moment of resistance with respect to tension
= 8 T. z -
For the balanced section , 8 C . z = 8 T. z•
Now external moment = inernal moment of resistance
8M = 8 T . z = 5 C . z = V . 8*
VSx Vdx
SC = and 8 T = ( 7- 1 )
£ £
At any level , the difference in the longitudinal forces induce horizontal shear
stresses. At the neutral axis, the difference in forces above it is SC, which causes the
shear stress T on area b . Sx.
252 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
Thus at neutral axis ,

T
5C V. 8x V
b .8 x Z-b 8x bz '

Now Z = j = lever arm

d
V ( 7- 2 a )
i
b jd
The shear stress distribution in R . C . C . beam is zero at top and parabolic upto
V
neutral axis . At neutral axis the value is maximum and is equal to ; - . .
b]d
Below the neutral axis as concrete is considered ineffective in tension , the change
in the longitudinal forces remains constant and is equal to 5 C or 5 7!

V8x V
Shear stress ^^
= b8 x
b z S* b jd
( 7- 2 b )
At c .g. of reinforcing bars , the compressive forces causing shear (5 C ) are neutralised
by equal and opposite tensile force 5 T and hence , shear stress drops to zero . The shear
distribution is shown in fig. 7- 2 ( d ) .
Concrete is very strong in compression and also quite strong in shear , however,
the combination of vertical and horizontal shear stress alongwith tension due to
bending produces diagonal tension which is quite serious and will be now examined .
The complementary diagonal compression should also be taken into account .
7 - 4. D i a g o n a l t e n s i o n a n d d i a g o n a l c o m p r e s s i o n: Consider a small
element along the length of the beam . This is subjected to the shear stress ( x ) parallel
to four sides and tensile stress ( a ) along the length of the beam as shown in fig. 7- 3.

T
A

D
x
( a ) Small element along ( b) Principal stresses
the length of beam
Stresses on small element along the length of beam
FIG . 7- 3
The principal stresses on this element are given by

or o 2 = § , and

the inclination of principal planes is given by

2 x
tan 20 = a
Art . 7- 5 ] Shear and Development Length 253

The major principal stress is tensile and is equal to

°l = i *
and is known as diagonal tension.
The minor principal stress is compressive and is equal to
a
a2 = 2
and is known as diagonal compression.
Two important cases are discussed below.
( 1 ) If B . M. = 0, i .e ., a = 0, then = T and 0 2 = - x
tan 20 = and 0 = 45 ° or 135 °.
00

This means that near the support for a simply supported beam , where B . M . is
zero, and at N . A . of any section the principal tension is equal to shear stress and
is inclined at 45 °. This is known as diagonal tension. As the concrete is weak in
tension , the concrete near the support cracks at 45 ° with horizontal ( i . e . , perpendicular
to diagonal tension ) as shown in fig . 7- 4 ( a ) . These are known as flexure shear
cracks. In R . C. C . beam , the flexure crack is taken care by flexural reinforcement .
To avoid the shear cracks, the beam should be reinforced across the cracks ( i . e .,
along the principal tension ) as explained in art . 7- 6.
The other principal stress is inclined at 135 ° and is compressive . This is
known as diagonal compression and is of the same value as the shear stress. The
concrete is strong in compression and for usual cases diagonal compression is
below the permissible value . However , if the shear stress is very high , precautions
to avoid the diagonal compression failure also have to be taken . This is explained
in art . 7-5. The diagonal tension and compression near the support are shown in
fig. 7- 4 ( b) . The shear cracks are shown in fig . 7- 4 ( a ).

T T
X
J
**iA B x
4
1 §

( a ) Shear cracks in R .C.C. beam ( b ) Small element

near support A
, FIG . 7- 4
( 2 ) When B . M . is maximum at mid - span of a simply supported beam x = 0
and 0 = 0 .
This means that principal tension acts in horizontal direction and the cracks
will be vertical as shown in fig. 7- 4 ( a ) .
7- 5. Limit state theory: Equation ( 7- 2 ) for shear stress is derived by using
elastic theory. In this derivation the resistance to shear provided by reinforcement is
ignored . In limit state theory this is considered . The mechanics of shear transfer in
concrete beams without shear reinforcement , when concrete cracks due to shear is
illustrated in fig. 7- 5.
254 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
The shear is resisted by :
( 1 ) Above neutral axis shear resistance is provided by the uniform shear stress in
uncracked concrete . ( 20 to 40 % of total resistance )
( 2 ) Along the crack , shear resistance is provided by the vertical component of
force due to the interlocking of aggregates . ( 33 to 50% of total resistance )
( 3 ) At the tensile reinforcement , shear is resisted by the dowel action of the
longitudinal bars . ( 15 to 25% of total resistance )

( a ) Uniform shear stress

( b ) Aggregate interlock
l »/ c
( )
(c ) Dowel action

Shear resistance of a cracked beam

FIG. 7- 5
The behaviour of concrete is thus complicated and the shear stress is found out
in limit state theory by a simple formula similar to that of elastic theory where Tv is
defined as nominal shear stress.

Then Tv ( 7- 3 )
bd
where xv = nominal shear stress
Vu = design shear
b = width ofsection , which for the case of a flanged beam , is width of
the web , bw
d = effective depth .
The nominal shear stress as calculated by equation ( 7- 3 ) is not equal to the
diagonal tension stress but serves the purpose of indicating the diagonal tension stress
value . This is because the flexural stress is no longer linear in the compression region .
In case of beams of varying depth , the equation ( 7- 3) is modified as :

Vyu -
+
d ( 7- 4 )
= bd
where Tv, Fu , b and d are as defined above
Mu = bending moment at the section , and
P = angle between the top and bottom edges of the beam .
The negative sign in the formula applies when the bending moment Mu increases
numerically in the same direction as the effective depth increases , and the positive
sign when the moment decreases numerically in this direction .
-
7 6 . D e s i g n s h e a r s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e: The design shear strength of
concrete shall be taken as follows :
(1 ) Without shear reinforcement: The design shear strength of concrete in beams
without shear reinforcement for some cases is given in table 7- 1 which are taken for
further details, consult the code . From table 19 of IS: 456. The values given in table 7- 1
are based on the following equation :
0.85 VO .8 /ck ( VTT5 P - l ) ( 7- 5 )
6 P
Art . 7- 6 ] Shear and Development Length 255

0 « /c k
where p = , but not less than 1.0.
6.89 pt
100
for flanged section b shall be taken as £ w , the width of rib .
TT ,
~

TABLE 7- 1
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH OF CONCRETE TC , N / mm 2

100 As Concrete grade

bd M 20 M 25 M30
( 1) (2 ) ( 3) (4 )
< 0.15 0.28 0.29 0.29
0.25 0.36 0.36 0.37
0.50 0.48 0.49 0.50
0.75 0.56 0.57 0.59
1.00 0.62 0.64 0.66
1.25 0.67 0.70 0.71
1.50 0.72 0.74 0.76

Note: The term As is the area of longitudinal tension

reinforcement which continues at least one
effective depth beyond the section being
considered except at support where the full
0
& area of tension reinforcement may be used
provided the detailing conforms to the code
requirements .

Close observation of table 7- 1 shows that the design shear strength T c in concrete
depends on the percentage of tension steel . This is because :
( i ) When the amount of tension steel increase , the depth of neutral axis increases
and thus , the depth of uncracked concrete increases. This increases the capacity
of concrete in shear.
( ii ) When the amount of tension steel increases , the cracks formed are smaller ,
"
which improves the aggregate interblock. Also because of larger steel area the
dowel action is improved . This further improves the capacity of section in shear.
Close observation of table 7- 1 further indicates that shear strength of concrete is
also related to the compressive strength of concrete . In fact the shear strength of
concrete is a function of
^
/ck where fc is the characteristic compressive strength of
^
concrete . This can be observed from equation ( 7- 5 ) .
When the longitudinal bars are not required to resist moment , they are sometimes
curtailed or bent up . If the bars are curtailed , they create complicated stresses at the
point of curtailment , thereby reducing the shear capacity of the section . Therefore
while using table 7- 1, any longitudinal bars which are terminated within a distance d
100 As
of the section under consideration , shall not be considered for calculation of
bd *

This is the reason of the foot - note of table 7- 1.

If the nominal shear stress does not exceed the value of T c found from table 7- 1,
the section is safe for shear and shear reinforcements are not required theoretically.
However , some minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided as discussed in art. 7- 9.
256 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

If the nominal shear stress exceeds the design shear strength Tc , the section shall be
suitably reinforced with shear reinforcements . This is explained in art . 7- 6 .
( 2 ) With shear reinforcement : Note that shear reinforcements are provided against
diagonal tension . As the concrete is strong in compression , generally a beam is safe
for diagonal compression . However , for any beam , suitably reinforced against diagonal
tension , the nominal shear shall not exceed the maximum shear stress values given in
table 20 of IS : 456 . Some ,
values are given in table 7- 2 . The maximum
shear stress is given by xc max = 0.62 V7T 41
d is rounded up to the values given
in table 7- 2. By this prWwi on the failure ot the beam by diagonal compression is
"

prevented . For any section if nominal shear stress exceeds the maximum shear stress
value , the section shall be redesigned either by using richer concrete mix or by
increasing the size of the section . For practical purpose , it is recommended that
nominal shear stress may not exceed 85% of the z o max value .
^
TABLE 7- 2
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS z c ,max N / mm 2
Concrete grade M 20 M25 M30
T c , max N / mm 2 2.8 3.1 3.5

7- 7. Design for shear: As shown earlier , due to the shear stresses , there are
cracks in concrete perpendicular to the diagonal tension . As the load increases , these
cracks move upward . Most of the cracks stop when they reach the heavily stressed
region of compression zone . If there is a further increase of load , a critical diagonal
crack may tear through the beam .
As a result, the beam splits into two sections and a sudden brittle failure occurs.
Thus, the diagonal tension failure occurs without giving notice and may cause the
beam to collapse completely. Therefore , a beam shall be suitably reinforced along the
diagonal tension , i .e ., across the crack .
It may be noted at this stage that the pure shear usually does not occur in concrete
structures. As we have seen earlier that when pure shear is produced in the material ,
the principal tension of equal magnitude is produced on the other plane. As the tensile
strength of concrete is lower than its shear strength , concrete fails in diagonal tension
before its shearing strength is reached .
The design for shear as given by IS : 456 is empirical. This is because :
( 1 ) The reinforced concrete is a non - homogeneous material and does not resist
tension without cracking. It is therefore difficult to form the equations to find
out the maximum shear stress on a given plane .
( 2 ) Shear failures do not occur in the direction of shear force , but along the
diagonal planes.
( 3 ) The tensile strength of concrete is highly variable. Thus , the shear resisted by
dowel action and by aggregate inter - lock cannot be accurately determined .
The empirical design of shear as described in code is based on the assumption that
the shear failure of the section occurs on a vertical plane when the nominal shear
stress as defined by equation ( 7- 3) or equation ( 7- 4 ) exceeds the vertical shear strength
of concrete , i . e ., tc. By limiting the shear stress on a section and designing the shear
reinforcement when it exceeds the shear strength of concrete , the code ensures that the
possibility of brittle failure caused by the diagonal tension is eliminated .
The shear reinforcement is designed either by using vertical stirrups or by a
combination of stirrups and bent bars crossing the cracks.
Art . 7- 8] Shear and Development Length 257

Now , concrete alone can resist a shear force Fuc (or shear capacity of concrete Fuc)
which is given by
Vuc = TQbd ( 7- 6 )
According to IS : 456, the shear reinforcement shall be designed for a shear force ,
Fus,which is given by
V v u - V u c = 7U - x c b d
v us = V ( 7- 7 )
where Fus = strength of shear reinforcement
Fu = shear force due to applied loads
Fuc = T c b d = shear capacity of concrete without shear reinforcement.
The sharing of shear resistance in simply supported R . C . C. beam in shown in fig. 7- 6 .
Shear reinforcement required
Vus
Vu - Concrete capacity
I

Vuc
I i
T

Sharing of shear resistance in simply supported R . C. C . beams

FIG . 7- 6
7- 8. Shear reinforcement in beams: As discussed earlier , shear reinforcements
shall be designed to resist a shear force Fus. Considering a simplified view , as the concrete
is weak in tension , the shear failure is caused by diagonal tension with cracks running
at 45 ° to the beam axis . The shear reinforcement shall be provided by reinforcement
which cross the cracks . These shear reinforcement minimize the size of diagonal
tension crack and carry diagonal tension stress from one side of the crack to the other.
The provision of shear reinforcement is made by any of the following forms :
(1)Vertical stirrups
(2)Inclined stirrups , and
Bent - up bars along with stirrups.
( 3)
These are now briefly discussed .
(1) Vertical stirrups: Stirrups are the commonly used shear reinforcement. These
consist of a series of vertical closed bars spaced along the beam span as shown in
fig. 7-7. The first stirrups shall be provided within 50 mm from the face of the support .
The primary functions of the stirrups are :
( i ) to resist a part of the shear
( ii ) to resist the growth of the inclined cracks and improve aggregate interlock , and
( iii ) to tie the longitudinal bars in place , thereby increase the dowel action .
The shear transfer through shear reinforcement is explained as follows:
When the applied shear is less than the concrete capacity , the stirrups carry
practically negligible shear because the concrete is not cracked in diagonal tension .
When the concrete capacity is exhausted , a shear crack forms . Simultaneously, the
stirrups crossing the potential crack are put into action . The additional shear , i . e ., the
shear in excess to the concrete capacity is now transferred through the stirrups which
cross this potential crack . This also means that any stirrup not crossing the crack
essentially remains unstressed .
258 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 7

Thus, the stirrups will be designed observing that they cross a crack , say the first
crack at 45° near the support as shown in fig. 7-7. The stirrups are spaced at a distance
$ v apart and they cross the crack .

H- d - d -H

I 7
\

rav^7
. 5°

— ——
S * S y* S y*
y
- > 50
(a ) Elevation ( b) Section

Vertical stirrups as shear reinforcement

FIG . 7-7
Let J 4 SV = area of legs of one stirrup
fy = characteristic strength of stirrup 2 ( or bent up bar ) which shall
not be greater than 415 N / mm
0.87 fy = design tensile strength of shear reinforcement
Kus = strength of shear reinforcement.
Now, The horizontal length of crack = d - d' « d ( d' neglected )

No . of stirrups crossing the crack n = ^

Shear taken by stirrups = — X
^ sv x 0.87 fy
, ’ of the shear reinforcement.
This shall be equal to the the required strength V US

Equating J'us = —
*v
X
^ sv x 0.87 fy
0.87 /
^ sv . d
or
^ us = ( 7- 8 a )
This formula is given in IS : 456: 2000 and will be used to design stirrups . Grade
Fe 250 ( mild steel ) and Fe 415 ( HYSD ) bars are used as stirrups.
For design , usually we fix the grade of reinforcement (i .e ., /y) , and the diameter
of stirrups , ( i . e ., i4 sv ) . Then we use equation ( 7- 8 ) to determine the spacing of
stirrups as :
0.87 /y A,vd
Sy = ( 7- 8 b )

Equation ( 7-8 ) can be modified as:

^ US

0.87 fy Asy
vus = vu
Y ¥ - vr uc =
- 0.87 /y ^lsv
d
^ uc
Art . 7- 9] Shear and Development Length 261

When a beam requires compression reinforcement , in case of doubly reinforced

section for example , the arrangement of shear reinforcement shall be as follows to
ensure the effective lateral restraint to the compression bars .
main
or 6 mm
( ii ) sy } b ( the width of beam ) ; 16 times the diameter of smallest main bar ; and 300 mm .
Here 0 S is the diameter of stirrup , and 0 main is the diameter of largest main bar.
(3 ) Minimum shear reinforcement : Minimum shear reinforcement in the form of
vertical stirrups shall be provided such that
ASv > 0.8 I f
0.4
( 7- 12 a )
bSy ^
where = total cross - sectional area of stirrup legs effective in shear
$v = stirrup spacing along the length of the member in mm
b = width of the beam or width of rib of flanged beam
fy = characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement in N / mm 2 which
shall not be taken greater than 415 N / mm 2 .
However , where the maximum shear stress calculated is less than half the permissible
value and in the members of minor structural importance such as lintels , this provision
need not be complied with .
The above provision of minimum shear reinforcement provides a shear resistance
of 0.4 N / mm 2 . From equation ( 7- 12 a ) , to provide the minimum shear reinforcement ,
the spacing of stirrups shall not exceed
0.87 fy Asy
$v < ( 7- 12 b )
0.4 b
It can be seen that for given type of steel and selected diameter of stirrups, the
spacing that provides minimum shear resistance is inversely proportional to the width
b of the member. In case of tee or ell beams the b shall be equal to bw , the width of web .
The instant a shear crack is formed , the tension carried by concrete is transferred
to the shear reinforcement . In other words , the shear reinforcement restrains the
growth of shear crack and increases the ductility of the beam .
In case of over loading, this provides the warning before sudden failure . To ensure that
stirrups will have sufficient strength to absorb the diagonal tension in concrete , the minimum
shear reinforcement is required . Many times this provision governs the shear design .
Example 7- 1 .
A tee beam section having 230 mm width of web x 460 mm effective depth is
reinforced with 5 no . 16 mm diameter bars as tension reinforcement, which continue
for a distance greater than effective depth , past the section . The section is subjected
to a factored shear of 52.5 kN . Check the shear stresses and design the shear reinforcement .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . For
stirrups mild steel bars may be used .
Solution :
Here b = 230 mm . Vu = 52.5 kN .
d = 460 mm . A s = Asi = 5 x 201 = 1005 mm 2
52.5 x 103 0.496 N / mm 2
Nominal shear stress Tv = 230 x 460 =
100 As 100 x 1005
= 0.95.
bd 230 x 460
262 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

Note that As{ denotes steel area provided for maximum bending moment while As
denotes the area of steel which continues at least one effective depth beyond the
section being considered for checking the shear .
100 As
For
bd = 0.95, from table 7- 1, Tc shall be calculated by interpolation .
100 As
For
bd = 0.75 , T c = 0.56 N / mm 2
100 As
For
bd
= 1.0 , T c = 0.62 N / mm 2
100 As
For
bd = 0.95
xc = 0.56 + 1 - -0.75 (0.95 - 0.75) = 0.608 N / mm 2 .
0.62 0.56

Now , TV < Tc, therefore only nominal shear reinforcement is required .

Select 6 mm diameter M .S. bars for stirrups .
Asv = 2 x 28 = 56 mm 2 for two - legged stirrups .
For minimum shear reinforcement
0.4
bSy 0.87 /
56 0.4
0 -0 ^ 230 sv 0.87 x 250
56 x 0 , 87 x 250
0 5V < 230 x 0.4
0.0 ^
\
5V < 132.4 mm .
The spacing shall not exceed
( a ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 460 = 345 mm , ( b ) 300 mm and ( c) 132.4 mm as calculated above .
Provide 6 mm diameter two - legged stirrups about 130 mm c / c .
Alternatively minimum shear reinforcement may be selected from table 7- 4 . This
is explained in art. 7- 10 .
Example 7- 2.
If the factored shear of the above section is increased to 90 kN , check the shear
stresses and find the spacing of 6 mm diameter mild steel stirrups .
Solution :
Vu = 90 kN, b = 230 mm , d = 460 mm .
Nominal shear stress
90 x 103
= 230 x 460 = 0.85 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2
where 2.8 N / mm 2 is the maximum nominal shear stress for M 20 mix.
Tc = 0.608 N / mm 2 as calculated in Example 7- 1 .
Now , Tv > TC, therefore shear reinforcement shall be designed .
Shear resistance of concrete
Fuc = tc b d = 0.608 x 230 x 460 x 10 ~3 = 64.3 kN .
Art . 7- 9 ] Shear and Development Length 263

Shear to be resisted by stirrups

Fus = Vu - Vuc = 90 - 64.3 = 25.7 kN.
Using 6 mm diameter two - legged stirrups
Asv = 56 mm 2
0.87 fy . Asy . d 0.87 x 250 x 56 x 460
sv = 25.7 x 103 = 218 mm .

or by
^ US

using equation ( 7-9 ) 2-10 #

0.87 x /y x 4. v
sv = b ( TV - TC )
460 6 mm <J)
0.87 x 250 x 56 @ 130 mm c/c
= 230 ( 0.85 - 0.608 ) = 218 mm '

The spacing shall not exceed

5 - 16 #
( a ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 460 = 345 mm H-
230
( b ) 300 mm Section
( c ) due to minimum shear reinforcement required FIG. 7- 11
i . e ., 132.4 mm as shown in Example 7- 1
( d ) required spacing = 218 mm .
Provide 6 mm b two - legged stirrups about 130 mm c / c as shown in fig. 7- 11.
Note: In Example 7- 1, xv < Tc and minimum shear reinforcement is required . Therefore
two - legged stirrups of 6 mm diameter about 130 mm c / c are provided . In Example 7- 2 ,
Tv > Tc and still provided shear reinforcement is the same as minimum required .
This is because in the first case , the contribution of stirrups is not considered while
in second case it is considered . The difference between two cases is that in the first
case Tv < Tc and hence , minimum shear reinforcement is provided while in second case
TV > xc and designed reinforcement ( may be equal to but not less than minimum required )
is provided .

Example 7- 3 .
In Example 7- 2, if 2 no . 16 mm diameter bars are bent up at 45° and factored
shear is increased to 120 kN , find the spacing of 6 mm diameter mild steel stirrups.
Solution :
2 bars bent up , Asy = 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2 .
Shear resistance = 402 x 0.87 x 250 x sin 45° x 10-3 = 61.82 kN .
For the remaining 3 bars
100 As 100 x 603
bd = 230 x 460 = 0.57
xc = 0.502 N / mm 2.
Shear resistance of concrete
J'u C
^c ^ d
= 0.502 X 230 X 460 x 10 ~3 = 53.1 kN.
264 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 7
Shear resistance to be provided by shear reinforcement
Fus = 120 - 53.1 = 66.9 kN .
Now 2 bent bars can provide a shear of 61.82 kN ; however according to IS : 456 ,
“ when bent up bars are provided , their contribution towards shear resistance shall not
be more than half that of the total shear reinforcement". This means, shear resistance
66.9
of bent up bars in this case shall not be considered more than kN , i . e ., 33.45 kN .
2
Note: In some cases , full resistance of bent up bars can be used when it is not more than
half the required shear resistance of total shear reinforcement . If suppose in this
case the shear resistance to be provided by shear reinforcement is 145 kN instead
of 66.9 kN , then full contribution of shear resistance of bent bars may be considered .
The shear resistance to be provided by vertical stirrups is then greater of
(a) 66.9 - 61.82 = 5.08 kN
1
( b)
2
x 66.9 = 33.45 kN .
Provide stirrups to resist a shear of 33.45 kN . Using 6 mm diameter two - legged stirrups
Asv = 56 mm 2
_
= 56 x 0.87 x 250 x 460 = 167.5
_ mm .
33.45 x 103
The spacing shall not exceed
( a ) 0.75 x 460 = 345 mm
( b ) 300 mm
( c ) 132.4 mm ( minimum shear reinforcement )
( d ) 167.5 mm ( required ) .
Provide 6 mm diameter stirrups about 130 mm c / c .
Note: It is not necessary to write “ two - legged stirrups ” always. Unless otherwise specified ,
the stirrups shall be considered as two - legged .
Example 7- 4.
If the factored shear on the section of example 7- 1 is reduced to 30 kN , check the
shear stresses and find the spacing of 6 mm diameter M .S. stirrups.
Solution :
30 x 103
= 230 x 460 = 0.284 N / mm 2
xc = 0.608 N / mm 2, from example 7- 1.
Now xv < Tc , therefore only nominal shear reinforcement is required .
Tc , the criterion of minimum shear reinforcement need not be complied with .
Also Tv <—
Then , spacing of 6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups should not exceed :
( a ) 0.75 d = 345 mm
( b ) 300 mm .
Provide 6 mm diameter two - legged M . S. stirrups @ 300 mm c / c.
Art . 7- 10 ] Shear and Development Length 271

230 x 560 ( 1.575 - 1.252 ) 0.4 x 230 x 560

^ 0.87 x 415
0.87 x 415
= 115.2 mm 2 > 143 mm 2
i.e . As = 143 mm 2 .
Provide 2 no . 8 mm diameter two - legged stirrups with £ Asv = 2 x 100 =
200 mm 2 . This should be provided within the middle three quarters of av , i.e.,
3
middle 7 x 560 = 420 mm .
4
This means, the spacing of stirrups is —y = 210 mm .

Provide 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups @ 210 mm c / c at support.

Note that the shear design using the enhanced shear strength is economical in this case.
Example 7- 8 .
A simply supported normal tee beam of 4.5 m clear span and 4.8 m effective span
is loaded with characteristic load of 60 kN / m . It also carries a point load of 100 kN
at 0.6 m from the centre of left hand support A . The beam at support is reinforced
with 4 no . 20 mm diameter bars. The section of the beam is 230 mm wide x 560 mm
effective depth . Design the shear reinforcement at support A . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
= 1.5 x 60 = 90 kN / m
The factored UDL
The factored point load = 1.5 x 100 = 150 kN .
Reffering to fig . 7- 15,
Shear at face of support = 347.25 - 0.15 x 90 = 333.75 kN .
x 103
= 333.75
230 x 560
= 2.59 N / mm2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
Shear strength of concrete :
100 As
100 x 4 x 314
230 x 560
bd = 0.975
= 0.626 N / mm 2.
The point load lies within 2 d from the face of the support , hence simplified
approach cannot be used . Check the section using enhanced shear strength .
The shear under point load = 347.25 - 0.60 x 90 = 293.25 kN
av = 0.60 - 0.15 = 0.45 m .
The enhanced shear strength at av = 0.45 m from the face of the support
2 d 2 x 0.56
x tc = x 0.626
^ c ,enh aV 0.45
= 1.558 N / mm 2.
x 103
% = 293.25
230 x 560 =
2.277 N / mm 2 .

,enh -
272 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

150 kN 90 kN / m

\
\
> 0.45 m \
\
/
/ s\
/ \
/
-H —
0.15 m
K- 4.5 m —
>4 K
0.15 m
H
0.60 m
< 4.8 m - H
( a) Beam
333.75 kN
293.25 kN

347.25 143.25 kN

133.35 kN

N-rH >
0.15 m J 0.56 m
234.75 kN
* 1.59 m >
0.60 m

221.25 kN
«- 2.46 m
( b) S.F.diagram 0.15 m
- 2-12 #
1 r 2-12 #
I{ 7

/
/
t 4-20 #
560

£/ 40 H 110 f*
110
H
110
t*
110
H
110
/
/

590 mm H
<->+< - 337.5 H
L 4- 20 #
56.25 56.25 K 230 -H
- Middle 3/4 of av Section A - A
K a v = 450 mm *

DIA 8#
NO 6 <r
SPA 110

Shear reinforcement at support

FIG . 7- 15
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 273

Shear design is necessary.

The minimum area of stirrups is given by
dy b ( Tv Tc , enh )
0.4 flv b
= -^
^ 0.87 / 0.8 7 /y
560 x 230 ( 2.277 - 1.558 ) ^ 0.4 x 560 x 230
= 0.87 x 415 0.87 x 415
2 2.
= 256.5 mm 142.7 mm
i .e. As = 256.5 mm 2.
Provide 3 no . 8 mm diameter two - legged stirrups with I As = 300 mm 2. Within

^
3 x 450 = 337.5 mm . This means the spacing of
the middle <zv , ii . e ., middle
^ 337.5
112.5 mm .
stirrups will be 3 =
Provide 8 mm # @ 110 mm c / c at support. Start first stirrups at 40 mm from the
face . Continue the same spacing upto d = 560 mm .
560 - 40
No . of stirrups= 110
+ 1 6 no.
At d = 560 mm , av = d
Vu = 333.75 - 0.56 x 90 - 150 = 133.75 kN
x 103
Ty = 133.75
230 x 560 =
1.038 N / mm 2 .

2 d
^ c , enh av TC = 2 Tc

= 2 x 0.626 = 1.252 N / mm 2 .

Only minimum shear reinforcement is required .

The shear reinforcement provided at the support are shown in fig . 7- 15 , using
2 - 12 # hanger bars at the top.
Design of complete beam for the shear is treated in the next article .
.
7- 11 Design of a complete beam for shear: In previous articles , we
have designed the beam sections for shear. The sections considered were anywhere
along the beam and also at the beam supports . In most practical cases , the applied
shear introduces compression in end regions of the beam . In such cases , if the beam
is loaded with uniform load , we will prefer to use simplified approach to design the
shear reinforcement at the support . The enhanced shear strength will be used when
there exists a point load within 2 d from the face of the support . If the beam ends are
not confined by compressive reaction , such provisions will not apply.
Consider a sufficiently long simply supported beam loaded with uniform load as
shown in fig. 7- 16. For simplicity, consider that the flexure reinforcement is neither
bent nor curtailed , i . e . , provided throughout the span . As the shear force is changing
along the span, the shear reinforcement can also be varied along the length .
As and corresponding .
100
At centre of the beam , calculate the percentage of steel
bd xc
The shear strength of concrete is then Vuc = ic b d. In the central region of the
beam , i . e ., in the region C - D - O - E - F, the shear is less than Vuc . In this region ,
274 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 7

theoretically , no shear reinforcement is required , however , we need to provide some

minimum shear reinforcement in this region , as per code . The length C - D - O - E - F of
the beam may be called as the zone of minimum shear reinforcement in connection with
shear design . Selecting the type and diameter of the stirrups ( two - legged , unless
specified ) , determine the spacing of minimum stirrups . Note that this spacing should
not exceed 0.75 d or 300 mm whichever is smaller. Let the shear capacity of
minimum shear reinforcement be Vusmin.

Uniform load

(a ) Beam
Vuc + V us, min
V
vuc Vuc
2
E G H
A B C D O
V
vuc
2 Vuc
Vuc + V us. min
( b ) S .F.diagram

FIG . 7- 16
Tc ,
As per the code , where Tv — the criterion of minimum shear reinforcement
need not be complied . Determine the portion D - O - E where the applied shear is less
than ——c
. In this region , the spacing of the stirrups should not exceed 300 mm
or 0.75 d whichever is small . In example 7- 10 , this region is calculated and shear
reinforcement is provided in region D - O - E accordingly. In most cases , however , we
shall prefer to provide minimum shear reinforcement in portion D - O - E also . In most
other examples of the beam , this is followed . In case of lintels and minor structures ,
we will increase the stirrup spacing where Tv Tc
2 ’
If we select any section just left to C or just right to F, the shear stress Tv > Tc
and the shear reinforcement shall be designed . The shear taken by stirrups Vus = Vu - Vuc
is small and hence we get the designed shear reinforcement as minimum shear reinforcement
as that worked in example 7- 2. This condition exists upto B in portion CB or up to G
in portion FG where the applied shear is equal to
V
r u = V
r + Vr us, m i n
uc
where V us, mm = shear capacity of minimum stirrups .
Now the designed shear reinforcement more than minimum is required in portion
AB or HG which may consist of stirrups only or a combination of bent bars and stirrups.
Design the shear reinforcement at support A as discussed in previous articles and
provide the same stirrups in portion A to B if there is no bent or curtailed bar. If bent
bars or curtailed bars exist , check the shear stresses at critical points . In most cases ,
we shall prefer to provide same stirrups in region AB , however , if this distance is large
the shear reinforcement may be changed in favour of economy. Considering the ends
of the beam are confined by compressive reaction , the requirements and provision of
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 275

stirrups are shown in fig . 7- 17. The variety of worked examples that follow , will clarify
the procedure of design .
Uniform load

(a ) Beam loading

Critical shear - Design shear profile

r

Shear to be resisted by shear reinforcement

Hv Vuc Vuc
2

L Shear resisted by concrete

( b) Shear design requirements

— Shear resisted by shear reinforcement

r — Design shear profile
JE Shear resisted
~

by minimum shear

t Shear resisted by concrete

reinforcement

(c ) Shear capacity of concrete and shear reinforcement

Spacing required
- Spacing provided

( d ) Provision of ( same type and diameter ) stirrups

Provision of shear reinforcement

FIG . 7- 17
In connection with the design of complete beam for shear , the following points
should be carefully noted .
( 1 ) When HYSD bars are used for main steel, for secondary bars like stirrups in
beams, ( distribution bars in slabs and ties in columns ) HYSD and mild steel
may be used . Different grades of steel for main and secondary bars are permitted
by IS: 456.
( 2 ) When the beam is resting on masonry wall , the first stirrup may enter into the
support. However , when the beam is resting on column , this is not possible
due to the obstructions of ties and column bars. Therefore, the first stirrup is
placed at the face of the support or within 50 mm from the face of the support
as shown in fig. 7-7.
276 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

Example 7- 9 .
A simply supported tee beam of 8 m clear span carries a total characteristic load of
30 kN / m . The section of the beam is 230 mm wide x 500 mm effective depth. It is reinforced
with 6 no . 20 mm diameter bars. Design the shear reinforcement using vertical stirrups
only. The ends of the beam are not confined by compressive reaction . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Refer to fig. 7- 18 .
45 kN/m

« 8 m clear >

180 kN 180 kN
( a ) Loading diagram

( b ) S . F.diagram

Suspender
<- 8000
2- 16 #
—
>
2- 16 #
T
>
u <

500
*
—
> 6- 20 #

DIA 8# 8#
NO 6 rest 6-20 #
SPA 180 300 ^ 230 -*H
( d ) Beam section
(c ) Beam elevation
FIG . 7- 18
Solution :
Factored load = 1.5 x 30 = 45 kN / m .
( a ) Maximum shear at the face of the support :
1
Maximum shear Fu = 2
x 45 x 8 = 180 kN
180 x 103
Shear stress , = 230 x 500
1.56 N / mm ^ < 2.8 N / mm 2
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 277

( b ) Nominal stirrups :
At centre of the beam
As = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2
100 As 100 x 1884
1.64
bd 230 x 500
xc = 0.737 N / mm 2
Fuc = T cbd = 0.737 x 230 x 500 x 10 -3 = 84.7 kN . . . ( 1 )
Using 8 mm # 2 legged nominal nominal stirrups with Asv = 100 mm 2 ; the
spacing of minimum shear reinforcement is given by
0.87 / Asy 0.87 x 415 x 100
sv 0.4 b 0.4 x 230 = 392 mm
Also >
sv 300 mm
^ 0.75 x 500 = 375 mm , i . e . , 300 mm .
Provide 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups @ 300 mm c / cD
Shear resistance of minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 fy Asv d 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 500
V u s, m i n x 10 -3
300
= 60.2 kN (2)
Shear resistance of section kB with minimum stirrups from ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
'

= 84.7 4- 60.2 = 144.9 kN .

180 - 144.9
This occurs at x = 45 = 0.78 m from the face of the support. The tension
reinforcement 6 - 20 # extends for more than d ( i . e ., 500 mm ) . Thus As = 6 - 20 # is valid .
Referring to fig. 7- 18 , the stirrups more than minimum is required in portion
AB or EF of 0.78 m .
( c ) At support A
As the ends of the beam are not confined by compressive reaction , the section
at the face of the support is considered .
Vu = 180 kN , TV = 1.56 N / mm 2, T C = 0.737 N / mm 2.
Tv > Tc shear design is necessary.
Vuc = 84.7 kN ; Fus = 180 - 84.7 = 95.3 kN.
Using 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups with Asv = 100 mm 2 , the spacing is given by
0.87 /y sv d
5V = ^ 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 500
= 189 mm .
Ks 95.3 x 103
The spacing should not exceed
( i ) 392 mm ( from minimum stirrups criterion )
( ii ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 500 = 375 mm
( iii ) 300 mm .
^. Provide 8 mm # @ 180 mm c / c stirrups at s u p p o r t . Continue
v the same spacing:
*
^
up to 780 mrrT

^
No . W istirrups =
780
180 + 1 ^ 6 no .
The design proposals are sketched in fig. 7- 18 . Use 2 - 16 # anchor bars .
278 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
Example 7- 10 .
Design the shear reinforcement for the beam of example 7- 9, if the beam ends are
confined by compressive reaction . For minimum shear reinforcement , use mild steel .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Refer
to fig. 7- 19.
45 kN / m

8000
8250 >

( a ) Loading diagram
180.0
157.5
JI*
131.5
84.7
42.35
E F G H
A
*4- K
500
-
*
1080
*
h*
( b) S.F.diagram

2- 12 # 2-16 #
f
u
500
*;
/
L- 6- 20 #
/
/ «- 8000 > >

6-20 #
DIA 8# 60 60 K H
NO 6 16 rest >
< 230 mm
SPA 240 130 300

(c) Beam elevation (d) Beam section

FIG . 7- 19
Solution :
Factored load = 1.5 x 30 = 45 kN / m .
( a ) Maximum shear at the face of the support :
1
Maximum shear Vu =|x 45 x 8 = 180 kN
180 x IQ3
Shear stress *
230 x 500 = 1.56 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 279

( b ) Nominal stirrups:
At centre of the beam
A, = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2
100 As 100 x 1884
bd
“
230 x 500 1.64 “
\J
=
Tc 0.737 N / mm 2
3
Vuc = 0.737 x 230 x 500 x 10 ’
= 84.7 kN (1 )
84.7
= 42.35 kN .
2 2
Distances of sections C and D from A where VQ = Vuc = 84.7 kN and
Vuc
VD = — = — 42.35 kN are given by
180 - 84.7
*C = 45 = 2.117 m from A
180 - 42.35
*D = 45 = 3.05 m from A .
For central porion D - O - E, where xv < Tc — , using 6 mm <> M.S. stirrups, spacing
should not exceed
( i ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 500 = 375 mm
( ii ) 300 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 300 mm c / c in portion D - O - E.
Using 6 mm <J> 2 legged M . S. Stirrups with Asv = 56 mm 2, the spacing of
minimum shear reinforcement is given by

=
0.87 / .4 SV 0.87 x 250 x 56
132 mm
0.4 b 0.4 x 230
5V > 300 mm
> 0.75 x 500 = 375 mm.e ., 130 mm . i

Provide 6 mm <J> 2 legged stirrups @ 130 mm c / c, where required .

Shear resistance of minimum stirrups
0 - 87 fy Asv d 0.87 x 250 x 56 x 500 x
V us , m i n IQ-3
sv 130
= 46.8 kN (2)
Shear capacity of section B or G with minimum shear reinforcement , from
( 1 ) and ( 2 )
= uc + V us, m ».n = 84.7 + 46.8
^
= 131.5 kN .
180 - 131.5
Distance from Ax % = 1.08 m .
45
Provide minimum shear reinforcement in portion BD or GH.
3050 - 1080
No . of stirrups = 16 no.
130
280 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

( c ) Section at support :
Ends of the beam are confined by compressive reaction
Shear at d = 0.5 m , Vu = 180 - 0.5 x 45 157.5 kN .
aV = d = 500 mm ,
x IQ 3
= 157.5
230 x 500 =
1.37 N / mm 2 ,

TC = 0.737 N / mm 2,
2 d
^ c , enh xc = 2 TC = 2 x 0.737 = 1.474 N / mm 2
Use 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups with /lsv = 100 mm 2 .
The minimum area of stirrups is given by

(Tv Xc ,enh )
> 0.87av
flv b 0.4 b
As *
0.87 /y “
/
500 x 230 ( 1.37 - 1.474 ) ^
0.4 x 500 x 230
“
0.87 x 415 0.87 x 415
= - 33 mm 2 > 127.4 mm 2
i. e. As = 127.4 mm 2.
Provide 2 no. 8 mm diameter two - legged stirrups with X As = 200 mm 2 within
middle

^
stirrups will be
av , i . e ., middle
375
^
187.5 mm .
x 500 = 375 mm . This

Provide 8 mm # @ 180 mm c / c at support . Continue the same spacing up to B ,

means the spacing of the

i . e ., in AB = 1080 mm portion .
1080
No . of stirrups = 7 no.
180 + 1
»

Summary :
AB and GH - 8 mm # @ 180 mm c / c - 7 no.
BD and GE - 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c - 16 no.
D - O - E - 6 mm 0 @ 300 mm c / c.
The design proposals are detailed in fig. 7- 19.
Example 7- 11.
Design the shear reinforcement for a rectangular doubly reinforced beam as shown
in fig. 7- 20 . The materials are M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415.
Solution :
( a ) Maximum shear at face of the support :
Vu = 300 kN , d = 500 mm , b = 300 mm
x IQ3
= 300
300 x 500 =
2 N / mm 2
< 3.1 N / mm 2 ( xCimaJt for M 25 mix )
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 281

Factored load = 150 kN/ m

4000 clear span >

— 4400 c/c
( a ) Beam loading
— /-

330L 300

>

300
330
( b ) S.F.diagram

t-2 25 # - 2-25 # 2-25 #

350
H
*
-
YTrT \L
777

'
<r
3-25 # 6- 25 #
4000 clear span >
25# pin
500 475
r 25# pin
4
<- 4400 c/c supports — 5
^
L 3-25 # L 6-25 #

DIA 8# 8#
—
300 H
Section at support
300 H —
Section at centre
NO 7 rest < >
SPA 130 300

(c ) Beam elevation ( d ) Beam sections

FIG . 7- 20
( b ) Nominal stirrups :
At centre of the beam
As = 6 x 491 = 2946 mm 2, d = 475 mm , b = 300 mm
100 As 100 x 2946
bd 300 x 475 = 2.06
Tc = 0.827 N / mm 2.
Fuc = T C B D = 0.827 x 300 x 475 x 10 " 3
= 117.8 kN . . . ( 1 )
Using 8 mm # two-legged stirrups with A s y = 100 mm 2, the spacing of minimum
stirrups is given by
282 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
0.87 /y Asv 0.87 x 415 x 100
5V = 0.4 x 300 = 300 mm
0.4 b
5V >
300 mm
>
0.75 x 475 , i . e ., 356 mm .
Also top bars are designed as compression steel .
sy >
16 x 25 or 300 mm , i .e ., 300 mm .
Provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c minimum stirrups .
Shear resistance of minimum stirrups
0.87 /y sv d
^ 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 475 x
10-3
^ us, min 300
= 57.2 kN (2)
Shear resistance of section ‘ B’ with minimum stirrups from ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
= 117.8 + 57.2 = 175 kN .
330 - 175
This occurs at x =
150 = 1.034 m from the centre of the support. The
tension reinforcement 6 - 25 # extends 1030 - 350 = 680 mm past the section C,
which is greater than d = 475 mm . Thus As = 6 - 25 # is valid .
Provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c in portion C- D - E .
( c ) Section between face of the support A and B ( 1034 - 200 = 834 mm from face of
the support ):
The beam ends are confined by compression reaction . ax = d = 500 mm ,
As = 3- 25 # = 3 x 491 = 1473 mm 2.
As 6- 25 # do not extend for effective depth past the section considered , the
contribution of remaining 3- 25 # is taken into account . Also corresponding d = 500 mm
is taken into account.
av = d = 500 mm
225 x 103
= 300 x 500 = 1.5 N / mm 1
100 As 100 x 1473
bd 300 x 500 = 0.982
TC = 0.635 N / mm 2.
2 d
^ c ,enh av xc = 2 TC = 2 x 0.635 = 1.27 N / mm 2
The area of stirrups required is
av b ( Tv ,enh )
“

>
0.4 ay b
= 0.8 7 /y ~
0.8 7 /y
500 x 300 ( 1.5 - 1.27 ) 0.4 x 500 x 300
^
0.87 x 415 0.87 x 415
= 95.5 mm > 166.2 mm *.
2 2

Provide 2 no . 8 mm # two - legged stirrups with S Asy = 2 x 100 = 200 mm 2

3 3 300
within the middle < zv =
x 400 = 800 mm . This gives spacing of = 150 mm .
^ 4
Provide 8 mm # @ 150 mm c / c . Continue the same spacing up to 834 mm .
834
No. of stirrups = 7 no . Note that the first stirrup is assumed at
150 + 1 ^
the face of the support .
Art . 7- 11 ] Shear and Development Length 283

Summary :
AC and GE - 8 # @ 150 mm c / c - 7 no.
CE - 8 # @ 300 mm c / c .
The designed beam elevation and sections are shown in fig. 7- 20.
Example 7- 12 .
The factored shear force diagram and section properties of a beam are shown in
fig . 7- 21. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415. Design the shear reinforcement . Mild steel may be used for stirrups .
Factored load = 75 kN/m

<•
6 m clear
<- 6.3 m c/c

( a ) Beam loading

225
180 kN
135 kN
236
G
A
236
H H
150 600 600 225
( b ) S.F.diagram

r 2- 12 #
r ^®
~ 2- 12 #

650 600
800 —H 6-20 # (4st. + 2 bent ) ^ (A)
H*
< - 6000 clear span
6300 c/c supports
•
>
>
—— 20 # pin

6- 20 #
DIA < >
200
NO 6 mm $ @ 1 5 0 mm c/c throughout
SPA ( d ) Beam section A- A

(c) Beam elevation

FIG . 7- 21
Solution :
( a ) Maximum shear stress at the face of the support :
x 103
Vu = 75 x 3 = 225 kN = 225
200 x 600
b = 200 mm = 1.875 N / mm 2
d = 600 mm < 2.8 N / mm 2 { xc max for M 20 mix )
284 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
( b ) Minimum stirrups :
Using 6 mm 0 two legged M . S. Stirrups with Asv = 56 mm 2, the spacing of
minimum shear reinforcement is given by

Jv
0.87 /
0.4 b
^ sv 0.87 x 250 x 56
0.4 x 200
152.25 mm .

sv > 300 mm
5V > 0.75 x 600 = 450 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 150 mm c / c , minimum stirrups.
Shear resistance of minimum stirrups
0.87 /y Asv d
0.87 x 250 x 56 x 600
x 10-3
^us ,min 150
= 48.72 kN (1)
( c ) Section between face of support and 2 d = 1200 mm
In previous problems , because of uniformity of the beam along longitudinal
section , we determined the resistance of the section with minimum shear reinforcement
as a summation of V us , min anc . In this example , the conditions between face
* Vuc
to d and d to 2 d are different as the contribution of bent bars is available from face to d
100 As
For calculation of . . , 4 - 20 # bars are available from 0 to 800 + d , i . e., 0 to
oa
800 + 600 = 1400 mm . Then after , 6 - 20 # are available . With this data, we start
calculations from face of support .
( 1 ) Section between 0 to d :
As the ends are confined by compressive reaction , shear at d = 600 mm
is used for checking shear at support .
Shear at d = 600 mm
Vu = 180 kN from S. F. diagram.
180 x IQ3 1.5 N / mm 2.
TV = 200 x 600 =
av = 600 mm Tc enh = 2 xc
d =
100 As 100 x 4 x 314
1.05
bd 200 x 600
xc = 0.63 N / mm 2
xcttnh = 2 x 0.63 = 1.26 N / mm 2 .
The area of shear reinforcement required is
b - * c ,enh ) 0.4 av b
^ sv — Ov v
0.87 /y
^
0.87 /y
600 x 200 ( 1.5 - 1.26 )
> 0.4 x 600 x 200
0.87 x 415 0.87 x 415
= 79.8 mm > 132.9 mm
2 2 (2)
i .e .
^ sv = = 132.9 mm 2.
Bent bars provide 50% 66.5 mm 2 < 2 x 314 mm 2 ( OK. )
Art. 7- 12 ] Shear and Development Length 285

Stirrups provide 50% = 66.5 mm 2 .

Use 2 no . 6 mm 0 M .S. Stirrups with I Asy = 56 x 2 = 112 mm 2. Within
3 3
middle av = x 600 = 450 mm .
^ ^
This gives a spacing of = 225 mm ( 3)
( 2 ) Section between d = 600 mm to 2 d = 1200 mm :
Here contribution of bent bars not available . From ( 2 ) As = 132.9 mm 2.

No. of 6 mm 0 stirrups = 132 9 = 2.37

450 ( 4)
spacing = 2.37 189.6 mm
From ( 3) and ( 4 ) , spacing of 6 mm 0 stirrups can be provided with a
spacing of 180 mm from 0 to 2 d.
However , from calculation of minimum stirrups from ( b ) , this spacing
cannot exceed 150 mm .
Therefore, provide 6 mm 0 @ 150 mm c / c from 0 to 1200 mm .
( d ) Section at 2 d = 1200 mm

Vu = 135 kN ,
As = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2
100 As = L5 7
bd ’
Tc = 0.728 N / mm 2
Vuc = 0.728 x 200 x 600 x 10 ~ 3
= 87.36 kN (5)
Kus = 135 - 87.36 = 47.64 kN.
From ( 1 ) , the shear resistance provided by minimum stirrups is 48.72 kN ,
which is more than 47.64 kN . Thus , minimum shear reinforcement is required
beyond this point to the centre of the beam .
From all above calculation it is seen that minimum stirrups are sufficient
throughout the beam . Provide 6 mm 0 @ 150 mm c / c throughout the length . The
beam is detailed in fig. 7- 21 .
Supplementary notes: Due to enhancement of shear capacity near the support for
normal cases where ends of the beam are confined by compressive reactions , use of
bent bars may give economy only in a few cases. Thus use of bent bars is becoming
limited in practice . Instead , the use of curtailment of bars where bars are not required
for flexure , should become popular in favour of economy.
7- 12. Use of design aids:
( 1 ) Minimum shear reinforcement : Close study of the formula given by the code
shows that minimum shear reinforcement depends solely on the width of the
beam . For different bars normally used as shear reinforcement and for different
width of beams generally used in practice the maximum spacing of two - legged
stirrups is tabulated in table 7- 3.
286 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
TABLE 7-3
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ( TWO - LEGGED STIRRUPS )
Bar Beam Maximum spacing in mm for two - legged stirrups
dia width >
i
— 150 175 200 230 250 300 350 400 450
Fe 250
60 200 170 150 130 120 100
80 300 300 270 230 210 180 150 135 120
10 0 300 300 300 300 300 280 240 210 185
Fe 415 and higher
6 # 300 295 260 225 200 170 145 130
8 # 300 300 300 300 300 300 255 225 200
Note: ( a ) Value of JV in this table is rounded off to 5 mm.
( b ) In any case
^
0.75 d or sv 300 mm .
^
100 mm .
( c ) For practical reasons sw
^
TABLE 7- 4
Vu. s
VALUES OF FOR TWO - LEGGED STIRRUPS IN N / mm
d
fy =250 N / mm 2 fy =415 N / mm 2
Stirrups spacing Diameter in mm Diameter in mm
5V in mm
6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12
50 246.0 437.3 683.3 983.9 408.3 725.9 1134.2 1633.4
60 205.0 364.4 569.4 820.0 340.3 604.9 945.2 1361.1
70 175.7 312.4 488.1 702.8 291.7 518.5 810.2 1166.7
80 153.7 273.3 427.1 615.0 255.2 453.7 708.9 1020.8
90 136.7 242.9 379.6 546.6 226.9 403.3 630.2 907.4
100 123.0 218.6 341.6 492.0 204.2 363.0 567.1 816.7
110 118.8 198.8 310.6 447.2 185.6 329.9 515.6 742.4
120 102.5 182.2 284.7 410.0 170.1 302.5 472.6 680.6
130 94.6 168.2 262.8 378.4 157.1 279.2 436.3 628.6
140 87.9 156.2 244.0 351.4 145.8 259.3 405.1 583.3
150 82.0 145.8 227.8 328.0 136.1 242.0 378.1 544.5
160 76.9 136.6 213.5 307.5 127.6 226.9 354.5 510.4
170 72.3 128.6 201.0 289.4 120.1 213.5 333.6 480.4
180 68.3 121.5 189.8 273.3 113.4 201.6 315.1 453.7
190 64.7 115.1 179.8 258.9 107.5 191.0 298.5 429.8
200 61.5 109.3 170.8 246.0 102.0 181.5 283.6 408.3
250 49.2 87.5 136.7 196.8 81.7 145.2 226.9 326.7
300 41.0 72.9 113.9 164.0 68.1 121.0 189.0 272.2
350 35.1 62.5 97.6 140.6 58.3 103.7 162.0 233.3
400 30.7 54.7 85.4 123.0 51.0 90.7 141.8 204.2
450 27.3 48.6 75.9 109.3 45.4 80.7 126.0 181.5
Art . 7- 12 ] Shear and Development Length 287

( 2 ) Vertical stirrups: For vertical stirrups

0.87 fy . Asv . d

0.87 /y . Asv
d
For a given bar type and diameter the value of 0.87 fy . Asy is constant. Therefore
,
a graph ot
, Vus
—— against sy can be drawn or for different values of -j- ^ , the Vu
spacing JV can be tabulated . This is done in table 7- 4 for two - legged stirrups.
(3 ) Bent bars: In practice a series of bent bars is rarely used . For a single bent bar.
Vus = 0.87 fy . Asy . sin a .
For different bars and for a = 45° and a = 60°, values of Vus are tabulated in
table 62 of SP : 16 for ready reference .
Example 7- 13 .
A tee beam is loaded with factored load of 60 kN / m load inclusive of its own
weight. Span of the beam is 6 m clear and size of the beam is 230 mm wide x 450 mm
effective depth . It is reinforced with 4 no . 25 mm diameter bars in tension . Design
shear reinforcement using stirrups. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Use design tables available .
Solution :
( a ) Maximum shear stress at support :
V ,u , max = — x 60 x 6 = 180 kN. b = 230 mm , d = 450 mm .
180 x 103
= 230 x 450 = 1.739 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
( b ) Minimum stirrups
From table 7- 3, minimum stirrups using mild steel is 6 mm b @ 130 mm c / c.
For this stirrups, we have from table 7-3
rus = 94.6 N / mm .
d
V us, m i n = 94.6 x 450 x 10-3 = 42.57 kN (i)
( c ) Shear capacity of concrete :
is = 4 x 491 = 1964 mm 2.
100 As 100 x 1964
1.9
bd 230 x 450
= 0.774 N / mm 2
Vuc = 0.774 x 230 x 450 x 10 '3
= 80.11 kN (2 )
( d ) Shear capacity of section with minimum stirrups
This is equal to 42.57 + 80.11 = 122.68 kN , from ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) .
Section with Vu = 122.68 kN is located at x =
180 - 122.68 = 0.955 m from
60
face of support .
Provide minimum stirrups at 955 mm from face of support.
288 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
( e ) Section between face of support and 955 mm .
As the ends of beam are confined by compressive reaction , shear at d is taken
for the design of section at support .
Vu at d = 180 -
0.45 x 60 = 153 kN
Vuc = 80.11 kN from ( 2 )
Fus = 153 - 80.11 = 72.89 kN
^d
us 72.89 x
450
103 162

From table 7- 4 , provide 8 # @ 200 mm c / c giving ^—j

us
181.5.
955
No . of stirrups « 6 =
200 + 1
Then after use 6 mm d @ 130 mm c / c.
The reinforcement is detailed in fig. 7- 22. Use 2 - 10 # anchor bars .

r 2- 10 #
r 2-10 #
r
L 450
3 4-25 # 500
6000

Q
.
S'

i no.
.
dia. 8#
6
6
rest
J
()
I

H
H*
•

230
I

4-25 #

Cn Sp. 200 c/c 130 c/c

( a ) Elevation ( b ) Section

FIG . 7- 22
-
7 13. Shear design of beams with variable depth: The nominal shear
stress in beams with variable depth is calculated by equation ( 7- 4) which is reproduced below.

Tv =
K ± t
bd
tan 3
( 7- 4 )

where Mu = bending moment at the section, and

P = angle between the top and bottom edges of the beam .
The negative sign in the formula applies when the bending moment Mu increases
numerically in the same direction as the effective depth increases and the positive sign
when the moment decreases numerically in this direction .
As usual , when Tv > xc, the shear reinforcement shall be designed and when
xv Tc, the minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided. In case of beams with
<
variable depth it is necessary to design the stirrups by using equation ( 7- 9) rather than
considering equation ( 7- 8) to take into account the decrease or increase of nominal
shear stress due to variable depth as per equation ( 7- 4 ) . The other procedure of design
will remain the same .
Art . 7- 13 ] Shear and Development Length 289

Example 7- 14 .
A cantilever beam of 2.7 m clear span is loaded with factored load of 120 kN / m .
The beam has variable depth . The details of beam are shown in fig. 7- 23. Design the
shear reinforcement for the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.

- 1350 mm » « 1350 mm
—
( 6 - 25 # r- 3- 25 #

l 25 # pin

IA 8#
O 13 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c /c >

PA 160

( a ) Beam elevation

1
300
25 # pin mm
600
mm -
ns
JJJ
mm

i i L-
230 mm

3- 25 #
H-
230 mm
( b ) Section at support ( c ) Section at free end

Details of cantilever beam

FIG . 7- 23
Solution :
( 1 ) Geometrical properties :
600 - 300
tan (3 = 2700 = 0.111
At distant x from support
2700 - - 0.111 x.
d = 300 +
2700
X 300 - 65 = 535 -
100 As
The contribution of 6- 25 # bars for calculation of can be taken up to
bd
distant from the support such that the reinforcement should extend effective
depth beyond x\ .
290 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

Then xx + ( 535 - 0.111 x { ) = 1350

*1 = 916 mm , say 910 mm .
From x = 910 mm , contribution of 3- 25 # will be available . The equation of
effective depth is now modified due to only one layer of reinforcement.
2700 - - x
d = 300 + 300 - 40
2700
= 560 0.111 A:.
( 2 ) Maximum shear stress at support :
Vu = 2.7 x 120 = 324 kN , d = 535 mm

Mu 2
X 120 = 437.4 kNm

324 437.4 x 0.111

-
0.535 x 103
= 230 x 535
= 1.9 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
( 3 ) Minimum shear reinforcement :
Using 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups with ^lsv = 100 mm 2
0.87 / Asv 0.87 x 415 x 100
5V = 0.4 b 0.4 x 230 = 392 mm
> 300 mm
> 0.75 d
sy is minimum of 300 mm and 0.75 d.
Using 6 mm d M . S. stirrups with Asy = 56 mm 2
0.87 x 250 x 56
*v = 0.4 x 230 = 132 mm , say 130 mm
300 mm>
> 0.75 d
sv is minimum of 130 mm and 0.75 d.
( 4 ) Section at support :
The beam end is confined by compressive reaction , hence , shear at d should
be taken for shear design .
Vu at d = 324 - 0.535 x 120 = 259.8 kN .
259.8 - 437.4 x 0.111
0.535 x 103 = 1.374 N / mm 2
= 230 x 535
100 As 100 x 6 x 491
bd 230 x 535 = 2.39
Tc = 0.815 N / mm 2
Using 8 mm # 2 legged stirrups with Asv = 100 mm 2 , the spacing is given by
o . 87 /y Asv 0.87 x 415 x 100
= b ( - ) “ = 280 mm (1 )
TV TC 230 ( 1.374 - 0.815 )
Art . 7- 13 ] Shear and Development Length 291

( 5 ) Section at x= 535 mm ( d from support )

Fu = 259.8 kN
( 2.7 - 0.535 ) 2
Mu = 2
x 120 = 281.2 kNm
d = 535 - 0.111 x 535 = 475 mm
259.8 - 281.2 x 0.1 11
0.475 x 103 = 1.776 N / mm 2
= 230 x 475
100 As 100 x 6 x 491
bd 230 x 475 = 2.7
Tc = 0.82 N / mm 2
0.87 x 415 x 100
5V = 164 mm (2)
230 ( 1.776 - 0.82 )
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , it can be observed that the shear design is critical at d which
is obvious as for approximately same shear , the depth of the section is reduced in case ( 2 ) .
In case of tapered beam , when numerical value of moment and effective depth
are both increased or decreased along the span , the section at d will be critical .
Thus checking the section at support is not required here .
—
( 6 ) Section at x = 910 mm [535 + d ( 475 ) mm from support ]
( 2.7 - 0.91 )2
Mu = x 120 = 192.2 kN
2
yu = ( 2.7 - 0.91) x 120 = 214.8 kN
d = 560 - 0.111 x 910 = 459 mm
214.8 - 192.2 x 0.111
=
0.459
230 x 459
x 103 —
1.594 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 3 x 491
1.395
bd 230 x 459
Tc = 0.70 N / mm 2
0.87 x 415 x 100
5V = 175.5 mm (3)
230 ( 1.594 - 0.7 )
( 7 ) Section at x = 1350 mm ( centre of beam ) or x = 910 + d (= 459 ) = 1369 mm ,
say 1350 mm .
,,
Mu = —
1.35 2 x 120
=109.35 kNm

Vu = 1.35 x 120 = 162 kN

d = 560 -
0.111 x 1350 = 410 mm
162 -109.35 x 0.111
0.41 x 103
= 230 x 410 = 1.4 N / mm 2
100 ,4 S 100 x 3 x 491
1.56
bd 230 x 410
Tc = 0.727 N / mm 2 .
0.87 x 415 x 100
sv 230 ( 1.4 - 0.727 ) = 233 mm (4)
292 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
( 8 ) Section at x — 7350 + 470 = 7760 mm , say x = 7.8 m
This section may be randomly chosen to get minimum shear reinforcement .
Here , we shall use 6 mm 0 M .S. stirrups to get designed spacing to be less than
300 mm or 0.75 d. If we do not get minimum stirrups, further sections should also
be checked . Unlike the prismatic beam ( i . e ., Constant section throughout ) , in this
case of non - prismatic tapered section , more trials are necessary to get a section
where minimum stirrups are sufficient .

M* -= —
092
= 48.6 kNm
x 120

Vu = 0.9 x 120
= 108 kN
d = 560 - 0.111 x 1800
= 360 mm
48.6 x 0.1 1 1
108 -
0.36
= 230 x 360
x 103

= 1.123 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 3 x 491
1.78
bd 230 x 360
xc = 0.723 N / mm ^ .
0.87 x 250 x 56
iv = 230 ( 1.123 - 0.723 )
132 mm
Minimum shear reinforcement governs (5 )
( 9 ) Provision of stirrups :
The required and proposed shear reinforcements are tabulated below.

Region Stirrups required Stirrups proposed

0 - 535 mm 8 # @ 280 c / c 8 # @ 160 c / c
535 - 910 mm 8 # @ 164 c / c 8 # @ 160 c / c
910 - 1350 mm 8 # @ 175 c / c 8 # @ 170 c / c
1350 - 1800 mm 8 # @ 233 c / c 8 # @ 230 c / c
1800 - 2700 mm 6 0 @ 130 c / c 6 0 @ 130 c / c
The above table illustrates the theoretical procedure. The use of design softwares
may give you such results . However , in the interest of simplification in fabrication ,
frequently changing the spacings of stirrups is no good solution .
Here we shall choose only two variations of stirrups , viz., 8 # @ 160 c / c from
0 to 1800 mm and 6 0 @ 130 mm c / c in the remaining portion .
Number of 8 # stirrups is given by
1800
n 13.
160 + 1
The beam is detailed in fig . 7- 23.
Art . 7- 15 ] Shear and Development Length 293

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
.
7- 14 Introductory: While analysing and designing the reinforced concrete
structures, the basic assumption is that there is a perfect bond between concrete and
steel , i . e ., there is absolutely no slippage between the concrete and steel . The grip of
the reinforcement and concrete due to adhesion or bearing is termed as bond. The
magnitude of the bond stress at a point is called local bond stress which varies with the
bending moment . Local bond is therefore , also termed as the flexural bond.
To transfer the design force from steel to concrete and vice versa , the reinforcement
is anchored or embedded i n concrete for some length . A length of reinforcement
embedded in concrete so that it can develop the stress py bond is termed as development
length. The anchorage length is thus equal to development length . To calculate the
development length , the code takes into account the average bond strength rather than
the local or flexural bond . The average bond assumes the average stress throughout
the development length . To determine the local bond stress at any point along the
development length , a straightline variation may be assumed .
.
7- 15 Development length: Pull out test: To find out development length ,
consider a pull out test as indicated in fig . 7- 24 .
A rod of diameter d is embedded
in concrete . An axial pull is applied
and increased uniformly. Pull P is 11! htTbd
il
noted when the bar is pulled out . ini'
JL Ld
4_ I
If diameter is known , the failure ini'
stress in the bar can be found out .
By applying factors of safety at working 77 \ \ Tbd 2 Tbd
load , the bond resistance of concrete /
0 Average bond
and strength of the bar can be equated . local bond
The pull out test indicates that the ( assumed variation )
maximum stress is induced in the P
materials at the point where the bar Pull out test
enters the concrete and it diminishes FIG. 7- 24
to zero at the end of the bar. However , for calculation of development length
average bond resistance is considered .
Let Tbd = average design bond stress in concrete
as = working stress in bar
d = diameter of bar.
Then equating bond resistance of concrete = strength of bar
7102
Tbd x n 0 x Ld = as x
4
4» os ( 7- 9 )
= 4 Tbd J
where L & is known as development length.
The factors influencing the stress transfer by bond are :
( 1 ) Adhesion of concrete and steel
( 2 ) Shear strength of concrete , and
( 3 ) Interlocking of surface ribs of HYSD ( CTD or TMT ) bars with concrete.
Considering these effects , the design bond strength can be determined .
294 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
.
7- 16 Code provision : According to IS : 456, the bond stresses are assumed
to be uniform over the effective surface area of the bar. Thus , according to clause
26.2 , the calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be developed
on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage
or by a combination thereof , where the development length is defined as
<t> P s
= 4 *bd
where 0 = nominal diameter of the bar
as =
stress in bar at the section considered at design load
design bond stress (average ) given in clause 26.2. 1.1 of IS : 456.
^ =
T d
Some of the values are given in table 7- 5.
TABLE 7-5
DESIGN BOND STRESS (xbd ) FOR PLAIN BARS IN TENSION
Grade of concrete M 20 M 25 M30
x bd N / m m 2 1.2 1.4 1.5
Note 1 : T d shall be increased by 25% for bars in
^
compression .
Note 2 : For HYSD bars , the value of x d shall be
increased by 60 percent. ^
It is also stated that development length includes the anchorage values of the hook
in tension reinforcements . For bars of section other than circular , the development
length should be sufficient to develop the stress in the bar by bond .
In the above discussion , 0 is defined as the nominal diameter of the bar. For the
plain bars, nominal diameter and actual diameter are the same . However , for deformed
bars , the cross - section is not perfectly circular. The actual area of the cross - section of
a deformed bar is equated with an area of a circle and corresponding diameter of the
circle is known as the nominal diameter. Thus , although the shapes of cross- sections
of plain and deformed bars are not equal but for a particular diameter , their cross - sectional
areas and mass per metre length are the same .
Note 1 of table 7-5 states that for bars in compression , x d shall be increased by
^
25%. This is because the end bearing of the bar helps in resisting compression . Also
the possibility of cracking the concrete is nil in compression and hence , the allowable
bond stresses are increased .
Note 2 of table 7-5 states that for deformed
bars x d shall be increased by 60%. For deformed
^
bars, the actual contact area of a bar with concrete
is taken into account which is much more than
contact area based on nominal diameter. This
results in increase of design bond stress by 60%.
7- 17. Use of bundled bars: The use ( a ) Two-bars ( b) Three bars (c) Four bars
of bundled is permitted by the standard . By in contact in contact in contact
using bundled bars , concrete can be compacted Bundled bars
properly and also the large area of reinforcement FIG . 7- 25
can be made to concentrate at a point resulting
in the increase of effective depth . The bars
Ineffective
may be arranged singly or in pairs in contact , perimeter
or in groups of three or four bars bundled in in bond
contact . Bundles shall not be used in a member
without stirrups . Bundled bars shall be tied Bundled bars
together to ensure the bars remaining together. FIG. 7- 26
Art . 7- 18 ] Shear and Development Length 295

Bars larger than 36 mm diameter shall not be bundled except in columns . The bundled
bars are illustrated in fig. 7- 25 .
The effective perimeter of a single bar in bond is its actual perimeter n 0. When
the bars are bundled, effective perimeter having a bond with concrete is decreased .
This is shown in fig. 7- 26 .
~

Thus , total effective perimeter for a group ofjbars is less than the sum of perimeters
of individual bars. Therefore the development length of each bar of bundled bars shall
be increased by ld% for two bars in contact, 20% For three T) ars in contact and 33%
for four bars in contact, for the individual bar.
To reduce the effective length of a bar to be anchored , hooks and bends are
provided . The rules for anchoring the bars are given in clause 26.2 . 2 of IS : 456 . These
are explained below.
7-18. Anchoring reinforcements: The bars are anchored in tension , compression
or shear as shown below.
-H 40 minh4-
(1) Anchoring bars in tension: 40 min I
( i ) Deformed bars may be k0 0 * ,0
used without end
anchorages provided that : -> -+*
the development length (k + 1) 0 (k + 1 )0
requirement is satisfied .
Hooks should be ( a ) Standard hook ( b ) Standard 90° bend
normally provided for Standard hook and bend
plain bars in tension . FIG . 7- 27
( ii ) Bends: The anchorage value of bend shall be taken as 4 times the diameter
of the bar for each 45 ° bend subject to a maximum of 16 times the
diameter of the bar .
( iii ) Hooks : The anchorage value of a standard U type hook shall be equal
to 16 times the diameter of the bar. Standard hook and bend are shown
in fig. 7- 27.
The value of k shall be taken as follows :
Type of steel Minimum value of k
Mild steel 2
Cold worked steel 4
Note: These details are applicable to all grades of steel .

( 2 ) Anchoring bars in compression: The anchorage length of straight bar in compression

shall be equal to the development length of bars in compression . The projected
length of hooks, bends and straight lengths beyond bends if provided for bars
in compression , shall be considered for development length .
(3 ) Anchoring bars in shear:
( i ) Inclined bars: The development length shall be as for bars in tension . This
length shall be measured as under :
In the tension zone , from the end of the sloping or inclined portion of the bar.
In the compression zone , from the mid - depth of the beam .
( ii ) Stirrups: For secondary reinforcements such as stirrups in beams and transverse
ties in a column , complete development length and anchorage shall be deemed
to have been provided when the bar is bent through an angle of at least
90° round a bar of at least its own diameter and is continued beyond the
296 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 7
end of the curve for a length of at
80
least eight diameters or when the -H—N
bar is bent through an angle of
135 ° and is continued beyond the
end of the curve for a length of at
least six diameters or when the
bar is bent through an angle of
180 ° and is continued beyond
the end of the curve for a
length of at least four diameters .
The above provisions are
illustrated in fig . 7- 28 . Anchoring vertical stirrups
FIG . 7- 28
Example 7- 15 .
Calculate the anchorage length in tension and compression for
( a ) a single mild steel bar of diameter 0 in concrete of grade M 20.
( b ) an HYSD bar of grade Fe 415 of diameter # in concrete of grade M 20.
Solution :
( a ) M . S . Bar :
( 1 ) Tension :
Design stress for M . S. as
= 0.87 /y = 0.87 x 250 = 217.5 N / mm 2
-
Tbd = 1 2 N / mm 2.
Anchorage length = development length
0 x 0.87 fy 0 x 217.5
4 * bd 4 x 1.2
= 45.3 0, say 46 0
( 2 ) Compression :
( i ) Flexural compression ( Beam bars )
Design stress for M .S. as = 0.87 /y = 217.5 N / mm 2
xbd = 1.2 x 1.25 (for compression ) = 1.5 N / mm 2
0 x 2 17.5
= 4 x 1.5 =
36.3 0, say 37 0

Development length for different types of bars in M 20 grade of concrete

is tabulated in table 7- 6.

TABLE 7- 6
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH FOR
SINGLE BARS IN CONCRETE OF GRADE M 20

Compression bars
fy N / mm 2 Tension bars
In Beams In Columns
250 46 0 37 0 32 0
415 47 # 38 # 33 #
500 57 # 46 # 39 #
Art . 7- 18 ] Shear and Development Length 297

( ii ) Direct compression ( column bars )

Design stress for M .S. = 0.75 fy = 0.75 x 250 = 187.5 N / mm 2
T b d = 1.2 x 1.25 ( for compression ) = 1.5 N / mm 2
4> x 187.5
= 4 x 1.5 = 31.3 4> » say 32 4>
( b ) HYSD bar of grade Fe 415 :
( 1 ) Tension :
Design stress as = 0.87 fy = 0.87 x 415 = 361 N / mm 2
T b d = 1.2 x 1.6 (for HYSD bars ) = 1.92 N / mm 2
Anchorage length = Development length (* b
# x 361
4 x 1.92 =
47 #
( 2 ) Compression :
( i ) Flexural compression ( Beam bars )
Design stress, as = 0.87 fy = 0.87 x 415 = 361 N / mm 2
T b d = 1.2 x 1.6 ( HYSD bar ) x 1.25 ( compression )
= 2.4 N / mm 2
# x 361
i d = 4 x 2.4 = 37.6 # , say 38 #
( ii ) Direct compression ( column bars )
Design stress as = 0.75 /y = 0.75 x 415 = 311.2 N / mm 2
# x
= 4 x311.2
2.4 =
*
32.4 # , say 33 #

Example 7- 16 .
Calculate the anchorage length of a group of three bundled bars in contact and of
equal diameter in tension . Concrete grade is M 20 and mild steel reinforcement.
Solution :
Ld = 45.3 (() for single bar as shown in Example 7- 15 .
For three bars in bundle , the development length for each bar
Ld = 45.3 <(> x 1.2 = 54.36 (J) = 55 <J) (say ) .
Example 7- 17.
Calculate the anchorage length of a 20 mm diameter bar of grade Fe 415 in
compression ( column bars ) in concrete of grade M 40. Assume as = 0.75 /y.
Solution :
as = 0.75 fy = 0.75 x 415 = 311 N / mm 2.
Design bond stress for M . S. bar in tension for M 40 mix is 1.9 N / mm 2.
Increase this by 25% for compression and 60% for being an HYSD bar.
T b d = 1.9 x 1.25 x 1.6 = 3.8 N / mm 2.
<t> s 4> x 311
Now = 4° 4 x 3.8 =
20.46 # , say 21 # .
Tbd
Anchorage length = development length = 21 x 20 = 420 mm .
298 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
Example 7- 18 .
A 12 mm diameter hook is embedded in concrete for 100 mm as shown in fig. 7- 29 .
Calculate the maximum factored load that can be suspended from the hook if the
design bond stress is not to exceed 1.2 N / mm 2.
Solution :
The factored load suspended
n
= bond resistance of concrete
= Tbd x 71 <J> x anchorage length
n
I 100
= 1.2 x 7i x 12 x 100 x 10-3
= 4.52 kN .
/. The factored load that can be safely suspended on the
hook is 4.52 kN .
Pu
Equivalent characteristic dead or live load
4.52 FIG . 7- 29
= 3.01 kN .
1.5
Example 7- 19 .
A cantilever beam requires 910 mm 2 area of reinforcement for flexure. 2 no. 25 mm
diameter bars are provided and anchored as shown in fig . 7- 30. Check whether sufficient
anchorage is provided . If not , calculate the maximum size of bar that can be used as
reinforcement . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
30 30
2-25 #
*+K
50
“

A / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /. 450
B C

1500 1000 >

K- 250 -H

(a ) Elevation ( b ) Section
FIG . 7- 30
Solution :
Steel area provided = 2 x 491 = 982 mm 2.
Development length of Fe 415 grade steel having 0.87 fy design stress in concrete
of grade M 20 = 47 # .
As the area provided is larger than required , the development length may be
proportionately reduced .
Development length is this case = 47 x 910 x 25 = 1089 mm .
982
B is the point of maximum stress . The bar shall be anchored on both the sides of
this point by 1089 mm . For AB part , this length is
1500 - 30 = 1470 mm .
However , for cantilever portion , the length available is
1000 - 30 = 970 mm .
Art . 7- 18 ] Shear and Development Length 299

Therefore , the anchorage provided is not sufficient , i . e . , not confirming to the

code requirements .
For choosing lower size bar , it is assumed that it is fully stressed and anchorage
of 47 # is required .
Substituting 47 # = 950
# = 20.2 mm .
Thus maximum diameter permitted in this case is 20 mm . For the given beam ,
then 3- 20 # providing 942 mm 2 area may be used .
Example 7- 20 .
The main reinforcement of one - way footing is shown in fig. 7- 31 . Verify the
anchorage of main bars. The point of maximum stress is assumed to occur at the face
of wall . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.

150 Wall
mm
K 500 500

T
260 205 Footing
1
Y
4-K *- 12 mm # @ 250 mm c/c
50 mm 50 mm
FIG . 7- 31
Solution :
The anchorage available = 500 - 50 = 450 mm .
The anchorage required = 47 # = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
The arrangement is thus not satisfactory. To have proper anchoragement in this
case , hook or bend may be used . The other alternative is to use the lower size
diameter. Sometimes, the spacing of bars is reduced to reduce the stress in a bar by
increasing area and consequently the development length . However , this is an uneconomical
alternative.
Example 7- 21 .
For a 5 m long singly reinforced tee beam , the flexure reinforcement designed are
3 no . 20 mm diameter bars as shown in structural engineer ’s drawing. On site , 20 mm
diameter bars are not available . What arrangement would you propose if
( a ) 25 mm diameter bars are available
( b ) 16 mm diameter bars are available .
Solution :
Whatever arrangement is proposed , it should confirm :
( i ) the area provided is not less than the original design
( ii ) the perimeter of bars is not less than that of original arrangement of bars. This
is required to confirm the check for development length .
In this case , for designed bars
area = 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2, and
perimeter = 3 x 62.8 = 188.4 mm .
300 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 7
Case ( a )
For 25 mm diameter bars
area = 491 mm 2
perimeter = 78.5 mm .
The no . of bars required can be calculated as:
942
On area basis =
491 1.92 no .
188.4
On perimeter basis = 78.5 = 2.4 no contorols.
Therefore provide 3 no . 25 mm diameter bars . This is uneconomical ; however ,
if lower size bars are available , economy can be achieved e . g. , in this
case , 2 - 25 0 + 1 - 12 0 may be used which provide
2 x 491 + 113 = 1095 mm 2 area , and
2 x 78.5 + 37.7 = 194.7 mm perimeter.
Case ( b )
For 16 mm diameter bars
area = 201 mm 2
perimeter = 50.3 mm .
The no . of bars required can be calculated as:
942
On area basis = controls .
201 = 4.69 no
188.4
On perimeter basis =
50.3 = 3.75
.
Provide 5 no . 16 mm diameter bars.
It should be noted that while providing 5 no. 16 mm diameter bars , two layers
may have to be used which reduces the effective depth . However , this would
not affect the design as the area provided is larger than designed .
Conclusion : From the above two calculations, it may be concluded that if the
designed reinforcement is to be replaced by the bars of higher size diameter ,
only the perimeter may be compared and if these bars are to be replaced by
the bars of lower diameter , only area may be compared .
Example 7- 22 .
Check the anchorage of the bent bar of fig. 7-32, if shear taken by them is 50 kN .
2 bars are bent about 560 mm from support . In tension zone , sufficient length is
available . In compression zone , the available anchorage is calculated in fig. 7- 32 . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Shear taken by two bent bars = 50 kN .
50 x 103
Stress in bar =
2 x 314 cos 45 °
= 112.6 N / mm 2.
# x 112.6
L A = 4 x 1.2 x 1.6 = 14.66 # = 14.66 x 20 = 293.2 mm .
Anchorage provided = 677 mm (O . K .)
In this problem the effect of 45° bend in compression zone is neglected .
The anchorage of bent bar is thus satisfactory.
Art . 7- 19 ] Shear and Development Length 301

+ 50 1
i
i
175 > 380

i
i
155
L

- 2- 20 # bent
H H Anchor length
200 230 330
= 200 + 230 + 175 /T
— ( In support assumed )

FIG . 7- 32
= 677 mm
>

-
7 19 . Bearing stresses at bends: The bearing stresses around a bend are
to be checked in accordance with clause 26.2 . 2.5 of IS : 456 , when a bar or a group of
bars is bent in a stressed condition . This is illustrated in fig . 7- 33.

-rV

Bearing Bearing

-H
( a ) Anchorage of beam ( b ) Stressed bar carried
bars in column round a bend

FIG . 7- 33
According to the code the bearing stress inside a bend shall be calculated as given
below.

Bearing stress, /bt = ^r b<)t>

where /bt = actual bearing stress round the bend
/7bt = tensile force due to design loads in a bar
r = internal radius of the bend
<() = size of the bar.
The bearing stress thus calculated shall not exceed
1 -5 /ck
/bd = 1 + 2 4' / a
where /bcj = design bearing stress round the bend
/ck = characteristic strength of concrete
a = centre to centre distance between bars or group of bars perpendicular
to the plane of the bend . For a bar or group of bars adjacent
to the face of the member ‘a’ shall be taken as the cover plus
size of bar ( (f) ) .
302 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
Example 7 - 23 .
A beam fixed to the column requires 742 mm 2 HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415 for negative moment at the face of column . The reinforcements are anchored
in column as shown in fig. 7- 34 . Check the bearing stress at bend . The concrete is of
M 20 grade .
K 400 > 75
h-+ —
75
75
h

r 4 -16 #
^ 4 - 16 #
200
13Q W- >
7 ...x A
4
5
( 50
a = 75

334 Internal radius = 75 600

1
+ 50
130 -
+ «-H
100 H- 300 -H

( a ) Elevation ( b) Section

FIG . 7-34
Solution :
4 st provided
i = 4 x 201 = 804 mm 2.
# x 0.87 x 415 742
Anchorage required
4 x 1.2 x 1.6 =804
= 43.4 # = 694 mm .
Anchorage provided = 200 + 130 + 334 + 130 4- 100 = 894 mm . . . . ( O . K. )
Anchorage provided is sufficient . However , bearing stress at bend is to be checked .
From the figure a = 75 mm
1 - 5 /ck 1.5 x 20
x 1 6 = 21.03 N / mm .
design bearing stress / =
^
1 + 2 $ / a 1 + 2
75
2

At the centre of the upper bend anchorage available

130
= 200 + 2 = 265 mm .
Stress in bar at the face of column

0.87 x 415 x
742
=
804 =
333.2 N / mm 2 .
The stress in the bar varies linearly and diminishes to zero at 694 mm ( required
anchorage ) from the face of the support.
Stress at the centre of upper bend
694 - 265
/bt = 333 - 2 x 694 = 205.97 N / mm 2.
Art . 7- 19 ] Shear and Development Length 303

Tensile force in a bar at centre of upper bend

Fhi = 201 x 205.97 x 10 ~3 = 41.4 kN
r = 75 mm , # = 16 mm .
41.4 x 103Fbt
Bearing stress fb =
r # 75 x 16 = 34.5 N / mm 2.
The arrangement is thus not satisfactory. Provide a new arrangement as shown
in fig . 7- 35.
Now anchorage required = 694 mm .
Anchorage provided = 200 + 248 + 194 + 248 + 100 = 980 mm
design bearing stress = 21.03 N / mm 2
At the centre of the upper bend anchorage available
248
= 200 + 2 = 324 mm .
Stress in a bar at the face of the column
742
= 0.87 x 415 x 804 = 333.2 N / mm 2 .
Stress in a bar at the centre of the upper bend
694 - 324 x
333.2 = 177.64 N / mm 2 .
694
Tensile force in a bar at the centre of the upper bend
Fbi = 201 x 177.64 x 10 ~3 = 35.7 kN
r = 150 mm ; # = 16 mm .
35.7 x 103 14.87 N / mm 2 < 21.03 N / mm 2.
Then bearing stress fb
150 x 16 =
The arrangement is now satisfactory. The stresses at lower bend will be much less
and need not be checked .
<- 400 H 75 75
+
75 r 4- 16 #
248 200 - 4- 16 #
r

t 50 a = 75
i

184 Internal radius = 75 600

1

248
|50
100 H 300 H

\ ( a ) Elevation ( b) Section

FIG . 7- 35
304 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
7- 20. Reinforcement splicing: The reinforcement splices provided in the
reinforcing bars, shall as far as possible be , away from the sections of maximum stress
and be staggered . It is recommended that splices in flexural members should not be
at sections where the bending moment is more than 50% of the moment of resistance ,
and not more than half the bars shall be spliced at a section .
Where more than one - half of the
bars are spliced at a section or where 50 % splicing in PA 50 % splicing in BQ
splices are made at points of maximum A B
stress , the length of lap shall be
§
increased . Also closely spaced stirrups 2 §
2 §
shall be provided on splice .
h*
For simply supported beam loaded / /
with uniformly distributed loads the 7 7
above requirements are shown in h* / N
fig . 7- 36 . Splicing of reinforcement for
The splices may be lap splice , simply supported beam
welded splice or end bearing splice . FIG . 7- 36
(1) Lap splices: These are covered in clause 26.2.5.1 of IS : 456 and are explained below.
( i ) Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 36 mm diameter ; for
larger diameters, bars may be welded such that the joint created is of the
full strength of the bars connected . In cases where welding is not practicable ,
lapping of bars larger than 36 mm may be permitted , in which case a
additional spirals should be provided around the lapped bars. Splices in
tension members shall be enclosed in spirals made of bars not less than
6 mm diameter with pitch not more than 100 mm .
( ii ) Lap splices shall be considered staggered , if the centre to centre distance
of the splices is not less than 1.3 times the lap length calculated as shown in ( iii ) .
( iii ) Lap length including anchorage value of hooks in flexural tension shall
be the development length , or 30 d whichever is greater and for direct
tension 2 L or 30 d whichever is greater. The straight length of the lap
shall not be^ less than 15 d or 200 mm ,
The above requirements are illustrated in fig. 7-37. It should be noted and
checked whether the above requirements can be satisfied for a particular
problem . If not, all four bars may not be spliced and only two shall be
spliced . These are detailing rules and a site engineer must observe these
rules seriously. Also, at least a group leader of the bar benders must be
sent with the knowledge of such rules .
The following provisions shall also apply.
Where lap occurs for a tension bar located at:
( a ) top of a section as cast and the minimum cover is less than twice the diameter
of the lapped bar , the lap length shall be increased by a factor of 1.4 .
( b ) cover of a section and the minimum cover to either face is less than
twice the diameter of the lapped bar or where the clear distance
between adjacent laps is less than 75 mm or 6 times the diameter of
the lapped bar , whichever is greater , the lap length should be increased
by a factor of 1.4 .
Where both conditions ( a ) and ( b ) apply , the lap length should be increased
by a factor of 2 .
Art . 7- 20 ] Shear and Development Length 305

Ld ( with hook )
.
"JI
1 2 3 1 234
x 4
•• • •
'
r -+
> 1.3 Ld
K « 4 ( a ) Elevation ( b ) Section

r n Lap Length > Ld

> 30 0
> 20 cm
> 15 0
(c ) Lap

Lap splices for tension bars

FIG . 7- 37
( iv ) The lap length in compression shall be equal to the development length in
compression but not less than 24 0. The other requirements are as per tension bars.
( v ) When bars of two different diameters are to be spliced , the lap length shall
be calculated on the basis of diameter of the smaller bar .
( vi ) In case of bundled bars , lapped splices of bundled bars shall be made by
splicing one bar at a time . Such individual splices within a bundle shall
be staggered .
( 2 ) Strength of welds: The following values may be used where the strength of the
weld has been proved by tests to be at least as great as that of the parent bar.
( i ) Splices in compression : For welded splices and mechanical connection , 100
percent of the design strength of joined bars .
( ii ) Splices in tension :
( a ) 80% of the design strength of welded bars ( 100 % if welding is strictly
supervised and not more than 20% of the tensile reinforcement is welded .
( b ) 100 percent of design strength of mechanical connection .
(3 ) End hearing splices: End bearing splices shall be used only for bars in compression .
The ends of the bars shall be square cut and concentric bearing is ensured by suitable devices .
Example 7- 24 .
For one of the columns in a three storeyed building, 8- 20 # bars are required in
ground floor and 6 - 16 # bars are required in first floor. It is proposed to lap the bars
in the first floor. Calculate the minimum length of 20 mm diameter bars that is
required for lapping the first floor bars . The development length calculated for the
materials used is 29 # as calculated in Example 7- 17.
Solution :
The lap length shall be equal to the development length of the bar. In this case
two different diameter bars are lapped and therefore the development length shall be
based on lower diameter bars.
Now , the lap length = development length .
Lap length required = 29 x 16 = 464 mm .
The column bars are usually lapped in the central half length of the column .
306 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7

EXAMPLES VII
( 1 ) A simply supported beam has an overall size 250 mm width x 545 mm effective
depth . The beam is reinforced with 5 no . 16 mm diameter bars. The beam is
subjected to 65 kN factored shear force at section A- A. Check the shear stresses
and design the shear reinforcement at section A- A. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Note: For secondary reinforcement like stirrups , use of lower grade steel is permitted .
[ .Ans. xv = 0.477 N / mm 2, xc = 0.556 N / mm 2,
6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 130 mm c / c. ]
( 2 ) If the factored shear of the section of Example ( 1 ) is increased to 135 kN
and 2 no . 16 mm diameter bars are bent at 750 mm from face of the support ,
design the shear reinforcement at support .
\ Ans. xv = 0.99 N / mm 2, Vuc = 61.6 kN ,
Bent bars resist 36.7 kN ,
6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 130 mm c / c.]
( 3 ) A simply supported beam has section 230 mm wide x 440 mm effective depth .
It is reinforced with 6 no. 16 mm diameter bars . It is subjected to a factored
shear of 200 kN at support . Design the shear reinforcement at support if
( a ) all the bars are carried into the support,
( b ) 2 no . 16 mm diameter bars are curtailed at 500 mm from support and
( c ) 2 no . 16 mm diameter bars are bent at 625 mm from face of the support .
The ends of the reinforcement are subjected to tensile reaction .
In all cases , the materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
, = 133.5 kN, 8 mm # @ 115 mm c / c
[ Ans. ( a) TC = 0.658 N / mm 2 , V us
( b ) xc = 0.569 N / mm 2, 8 mm # @ 110 mm c / c ,
(c) 8 mm # @ 220 mm c / c . ]
( 4 ) A simply supported tee beam of 6 m span is carrying a characteristic load of
30 kN / m . The section of beam is 230 mm wide x 440 mm effective depth . It is
reinforced with 5 no. 20 mm diameter bars. Design the beam for shear using
( a ) only vertical stirrups
( b ) 2 no. 25 mm diameter bars bent at 625 mm from the face of the support.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement.
[ Ans. ( a ) 8 mm 0, 3 no . @ 270 mm c / c ; then 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c
( b ) 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c throughout . ]
( 5 ) Design shear reinforcement in Example ( 4 ) using available design tables .
( 6 ) A doubly reinforced rectangular beam of size 230 mm x 400 mm effective depth
requires 818 mm 2 area as tension reinforcement and 213 mm 2 area as compressive
steel . It is reinforced with 2 no. 12 mm diameter bars in compression at d' = 40 mm
and 3 no . 20 mm diameter bars in tension .
Calculate the development length of bars. The materials are grade M 20 concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. Bottom bars L = 955 mm ; Top bars Lj = 490 mm . ]
^
Ex . 7] Shear and Development Length 307

( 7 ) Calculate the anchorage length of a group of four bundled bars in contact and
of equal diameter in tension . The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. [ Ans. 62.6 0. ]
( 8 ) Calculate the maximum size of bar permitted for a cantilever beam of :
( i ) 1.5 m span with 1.5 m anchorage length
( ii ) 3 m span with 2 m anchorage length .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ .Ans. 27 mm , 36 mm . ]
( 9 ) A simply supported tee beam of 2.0 m span is reinforced with 3 no . 25 mm
diameter bars . Check whether the sufficient anchorage is provided . If not , calculate
the maximum size of bars that can be used as reinforcement . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. [ Ans. No , 17.8 mm . ]
( 10 ) Check the anchorage length of the bent bar of Example ( 2 ) above . Assume
150 mm anchorage in support.
[ Ans . Anchorage required = 235 mm ; anchorage provided = 650 mm . ]
( ID A tee beam fixed to the end column requires 1026 mm 2 HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 for negative moment at face of column . It is reinforced with 4 no.
20 mm diameter bars. Design and detail suitable anchorage for the reinforcement .
Size of the column is 300 mm x 400 mm and size of beam is 300 mm x 600 mm
overall depth ( refer to fig. 7- 34 ) . Concrete is of M 20 grade .
[ Ans . Internal radius = 150 mm , L & = 1127 mm , = 23.68 N / mm 2 ,
= 16.13 N / mm 2 . ]
/b
( 12 ) A simply supported rectangular beam of width 230 mm x 600 mm overall depth
and 5 m span carries a characteristic U . D . L. of 30 kN / m inclusive of self - weight .
Design the beam for flexure and shear. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. /lst = 858 mm 2 , provide 3- 20 0 ;
6 mm 0 two legged stirrups @ 120 mm c / c throughout . ]
( 13 ) A simply supported tee beam of 5 m span carries a factored U . D . L. of 32 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight. Size of the beam is 230 mm width x 410 mm effective
depth . Width of flange is 1200 mm and thickness of flange is 100 mm . Design
the beam for flexure and shear. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. [ Ans. Provide 4 - 16 # tension reinforcement ;
6 mm 0 two legged stirrups @ 130 mm c / c throughout . ]
( 14 ) A cantilever rectangular beam of span 2 m is loaded with uniformly distributed
factored load of 30 kN / m inclusive of its self - weight . The width of beam is
230 mm and overall depth is restricted to 450 mm . Design the beam for flexure and
shear. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415. [ Ans. 4 - 16 0 at top ; 6 mm 0 two legged stirrups @ 130 mm c / c .]
( 15 ) A simply supported tee beam of 5 m span carries a factored U . D . L. of 25 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight and two point loads of 50 kN and 75 kN acting at 2 m
and 4 m from left support . Design the beam for flexure and shear. For the beam ,
£ f = 1200 mm , bw = 250 mm , D { = 100 mm and d = 560 mm . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. 3- 20 # tension reinforcement ; stirrups 6 0 @ 130 c / c left ; 6 0,
6 no. 100 c / c at right support . ]
308 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 7
( 16 ) For a rectangular beam of size 230 mm width and 460 mm effective depth , and
reinforced with 4 - 20 # bars , find out the maximum nominal factored shear force
permitted by the code . If 8 mm diameter bars are used as stirrups , find out the
spacing. Comment on ductility of such a design . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
[ Ans. Vu = 264.5 kN ; Vuc = 66.5 kN ; 10 mm # @ 130 mm c / c .]
( 17 ) Determine the splice length for the bars in compression for an R . C. C. column
350 mm x 350 mm size and having 8 no . 20 mm diameter bars , when
( a ) M 20 grade concrete and mild steel are used .
( b ) M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel are used .
Stress in compression bars shall be taken as 0.67 /y.
[ Ans. 570 mm ; 585 mm . ]
 hapter DEFLECTION AND
CRACKING

DEFLECTION
8- 1. Introductory: A structural member deflects when it carries a load . According
to clause 23.2 IS : 456 , the deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely
affect the appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions apart from
the structural considerations. The deflections therefore shall be limited to the following:
( l ) The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature , creep
span
and shrinkage should not normally exceed
250 ’
( 2 ) The deflection including the effects of temperature , creep and shrinkage occurring
after erection of partitions and the application of finishes ( i . e ., all dead loads )
span
should not normally exceed or 20 mm , whichever is less .
350
The first limit is specified to avoid psychological upsetting of the occupants or to
affect the appearance of the structure . The second limit is intended to avoid damage
to partitions and finishes .
Two methods are suggested in the clause 23.2. 1 of IS: 456 for checking that deflection
is not excessive . These are :
( i ) Control of span / effective depth ratio and is discussed in clause 23.2 . 1 which
shall be used for all normal cases.
( ii ) For special cases , the deflections may be actually calculated as given in Appendix B
of IS: 456 .
8 - 2. Span /effective depth ratio: This method is based on the calculations
of deflection and tests on practical beams. This is a semi - empirical method and is
covered in clause 23.2.1 of IS : 456 . Accordingly the basic span / effective depth ratios
for different support conditions are given and shall be modified for :
( 1 ) the amount of tension steel
( 2 ) the amount of compression steel and
( 3 ) the type of beam .
These are discussed below.
For beams and slabs , the vertical deflection limits as stated above in art . 8 - 1 may
generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the span to depth ratios are not
greater than the values obtained as below.
( 1 ) Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans upto 10 m :
cantilever 7
simply supported 20
continuous 26
These values are based on a rectangular beam with one per cent tension
reinforcement of 415 N / mm 2 characteristic strength and they limit the deflection
span
t0 " "

250 '
310 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8
To understand the basic principles involved in specifying limiting basic span
to effective depth ratio , consider a fully elastic simply supported rectangular
beam loaded with a uniformly distributed load w .
Let f = permissible bending stress in beam
1
Z = modulus of section = 7 b D 2
6
M = moment .
f b D2 wl2
Then M = fZ =
6 8

w
i /* (?f
For a simply supported beam , the maximum deflection is given by

5 =
fwl4 _
5 wj
E
± 12 5
32
X
w /4
'
384 El 84 AD3 E b D3
Substituting for w
5 = 32
^5
24
X

X
/4
£ A £> 3
f l2
-— !—
k /2
D
/* (f f
(i)
The constant £ will be different for different support conditions. Equation ( i )
is a general form for any one type of support .
Based on practical study of effects of deflections of structural members on
non - structural members like ceiling plaster etc ., code specifies the deflection
limit as a fraction of span e . g. , maximum dead load deflection shall not be
/
greater than 350 . In general terms
/
5
c , (i>)
where 5 = maximum permitted deflection
Cj = constant that depends on condition of loading ( e . g., dead or
live load . )
Substituting value of 5 in equation (ii ) from equation ( i )
/ 2
k -F T or D k C , /.
D
1
To eliminate decimal , value of product k C\ is set to where TV is a whole
number greater than 1.
D
N7
ior
/ <
D
N.
l
Based on this derivation , the basic values of permissible can specified .
However , concrete is a non - homogeneous material and its stiffness depends on
many factors such as steel percentage and state of cracking. To accommodate
span
for these effects, code specifies permissible
span
—^— ratio where d is the effective

depth instead of —
r a t i o.
10
( 2 ) For spans above 10 m , the values in ( 1 ) shall be multiplied by span i n
metres except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made.
Art . 8 - 2 ) Deflection and Cracking 311

( 3 ) Depending on the area and the stress of steel for tension reinforcement , the
values in ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) shall be further modified by multiplying with the modification
factor obtained as per fig. 8- 4 of IS : 456. Typical graphs for f = 190 N / mm 2
and f = 240 N / mm 2 are shown in fig. 8 - 1. Refer to IS : 456 for more details .

Percentage tension reinforcement

.
/ = 0 - 58 fy x
Area of cross - section of steel required
Area of cross - section of steel provided
Modification factor for tension reinforcement
FIG . 8 - 1
Close study of fig . 8 - 1 shows that the deflection is influenced by the amount of
tension reinforcement and the service stress. These two factors are explained as below .
For a given section , if the amount of tension reinforcement increases the
modification factor decreases and vice versa. This is because :
( i ) When the area of tension reinforcement increases , the neutral axis shifts
towards the tension steel . Thus, the area of concrete in compression zone
increases which leads to a larger deflection due to creep . Also due to
larger depth of neutral axis, the curvature increases .
( ii ) The smaller area of concrete in tension zone reduces the stiffness of the beam .
For a given percentage of steel reinforcement, if the service stress increases ,
the modification factor decreases and vice versa . This is because the larger
stress in steel would lead to larger deflection .
The formula for service stress can be derived as follows:
(i) For limit state design
design stress = 0.87 fy .
( ii ) For DL or L L , partial factor for safety = 1.5.
0.87 fy
Service stress =
1.5 = 0.58 fy.
( iii ) If more steel is provided than required , the service stress is given by

fs = 0 58 fy x ^A
~
s t, r e q u i r e d
~ (8 - 1 )
s t, p r o v i d e d
312 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 8
The formula of finding out the modification factor for tension reinforcement
indicates that if the designer wishes to use shallow member , he or she can
increase the area of reinforcement thereby reducing the service stress and
hence the deflection . However , it should be remembered that by increasing
steel reinforcement the section should not become over - reinforced . Also
note that this alternative is uneconomical .
The above two discussions should not be confused . In the first case increasing
steel area increases the deflection and decreases the modification factor . This
is because , the increase in steel area is due to the increase in bending moment .
Naturally , the deflection increases with increase of bending moment . In the
second case , for a given bending moment , if more steel is provided , it reduces
the service stress and hence the deflection . This increase , the allowable
span
ratio for the beam .
d
For most of the cases, the service stress may be taken as 0.58 f y for limit state
method . In working stress method of design also , /s should be taken as 0.58 /y .
For usual cases , fig. 8- 1 shall be referred to determine modification factor for
tension reinforcement .
( 4 ) Depending on the area of compression reinforcement , the values of span to
depth ratio shall be further modified by multiplying with the modification
factor obtained from equation ( 8 - 2 ) that is also shown graphically in fig. 8.2.

Modification factor = 1 +
Pc < 1.5 (8 -2)
3 + pc
100 A s c , p r o v i d e d
where Pc = bd
A

St . ine 3% to 4%
o 1.5
o
.-2

c 1.4
o
r3
1.3
-ao
1.2

1.1

1.0
0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00
Percentage compression reinforcement
Modification factor for compression reinforcement
FIG . 8- 2
Close study of fig. 8- 2 shows that when compression steel increases, the modification
factor also increases . This is because the reinforcement in compression zone
reduces the shrinkage and increases the stiffness of the beam . Thus a larger
area of compression steel reduces the deflection .
For controlling the deflection , increasing compression reinforcement is the
best method .
Art . 8 - 3] Deflection and Cracking 313

( 5 ) For flanged beams , the values in ( a ) or ( b ) shall be further modified by using

a reduction factor for flanged beam ( RF ) as given by following equation ( 8- 3) .

For
K = 0 to 0.3, RF = 0.8
bf
For > 0.3

2 K - 0.3 + 0.8 (8 - 3)
1 bf
where = width of web and width of flange respectively.
Also the reinforcement percentages for use in calculating modification factor
for tension reinforcement and that for compression reinforcement shall be
based on area of section equal to bf d.
For flanged beams , the reinforcement percentage used for obtaining modification
factor for tension reinforcement ( fig. 8 - 1 ) and modification factor for compression
reinforcement ( fig. 8- 2 ) shall be based on area bf d instead of bd for rectangular
section . As the flange width increases , the concrete in tension zone is reduced .
span
This reduces the stiffness of the beam . Thus permissible
depth ratio is reduced
by the reduction factor.
span
The use of bf while calculating permissible ratio , sometimes give anomalous
^
results. Ignoring the flanges and considering the beam as a rectangular beam
of size bw x d for checking the deflection is always conservative .
span
Now the allowable —-— ratio is given by

span span "

allowable = basic ratio x modification factor for
d d
tension reinforcement x modification factor for
compression reinforcement x reduction factor
for flanged beam . (8- 4 )
span r--
span
The actual ratio shall be less than or equal to the allowable ratio .

For solid slabs the control of deflection is discussed in clause 24.1 of IS : 456
and is discussed in chapter 11 of this book .
8- 3. Control of deflection on site: Apart from the theoretical calculations
to control the deflection , the following techniques are applied on site .
(1) Cambering : ‘Camber ' is a term applied to the slight upward curve of a beam
made in construction such that on loading it will straighten out and attain its
correct shape . For long span simply supported beams, continuous beams, and
particularly cantilever slabs and cantilever beams , cambering is usual on site.
Usually the cambering provided is equal to the dead load deflection . For
cantilever beams upto 1.5 m span , the usual cambering provided is
span span span
. For larger spans camber may be suitably adjusted as t0
Too '
"

50 50
( 2 ) Controlling concrete work : Improper concreting can lead to larger deflection
than expected . Theoretical calculations of deflection are based on controlled
concrete and therefore all possible precautions should be taken to produce
low - slump , well compacted and effectively cured concrete .
314 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8
( 3 ) Removal of forms : The forms shall not be removed until the concrete has
reached a strength at least twice the stress to which the concrete may be
subjected at the time of removal of formwork ( due to self - weight etc. ) . Where
possible , formwork shall be left longer as it would assist curing.
If the forms are removed from the beam (for example ) , earlier than the specified
time ; the self - weight of beam , dead loads of slabs it carries and the superimposed
construction loads may increase the initial creep deflection by a large amount.
Also the loading on beam at an early stage may lead to cracking of beam as
the modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture of concrete are low.
( 4 ) Controlling temporary loads: Temporary loads on the unshored ( props removed )
floors like storage of construction materials can be several times more than
the anticipated service loads. This can lead to larger short term deflections and
extensive cracking than expected . This premature cracking can reduce the
bending stiffness by 50 per cent or more . The site engineer must take all
precautions to control these temporary loads .
Example 8 - 1 .
A simply supported R . C . C . beam is shown in fig. 8- 4. If the span of the beam is
6 m , check the deflection of the beam using rules discussed above . The area required
in tension is 920 mm 2 and 120 mm 2 is compression . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
H-230 -H

wu = 24 kN / m
, rtr 2- 16 # top

400

I
6 m c/c

(a ) Beam
—
* 3-20 # bottom
( b) Section

FIG . 8 - 4
Solution :
span
For simply supported beam , basic —-— ratio = 20

Ast = 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2

A
s t,r e q u i r e d
/s = 0.58 /y x A
^st, provided
•

920
= 0.58 x 415 x = 235 N / mm 2
942
100 x 942
Pt = 230 x 400
1.02

Modification factor = 1.0 from fig. 8- 1.

Asc = 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2
100 x 402
Pc = 230 x 400 =
0.44
Modification factor = 1.13 from fig. 8- 2 .
Art . 8 - 5 ] Deflection and Cracking 315

Then permissible —-—

span
ratio = 20 x 1.0 x 1.13 = 22.6
span 6000
actual ratio = 15 < 22.6.
d 400
The beam is satisfactory in respect of deflection .
Example 8 - 2 .
A tee beam with bf = 1250 mm , bw = 250 mm , D { = 100 mm , d = 450 mm
requires 1370 mm 2 area of tension reinforcement . It is reinforced with 5 - 20 # in
tension . Check the beam in respect of deflection . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. The beam is simply supported over a span
of 5.6 m .
Solution :
For the tee beam , bf = 1250 mm , d = 450 mm
Ast = 5 x 314 = 1570 mm 2
100 x 1570
Pt = 1250 x 450 =
0.279
1370
/s = 0.58 x 415 x 210 N / mm 2
1570 =
Modification factor from fig . 8- 1 = 1.8
K 250
Also
bf 1250 = 0.2

Reduction factor = 0.8

span
Basic
d = ratio 20
span
Permissible ratio = 20 x 1.8 x 0.8 = 28.8
d
span 5600
Actual ratio = 12.44 < 28.8
d 450
The beam is safe in respect of deflection .
8- 4 . Deflection calculations: In majority of cases, the deflection check is
span
made by using permissible ratio . However , deflection calculations are necessary
depth
in some cases , such as:
span
( 1 ) When the designer wants to exceed the depth ratio .
( 2 ) Where specific deflection control is required.
( 3 ) Where the structure is abnormal due to loading or behaviour.
The calculations of deflection are made for beams only. For slabs, the span / depth ratio
is restricted . The column deflections are taken into account as P- delta effect discussed
in chapter 17. For footings also, the deflection calculations are unimportant .
Total deflection of beams shall be taken as the sum of short term deflection and
long term deflection . The method of finding these deflections is given in Annex C of
IS: 456 and is discussed in the following articles .
8- 5. Short term deflections: To compute the short term deflection , elastic
equations of deflection are used . Some of these equations are summarized in fig. 8- 4 .
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is taken as the short term static modulus of
316 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8

elasticity as given by equation Ec = 5000

^
/ck • The moment of inertia of the beam
shall be taken as the effective moment of inertia . The effective moment of inertia of
a reinforced concrete beam varies from point to point along the length . This is
because at locations of low moment , the section is uncracked while at locations of
high moment , the section is cracked .
w

—
4
5 = 5w /
t i *

/777777 6 /7777 / 348 El

h* 1 /2 >4 / /2 -H

P
7 7\ PI 3
/777777

K
1 /2 -H
/
5
^ /77777 8=
48 El

w 4
I I , 5 = w / El
384

K 1 /2 -
H* 1 /2

I
w
I I 6= w
, 4
f 8 8 El

K /
3
8 = P/
3 El
K / H

2
n TV 6 = M/
/777777 / / // / //
16 EI
K 1 /2 >+< 1 /2 H
FIG . 8 - 4
Therefore , the effective moment of inertia is more than or equal to the moment
of inertia of a cracked section and is less than or equal to the moment of inertia of
gross section .
7r 4ff /gr
where 7r = moment of inertia of cracked section
Ieff = effective moment of inertia of section
/gr = gross moment of inertia of section .
Based on the extensive tests on beams for deflection , IS : 456 gives the following
formula for the calculation of effective moment of inertia :

4ff = '£ (
r

but I
ir — —
1.2

< ieff
I tt
- M
< *I gr
X
d l i - d ))
*
^
d
(8 - 5 )
Art . 8 - 5] Deflection and Cracking 317

where Mx — cracking moment , equal to

/cr ^gr
where fcr is the modulus of
yt
rupture of concrete , 7gr is the moment of inertia of the gross section
about the centroidal axis, neglecting the reinforcement , and yt is the
distance from centroidal axis of gross section , neglecting the reinforcement,
to extreme fibre in tension
M — maximum moment under service loads
Z = lever arm
x =
depth of neutral axis
d = effective depth
bw = width of web
b = width of compression face .
For continuous beams, deflection shall be calculated using the values of 7r , 7gr and
MT modified by the following equation :

*e =
,
1
rL* +2 *21 .
+ (1 - *i ) *o
where Xe = modified value of X
X\ , = values of X at supports
XQ = value of X at mid - span
k \ = coefficient given in table 8- 1
X = value of 7r, 7 r or Mx as appropriate .
^
TABLE 8 - 1
VALUES OF COEFFICIENT k l
k2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
or less

kx 0 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.30 0.50 0.73 0.91 0.97 1.0

M] + M2
Note : k 2 is given by k 2
Mp j 1 A/ p 2 — * "

where M\ M 2 = support moments

%

Afpi , A7p2 = hxed end moment.

Example 3 .
8 -

Compute the short term deflection of the beam at mid - span under the service loads
as shown in fig. 8-5. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
bD 3 250 x 6003 4.5 x 109 mm 4 .
7sr
12 12 =
Flexural tensile strength

/cr = 07 yfJck = 0 - 7 V20 = 3.13 N / mm 2

D 600
*= 2 2 =
300 mm
318 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8

20 kN
15 kN / m
f
;
h* 2.5 m - »- H 2.5 m M max = 71.875 kNm
K /=5m /=5m
(a ) Beam Loading ( b ) Moment

H- 250 -H H- 250 -H

T
246
T
246

550 N
304 304

50
" i
3- 16 # m Ast = 5457 mm 2
(c) Section (d ) Transformed section

FIG . 8 -5

MT =
/cr
yt
^ gr

3.13 X 4.5 x 109 x 10-6

300 = 46.95 kNm
52 20 x 5
^ max 8
X 15 +
4
= 71.875 kNm .
To find modulur ratio, short term static modulus of elasticity for concrete is used .
Ec = 5000 V7T
= V20 = 2.236 x 104 N / mm 2
5000
£s = 2 x 105 N / mm 2
2 x 105
m = 8.94
Ec 2.236 x 104
100 A t
100 x 3 x 201
250 x 550 = 0.439.

-
Neutral axis constant using equation (5-7 ) is given by
"
Pt m P? 2
Pt m
k = 100
+
( 100 ) 2
+
50
- 0.439 x 8.94 0.4392 x 8.942 + 0.439 x 8.94
k = 100
+
( 100 )2 50
= 0.244.
Art . 8 - 5] Deflection and Cracking 319

Depth of neutral axis = kd = 0.244 x 550 = 134.2 mm .

134.2
Lever arm z= 550
3 = 505.2 mm .
Moment of inertia of cracked section
1
IT = 2
b AT3 + m A st ( d - x) 2

=|X 250 X 134.23 + 8.94 x 603 x 415.82 = 1.13 x 10 » mm 4.

Now /eff is calculated as :

4ff = M, ' r

1.2 - M * 5 (' 5) *b - *

1.13 x 109
1.2 - 46.95 505.2 1 - 134.2 x 1 = 1.51 x 109 mm 4 .1

71.875 550 550

The deflection at mid - span is
5 W l3 p /3
+
884 Ec eff
/ 48 c 4ff
£
5 x 75000 x ( 5000 )3 20000 x ( 5000 )3
+
38 4 x 2.2 3 6 x 104 x 1.51 x 109 48 x 2.236 x 104 x 1.51 x 109
= 3.615 + 1.542 = 5.157 mm .
Example 8 - 4.
A cantilever rectangular beam of 3 m span carries service loads as shown in
fig. 8 - 6. Compute the short term deflection at the end of cantilever for ( a ) uniform
load and ( b ) total load , if
7gr = 4.5 x 109 mm 4 b = 250 mm
IT = 1.13 x 10 y mm 4 d = 550 mm
Ec = 2.236 x 104 N / mm 2 x 134.2 mm
Mr = 46.95 kNm Z = 505.2 mm
12 kN
r8 kN / m 8 kN / m

<- 3m K 3m >4

Loading Loading

E
Z
E
sO
rn Z
-( x;
r
N
-
Moment Moment
(a ) (b)
FIG . 8- 6
320 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8
Solution :
Case ( a ):
4 1.13 X 109
4ff - Mr £ 46.95 .. 505.2
__. 1 134.2
- 1.2 - - x 1
1.2 -
M d
X 1
^
d b 36
. A

550 550
= 3.84 x 109 mm 4* .
The deflection at tip of cantilever
W l3 24000 x ( 3000 )3
1.276 mm .
8 Ec hit 8 x 2.236 x 104 x 3.84 x 109
Case ( b ) :
1.13 x 109 1.51 x 109 m m 4* .
4ff -
46.95 v 505.2
=
1.2 - A1 - 134.2 x 1
72 550 550
The deflection at tip of cantilever
W l3 P I3
+
8 £c 4 ff 3 Ec 4ff
24000 x ( 3000 )3 12000 x ( 3000 )3
+
8 x 2.236 x 104 x 1.51 x 109 3 x 2.236 x 104 x 1.51 x 109
= 2.4 4- 3.2 = 5.6 mm . ?
(
Note: Once a beam has been cracked by a large moment , it can never regain its original
uncracked state ; therefore the effective moment of inertia to be used for computations
of deflection should be equal to the effective moment of inertia based on the
maximum moment that a beam has resisted in the past. In fact , for most beams , this
moment is impossible to determine.

Example 8 - 5 .
For the beam of Ex . 8- 4 , now the point load is reduced to 6 kN . What value of
Ieff should be used for computing deflection ? Calculate the short - term deflection .
Solution :
Once the beam has been cracked with a moment of 72 kNm ; it cannot regain its
original uncracked state . Therefore , in this calculation also the effective moment of
inertia 7eff = 1.51 x 109 mm 4 shall be used .
Now the deflection may be calculated by using the data of Example 8- 4 as:
6
= 2.4 + 3.2 x 12 = 2.4 4 1.6 = 4.0 mm .
8- 6 - Long term deflections: The total deflection of a beam consists of short
term deflection and long term deflection . The long term deflection is due to the effect
of creep and shrinkage . The long term deflection occurs rapidly at the initial period
of loading and than slows with respect to time . Within 2 to 3 years the long term
deflections are largely completed . The method of finding deflections due to shrinkage
and creep is given in Annex C of IS : 456 and is now treated .
( 1 ) Deflection due to shrinkage: The deflection due to shrinkage may be computed
from the following equation :
acs = 3 Vcs 12
* (S-6)
Art . 8- 6] Deflection and Cracking 321

where acs = deflection due to shrinkage

k $ = constant depending upon the support conditions
0.5 for cantilevers
0.125 for simply supported members
0.086 for members continuous at one end
0.063 for fully continuous members
£c s
\ / cs
| = shrinkage curvature = k 4
where 8 CS =
^
ultimate shrinkage strain of concrete ( refer to art . 3- 15 )
A - Pc
t = 0.72 x
/ 4
VA < 1.0 for 0.25 pt - pc < 1.0

Pi - Pc
= 0.65 x 1.0 for pt - pc > 1.0
VA
100 Ast
where Pt = bd
100 Asc
Pc bd
D = overall depth of section
/ = length of span .
( 2 ) Deflection due of creep : The creep deflection due to permanent loads may be
obtained from the following equation :
acc ( p e r m ) fli ,c c ( p e r m ) fli ( p e r m )
“ ( 8-7 )
where
a cc ( p e r m ) = creep deflection due to permanent loads
a i ,c c ( p e r m ) = initial plus creep deflection due to permanent loads obtained
using an elastic analysis with an effective modulus of
elasticity Ece =
Ec 0 being creep coefficient.
1 + 0’
a. i ( perm ) = short term deflection due to permanent load using Ec .
While calculating long term deflections , creep is taken into account in above
formula by using a reduced value for the modulus of elasticity of concrete
equal to
l + e
Now the total deflection of the beam is the summation of :
(i ) the short term deflection under the total load
( ii ) the deflection due to shrinkage
( iii ) the deflection due to creep .
Example 8 - 6.
A cantilever beam is loaded and reinforced as shown in fig. 8-7. Calculate the total
deflection of the beam at the tip of cantilever. The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Sixty percent of the moment is due to
permanent loads .
322 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 8
S o l u t i o n: 20 kN / m
( a ) Short term deflection:

/ gr
bD3 250 x 5003 K — 3.6 m — -H
12 12
y mm 4. (a ) Loading
= 2.6 x 10
Flexural tensile strength 3-25 # 13169 mm 2
fcT 0.7 yj fck 40 m
= 0.7 V20 = 3.13 N / mm 2
Z) 500 460
N. A. N. A.
* " 2 2 = 250 mm
f /
J cr gr 1401 i
Afr = 2- 20 # 4986 mm 2
3.13 x 2.6 x 109 x 10-6
—
K- 250 H

250 ( b ) Section (c) Transformed section

= 32.55 kNm
FIG . 8- 7
M = 3.62
2
x 20 = 129.6 kNm .
To find modulur ratio , short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete is used .
Ec = 5000 TTdT = 5700 V20 = 2.236 x 104 N / mm 2
Es = 2 x 105 N / mm 2
2 x 105 8.94 .
m =
2.236 x 104
Transformed area of compression steel
= [ m - 1 ) Asc = ( 8.94 - 1 ) x 2 x 314 = 4986 mm 2.
Note that ( m - 1 ) is used ( and not 1.5 m - 1 ) for short term calculations.
Transformed area of tension steel
= m Ast = 8.94 x 3 x 491 = 13169 mm 2.
Let x be the deph of neutral axis . Taking moments of transformed area about
neutral axis
250* x |+ 4986 ( x - 40 ) = 13169 x ( 460 - *)
x2 + 39.89 x -
48462 - 105.35 *
1596 =
+ 145.24 * -
x2 0 50058 =
which gives x 162.6 mm .
To simplify the calculations assume that
lever arm

Z
=
=
d

460
-
^
- 162.6
3 = 405.8 mm .

/r =|x 250 x 162.63 + 4986 ( 162.6 - 40) 2 +

13169 ( 460 - 162.6) 2
= 1.6 x 109 m m 4 .
Art. 8 - 6 ] Deflection and Cracking 323

Now 4ff -
4
- Mx
1.2
M * f M) * *
b
1.6 x 109 1.51 x 109 mm 4 .
1

32.55 405.8 1 162.6 x 1

1.2 - 129.6 460
- 460
Now 7r < /eff 7gr [ refer to equation ( 8- 4 ) ]
7eff = 7r = 1.6 x 109 mm 4 .

.
The short term deflection at the tip of cantilever
W /3 72000 x ( 3600 )3
5
8 £ c 7eff 8 x 2.236 x 104 x 1.6 x 109
= 11.74 mm ( 1)
( b ) Deflection due to shrinkage :
« cs = *3 Vcs 12
k3 = 0.5 for cantilever
100 x 1473
P t = 250 x 460 1.28
100 x 628
pc 250 x 460 =
0.55

pt - pc = 1.28 - 0.55 = 0.73 < 1

Pi - Pc = 0.72 x
0.73
*4 = 0.72 = 0.46.
VI . 28
In the absence of data, the value of ultimate shrinkage strain ecs is taken as 0.0003.
D = 500 mm .
Shrinkage curvature

Vcs = k -i -Q- = 0.46 x 500 = 2.76 x 10-7

£ vcso
f 0.0003

acs = k 3 |\ / cs / 2 = 0.5 x 2.76 x 10 ~ 7 x (3600) 2

= 1.79 mm (2 )
( c ) Deflection due to creep :
flcc ( perm ) ai , cc ( perm ) ( perm ) ’
^
”

In the absence of data , the age at loading is assumed to be 28 days and the
value of creep coefficient 0 is taken as 1.6 ( refer to art . 3- 16 ) .

E ce =
Ec 2.236 x 104
= 8.6 x 103 N / mm 2 .
1 + 0 1 + 1.6
To find modular ratio, now, long term static modulus of elasticity of concrete shall be used .
Es 2 x 10s 23.26.
m =
*ce 8.6 x 103
Transformed area of compression steel
= (m - 1) Asc = ( 23.26 - 1) x 2 x 314 = 13979 mm 2.
324 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8

Transformed area of tension steel

23.26 x 3 x 491 = 34262 mm 2.
= m Asi =
Let x be the depth of neutral axis. Taking moments of transformed areas about
neutral axis
250 x x |+ 13979 ( x - 40) = 34262 ( 460 - x)
x 2 + 111.83 [ x - 40) = 274.10 ( 460 - x)
*
2 + 385.93 * - 130559 = 0
which gives x = 216.7 mm .

Assume lever arm

1 x
z — d - f - 460 -
216.7
3 = 387.8 mm .

7r =

=
^ 250 x ( 216.7) 3 + 13979 ( 216.7
( 460 -
3.313 x 104
216.7 ) 2
- 40) 2 + 34262

4ff - ' r

1.2 -
Mr
M
X 4d h - 4d ) t
b
3.313 x 109
32.55 387.8 1 216.7
1.2 - 129.6 460
- 460 x 1

= 3.045 x 1010 mm 4* . *

7r < /eff < 7gr

^ gr = 2.6 x 109 mm .
^initial -4*
eff

a i,cc (perm) = plus creep deflection

due to permanent loads
obtained using the above modulus of elasticity
W /3
^ ^ ^eff
ce
Sixty per cent of total load is a permanent load .
W = 0.6 x 20 x 3.6 x 103 = 43200 N
43200 x ( 3600 )3
a i ,c c ( p e r m ) 11.27 mm
8 x 8.6 x 103 x 2.6 x 109
a i ( p e r m ) = short term deflection due to permanent load obtained
using Ec
= 0.6 x 5 l
= 0.6 x 11.74 = 7.04 mm
acc ( p e r m ) 11.27 - 7.04 = 4.23 mm ( 3)
Total long term deflection due to initial load , shrinkage and creep
= 11.74 + 1.79 + 4.23 = 17.76 mm .
The total deflection should not exceed span / 250 .
3600
Permissible deflection = 14.4 mm .
250
Art . 8 -7 ] Deflection and Cracking 325

The calculated deflection is slightly greater than the permissible value .

The section should be revised or alternatively the following actions may be
taken during construction .
( 1 ) Provide an upward camber of 10 mm at the free end of the cantilever.
( 2 ) Delay the erection of partition and application of finishes .
Note: It would be interesting to check this section by using simplified method . Also
span
as per site control , camber of
90 = 40 mm may be provided for actual work .

CRACKING
8- 7. Introductory: The deflection of a reinforced concrete beam is also associated
with cracking of concrete . As the beam deflects , cracks develop at the regions where
the tensile strength of concrete is exceeded . The presence of these cracks reduce the
effectiveness of the concrete covers . If the cracks widen , they put the reinforcement
open to the atmosphere causing the deterioration by corrosion .
In past years , the elastic theory of design was used and also the low yield point
steel ( usually mild steel ) was used . As the stress and strain level is low , while using
low yield steels , cracking of the member is also limited and negligible . Now - a - days
the use of high yield steel has increased which leads to a higher stress and strain level
increasing the cracking of the member. Therefore proper attention on cracking of
member is necessary.
The crack width can be controlled by proper detailing of reinforcement . A large
number of smaller diameter bars well distributed in tension zone reduce the width of crack
more effectively than the larger diameter bars of the same area.
The limit state of serviceability is discussed in clause 35.3. 2 of IS: 456. It is stated
“ Cracking of concrete should not adversely affect the appearance or durability of the
structure , the acceptable limits of cracking would vary with the type of structure and
environment. Where specific attention is required to limit the designed crack width
to a particular value , crack width calculation may be done using formula given in
Annex F of IS: 456. (This is discussed in the next article ) ”.
The surface width of crack , Wcr shall in general not exceed the following values .
Exposure condition Surface width of crack
Mild 0.3 mm
Moderate 0.2 mm
Severe 0.1 mm

To ensure that the crack width is not excessive , any of the two methods given
below may be considered .
( 1 ) Bar spacing controls : The rules of maximum spacing for bars in tension is
given in clause 26.3 of IS: 456. This shall be used in all normal cases .
( 2 ) Crack width calculations: Where it is required to calculate the crack width , the
crack width calculations may be made by any available methods. A formula to
assess the crack width is given in Annex F of IS : 456 - 2000.
8 - 8. Bar spacing controls: This is covered in clause 26.3 of IS : 456 and is
discussed below.
326 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 8
The diameter of a round bar shall be its nominal diameter , and in the case of bars
which are not round or in case of deformed bars or crimped bars, the diameter shall
be taken as the diameter of a circle giving an equivalent effective area. Where spacing
limitations and minimum concrete cover are based on bar diameter , a group of bars
bundled in contact shall be treated as a single bar of diameter derived from the total
equivalent area . For example , the effective diameter of group of 4 no. 20 mm diameter
bars can be given as :
Tib 2
J ( 20) or 0 = 40 mm .
4 x 2
4
For bar spacing controls it is stated , that unless the calculation of crack widths
shows that a greater spacing is acceptable , the following rules shall be applied to
flexural members in normal internal or external conditions of exposure .
( 1 ) Beams :
( i ) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars, or groups,
near the tension face of a beam shall not be greater than the values given
in table 15 of IS : 456 . Some values are shown in table 8 - 2 . Consult the
code for complete details .
TABLE 8- 2
CLEAR DISTANCE BETWEEN BARS

Percentage redistribution to or from section considered

fy - 30 - 15 0 + 15 + 30
Clear distance between bars
N / mm 2 mm mm mm mm mm
250 300
415 125 155 180 210 235
500 150
Note: Refer to IS: 456 for complete details.

Close study of the above table shows that

( a) Smaller clear distances are required for high grade steel because the
stresses and hence , the strains are higher.
( b ) The analysis of cracking is based on elastic analysis i. e ., with zero per
cent redistribution of moment. Therefore , the permissible clear distances
are increased or decreased if the percentage redistribution of moment
at the section is increased or decreased .
( c ) The table is applicable for redistribution of moments upto 30 per cent .
The allowable redistribution of moments in elastic theory is 15 per
cent and in limit state theory it is 30 per cent subjected to some
checks . To understand redistribution of moments refer to art . 11 - 4 of
this book .
( ii ) Where the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm , side face reinforcement
shall be provided along the two faces . The total area of such reinforcement
shall not be less than 0.1 per cent of web area and shall be distributed
equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web
thickness whichever is less .
Art . 8 - 9] Deflection and Cracking 327

( 2 ) Slabs :
( i ) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not
be more than three times the effective depth of a solid slab or 300 mm
whichever is smaller.
( ii ) The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars provided
against shrinkage and temperature ( secondary bars ) shall not be more
than five times the effective depth of a solid slab or 450 mm whichever
is smaller .
In above discussion the main reinforcement refers to the reinforcement
provided for flexure due to loads. The secondary or distribution bars are
provided perpendicular to the main bars and are not resisting the flexure .
These are provided :
( a ) to distribute uniformly the concentrated load on the slab
( b ) to keep the main reinforcement in position
( c ) to resist stresses due to shrinkage and temperature .
The above rules are observed in the examples considered in the chapters
to follow.
In general , compliance with the spacing requirements as given above should
be sufficient to control flexure cracking. If greater spacings are required , the
expected crack width should be checked as discussed in next artical 8 -9.
8 - 9 . C a l c u l a t i o n o f c r a c k w i d t h: The cracks may be due to loading of the
member i . e ., flexural crack , due to change in temperature or due to shrinkage of the
concrete . The effect of temperature and shrinkage cracks is negligible and only the
crack width due to flexural loads is calculated .
The width of flexural cracks at a particular point on the surface of a member
depends primarily on following three factors :
( 1 ) the proximity to the point being considered of reinforcing bars perpendicular
to the cracks
( 2 ) the proximity of the neutral axis to the point being considered
( 3 ) the average surface strain at the point being considered .
The following formula from annex F of IS: 456 gives the relationship between
crack width and the three principal variables . It gives acceptably accurate results in
most normal design circumstances .
Design surface crack width at A ( refer to fig . 8 - 8)

W
vv c r =
3 acr em ( 8- 8a )
1 + 2 flcr ~
^ min
v h - x
where aCT = distance from the point considered to the surface of the nearest
longitudinal bar
Cmin = minimum cover to the longitudinal bar
£m = average strain at the level considered
h = overall depth of the member
x = depth of neutral axis.
328 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8

bf H

h-x
A

\c mi
Crack width in beams
FIG . 8 - 8
The above formula can be used , provided that the strain in the tension reinforcement
fy
is limited to 0.8 . The design surface crack width thus calculated should not
exceed the appropriate value given in art. 8-7 above .
Calculation of average strain em:
( i ) Assumptions :
Following assumptions are made to calculate the average strain em at the level
considered .
( i ) The concrete and steel are both fully elastic in tension and in compression .
( ii ) The elastic modulus of the steel may be taken as 200 kN / mm 2 and that
of concrete may be taken as 5000 -J fc N / mm 2, where fc is the characteristic
compressive strength of concrete . ^ ^
fc
b Ec /c
x
Tx
T

d
a- x
h i
Es 7
/ t - f ct —- 1short 2
N / mm in
term
= 0.55 N /mm 2 in
long term
( a ) Cracked section ( b ) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram
FIG . 8 - 9
( 2 ) Approximate method:
Consider a rectangular section as shown in fig. 8 - 9 (a ) .
Let As = area of tension reinforcement
b = width of the section at the centroid of tension steel
El = strain at the level considered , calculated ignoring the stiffening
of the concrete in the tension zone .
Art . 8 - 9 ] Deflection and Cracking 329

a = distance from the compression face to the point at which

the crack width is being calculated
d = effective depth
fc = maximum compressive stress in the concrete
fs = the tensile stress in reinforcement
Es = the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement
Ec = the modulus of elasticity of concrete
As per IS : 456, the approximate method is now described as follows .
(i ) Consider the section as cracked and determine the depth of neutral axis
x by using transformed area method .
( ii ) determine the compressive stress f c in extreme compression fibre and
tensile stress f s in the reinforcement.
( iii ) Draw the strain diagram and determine strain at the level considered
as shown in fig. 8 - 9 ( b ) .
fs a- x (i)
Then
The e 1
El
Es
thus obtained , does
- X
d x
not take into account the stiffening effect of
concrete in tension zone .
( iv ) Draw the stress diagram as indicated in fig. 8 - 9 ( c ) . As per code , the stress
in concrete at the level of steel reinforcement is /ct which is taken as
1 N / mm 2 in short term and 0.55 N / mm 2 in long term .
The tensile strain in concrete in extreme tensile fibre
h- x
= /ct x d - x
total tensile force in concrete

—
1 h-
Tc 2 X /ct x d - x x ( h - x ) x b
1 ,
( A - *)2
. ~
—
= /ct
2
b
TTJ
The stress due to stiffening effect of concrete at the level of tensile
reinforcement may be assumed as this force T c divided by A s , the area
of steel reinforcement as per code
equivalent stiffening stress in steel
I /ct ( A - * )2
bt
7 T-
X ~ ~
2 A
Corresponding strain in steel reinforcement
« - *>
, t, d - x
fa 2
2AB
The strain £ 2 at the level where crack width is required , due to the
stiffening effect of concrete
/ct ( h - x )2
= 2 * X
(a - x )
£2 X
ASES d x - (h - x)
b (h- x ) (a - x) * fcs (2)
2 (d - x) AsEs
330 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8
For short term , fci = 1 N / mm 2
b ( h- x ) ( a - x)
(3)
^ 2 ,s h o r t 2 ( i - x ) ASES
For long term , f c l = 0 . 5 5 N / mm 2
b (h- x) ( a - x)
E 2,long (4)
3.64 ( d - x ) ASES
The code considers a general formula for e 2 Thus , from (3) and ( 4 ) -
b (A- x ) ( a - x)
e2 = (5 )
3 ( d - X ) A5 E 5
The average strain em at the level where crack width is to be calculated ,
is now given from ( 1 ) and ( 5 ) as

em “
el “ e2
b (A- x ) ( a - x)
i .e. Em = El - 3£ ( 8-8 b ) .
- *)
s
This is the formula given by the code . ^
fs a- x
Also £l = £ x d - x (8- 8c ) .
s
Example 8 - 7.
A simply supported tee beam of span 5 m is subjected to the moment of 85 kNm
at mid - span . The section of the beam is shown in fig. 8 - 10. Calculate the crack widths
at corner A , directly under the tension reinforcement B and the centre of tension face
C as shown in the figure . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
K 1600 ( N.T.S.) H

r 2-16 # x = 61.55
“ 100
i i 1: 4 0 ir.
T
V
T 3192 mm 2
500 460 398.45 438.45
2
8421 mm

3-20 #
230
( a ) Section ( b ) Transformed section (c ) Strain Diagram

FIG . 8 - 10
Solution :
Es = 2 x 105 N / mm 2 ,
Ec = 5000 x VSO = 22360 N / mm 2

m
Es 2 x 105
Ec 22360
= 8.94
Art . 8 - 9 ] Deflection and Cracking 331

Transformed area of compression steel

= ( m - 1 ) At
= ( 8.94 - 1 ) x 2 x 201 = 3192 mm 2.
Transformed area of tension steel
= m Asi = 8.94 x 3 x 314 = 8421 mm 2 .
To find neutral axis , taking moments about neutral axis
x2
1600
Y + 3192 ( x - 40 ) = 8421 ( 460 - x )
Simplifying and re - arranging
* + 14.52 * - 4682 = 0
2

which gives x = 61.55 mm .

1
/x =
= ^ x 1600 x 61.553 + 3192 ( 61.55 - 40) 2 + 8421 x 398.452
1.46 x 109 m m 4
Stress in tension steel is given by

= mx
M (d - x) = 8.94 x
85 x 106 ( 460 - 61.55 )
A 1.46 x 109
= 207.4 N / mm 2
Strain in tension steel

/s 207.4
= 1.037 x 10-3.
£s 2 x 105
The strain on the tension face of the beam
500 - 61.55
1.037 x 10-3 x 1.141 x 10-3
= 460 - 61.55 =
e ,t
Note that all the three crack widths required , at this face .
E i = et = 1.141 x 10-3 = U . 4 1 x 10-4 (1)
The stiffening effect of the concrete in tension zone
b (h- x) (a - x) 230 ( 500 - 61.55 ) ( 500 - 61.55 )
E2 = 3 [d - x) 3 ( 460 - 61.55 ) x 942 x 2 x 105
ASES
= 1.96 x 10 - 4 (2 )
Hence the average strain at the level of cracks

^m 11.41 x 10- 4 - 1.96 x lO " 4

= 9.45 x 10-4 ( 3) .
The distance a c r from the position of the crack to the surface of the nearest
longitudinal bar of the three cases are shown in fig. 8 - 11.
The design surface crack widths are :

W
rr cr = ^ acr em
1 + 2
( n
gcr f —~
^min
D - X
332 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 8
( 1 ) Crack at A
3 x 56.6 x 9.45 x 10 4 "

= 0.143 mm < 0.3 mm (O . K. )

1 + 2
56.6 - 30
500 - 61.55
( 2 ) Crack at B or C
acr = C'-' min. = 30 mm , and the crack width
WCT = 3 x 30 x 9.45 x 10 4 '

= 0.085 mm < 0.3 mm ( O . K.)

40
4 4 --
Cmin 30 —
230
FIG . 8 - 11
Note that the denominator in the formula of crack width in this case is 1.
Note: Suppose instead of 3- 20 # , the reinforcement provided in this case is 2 - 25 # ,
calculate the crack widths at given points . In this case width of crack at C will be
larger. Conclude from the calculation :
A larger number of smaller diameter bars well distributed in tension zone reduce the
crack width more effectively than the larger diameter bars of the same area.
.. . . . .

EXAMPLES VIII
( 1 ) A doubly reinforced rectangular beam of size 250 mm wide x 350 mm effective
depth is reinforced with 2 no. 20 mm diameter bars at top and 3 no. 20 mm
diameter bars at bottom being tension reinforcement . If the span of the beam is
6 m and simply supported , check the deflection of beam . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.

[ Ans.
^ =
( 2 ) A tee beam of flange width 1750 mm , effective depth 460 mm and rib width of
17.14

200 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 16 mm diameter bars in tension . If the span of

beam is 6 m and simply supported , check the deflection of beam . The materials
< 22.32 , permissible .]

are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.

[ Ans. = 13.04 < 32 , permissible .]

^
( 3 ) Check the criterion of deflection and prepare sketches to satisfy cracking requirements
for the beam sections of Examples ( 12 ) , ( 13) and ( 14 ) of chapter 7.
( 4 ) A simply supported tee beam of flange width 1200 mm , rib width 230 mm , flange
thickness 100 mm , overall depth 500 mm and effective depth of 460 mm is
reinforced with 4 no 16 mm diameter bars . The beam is loaded with characteristic
loads, U . D . L . of 10 kN / m and central point load of 20 kN . The span of the beam
is 6 m . Calculate the short term deflection and totaldeflection . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. 2.94 mm ; 6.26 mm . ]
Ex . 8] Deflection and Cracking 333

(5 ) A rectangular cantilever beam of span 3.5 m is loaded with 15 kN / m U . D . L. and

25 kN point load at 1 m from the free end of the cantilever. If the section of beam
is 230 mm wide x 610 mm effective depth ( 650 mm overall depth ) and is reinforced
with 4 no . 20 mm diameter bars in tension and 2 no. 16 mm diameter bars at an
effective cover of 40 mm in compression , calculate the total deflection at the tip
of the cantilever. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 . [ Ans. 18.46 mm .]
( 6 ) Check the requirements for cracking for the beam of fig. 8- 8.
( 7 ) Check the requirements for deflection and cracking for the beam of fig. 8- 6.
( 8 ) A simply supported tee beam of span 6 m is subjected to the characteristic
moment at mid - span of 110 kNm . The beam has flange width 1500 mm , rib width
230 mm , thickness of slab 120 mm , overall depth 600 mm , effective depth of
560 mm and is reinforced with 2 no . 25 mm diameter bars in tension . Calculate
the crack width at the bottom corner and at the centre of width of beam . Also
calculate the crack widths at the same points if now the beam is reinforced with
3 no. 20 mm diameter bars. Compare the maximum widths of cracks. The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
[ Ans. ( i ) 0.163 mm , 0.093; ( ii ) 0.146 mm ; 0.085 mm .]
 hapter SIMPLY SUPPORTED AND
CANTILEVER BEAMS
: “
q =: • mmammmmmmm mm
9
*** *
* • • •• iii
• a a
^
a a a a a a *
^ ^ ^ ^ ******* *** * ** *
* * * • •• • • ***** *** *** *»*»"** ••• • • • • ************* ******* ••• *****
*

This chapter is intended to give complete design of beams using the principles
developed in previous chapters. A beam is primarily a flexural member and resists
loads in vertical bending. However , it sometimes resists lateral loads also . It resists
the loads by bending and shear . The checks for development length , deflection and
~
cracking are required in design . Some typical designs are treated in This chapter.
9- 1. Design procedure: The design of any member is always followed by the
analysis of forces, it has to withstand . The procedure for design of a beam may be
summarized as follows :
(1) Estimation of loads: The correct estimation of loads, a beam has to bear , leads
to an economical and safe design of the beams. A designer should not forget
to account for any possible load acting on the structure , as this leads to an
underdesign of the member and subsequent failure of the beam . The dead loads
on the beam may be self - weight from slabs and beams, floor finish , partitions ,
false ceiling and some special fixed loads if specified . The live loads shall be
different for different structures , depending on the functional use of the building.
This shall be taken from IS :875, the loading standards. The unit weights of
plain concrete and reinforced concrete made with sand and gravel or crushed
natural stone aggregate may be taken as 24 kN / m 3 and 25 kN / m 3 respectively.
Chapter 14 explains the load calculations on slabs and beams, systematically.
Simultaneous reading of chapter 14 is recommended , at this stage.
( 2 ) Analysis : Using the above determined loads, the shear forces and bending
moments are found out and diagrams drawn .
For a simply supported beam , maximum moment occurs at point of zero shear
in the span and shall be considered in design .
(3 ) Design: After analysis , design the beam as follows :
( i ) Using maximum moment, calculate the depth of beam required for balanced
section . If the size of beam is specified , check whether it is singly reinforced
or doubly reinforced.
( ii ) Find out steel area required for design moment.
( iii ) Check the shear stresses and development length of bars.
( iv ) If some bars are curtailed , check for curtailment using curtailment rules.
( v ) Check the deflection and cracking using rules for control of deflection
and cracking.
( vi ) Draw complete sketches of designed beam with elevation and sections.
9- 2. Anchorage of bars: Check for development length: According to
clause 26.2 of IS : 456, the calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section
shall be developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length
or end anchorage or by a combination thereof .
The above requirements put the first restriction on bent bars or curtailed bars that
no bar can be bent up or curtailed upto a distance of development length from the
point of maximum moment, e.g., for HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415, the development
length in concrete of grade M 20 in tension is 47 # . If 20 mm diameter bars are used ,
the bars cannot be bent or curtailed upto a distance of 47 x 20 = 940 mm from the
point of maximum bending moment . After this point , if a bar has to be curtailed , it
shall comply with bar curtailment rules . This is illustrated in fig. 9 - 1.
 Art . 9 - 2 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 335
A
Minimum at simple support
and
A .
when continuous over support

940 940
I AyK J
> Ld T20 # bars
3 — Ast
End anchorage
K
/ /
2 2
/
Check for development length
FIG. 9 - 1
Suppose that the first restriction as mentioned above is over - come and a designer
can bend or curtail some bars and he decides the number of bars to be bent or
curtailed . Now for the remaining bars also the above requirement has to be checked .
Let be the moment of resistance of the section with remaining bars assuming
all the bars stressed upto the design stress 0.87 /y.
Find out from the bending moment diagram a point where the moment is equal
to Afi . According to above requirement , from this point the remaining bars have to be
anchored upto L < j. This anchorage can be a sum of distance of centre of support from
this point and anchorage beyond the centre of support. Let us formulate this requirement .
P P

1
T

H- L ,
h*
K
a -)— / -H

( a ) Beam

V =P

V= P

( b ) S.F.diagram

M , M
T

(c) B .M .diagram
Check for development length
FIG . 9 - 2

4'
336 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

When a formula is to be prepared , the worst combination of the loads shall be

considered . The point loads will serve this purpose . Consider a simply supported
beam with two point loads and draw S. F. and B . M . diagrams as shown in fig. 9 - 2. Let
some bars be bent or curtailed .
Let Mi be the moment of resistance of remaining bars assuming all the bars
stressed to the design stress 0.87 /y . In the B . M . diagram find out the point 1 where
the B . M . is equal to Mj . Let the distance of point 1 from the centre of support be L \ .
Then from above discussion it is clear that the total anchorage L \ + LQ ( where LQ is
the anchorage of bars beyond the centre of the support ) shall be greater than or equal to. Ld .
L \ + L0 Ld .
From fig. 9 - 2 , it is clear that
Mi
V *

Therefore , we conclude that

M
( 9 - la )
~ y~ +
^0 -
The same expression shall also be used for continuous beam at the point of
inflection . This formula may be used for any combination of loads. This is the same
formula as given in clause 26.2 . 3.3 of IS : 456 and is given below :

^
“

At simple supports and at points of inflection ./ positive moment tension reinforcement

shall be limited to a diameter such that Ld \ ( development length ) computed for fd does
not exceed
M , M \% 5 a
where
~
y + Lo o r ~
y + L( )
~ I' d
—
Mi = moment of resistance of the section assuming all reinforcement at
the section to be stressed to fd
fd = 0.87 fy in case of limit state design
V = shear force at the section ( support for simply supported beam and
point of inflection for continuous beam ) due to design loads
ZQ = sum of the anchorage beyond the centre of the support and the
equivalent anchorage value of any hook or mechanical anchorages at
simple support and at a point of inflection . LQ is limited to the
effective depth of the member or 12 0 whichever is greater
< ) = diameter of bar.
|

Mi
The value of - y- in the above expression may be increased by 30 per cent when
the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction .
M\
i .e . 1.3 ~ y ~ + L 0 - ( 9 - lb )
9- 3. Reinforcement requirements: Beam reinforcements as per clause 26.5. 1
of the code shall comply the following requirements :
( 1 ) Tension reinforcement :
( i ) Minimum reinforcement : The minimum area of tension reinforcement shall
not be less than that given by the following expression :
4 0.85
bd fy
mmi
V

Art . 9 - 3] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 337

where As = minimum area of tension reinforcement

b= breadth of the beam or breadth of web of T beam
d = effective depth
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement in N / 2.
The minimum percentage of reinforcement , p { min for various steels may
be calculated as follows:
For mild steel
100 ;4 S 100 x 0.85
bd 250 = 0.34 .

For HYSD steel , Fe 415 grade

100 As 100 x 0.85
P t , min = 0.205 .
bd 415
For HYSD steel , Fe 500 grade
100 As 100 x 0.85
P t,min = 0.17.
bd 500
For most beams the cracking moment is much smaller than the nominal
_
flexural strength ^ ( may be 10 to 15 per cent ) . Here , the cracking moment
means the moment which causes the tensile stress in concrete equal to the
tensile strength of concrete given by modulus of rupture [ /cr = 0.7 yjfc .
^
Nominal flexural strength n i e a n s the moment of resistance of the beam . If
for some architectural reasons , the size of beam is very large , and the
design moment is very low ; the steel area obtained using design methods
will be very small . It may happen that the nominal flexural strength of this
beam be less than the cracking moment .
In case of overloads , if the applied moment exceeds the cracking moment ,
the beam will immediately fail by rupture of the steel if the designed steel
area (less than minimum area ) is provided . To prevent this kind of brittle
failure , the minimum area of tension reinforcement is specified by the
code . Also refer to art. 4 - 10 for more discussion .
The above discussion is explained with following examples:
Suppose a 230 mm x 600 mm rectangular section is subjected to flexure
using M 20 mix and mild steel reinforcement . The cracking moment of the
beam is calculated as follows:
fcr = 0.7 V20 = 3.13 N / mm 2.
Cracking moment = fcr x Z
1 x
= 3.13 x io230 x 6002 x lO 6 "

= 43.2 kNm .
If this section is subjected to a moment of 20 kNm only , according
to design we may provide the steel required for 20 kNm only which
is 0.104 per cent in this case . The reinforcement is stressed only when the
crack starts in concrete. Let us assume that the first crack starts at
40 kNm moment . This means that the steel will not be stretched
unless the beam is subjected to 40 kNm moment or more . Thus in
338 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

case , if the beam is overloaded to 40 kNm , the beam starts cracking

and releases all the tensile force it carries .
The bars are designed to carry 20 kNm moment and thus they are not
able to withstand 40 kNm moment so the beam suddenly fails . The mode
of failure is brittle . If the same beam were designed to carry slightly
more moment than the cracking moment, the tensile stresses would have
safely be transferred to steel , the steel might had yielded before failure
and the ductile failure would have been occurred .
( ii ) Maximum reinforcement : The maximum area of tension reinforcement shall
not exceed 0.04 bD.
The maximum area of reinforcement is specified from practical considerations.
For singly reinforced rectangular beams, the maximum area of reinforcement
is that of balanced section as the over - reinforced design is not advisable .
Thus , the provision of maximum reinforcement applies mainly to doubly
reinforced and flanged sections.
( 2 ) Compression reinforcement : The maximum area of compression reinforcement
shall not exceed 0.04 bD. The restriction in areas of compression reinforcement
given here is for the convenience in construction . Compression reinforcement
used in beams shall be enclosed by stirrups for effective lateral support .
This requirement is the same as the column bar requirements ( refer to art . 17- 3).
Accordingly, the diameter of stirrups should not be less than one -fourth of
the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than 6 mm .
The spacing of these stirrups should not exceed
( i ) the least lateral dimension of the compression member
( ii ) sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar
to be tied
( iii ) 300 mm .
( 3 ) Cover to the reinforcement : The cover to all reinforcements including stirrups
is 20 mm for mild exposure . Assuming maximum diameter of stirrups for
normal beams be 10 mm , the clear cover to main reinforcement for beams may
be taken as 20 + 10 = 30 mm . Unless specifiedf the exposure condition shall be
mild for all R . C. C . elements in this book .
9- 4. Slenderness limits for beams to ensure lateral stability: A
beam is usually a vertical load - carrying member. However , for long span , the beam
may bend laterally. To ensure the lateral stability of a beam , as per clause 23.3, IS : 456:
For simply supported and continuous beams
clear span > 60 b
. 250d b 2
* ~ ~

For cantilever beams

clear span > 25 b
. ~ b2
> 100d ~
where b = width of compression face mid - way between the support
d = effective depth of the beam .
 Art . 9 - 6 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 339

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

9 - 5. Introductory: Simply supported beams may be supported on masonry
walls or by other R . C . C . beams . When supported on masonry walls , bed block or
template below the beam at support is necessary to transfer the concentrated load from
beam to the masonry walls . The simply supported beams may be rectangular beams
or flanged beams .
The effective span of a beam that is not built integrally with its supports shall be taken
as clear span plus the effective depth of beam or centre to centre of supports , whichever
is less . For a beam built integrally with supports it is centre to centre of supports .
.
9- 6. Design S.F diagram: As 20 kN / m
stated by the code , where the ends of
the reinforcements are confined by
compressive reaction , design shear at
the support will be that occurring at
distance d from the support. We shall 4.3 m c/c
4L 500

now use this advantageous provision -

in our designs. We may then draw the
f 4- - 4.0 m - t H As,
0.3 m 0.3 m
design shear force diagram also . This (a ) Beam loading
has been explained in fig. 9- 3.

-
0.5 m 230

rr--
40 30 1 « H \<
A beam with 4.0 m clear span , 43
. 0.15 m
4.3 m c / c span loaded with 20 kN / m
load is shown in fig. 9 -3. In many cases 0.5 m
30 40 43 kN
the difference between c / c span and clear
I 0.15
span is small , and c / c span which is ( b ) S.F. diagram
considered for bending moment is also 30 kN
considered for shear calculations . This 0.5 m
is just for simplicity , otherwise for shear H-H
calculations, clear span shall be considered .
When the ends of the reinforcement are 0.5 m 30 kN
confined by compressive reactions, the
shear force at distance d shall be found K 4.0 m clear H
out and used for the design at support ( c ) Design shear force diagram
also . This is shown in fig. 9 - 3 ( c ) . FIG. 9 - 3
We shall now solve a few simple practical designs.
Example 9 - 1 .
A simply supported rectangular beam of 4 m span carries a uniformly distributed
characteristic load including self - weight of 20 kN / m . The beam section is 230 mm x
450 mm overall . Design the beam . The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415. The beam is suspended from the upper floor level.
Solution :
Pu = 1.5 x 20 = 30 kN / m

M u ,max = 30 x 4* = 60 kNm and V u, , max

( a ) Moment steel :
8
30 x i = 60 kN.
-
The section is 230 mm x 450 mm overall . Assuming one layer of 16 mm
diameter bars , effective depth shall be
d = 450 - 30 ( cover ) - 8 ( centre of reinforcement) = 412 mm .
340 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
Depth required for singly reinforced section 30 kN / m
f
60 x 106
2.76 x 230
= 308 mm < 412 mm . 4m
Design as singly reinforced section . ( a ) Beam loading

Mu 60 x 106 1.54 60 kN
bd2 230 x 412 x 412
60 kN
From table 6 - 3
( b) S.F.diagram
pt = 0.474
0.474 x 230 x 412
^ —
st 100 = 449 mm 2. 60 kNmy +
Minimum steel required ( c ) B .M.diagram
0.205
= 100 x 230 x 412 = 194 mm 2. FIG . 9 - 4
0.96 2
^ stMl ~ 100 x 230 x 412 = 910 mm .
194 mm 2 < A st , provided < 910 mm 2
Provide 4 no . 12 mm # = 4 x 113 = 452 mm 2.
Let 2 bar be bent at 1.25 D
= 1.25 x 450 = 562.5 mm , say 550 mm , from the face of the support ,
I
( b ) Check for development length :
( 1 ) A bar can be bent up at a distance greater than
= 47 # from centre of span , i .e., 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
• In this case , this distance is ( 2000 - 600) = 1400 mm ( O . K .)
( 2 ) For the remaining bars fVjV

^ ^
- ir f
^
J
P< 238 t*” '
b d2
= 0.817, from table 6 - 3

Mu = 0.817 x 230 x 4122 x 10 ~6 = 31.9 kNm .

Vu = 60 kN .
If the bars are hooked at 100 mm beyond the centre of the support , the
anchorage value LQ = 8 b + 100. Now , L 0 is limited to 12 # = 192 mm or
effective depth = 412 mm whichever is greater , i . e . , 412 mm . However ,
provided LQ = 8 # + 100 = 8 x 12 + 100 = 196 mm .
Use LQ = 196 mm .

c ,' £ U r )
As the ends of reinforcement are confined by tensile reaction
Ki
31.9 x 106
60 x 103
+
^
+ 196 > 47 #
Ld .
? -
728 > 47 # or # < 15.5 mm .
Art . 9 - 6 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 341

Provided diameter is 12 mm . Therefore 2 - 12 # can be bent up .

The remaining bars should extend into the simple support for a distance of ,
1 x
i .e ., 47 x 12 = 188 mm . If support width is 300 mm , the bars extend within
3
the support for a distance of 150 + 196 = 346 mm which is greater than ^d .
J

( c ) Check for shear :

At support Vu = 60 kN
60 x 103 0.633 N / mm 2.
Tv = 230 x 412 =
100 As 2 x 113 x 100
bd 230 x 412 = 0.238
Tc = 0.332 N / mm 2 < 0.633 N / mm 2.
Shear design is necessary.
Note that the critical section for checking the shear stress in this case is the
face of the support ( and not at distance d from the face of the support ) because
the reaction at support induces tension in end region .
At support 2 bent bars can be used to carry shear stress . These give a shear
resistance of
sin 45° x 2 x 113 x 0.87 x 415 x 10-3 = 5759 kN .
Shear resistance of concrete
TC b d = 0.332 x 230 x 412 x 10 3 = 31.46 kN .
~

Fus = Vu - TC b d = 60 - 31.46 = 28.54 kN .

Bent bars share 50 % = 14.27 kN.
Stirrups provide 50 % = 14.27 kN .
0.87 fy . A s v . d
Using 6 mm 0 two - legged M .S. stirrups , spacing can be given by
where Tsv = 2 x 28 = 56 mm 2.
^ us

0.87 x 250 x 56 x 412

= 14.27 x 103
= 351 mm (i)

At distance of 550 mm from support , where two bars are bent

V u = 60 - 0.55 x 30 = 43.5 kN
•

Vus = 43.5 - 31.46 = 12.04 kN .

This will give larger spacing than above.
For 230 mm wide beam minimum shear reinforcement from table 6 - 3 is 6 mm 0
about 130 mm c / c (2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided , i . e., 6 mm 0
about 130 mm c / c.
bd
——
In the central portion , where shear is less than TC- , the spacing of stirrups can be

increased . Now
Tcbd 31.46
= 15.73 kN . This occurs at * = 60 -3015.73 = 1.48 m
2 2
342 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
from support . Thus in central portion of 4 - 2 x 1.48 = 1.04 m , it is not
necessary to provide minimum shear reinforcement. In this portion , the spacing
should not exceed 0.75 d (= 0.75 x 412 = 309 mm ) or 300 mm , i . e ., 300 mm .

No . of 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c stirrups = + 1 13.

Provide 13 no . , 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c stirrups from either supports ; then
6 mm 0 @ 300 mm c / c .
( d ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic ratio = 20
d
100 x 4 x 113
Pi = 230 x 412 = 0.477.
442
service stress0.58 x 415 x
= = 235 N / mm 2
452
Modification factor = 1.20 .
span
ratio permissible = 20 x 1.2 = 24.
d
span 4000
ratio = 9.71 < 24 ( O . K .)
412 =
Actual
d
( e ) Check for cracking :
230 - 60 - 4 x 12
clear distance between bars =
3 = 40.66 mm .
Maximum clear distance permitted = 180 mm ( zero per cent redistribution ) ,
( f ) Practical requirement :
Maximum clear distance between bars permitted is greater of :
( 1 ) h agg + 5 mm = 20 + 5 = 25 mm , using 20 mm aggregate size
( 2 ) 0 of bar = 12 mm
i . e., 25 mm .
The clear distance should be more than 25 mm .
Actual clear distance = 40.66 mm > 25 mm ( O. K. )
The beam as designed above is shown in fig. 9- 5. Provide 2 - 10 # anchor bars.
v
+
•
Suspender 2- 10 # 2 - 10 #

450 412
L
600 ^® *- 4- 12 # ( 2st . + 2 bent )
« 4000 c/c >

Dia. 6 0 60 H- 230-H
- -1 2
4 #

No. 13 rest Clear cover to main

SPA 130 300 reinforcement = 30 mm
( a ) Beam elevation ( b ) Section A - A

FIG . 9 - 5
Art . 9 - 6] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 343

( g ) Supplementary details:
In this example even if the bars are not bent, one leads to the minimum shear
reinforcement . To save the reinforcement in this case , bars may be curtailed
or taken straight into support.
Example 9 - 2.
A simply supported rectangular beam of 6 m span carries a characteristic load of
24 kN / m inclusive of its self - weight. The beam section is 230 mm x 600 mm overall .
Design the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415. The beam is resting on R . C. C . columns.
Solution :
Factored load = 1.5 x 24 = 36 kN / m .
36 x 62 162 kNm .
Mu = 8
v
_ 36 x 6
108 kN .
( a ) Moment steel.
Assuming 20 mm diameter bars in one layer
d = 600 - 30 - 10 = 560 mm
162 x 106
= 2.25 < 2.76.
bd 2 230 x 5602
The section is singly reinforced .

- . 1 - /4.6
Pt = 50
1
ck
X
bd 2
= 50
1 -
4 - 44
1
20
415 / 20
x 2.25

/y //ck
= 0.74

— 0.74 x

^rr>—p- ^3-^ =-
230 x 560 = 953 mm 2.
^ st 100
P- - Coo *
—
/fr
Minimum steel , A.
s - '"inn x 230 X 560 264 mm 2
100
I JrC T Ijook
^.st / irn 100
x 230 x 560 = 1236 mm 2.

Provide 2 - 20 # + 2- 16 # ( 314 + 201 ) = 1030 mm 2

= 2
Let 2 - 16 # bars are bent at 1.25 D = 1.25 x 600 = 750 mm , from the face of
the support .
The remaining bars should extend within the support for a distance of
1 x
47 x 20 = 313 mm .
3

—
3
( b ) Check for development length:
( 1 ) A bar can be bent up at a distance greater than L & = 47 # from the centre
of the support, i . e., 47 x 16 = 752 mm .
In this case , this distance is ( 3000 - 750) = 2250 mm ( Safe )
344 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I cf [ Ch . 9
( 2 ) For the remaining bars ,
^ st = 2 x <&f y
1 -
- A0
628 mm 2
^

Mul = 0.87 /y A t l d /ck

415 x 628
= 0.87 x 415 x 628 x 560 l ( 20 x 230 x 560
x 10-6
= 114.12 kNm
Fu = 108 kN , Lo = 12 # ( assume )
As the reinforcement is confined by compressive reaction

1.3 + L0 Ld
x 106
1.3 x 114.12 + 12 # > 47 #
108 x 103
39.2 > #
( Safe )
^ provided ^ mm
The remaining bars should extend within the support for a distance of
LA 1 x
- 47 x 20 = 313 mm . If support width is 300 mm , the bars
3
extends for 150 + L() = 150 + 12 x 20 = 390 mm within the support. Note
that this requirement is only for one - third of the positive moment bars. In
most cases this requirement is satisfied and will not be checked again in
the examples that follows:
( c ) Check for shear: r
At support , Vu = 108 kN . * /V*
As the ends of the reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction , shear
_
at distance d will be used for checking s hear at support .
W
= 108
x 10
^
Vu at d = 108 - rt 65 36y = 87.66 kN
0.839 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2
230 x 560 =
100 /!s 100 x 2 x 314
bd 230 x 560 = 0.487
Tc = 0.472 N / mm 2 < xv . (from table 19, IS : 456)
Shear design is necessary.
At support
^ us = Vu - Tc bd
= 87.66 - 0.472 x 230 x 560 x 10-3
= 87.66 - 60.8 = 26.86 kN .
Capacity of bent bars to resist shear
= 2 x 201 x 0.87 x 415 x sin 45° x 10 ~ 3 = 102.6 kN.
Bent bars share 50% = 13.43 kN
Stirrups share 50% = 13.43 kN .
At distance d, where bent bars not availabe
Vus = 26.86 kN
Design stirrups for Fus = 26.86 kN .
Art . 9 - 6] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 345

Using 6 mm 0 ( mild steel ) stirrups , Asv = 56 mm 2 .

0.87 fy Asv d
0.87 x 250 x 56 x 560
5V = = 253.9 mm .
Ks 26.86 x 103
Spacing of minimum shear reinforcement using 6 0 stirrups
0 - 87 sv /
0.4 b
^
0.87 x 56 x 250
0.4 x 230
132.4 mm .

Spacing should not exceed

( i ) 300 mm
( ii ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 560 = 420 mm
( iii ) 132.4 mm ( minimum )
( iv ) 253.9 mm ( designed )
Provide 6 mm 0 two - legged stirrups @ 130 mm c / c.

Shear of
xcbd 60.8 - 30.4 = 2.16 m from support.
= 30.4 kN occurs at x =
108
2 2 36
2160
No . of 6 mm 0 stirrups with 130 mm spacing = + 1 18 .
130
In central portion , provide larger spacing which should not exceed 300 mm or
0.75 d = 420 mm , i .e ., 300 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 300 mm c / c in central portion .
( d ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
A
s t, r e q
service stress = 0.58 /y X -
As t , p r o
936
= 0.58 x 415 x 1030 = 219 N / mm 2
100 Ast 100 x 1030
230 x 560 =
0.80
bd
Modification factor = 1.15
span
—-— permissible = 20 x 1.15 = 23
span 6000
Actual 10.62 ( Safe )
d 565
( e ) Spacing of bars :
Clear distance between bars
= 230 - 60 - 2 x 20 = 130 mm .
Minimum clear distance permitted
= 20 + 5 = 25 mm or 16 mm (0 of bar ) , i . e ., 25 mm .
Maximum clear distance permitted
= 180 mm ( cracking - table 8- 1 ) ( Safe )
346 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

The designed beam is shown in fig. 9 - 6

2- 10 #

600
750 H
t 2-20 # (st.) + 2- 16 # ( bent )
L

150

^±1^ 2-20 # + 2- 16 #
H- 230 -H
h* 6000 c/c

6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c/c

( a ) Beam elevation (b) Section at centre

FIG . 9 - 6
Note that the stirrups are not sketched in elevation for convenience. In detailing,
stirrups are not shown but written separately under the beam elevation . Also , note that
section is drawn to double scale than that of the elevation , since the section is used to
magnify the details. We shall follow similar detailing for other beams .
Note: The shear design of examples 9- 1 and 9 - 2 show that a in a small central
part of beam , the spacing of minimum shear reinforcement can be waived .
In most practical cases , such economy is not followed . Such provisions
will be used only for structures of minor importance like lintel . In examples
that follow , such provision will not be used .

Example 9 - 3 .
Design a simply supported rectangular beam of size 230 mm x 600 mm overall
for a super - imposed load of 46 kN / m . Span of the beam is 5 m . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Self weight of beam 0.23 x 0.60 x 25 3.45 kN / m
Super - imposed load 46.00 kN / m
Total 49.45 kN / m , say. 50 kN / m
Factor load = 1.5 x 50 = 75 kN / m J
52 ct '' \> ...
Mn = 8 x 75 = 243.4 kNm

= f X 75 = 187.5 kN .
: u
( a ) Moment steel:
Assuming 2 layers of 20 mm diameter bars
d = 600 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 540 mm .
Mu 243.4 x IQ6
bd 2 230 x 5402
= 3.63 > 2.76.
Art . 9 - 6 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 347

Doubly reinforced section .

~6
u , lim = 2.76 x 230 x 5402 x 10
^ = 185.10 kNm
Mu 2 = 243.4 185.10 = 58.3 kNm .
Let the compression reinforcement be provided at an effective cover of 40 mm .
d'
d 545 = ^
0.07, consider r = 0.1.
d
“

Stress in compression steel , fsc = 353 N / mm 2 ( refer to table 6 -5 )

M u2 58.3 x 106
sc
fsc ( d - ‘ )
i 353 ( 540 - 40 )
= 330 mm 2.
Corresponding tension steel

A st 2 ^0.87 fscfy
sc 330 x 353
0.87 x 415 =
323 mm 2

bd
AM A l lim Puim *
*' 100
230 x 540
= 0.96 x 100 = 1192 mm 2
Ast = sti + Ast 2 = 1192 + 323 mm 2 = 1515 mm 2.
^
Provide Asc = 2 - 16 # = 402 mm 2
= 5 - 20 # = 1570 mm 2 ( all straight) . Provide 3 bars in first
layer and 2 bars in second layer.
For designed section , equating total compression and total tension
0.36 /cki *u + Ascfsc = 0.87 fyAst
0.36 x 20 x 230 xu + 402 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 1570
*u = 256.6 mm
Xu , m a x = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 540 = 259.2 mm
xu C x\i , max
Under - reinforced section .. (O.K.)
( b ) Check for development length:
As all the bars are taken into support , Mu\ may be taken as Mu. In fact Aful
is usually greater than Mu .
Assume L 0 = 12 #
M u1
1.3 + Ld
Here Mul = 243.4 kNm , Vu = 187.5 kN .

1.3 x 243.4 x 106 12 # > 47 #

+
187.5 x 103
# < 48.22 mm
( Safe )
( c ) Check for shear.
^ provided mm

187.5 x 103
% = 230 x 540 = 1.51 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
348 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
100 As 100 x 5 x 314 1.26
bd 230 x 540
= 0.672 N / mm 2.
As the ends are confined with compressive reaction , shear at distance d will
be used for checking shear at support . At 540 mm , shear is equal to
Vu = 187.5 - 0.540 x 75 = 147 kN .
Vv us = Vv U - xLc ub ud
= 147 - 0.672 x 230 x 540 x 10 ' 3
= 63.5 kN.
Assuming 8 mm # two- legged stirrups, Asv = 100 mm 2 , /y = 415 N / mm 2 .
0.87 /y sv d
s\ ^ 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 540
= 307 mm .
Ks 63.5 x 103
For minimum shear reinforcement , using 8 mm # stirrups
0.87 s v /y
= ^
0.87 x 100 x 415
0.4 x 230 = 392.4 mm .
0.4 b

>^ 300
$v 0.75 dy i.e ., 0.75 x 540 = 405 mm
mm .
Minimum shear reinforcement of 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c will be used.
At support provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c . Also provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm
c / c throughout the beam .
( d ) Check for deflection:
span
Basic ratio = 20
d
100 Asi 100 x 1570
1.26
bd 230 x 540
1515
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 1570 = 232 N / mm 2
Modification factor = 0.97
100 Asc 100 x 402
230 x 540 =
0.323
bd
Modification factor = 1.1
span
permissible ratio = 20 x 0.97 x 1.1 = 21.34
d
span 5000
actual
d
ratio 9.26 21.34
540 = < ( Safe )
( e ) Spacing of bars:
Clear distance between bars
230 - 60 - 3 x 20
3 = 36.67 mm .
Minimum clear distance required = 25 mm
Maximum clear distance permitted = 180 mm ( Safe )
Designed beam elevation and section are shown in fig. 9 -7.
Art . 9 - 6 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 349

r^ ® *
2- 16 # 2- 16 #

>>
540

K
/ / // /// /
/
/
.
r 5- 20 #
\W\W\V
\
\
H
600

600 bearing
*600 bearing
h* 5000 c/c H
-

L 5-20 #
DIA K- 230 -H
NO 8# @ 300 mm c/c throughout
SPA .
( a ) Elevation (b) Section A - A

FIG . 9 -7
Example 9 - 4 .
A simply supported rectangular beam of clear span 5 mm carries a uniformly
distributed super - imposed load of 27 kN / m . The beam section is 230 mm x 500 mm
overall . Design the beam . The beam rests on 350 mm thick brick walls running
perpendicular to the axis of the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Effective span ( 1 ) 5.0 + 0.65 ( effective depth ) = 5.65 m
( 2 ) 5.0 + 0.35 ( c / c supports ) = 5.35 m
Adopt l = 5.35 m .
Self - weight of beam = 0.23 x 0.5 x 25 = 3 kN / m
Super - imposed load = 27 kN / m
Total 30 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 x 30 = 45 kN / m

M u ymax = 45 x 5.352 161 kNm

8
5
45 x
V u , max
r 112.5 kN.
=
2
Note that clear span is considered for calculating shear force .
If clear span is not given, shear and moment both may be calculated from effective
span . But if actual geometry is known from the problem , clear span may be
considered for shear calculation to get economy.
( a ) Moment steel:
The section is 230 mm x 500 mm overall . Assuming one layer of 20 mm
diameter bars , the effective depth is
d = 500 - 30 ( cover ) - 10 = 460 mm .
Depth required for singly reinforced section
161 x 106
2.76 x 230 = 504 mm > 460 mm .
350 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

Design as doubly reinforced beam . 45 kN /m

Mu = 161 kNm A /
b = 230 mm ; d = 460 mm .
Mu 161 x 106
bd 2 230 x 460 x 460 < 5.35 m — H
= 3.31 >4 +*
350 mm
- 5m —
H H-
350 mm
d ' = 40 mm
d' (a) Beam loading
d =
Assume 0.1 .
z
/sc = 353 N / mm 2. §
04
From table 6 - 8
04
p =
{ 1.125, /> c = 0.177
( b) S.F.diagram
1.125 x 230 x 460
^ St = 100
1190 mm 2 .
= + 161 kNm
0.155 x 230 x 460 ( c ) B. M.diagram
^ sc 100
FIG . 9 - 8
= 164 mm 2.
Provide 2 - 12 # top = 426 mm 2, and
4 - 20 # bottom = 1256 mm 2
For designed section C = T
0 - 36 /cki *u + A sc /sc = -
0 87 fyAsi
0.36 x 20 x 230 xu + 420 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 1256
* =
u 184.31 mm
Xu , max = 0.48 x 460 = 220.8 mm
Xu < X u , max
under - reinforced section ( O. K.)
( b ) Check for development length :
No bar is bent up and all the bars are carried in the support . If 90° bend is
provided at the end
LQ = 175 - 30 ( cover ) - 5 # -I- 8 #
= 145 + 3 x 20 = 205 mm .
Maximum / 0 = 12 # = 12 x 20 = 240 mm or deff = 460 mm ,
>

whichever is greater.
Consider LQ = 240 mm .
= 161 kNm , full design moment may be considered .
As the ends of the reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction

1.3
Ki + L{ ) > Ld

i .e ., 1.3 x 161 x IQ6 4- 240 > 47 #

112.5 x 103
Which gives # 44.69 mm .
Provided diameter is 20 mm ( O . K.)
 \

Art . 9 -7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 351

( c ) Check for shear:

Section at support can be designed for shear at distance d as the ends of
reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction .
Shear at distance d = 112.5 - 0.460 x 45 = 91.8 kN .
91.8 x 103
= 230 x 460 = 0.867 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 1256
1.19
bd 230 x 460
= 0.658 N / mm 2.
The shear design is necessary.
Shear resistance of concrete
TC bd = 0.658 x 230 x 460 x 10 3 = 69.6 kN .
~

Vus = Fu - xc bd = 91.8 - 69.6 = 22.2 kN.

Minimum shear reinforcement is sufficient . For 230 mm wide beam , from
table 6 -3, minimum shear reinforcement is 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c ( mild steel ).
Check for deflection and cracking may be done as usual .
The designed beam is shown in fig 9 - 9 .
40 2- 16 #
r 2- 16 #

r
i
<<
1
T J
f [r
500 460
*
L 4-20 #
'r
M * 5000 K
350 350 4- 20 #

230
6 mm 0 stirrups @ 130 c/c

(b) Section
(a) Beam elevation
FIG . 9 - 9
9- 7 . Curtailment of bars: When the tension bars are not required to resist the
moment, they can be curtailed . For curtailment , reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to
resist flexure for a distance equal to the effective
depth of the member or 12 times the diameter
whichever is greater except at simple support vQ P
or end of cantilever. These requirements are K
explained in fig . 9 - 10 . > 120
>d
In addition to above , the following K l H
requirements shall also be satisfied . These are
covered in clause 26.2 . 3.2 of IS : 456.
-
P Theoretical cut off point
Q - Actual cut off point
It states, “ Flexural reinforcement shall not
be terminated in a tension zone , unless any Requirements for bar curtailment
one of the following conditions is satisfied . FIG . 9 - 10
352 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
( 1 ) The shear at cut off point does not exceed two - thirds that permitted including
the shear strength of web reinforcement provided .
( 2 ) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear and torsion is provided along
each terminated bar over a distance from the cut off point equal to three - fourth
the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area shall not be less
than 0.4 bs , where b is the breadth of beam , s is the spacing and /y
is the
fy
characteristic strength of reinforcement in N / mm 2. The resulting spacing shall
d
not exceed 8 p where P is the ratio of the area of bars cut off to the total
^’ ^
area of bars at the section and d is the effective depth .
( 3 ) For 36 mm and smaller bars , the continuing bars provide double the area
required for flexure at the cut off point and the shear does not exceed three - fourth
that permitted . ”
Close study of these requirements shows that shear plays an important role . In
fact , when a curtailment is done , the complicated shear stresses are induced and must
be resisted by suitable reinforcement . A designer can understand after solving some
problems that curtailment induces elaborate calculations . Then choice is left to the
designer , whether he or she curtails the bars or not . After illustrating one example ,
curtailment will not be done in this book .
Consider a simply supported w k N /m
beam loaded with uniformly
distributed loads as shown in w/ ; k A ' k
w/
fig . 9 - 11. If 50 % bars are to be 2 2
curtailed , theoretical cut off point K X H a
can be found out as below. K / >
Referring to fig . 9 - 11
Curtailment of 50% bars
if A is the theoretical point of FIG. 9 - 11
cut off
Uilx w x1 w l2
MA = 2 16 *

/
This gives x = 0.146 / ( or y approximately ) . From this point , bars are to be
extended at least 12 | < ) or effective depth whichever is greater. Then curtailment rules
are checked . According to SP : 34 - 1987 ( Handbook on concrete reinforcement and
detailing) , 50 per cent bars may be curtailed at 0.08 / from the face of the support as
a simplified rule where / is the effective span of the beam .
Example 9 - 5 .
If 2 - 12 # bars of Example 9 - 1 are required to be curtailed , propose the location
of curtailment of bars.
Solution :
Theoretical cut off point = 0.146 x 4000 = 584 mm
12 <t> = 12 x 12 = 144 mm
d = 412 mm .
Curtailment can be done at 584 - 412 = 172 mm from the centre of the support.
Art . 9 -7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 353

Example 9 - 6.
Design a simply supported tee beam of span 7 m and spaced at 3 m centres. The
thickness of slab is 100 mm and total characteristic load including self - weight of the
beam is 30 kN / m . The overall size of the beam is 230 mm x 600 mm . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Factored load = 1.5 x 30 = 45 kN / m
72 =
Factored moment Mu = 45 x
8
275.6 kNm
7
Factored shear Vu = 45 x - = 157.5 kN .
( a ) Moment steel :
Assuming 2 layers of 20 mm # bars
d = 600 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 540 mm .
As a preliminary design assume lever arm

z= d - Of2 = 540 - 100

2 = 490 mm .

Mu 275.6 x 10r>
^ st — 0.87 /y * 0.87 x 415 x 490 = 1558 mm 2 .

Provide 5 - 20 mm # = 5 x 314 = 1570 mm 2.

The section is now checked for moment of resistance.

b , = l6 0
+ bw + 6 D( > 3000
7000
+ 230 + 6 x 100 = 1996 mm .
6
Use bf = 1990 mm
Ftc = 0.36 /ck bf D {
= 0.36 x 20 x 1990 x 100 x 10 3 = 1432.8 kN ~

Fts = 0.87 /y A st
= 0.87 x 415 x 1570 x 10 3 = 566.8 kN “

/.
^tc > -Fts
Neutral axis lies in flange .
Equating the forces
Total compression = total tension
0.36 fck b{ xu = 0.87 /y Asi
036 x 20 x 1990 * u = 0.87 x 415 x 1570
*u = 39.56 mm
X \i , max = 0.48 d = 0.48 x 540 = 259.2 mm
Xu < X u , max -
Under - reinforced section .
354 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 9

Mu = 0.87 fy Ast ( d -
0.42 xj
= 0.87 x 415 x 1570 x (540 - 0.42 x 39.56 ) x 10 "6

= 296.7 kNm > 275.6 kNm (O K . )

Let 2 bars bent up at 1.25 x 600 = 750 mm from the face of the support,
( b ) Check for\ development length:
At support , A sj= 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2.
0.36 /ck b{ xu = 0.87 fy Asi
0.36 x 20 x 1990 * u = 0.87 x 415 x 942
* u = 23.74 mm .
Mul = 0.87 /y Ast ( d - 0.42 xu )
= 0.87 x 415 x 942 x (540 - 0.42 x 23.74) x 10
‘ 6

180.2 kNm
Vu = 157.5 kN.
As the ends of reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction, we have
M u\
1.3 + Lo -^- d -
Assume L0 = 12 #

1.3 x
180.2 x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
157.5 x 103
42.5 > #

( c ) Check for shear.

^ provided mm (Safe )

As the ends are confined by compressive reaction , shear at distance d will be

used at the support.
Vu = 157.5 - 0.540 x 45 = 133.2 kN
100 As 100 x 942
= 0.758
bd 230 x 540
xc = 0.562 N / mm 2
133.2 x 103 1.06 N / mm 2 > Tc
=
230 x 540 =
Tv
Shear design is necessary.
2 - 20 # bars can resist a shear of
* 0.87 x 415 x 2 x 314 x sin 45° x 10 3 = 160.32 kN . "

^us = Vu - T-c b d
= 133.2 0.562 x 230 x 540 x 10 ~3 = 63.40 kN .
Bent bars share 50 % = 31.7 kN
Stirrups share 50 % = 31.7 kN .
Using 6 mm (j) M . S. two - legged stirrups, Asv = 5 6 mm 2
Art . 9 -7] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 355

0.87 /y Asv d
=
^
us
0.87 x 250 x 56 x 540
= 207 mm (1)
31.70 x 103
Minimum shear reinforcement from table 6- 3 is 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .
At distance d where effect of bent bars is not available
Vu = 133.2 kN
Vus = 133.2 - ( 0.562 x 230 x 540 x 10 3) = 63.7 kN. "

Using 6 mm 0 M.S. two - legged stirrups

0.87 x 250 x 56 x 540 103 mm (2)
Jv =
63.7 x 103
Shear resistance of section with minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y sv d
^
+ TC b d
0.87 x 250 x 56 x 540 x -3 (
10 + 0.562 x 230 x 540 x 10 ~3)
130
= 50.6 + 69.8 = 120.4 kN.
This occurs at
157.5 - 120.4 0.825 m from the support.
45 =
It can be seen that from the support , upto 750 mm , only minimum shear
reinforcement is required and from 750 mm to 825 mm , 6 mm 0 @ 100 mm c / c
stirrups are required . Providing larger spacing of stirrups near support seems
odd in practice . Therefore provide 6 mm 0 two - legged stirrups @
100 mm c / c upto 825 + 1 10 nos. Then provide 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .
100
( d ) Check for deflection:
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 st
b( d
^ 100 X 1570
1990 x 540 = 0.146

0.58 x 415 x
1558 239 N / mm 2
Service stress = 1570 =
Modification factor = 1.9
K 230
1990 =
0.116
h
Reduction factor = 0.8

—-—
span
permissible
span
= 20 x 1.9 x 0.8 = 30.4
7000
Actual
d 540
12.96 < 30.4 ( Safe )
( e ) Spacing of bars:
230 - 60 - 2 x 20
Clear distance between bars = = 65 mm
2
Minimum distance permitted = 25 mm
Maximum distance permitted = 180 mm (Safe )
356 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
Use 2 - 10 # as anchor bars. The designed section is shown in fig . 9 - 12 .

r 2- 10 #
*
2- 10 #
100 ^ 100? « '
J
500
I 540
5-20 # ( 3 st. + 2 bent ) 500
/ 750 —H
4
m

H* 7000 c/c >— - - 5-20 #

DIA. 6 0 60 H- 230 -H ( 3 st. + 2 bent )
NO. 10 rest
SPAC. 100 130
( a ) Elevation ( b ) Section A - A

FIG. 9 - 12
Example 9 - 7.
Design a simply supported tee beam of span 8 m and spaced at 3 m centres. The
thickness of slab is 120 mm and total characteristic load including self - weight of beam
is 36 kN / m . Use curtailment rules. The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
r 54 kN/m
K 2280 H

120 *
8 m c/c >

(a ) Loading

216 kN 600

216 kN
( b ) S. F.diagram
K H
230
+ 432 kNm

( c) B.M.diagram ( d ) Assumed section

FIG . 9- 13
Solution :
( 1 ) Moment design :
1 1
Assume depth t 0 ]~
0 sPan » be ., 666 mm to 800 mm .
Consider rib depth = 600 mm giving D = 120 + 600 = 720 mm .
Adopt bw = 230 mm .
Assuming 2 layers of 20 mm # bars
d = 720 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 660 mm .
Art . 9 -7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 357

Factored load = 1.5 x 36 = 54 kN / m .

M u , max = 54 x 82
8
= 432 kNm .

As a preliminary design
120
assume lever arm = 660 - 2 = 600 mm .
x 106
= 0.87432
^ st x 415 x 600 =
1994 mm 2 .

Try 4 - 25 # giving Asi = 1964 mm 2.

Since 1994 mm 2 is trial area , we may use little less area for trial section .
Check for M .R. of section :

For a tee beam bf = —lQ + bw + 6 D { and bf f actual width of flange

8000
+ 230 + 6 x 120
6
= 2283 mm < 3000 mm ( OK.)
Use bf = 2280 mm .
bf 2280
bw 230 = 9.91 « 10
Df 100
660 =
0.15
d
From table 6 - 10 ( table 58 , SP : 16 )
^ u Jim , T 2 = 0.695
/ck bw d
Mu ,lim,T = 0.695 x 20 x 230 x 6602 x 10 ~6 = 1392.6 kNm .
As Mu < Mu nm j\ simplified formula to find reinforcement is alright . A
small area difference of reinforcement ( 1994 - 1964 = 30 mm 2 ) shall be
neglected .
Equating the forces assuming the neutral axis to be located in flange
0.36 /ck b { xu = 0.87 fy Asi
0.36 x 20 x 2280 xu = 0.87 x 415 x 1964
* u = 43.2 mm
Xu , max = 0.48 x 660 = 316.8 mm
*u < x u ,max
Under - reinforced section
0.87 fyAsi ( d - 0.42 xu )
Mu =
0.87 x 415 x 1964 ( 660
= - 0.42 x 43.2 ) x 10 6 "

455.1 kNm > 432 kNm

= ( O . K .)
-
Provide 4 25 # ( 2 straight + 2 curtailed ) .
Curtailment of bars:
50 % of bars to be curtailed . Theoretical point of cut off from support
= 0.146 x 8000 = 1168 mm .
358 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 9
12 # = 12 x 20 = 240 mm
deff = 660 mm .
Curtail 2 - 25 # bars at a distance 1168 - 660 = 508 mm , say 500 mm from
centre of support .
( 2 ) Check for development length :
At support As = 2 x 491 = 982 mm 2
6
Mu { = 0.87 x 415 x 982 x (660 - 50 ) x 10 '

Vu =
= 216.2
216 kN .
kNm assume z — d -
Dcf \
2 )

As the ends of reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction

M y

1.3 + A)
K d-
^^
Let L0 = 12 #

1.3 x • 216.2
x 106
then + 12 # > 47 #
216 x 103
which gives 1301 > 35 #
or # < 37.18 mm .
# provided is 25 mm ( O . K.)
( 3) Check for shear :
At support, as the ends of reinforcement are confined with compressive reaction ,
shear at distance d will be used .
Then Fu at d = 216 - 0.66 x 54 = 180.4 kN.
100 A , 100 x 2 x 491
bd 230 x 660 = 0.647

xc = 0.526 N / mm 2.
Shear resistance of concrete
= xcbd = 0.526 x 230 x 660 x 10-3 = 79.8 kN .
Fus = 180 - 79.8 = 100.2 kN .
Using 8 mm # two - legged stirrups
Asv = 100 mm 2,
0.87 /y Asv d
0.87 x 415 x 100 x 660
5V = = 237 mm.
Ks 100.2 x 103
For a 230 mm wide beam from table 6-3, minimum shear reinforcement = 8 mm #
about 300 mm c / c or 6 mm <J) about 130 mm c / c.
Provide 8 mm # about 230 mm c / c.
For minimum shear reinforcement of 8 mm # about 300 mm c / c
2 x 50 x 0.87 x 415 x 660 x
usl = 10-3 = 79.4 kN .
^ 300
Total shear capacity of section with minimum shear reinforcement
= 79.8 4- 79.4 = 159.2 kN .
 Art . 9 - 7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 359

Stirrups more than minimum are required upto

216 - 159.2 = 1.052 m from support.
54
1052
No. of stirrups required = 230 + 1 = 6.
Provide 8 mm # about 230 mm c / c upto 6 no., then 8 mm # about 300 mm c / c.
( 4 ) Check for curtailment :
Three checks are given in IS : 456 out of which any one is to be satisfied ,

(i ) Shear at cut off point

= 216 - 0.5 x 54 = 189 kN .
Shear resistance of section
= shear resistance of concrete 4- shear resistance of shear reinforcement

= TCBD + 0.87 / Asv x

0.87 x 415 x 100 x 660 x 10-3
= 79.8 +
230
= 79.8 + 103.6 = 183.4 kN .
2 x shear resistance of section
-
Now shear at cut off point

or 189 <|x 183.4 Not satisfied .

( ii ) Moment at cut off point

= 216 x 0.5 - 0.52 x 54 = 101.25 kNm .

2
101.25 x 106
Steel required for this moment =
0.87 x 415 x ( 660 - 60 )
= 467 mm 2.
The continuing bars shall provide double this area , i . e., 2 x 467 = 934 mm 2.
In fact continuing bars provide
2 x 491 = 982 mm 2 .
However , shear at cut off point shall not exceed three -fourth that permitted .

189 7 x 183.4
4
or 189 < 137.55 . . . . Not satisfied .
The above two calculations show that curtailment of 50% bars cannot be
done . Also it predicts that shear capacity of the section has to be increased .
Check ( ii ) requires that shear capacity of section shall be increased by
189 - 137.55 = 51.45 kN .
/
Let us now try to provide excess stirrup area as per third check .
0.4 b s
( iii ) Excess stirrup area to be provided should not be less than
fy
0.87 /y . Asv . i
The shear resisted by this area Vus =
360 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 9
0.4 b s
Substitute
^ sv fy and sv = s

Q A b j. 0.87 /y . d ( 0 - 87 f y )
^ us = = 0.4 b d
fy S fy
0.87 fy
Note that for any steel is constant and is equal to reciprocal of
fy
partial safety factor.
This factor of safety is equal to 1.15 .
0.4 b d bd
Substituting, rus
= 1.15 2.875 '
This means shear capacity of section is to be increased by minimum
bd
2.875 '
bd 230 x 660
In present case x lO-3 = 52.8 kN.
2.875 2.875
This is more than 51.45 kN, the excess shear capacity required as per second check.
Thus now stirrups should be provided for
104.39 + 51.45 = 155.84 kN .
Using 8 mm # two - legged stirrups
0.87 / Asv .d 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 660
=
= 152.9 mm
^ us 155.84 x 103
( 1)
d
Now resulting spacing shall not exceed gp "

n area of cut off bars

where = 0.5 in this case .
total area of bars at section =
Pb

Now maximum spacing = 660

165 mm ( 2)
8 x 0.5
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , provide 8 mm # stirrups about 150 mm c / c .

This excess area to be provided upto

3
— 3
the effective depth of member , i . e ., -
x 660 = 495 mm from cut off point . From support this is done upto 500 +
495 = 995 mm . Now minimum shear reinforcements are required at a point,
1.052 m from support . Therefore provide 8 mm # about 150 mm c / c upto
1.052 m , i . e., 9 no.
Finally with 2 - 25 # bars cut off at 500 mm from the centre of support , stirrups
provided are 8 mm # about 150 mm c / c upto 9 no. and then 8 mm # about
300 mm c / c.
Comment: As per simplified rules of SP : 34 - 1987, the curtailment of 50 % bars
be made at 0.08 / from face of the support . This means that curtailment is done
at 0.08 x 8000 = 640 mm . For this example , the simplified rules do not satisfy
the rules for curtailment .
(5) Check for deflection :
span
Basic —-— ratio = 20 bf = 2280 mm
Art . 9 -7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 361

100 Ast 100 X 4 x 491

2280 x 660 =
0.13
b{ d
Service stress = 0.58 x 415 = 240 N / mm -2
Modification factor = 1.95
K 230
2280 =
0.1
h
reduction factor = 0.8
span
—-—
permissible = 20 x 1.95 x 0.8 = 31.2
span 8000
actual
d
ratio = 665
12.03 < 30.4 ( O . K.)
( 6 ) Check for cracking :
Clear distance between bars = 230 - 60 - 2 x 25
= 120 mm < 180 mm .
Also clear distance between bars is more than minimum required for concreting.
The check for cracking is usually not critical for beams.
For beams , the check for minimum clear distance between bars as explained
in art. 4 - 6 is more important , e .g. , in this beam all four bars cannot be placed
in one layer.
Use 2 - 10 # bars as top anchor . The beam elevation and section are shown
in fig. 9 - 14 .

2-10 #
£
120 Y

t
'/ / // 4-25 # 600
X/ 500
H (2 full + 2-7000 Long ) ^ ®
K - 8000 c/c * I <

CL dia. 8# 8# L 4-25 #
a
fc no. 9 rest K
•
00
230
c/c 150 300

( a) Beam elevation ( b) Section A - A

FIG . 9- 14
( 7 ) Supplementary details:
( i ) The beam is resting on masonry walls and a bed block or template has to
be designed to distribute a heavy load on walls . Refer to art . 9 -8 for design
of a template .
( ii ) IS: 456 does not give any recommendation for top anchor bars in beam . It
is recommended by the author to use 8 mm b bars for a depth upto 450 mm
and 10 mm b bars for a beam of depth above 450 mm as anchor bars for
normal use .
362 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 9
( iii ) For many cases , the curtailment of positive bars in beam leads to an
elaborate calculations and economy is not appreciable . Therefore curtailment
of the bars in the beam may be left to designer’s choice .
( 8 ) Practical notes :
( i ) Width of beam : It is a modern practice to use flush type construction , i . e .,
when a beam is running in a line of masonry wall , it should not be
projected out . This restricts the width of beam equal to the unplastered
thickness of wall . Usually the walls are 115 mm , 230 mm or 350 mm
thick , when clay bricks are used and 100 mm , 200 mm or 300 mm when
hollow block concrete masonry is used .
( ii ) Concrete shall be as far as possible , machine mixed ; and if hand mixed ,
10 °/o additional cement shall be used .
( iii ) Use of vibrator to have good compaction is always necessary.
9 - 8 . Design of a template: When an end of the beam rests on brick masonry,
a bed block or template should be designed to transfer the loads safely to the brick
walls . Since the permissible bearing pressure on masonry is much less ( 350 kPa
to 800 kPa ) than that of the concrete , larger bearing area is required to transfer the
load . Template is nothing but an R . C . C. pad of width equal to the width of the brick
wall provided under the end of a beam .

Template —, r- 230 th . wall

6m
c/c

H — 3m — —3m H* 3m — 6m

(a ) Typical slab level plan

- Slab
[
[— Beam end
250 '
:
450
/
260 ' “
7
R .C.C. template
230 /
H< H
250 / 250

(b) Typical template for B i (c) Template not provided

FIG. 9 - 15
Art . 9 - 8 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 363

A typical template is shown in fig. 9 - 15 ( b ) for the beam B \ of fig. 9- 15 ( a ) . You

might have seen the cracks in masonry under the beam as shown in fig. 9 - 15 ( c ) when
template is not provided . Overloading in such cases can cause the failure of the
masonry and subsequent failure of the structure .
For a particular case of if the template is not provided , the bearing area on
masonry will be 230 mm x 230 mm if the beam is 230 mm wide . If the support were
an R . C .C . column , we need not check the bearing pressure. It is necessary to distribute
the concentrated load from beam on longer length of the wall .
The template is designed as a cantilever beam which is subjected to an upward
bearing pressure from masonry. If R is the reaction of a beam in fig. 9 - 16 , and if the
permissible bearing pressure on masonry is the area of bearing required is given by
R
A = (i)
If the width of
°b
wall is A j ,
masonry
the width of template will be b\ and the
length of template will be equal to
A (2)
length of template =
Round up the value on higher side and
provide the length of template L. Now
L = 21 + b, where b is the width of beam and
/, the cantilever span referring to fig. 9 - 16.
Template is now a balanced cantilever
max
— 2

beam of width b \ and loaded with an

upward load of

w
R kN / m . FIG . 9 - 16
L
Design the beam ( i . e ., template ) as usual . In fig. 9 - 15 ( a ) , for the beam note that
it is running parallel to the supporting wall. In such cases, the beam may be extended
inside the support so that bearing pressure does not exceed the permissible value. If
that is the case , you need not provide a template .
Example 9 - 8 .
Beam B 1 of fig . 9 - 15 ( a ) is subjected to total characteristic load of 22 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight . Design the template for the beam . The materials are M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Permissible bearing pressure
on the walls is 400 kPa ( i.e . kN / m 2).
Solution :
22 x 6 66 kN .
R = 2 =
66
= 0.165 m 2
400 =
A

b\ = 0.23 m
0.165
L = 0.23 =
0.717 m
Provide L = 730 mm
As b = 230 mm
364 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
1
( 730 - 230 ) = 250 mm .

w
/ =
^66
0.73 =
90.4 kN / m

=
M 90.4 x 0.252
2.825 kNm .
2
Mu = 1.5 x 2.825 = 4.24 kNm .

d = 1724
x 10 ( i
81.73 mm.
2.76 x 230 =
Provide D = 260 mm (3 layers of masonary) . Larger depth is provided for shear.
d = 260 - 30 - 6 = 224 mm
Mu 4.24 x 106
= 0.367
b i2 230 x 224 x 224
pt = 0.105
0.105 x
= 230 x 224 = 54.1 mm 2
100
Minimum area of reinforcement
0.205 x
Ax s t , m i n 230 x 224 = 105.6 mm 2.
100
Provide 2 - 10 mm # = 157 mm 2.

Ld = 47 # x - ^ s t, r e q u i r e d 54.1
= 47 x 10 x 157 162 mm .
s t, p r o v i d e d
Available anchorage = 300 - 25 = 275 mm ( O . K.)
The ends of reinforcement are confined by compressive reaction . Therefore shear
force at distance d shall be checked .
At d = 224 mm
The shear force V ( 0.25 - 0.224) x 90.4 kN
= = 2.35 kN .
Vu = 1.5 x 2.35 = 3.53 kN
100 x 157
230 x 224 =
fit = 0.305

= 0.374 N / mm 2
7UC = TCBD = 0.374 x 230 x 224 x 10 ~3 = 19.27 kN .
Vu < Vuc\ shear reinforcement is not required . Provide minimum shear reinforcement .
For 230 mm wide beam , provide 6 mm 0 M .S. stirrups @ 130 mm c / c from table 4 - 3. In
fact, as Vu < 0.5 Vuc, the provision of minimum shear reinforcement may be waived .
However , since length of template is small , number of stirrups will actually decide the
730 - 60
spacing. For example , if five no . of stirrups are provided , spacing = = 167.5 mm
4
and with six stirrups, the spacing = 730 60 = 134 mm . Provide six stirrups, i . e .,
-
5
6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c.
Clear distance between bars
= 230 - 30 - 30 - 2 x 10
150 mm < 180 mm ( O . K. )
Art . 9 - 9 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 365

Note: As we are using the bar diameter less than 12 mm , the clear cover could have been
reduced by 5 mm , i . e ., 25 mm instead of 30 mm . In the next article , for design of
lintel , this have been done .
Provide 2 -8 # anchor bars .
The designed section is shown in fig. 9 - 17.

T
550 2 -8 # 2 -8 #
260 T
260 ^4 60 @ 130 c/c

\ i \±
- 2- 10 # L 2- 10 #
h* >H
250 230 250 230
( a) Elevation ( b) Section

Details of template
FIG . 9 - 17
9- 9. Design of a lintel: The lintel is a beam which supports brick or other
masonry over an opening like door , window , ventilator , etc .
Loads: The brick masonry transfers its load by arch action . Hence , the load on a
lintel from masonry shall usually be of a triangular shape .
This fact may be verified by studying the settlement of lintel of an old building
where a perfect triangle over a lintel may be observed . For good masonry work the
height of the triangle is taken as one - half the base , i .e ., base angle of a triangle is
considered as 45°. For second class masonry work this angle may be considered as 60°.
Usually the lintel carries light loads and the designer provides a heavy section
than theoretical requirements. It will be on safer side to use the base angle of 60° for
calculation of loads on a lintel . Different cases of loads on a lintel are shown in
fig . 9 - 18. To get the perfect arch action the following conditions should be satisfied :
(i ) The height of masonry above lintel should be at least 1.25 times the height
of a triangle considered above .
( ii ) The length of the masonry wall on either side of lintel should be more than

^ where / is the span of lintel.

If the above conditions are not satisfied , a rectangular load should be considered
over the lintel .
Fig. 9 - 18 ( a ) shows a usual case where the height of masonry ( H ) above lintel is
greater than 1.25 h and the length on either side of a lintel is greater than . The
perfect arch action can be observed in this case and a triangular loading can be
considered above the lintel .
In fig. 9 - 18 ( b ) , the height of masonry wall is less than height of a triangle (in
^
general , less than 1.25 h) , a rectangular load of masonry of height H should be
considered .
366 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

H > 1.25 h

H
s /
/
A
\
\
A

h
<
/
/
/ \
\
/
/ \ \
H < 1.25 h
H
> /
/ \ Lintel /
/
X Lintel
X60° 60° > I
ii /
(,60° 60 / \

4 4
—
V///.

>/ / 2
> l
//77}
4- >
>/ / 2
V / / /.
44
>1 / 2
> I *4*4
7777.
>1 / 2
(a) (b )

H > 1.25 h T
H > 1.25 h
f
A
/ \
H /
/ \
\
/ \
h h h / \

ii
^—
\

^ t
Lintel
[ X ““A600
\ Lintel

4 4
7777.

<1 / 2 ' /
7777.

<l / 2
K
<1 / 2
> . l -
I 4
/
7777

<1 / 2
(d )

i
h2
Slab
s s
< Lintel
> Lintel hi
i

Examples of lintel loading

FIG. 9- 18
In fig. 9 - 18 ( c) , H > 1.25 h but the length of wall on one of the side of the opening
is less than

^ . The perfect
arch action cannot be observed . In such a case , a rectangular
load of masonry of height / should be considered .
In fig. 9- 18 ( d ) , H > 1.25 h but the length of wall on either side of the opening is
1
less than
2 • In such case , a rectangular load of masonry of full height of wall (i .e .
a
H ) should be considered .
If there are some openings in a wall above the lintel and if these openings are
intersected by the dispersion lines, the load on lintel will be the load as shown by
shaded lines in fig. 9 - 18 ( e ) .
Art . 9 - 9 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 367

If a slab transfers the load within the height of a triangle as shown in fig . 9 - 18 (f ) ,
the loads on lintel consist of :
( i ) Weight W \ of a rectangular masonry of height h \ between lintel and slab .
( ii ) Weight kF2 from slab of length /
( iii ) Weight W 3 of triangular masonry from upper floor as shown in figure .
Note that fig. 9 - 18 ( b ) also has the same case
Note : In such cases , many a times, a beam is introduced at slab level if loading on lintel
is very high . The loading on lintel will be only rectangular masonry between lintel
and beam .
The lintel should be designed in a similar manner as the beam .
Size: The width of lintel is equal to the width of wall. The depth usually is taken
span
as rounded to the brick layer size e .g., one brick layer of traditional brick
12
measures 76 mm + 12 mm mortar . Then for a lintel , for a width of opening upto
900 mm , one layer thickness can be adopted . This is done to facilitate the masonry
work in a level .
Cover: For mild exposure, and using diameter less than 12 mm ( usual for lintels)
the cover can be reduced to 20 - 5 = 15 mm for stirrups . The clear cover to main
reinforcement may be taken as 15 + 8 ( max. diameter of stirrups) = 23 mm , say 25 mm .
Example 9 - 9 .
Design a lintel to support a 230 mm thick brick masonry wall over 2.0 m wide
opening. Assume the perfect arch action . Assume that no sun shade projection will be
made from this lintel . The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Width 230 mm .
=
2000 1.862 m
n fL. = -
Depth j y = 166.66 mm
or 2 brick layer + 1 mortar layer
= 2 x 76 -1- 13 = 165 mm .
’r / /f ^
^ 1
’
60°

165 mm .
Use overall D = V< 2m
2.15 m
4
>
Using one layer of 10 mm # bars , the effective depth
d = 165 - 25 ( cover ) - 5 = 135 mm . FIG . 9 - 19
Span of lintel = 2.0 + 0.135 = 2.135 m , say 2.15 m .
Unit weight of masonry work with plaster may be considered as 20 kN / m 3.
Self - weight of lintel = 0.165 x 0.23 x 25 = 0.95 kN / m .
Weight of masonry =

^
Shear force = 0.95 x
x 2.15 x 1.862 x 0.23 x 20 = 9.2 kN .
2.15 . 9.2
2
+
2
Vu = 1.5 x 5.62 = 8.43 kN.
1.02 + 4.60 = 5.62 kN.

B . M . = 0.95 x 2.152 + 4.6 x 1.075 - 4.6 x

1.075
8 3
= 0.55 + 4.95 - 1.65 = 3.85 kNm .
Mu = 1.5 x 3.85 = 5.78 kNm.
368 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

^ required f r singly reinforced section

°
5.78 x IQ 6
2.76 x 230 = 95.4 mm
135 mm . . . . ( O . K.)
^ provided
5.78 x 106 1.38
bd2 230 x 135 x 135
/> t = 0.419 .
0.419 x 230 x 135 130 mm 2 .
^ St “
100 =
Provide 2 no. 10 mm # bars = 157 mm 2.
157 x 100
Pt = 230 x 135
= 0.50 > 0.205 ( minimum ) .
and < 0.96 ( limiting )
Check for development length :
Mul = 5.78 kNm
Vu = 8.43 kN
LQ = 12 # ( assume )
Mu1
1.3 +
^0 — ^ d -
Here Id = 47 #

1.3 x 5.78
x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
<
8.43 x 103
# 25.46 mm .
Provided diameter = 10 mm . ( O . K.)
Check for shear :
S . F. at distance d , neglecting small triangular load
Vul = (5.62 - 0.135 x 0.95) x 1.5 = 8.24 kN .
100 As
bd = 0.50
Tc = 0.48 N / mm 2
8.22 x 103
% = 230 x 135 = 0.265 N / mm 2.
Here, TV < xc .
Provide minimum shear reinforcement .
For 230 mm wide lintel , this is 6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 130 mm c / c from
table 7- 4. Also 5 V f 0.75 d, i . e., 5 V
'
0.75 x 145 (= 108.75 mm ) , or 300 mm ,
whichever is less .
Provide 6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 100 mm c / c.
Provide 2 -8 # top anchor bars , 2 - 10 # bottom bars and 6 mm 0 two - legged
stirrups about 100 mm c / c .
Art. 9 - 10 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 369

Check for deflection , cracking etc. , can be made as usual .

The section is shown in fig. 9 - 20.

/////////

^
- 2- 8 #

^
WWWXXY
165
2- 8 #

2- 10 #
2- 10 # v
K-230 -H
H >K 2000 +~Hr
200 200

6 mm p stirrups @ 100 mm c/c

(a ) Elevation -
( b ) Section A A

FIG . 9 - 20

CANTILEVER BEAMS
-
9- 10 Design considerations: The design principles of the cantilever beams
are the same as simply supported beams. However , some points of consideration are
as follows :
( 1 ) Even if the deflection check is satisfied , a camber is usually provided under
a beam . Camber is a term applied to the slight upward curve of a beam made
in construction such that on loading it will straighten out and attain its correct
shape . For long span simply supported beams, continuous beams , cantilever
slabs , etc ., also cambering can be done.
( 2 ) Sufficient reinforcement anchorages should be provided .
( 3 ) Stability of a structure with respect to overturning is very important when an
overhang is designed . Accordingly the following shall be observed .
( a ) Minimum factor of safety against overturning shall be 1.2 for dead load
and 1.4 for live loads. For restoring loads, only 0.9 times the dead loads
shall be considered to account for over estimation of dead load . While
restoring live loads shall be neglected .
( b ) Proper anchorages should be ensured during construction and service period ,
such that the static equilibrium should remain even when overturning
moment is doubled .
The restoring moment is provided by actual loads. The estimated dead loads may
be little higher than what they are . Therefore only 90% dead load is considered
for restoring moment calculation . The restoring moments due to live load is
neglected because they may be absent while overturning is taking place .
Effective span: The effective length of a cantilever shall be taken as its length to
the face of the support plus half the effective depth except where it forms the end of
a continuous beam where the length to the centre of support shall be taken .
Example 9 - 10 .
An overhanging beam BC is shown in fig. 9 - 21. Find out minimum counter - weight
w if it is to be safe against overturning.
370 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
Solution :

Overturning moment = 6 x 1.5 + 5 x 14.625 kNm . 1.52

2
Static equilibrium shall be there even if this moment is doubled
i .e . M = 2 x 14.625 = 29.25 kNm .
To find minimum counter - weight w means that reaction at A shall be zero ( shall
not be negative ) .
u) x 4 29.25
Reaction at A
2= 4 = 0, > w = 3.66 kN / m . =
The counter - weight in portion AB shall be more than 3.66 kN / m .
Note that the counterbalancing load may cosist of DL + LL. Now LL should not
be considered for counterbalance as it may be absent while there is a full load on
cantilever. The counterbalance shall be taken as 90 % of the calculated dead load to
account for rounding off while calculating dead load .
If 90 % load is considered
0.9 w = 3.66, => w = 4.06 kN / m.

6 kN
w kN/m 5 kN/m

FIG. 9 - 21
Example 9 - 11 .
In Example 9 - 10, if the cantilever beam is supported by masonry wall in portion
BA, determine the minimum length of counterbalance if dead load on counterbalancing
portion is 8 kN / m . Refer to fig. 9 - 22.
6 kN
8 kN /m 5 kN /m
A C
* / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /;

l 1.5 m

FIG . 9 - 22
Solution :
Point B in length ABC acts as a fulcrum when beam BC tries to overturn . Length
BA will then act as a balancing cantilever. The maximum moment for span BC at B
is 29.25 kNm from Example 9 - 10 . For the purpose of calculating counterbalancing,
internal load shall be considered as w = 0.9 x 8 = 7.2 kN / m . If / is the length of
counterbalance
7.2 / 2
2
= 29.25, => / = 2.85 m .
As a thumb rule , in such cases, the length of counterbalance is taken as 1.5 to 2.0
times the cantilever span .
Art. 9 - 10 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 371

Example 9 - 12 .
Design a cantilever rectangular beam of span 3 m and carrying a characteristic
U . D . L. of 20 kN / m . Assume that sufficient safety against overturning is there and
reinforcement anchorages are also available . Use M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Assume an initial trial section of 230 mm x 600 mm overall depth to consider
self - weight .
= 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 = 3.45 kN / m .
Self - weight
Total load = 20 + 3.45 = 23.45 kN / m .
Factored load = 1.5 x 23.45 ^ 35.2 kN / m .
Loading, S. F. and B . M . diagrams are 35.2 kN /m
shown in fig. 9 - 23.
5
Factored S . F. = 3 x 35.2 K 3m H

= 105.6 kN . ( a ) Loading diagram

Factored B. M . = 35.2 x 32
— 105.6 kN
= 158.4 kNm .

Depth required =
4 158.4 x 106

= 499.6
2.76 x 230
mm .
( b ) Shear force diagram

158.4 kNm
Using two layers of 20 mm # bars
and overall depth of 570 mm ( mild
exposure ) ( c ) Bending moment diagram
d = 570 - 30 - 20 - 10 FIG . 9 - 23
= 510 mm
Mu 158.4 x 106
230 x 510 x 510 =
2.65
bd2
pt = 0.906
0.906 x x 510 = 1063 mm 2.
^ st “

100
230

Provide 4 - 20 mm # giving Ast = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2 .

Check for development length :
1063
Ld = 1256 x 47 # = 39.8 # = 39.8 x 20 = 796 mm .
The bars shall extend into the support for a straight length of 796 mm . Provide
anchorage of 1200 mm . If in some case the bars are to be bent e .g., anchored
in column, the bearing stress around the bend has to be checked as discussed in chapter 7
and in the next example .
Check for shear :
x 103
= 105.6
230 x 510 =
0.9 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2
372 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 9
100 As 100 x 1256
1.07
bd 230 x 510
= 0.634 N / mm 2.
As the end of the beam is confirmed by compressive reaction, shear at d is checked
Vu at d = 105.6 - 0.510 x 35.2 = 87.6 kN
87.6 x 103
Tv = 230 x 510 = 0.750 N / mm 2.

xv > xc .
Design for shear reinforcement .
Vuc = 0.634 x 230 x 510 x 10 ~3 = 74.4 kN
7us = 87.5 - 74.4 = 12.1 kN.
Using 6 mm 0 M .S. stirrups , Asv = 56 mm 2
0.87 x 415 x 56 x 510
*v = 12.1 x 103
= 852 mm .
For minimum shear reinforcement from table 7- 4 , provide 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c
for 230 mm wide beam .
Check for deflection:
span
Basic
d = 7
100 Ast
1.07
bd
1063
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 204 N / mm 2
1256 =
modification factor = 1.15
• span
permissible = 7 x 1.15 = 8.05
^ span 3000
actual
d
ratio = 515 = 5.82 < 8.05 ( O. K . )
\

\
v
4- 20 # 4- 20 #

fr
£ ?
l J
*
Fixed end
/

2- 12 0 550
support /

K 1200 3000 H

'— 2-12 0
60 130 c/c K >
@ Stirrups 6 0 @ 130 c/c 230

(a ) Elevation ( b) Section A - A

FIG . 9 - 24
Art . 9 - 10 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 373

Check for cracking:

Clear distance between bars = 230 - 60 - 2 x 20
= 130 mm < 180 mm . ( O . K. )
The beam elevation and section are shown in fig. 9- 24.
Note: The anchorage shown is minimum and it is assumed that sufficient counter - weight
is available. However, unless a concentrated load is acting in this region of counter- balance,
it is very difficult to achieve equilibrium with a double over - turning moment . In
practice , as a thumb rule , anchorages of 1.5 times the cantilever length are given to
such beams ( provided that it satisfies the minimum anchorage requirements) i .e ., 4.5 m
in this case. Even after the concrete has attained its sufficient strength , the centering
of beam shall not be removed unless the counter - weight is achieved .
Example 9 - 13 .
A cantilever rectangular bracket projects from a column of size 230 mm x 500 mm
in the direction of 500 mm for a length of 3 m and carries a factored load of 20 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight. Design the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
32
Mu = 20 x 2 = 90 kNm
Vu = 20 x 3 = 60 kN .
( a ) Moment steel :
Take size of beam 230 mm x 550 mm overall.
Assume 16 mm diameter bars in one layer.
d = 550 - 30 - 8 = 512 mm
Mu 90 x 106 1.49 < 2.76
bdfl 230 x 5122
Singly reinforced beam .

Pt = 50
1 -
\
1- /4.6
ck
—— — x
bd 2
-
= 50
1 - 1 - 476
20
x 1.49
fy / /ck 415 / 20
= 0.456.
0.456 x
230 x 512 = 537 mm 2
^ St ~
100
0.96 x
230 x 512 = 1130 mm 2
^ st Jim 100
Provide 3- 16 mm # = 603 mm 2. Use 2 - 10 mm # as bottom anchor bars .
( b ) Check for development length :
0.87 x 415 x
539 321.6 N / mm 2
Stress in bar = 603 =
xbd = *
-
1 6 x 1 2 = 1.92 N / mm 2
# x 321.6
= 4 x 1.92 = 41.9 # = 41.9 x 16 = 670 mm .
The arrangement of anchoring the bars is shown in fig. 9 - 25 and is equivalent
to an anchorage of 319 + 232 + 249 = 800 mm . The bearing stress inside the
bend is now checked .
374 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9

800 mm
V- 38 77

232
314 50
— 3- 16 # 77 38

f
Internal radius 16 30
254
r = 140 mm
550 512

*
K 3000 mm -H 230 H
500 K -

( a ) Elevation ( b ) Section

FIG. 9- 25
<J) = 16 mm
a —
11 mm for internal bar
= 30 + 16 = 46 mm for external bar .
The bearing stress is critical in external bar. Check for this stress for a = 46 mm .
1 - 5 /ck 1.5 x 20 17.7 N / mm 2.
2 x 16 =
Design bearing stress =
24 » !
1+ — +
a 46
At the centre of bend , the anchorage available
314 + 116 = = 430 mm .
Stress in bar at centre of the bend
670 - 430
= 321.6 x
670 = 115.2 N / mm 2

Fbt = 115.2 x 201 x 10 ~3 = 23.16 kN .

F 23.16 x IQ 3
Bearing stress = bt
r <t> 140 x 16
= 10.34 N / mm 2 < 17.7 N / mm 2 ... ( Safe )
The arrangement is thus satisfactory ,
( c ) Check for shear :
60 X IQ 3 0.51 N / mm 2
Tv = bd 230 x 512 =
100 As 100 x 603
230 x 512 =
0.51
bd
Tc = 0.483 N / mm 2
Vus = 60 - 0.483 x 230 x 512 x 10 3 "

= 3.12 kN too small

Use minimum stirrups 6 mm b @ 130 mm c / c .
( d ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic ratio = 7
d
Ex . 9 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Beams 375

100 603 x
P i = 230 x 512 = 0.512
537
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 603 = 214 N / mm ^
Modification factor = 1.3
span
allowable ratio = 7 x 1.3 = 9.1
d
span 3000
ratio =
actual
d 512 = 5.86 ( Safe )
( e ) Spacaing of bars:
230 - 60 - 3 x 16
Clear distance between bars = 2 = 61 mm

Maximum clear distance permitted = 180 mm

Minimum clear distance permitted = 25 mm ( Safe )
The designed beam is shown in fig . 9 - 26.

800 mm >
50
232
314 r 3- 16 #
r
254 Internal radius
r = 140 mm

L2 -10 #

< 3000 mm H
500

Stirrups 6 mm <t> @ 130 mm c/c H- 230-H

( a) Elevation ( b) Section
FIG . 9 - 26

EXAMPLES IX
Note: The use of lower grade steel for stirrups is allowed .
( 1 ) A simply supported rectangular beam of 4.0 m clear span carries a uniformly
distributed characteristic load (including self - weight ) of 30 kN / m . It also carries
a central point load of 30 kN . The beam rests on masonry walls of 230 mm
thickness running parallel to the beam . The materials used are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Design the beam , if
( a ) depth is not restricted , and
( b ) depth is restricted to 400 mm overall .
( 2 ) Design a simply supported tee beam of 6 m effective span and spaced at 3.2 m
centres. The thickness of the slab is 100 mm and total characteristic load including
self - weight of the beam is 40 kN / m of grade Fe 415. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement the width of web is 250 mm and overall depth
is 450 mm .
376 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 9
( 3 ) Design a lintel over a 4 m wide opening in a factory building where the height
of masonry above the lintel level is 3.2 m . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 4 ) Design a cantilever beam of 2.5 m span carrying a uniformly distributed characteristic
load of ( 36 + 12 ) kN / m ( DL + LL) . The beam is supported over a long masonry
wall of 230 mm thickness by a counterbalancing load ( 40 + 12) kN / m . Determine
the length of counterbalance and design the beam . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 5 ) Design a template for the beam of Example ( 2 ) resting on 350 mm thick brick
masonry wall . The bearing capacity of brick masonry may be taken as 550 kPa
( kN / m 2) . Note that the bearing capacity is always in terms of working ( characteristic )
loads . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415 .
( 6 ) Design the end anchorages of the beam of example ( 4 ) if it projects from an end
column of size 230 mm x 600 mm .
 jhapter SIMPLY S U P P O R T E D A N D
CANTILEVER S L A B S
L10X
10-1. Introductory: Slabs are plate elements having the depth D much smaller
than its span and width . They usually carry a uniformly distributed load and form the
floor or roof of the building. Like beams, slabs also may be simply supported , cantilever
or continuous depending upon the support conditions. They are classified according
to the system of supports used as under:
(1) One - way spanning slabs
(2) Two - way spanning slabs
(3) Flat slabs supported directly on columns without beams
(4) Grid slabs
(5 )Circular and other shapes.
(6 )Ribbed and waffle slabs
These are briefly discussed as follows:
_
(1 ) One - way spanning slabs: The _slabs supported on two opposite supports is a
one - way spanning slab. In short, a slab which transfers its load on one of the
set of two opposite edge supports is called one - way slab. In fig. 10 ( a ) , by virtue
of the geometry, the slab is a one - way spanning slab where it is supported only
on two opposite edge supports.

\
\
\
\
\
\ /*
\
\
/ s \
\
\
/ \ /
/ s \ / \
/
/
\
\ h \
\
/
/
\
\
/
/
\
\ sS\ /
/
h
h;
\

^
\
\ \ /y ~r~ <2 \
/ \ \ lx \
/ s \ / \
/ s \ / \
/ \ \ /, \
/ s\ s, / \
/ \ \
/ \ \ / \

(a) (c )
FIG . 10 - 1
Now refer to fig. 10- 1 ( b) , where the slab is supported on all four edges. The
first observation is that the slab load will be transferred to all four edges.
-
However , this is true as long as ly < 2 4 Keeping lx constant , if is increased ,
the observation will
observation is that
be
with
different
the
. Consider
application of
an
the
extreme
load ,
case
the
. Let
tendency
ly = 5
of ^
the
The
slab
is to bend in one direction ( about /J only.
Consider a flexible membrane supported on all four edges. Keeping lx constant,
of ly . It
membrane with the increase
increase L and study the bending of the
the tendency of the membrane is to
is observed that initially when L = lx ,
of bending
bend in both the directions. With the increase of Zy, the tendency
2 and then after
along L is reduced and that of lx is increased . When ly = lx
x direction .
when ly > 2 lx , the membrane practically bends only in
378 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 10
ly
The slab where —> *
X
2, is called one - way slab provided that it is supported
on all four edges. For instance, the slab of fig. 10 ( a ) , is one - way by virtue of
provision of supports although / y < 2 /x.
( 2 ) Two - way spanning slabs: From the above discussion , it is clear that if the slab
is supported on all four edges and if ly 2 /x , the tendency of the slab is to
bend in both directions . Such slabs are called two - way spanning slabs .
Fig. 10- 1 ( c ) shows a two - way slab. The following conditons should be satisfied
for two - way slabs .
( i ) The slab shall be supported on all four edges.
ly
( ii ) ly < 2 /x or JL X- < 2.
Note that the slab of fig. 10 - 1 ( a ) , is not a two - way spanning slab although
ly
T < 2. This is because it is not supported on all four edges .

18 m

S
00

( a ) Flat slab ( b) Rectangular grid (c ) Diagrid

FIG. 10 - 2
(3 ) Flat slabs: Sometimes , beam free areas are required to reduce the floor height
and to permit large amount of light which might be obstructed by the large
depth 6 f the beams spanning on comparatively larger spans (5- 6 metres ) . Flat
slabs are used in such cases. Flat slabs are thicker slabs supported directly on
columns. Refer to fig. 10- 2 (a ). Use of flat slabs will permit the lesser height of the
floor. For a given maximum height of the building ( by building bye - laws , e .g.,
a building should not have a height more than 30 m ) will permit more number
of floors . For office buildings in commercial areas , flat slabs are beneficial .
( 4) Grid slabs: Sometimes , in large halls , public places , marriage halls, auditoriums,
etc ., a large column free area is required . In these cases, large depth beams
may be permitted but the columns are permitted only on periphery. In such
cases grid slabs and grid beams are provided . For example, an area of 16 m
x 20 m is kept column free by using grid slabs . The grid slabs may have
rectangular ( or square ) grid or diagrid as shown in figs. 10 - 2 ( b ) and (c).
( 5 ) Circular slabs: The slab may be circular by virtue of its shape .
Cover slab of
a circular water tank is an excellent example of
such slab .
( 6 ) Ribbed and waffle slabs: Thin ribs
spanning in one direction and placed not
more than 1.5 m c / c constitute ribbed slabs. If such ribs
are provided in both
directions, the waffle slab is obtained.
One - way spanning and two - way spanning slabs are
covered in this volume. The
other types of slabs are treated in vol . II of
this book .
Art . 10 - 3] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 379

A staircase is a special case of inclined slab and designed accordingly using

available conditions of supports .
With reference to the support conditions , the slabs are simply supported ,
continuous , cantilever , overhang or fixed .
10- 2. Analysis: Slabs are primarily flexural members as beams and are analysed and
designed in the same manner as the beams . Analysis may be carried out as follows :
(1) Elastic analysis: A strip of 1 m length of slab is considered and loads are
found on this strip . This strip is analysed as a beam of 1 m width . Redistribution
of moments ( refer to chapter 11 ) for continuous slabs may also be carried out
if necessary using the same rules as for the beams .
( 2 ) Using coefficients : This is a semi - empirical method of analysis based on yield
line theory. The coefficients given in code may be directly used to analyse the
slabs. However , the redistribution of moments is not permitted in this case .
(3 ) Yield line method: This is a limit state design method or collapse load method
developed by Johansen .
According to clause 24.3 of IS : 456, “ When the slabs are monolithic with supports,
bending moments in slabs ( except flat slabs ) constructed monolithically with the
supports shall be calculated by taking such slabs either as continuous over supports
and capable of free rotation or as members of a continuous framework with the
supports, taking into account the stiffness of such supports. If such supports are
formed due to beams which justify fixity at the supports of slabs, then the effects on
the supporting beam , such as the bending of the web in the transverse direction of the
beam and the torsion in the longitudinal direction of the beam , wherever applicable ,
shall also be considered in the design of the beam ” .
In the usual case in this book , the slabs are considered as simply supported or
continuous over support capable of free rotation, except where slabs give direct torsion
in the beam .
10- 3 . One - way spanning slabs: We shall first discuss one - way spanning
slabs . The following are the design considerations for one - way slab .
( 1 ) Effective span : The effective span shall be as given for beams. For simply
supported slab, the effective span is equal to cleai span plus effective depth or
^
centre to centre of supports whichever is less. For continuous slabs , chapter 11
shall be referred. ( ) 7 ( \tcnr i (sr ( n T dC
^
( 2 ) General: A simply supported one - way slab and a continuous one - way slab are
shown in figs. 10 - 3 ( a ) and ( b ) . The reinforcement in the direction of span is
the moment steel and is designed in the same way as beams. Design charts for
singly reinforced beams can be used . Slabs are usually not designed as doubly
reinforced except for some special cases. The moment steel is known as main
Reinforcement and is placed in the first layer near to the extreme tension fibre ,
keeping clear cover as per requirement to _get maximum effective depth . The
reinforcement perpendicular to the main reinforcement is known as distribution
steel which is placed in second layer. This reinforcement resists temperature
and shrinkage stresses, keeps the main reinforcement in position and distributes
the concentrated or non - uniform loads throughout the slab. For a continuous
slab at support, top reinforcement is provided as main steel to resist negative
bending moment . The continuous slabs are designed in chapter 11 .
The spacing of slab bars is given by
area of one bar x 1000
spacing =
required area in mm 2 per metre
380 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10

For convenience, provided area of different bar diameters for different spacing
is given in table 10 - 1 .
TABLE 10-1
AREAS OF BARS IN SLABS ( IN mm 2 / m )
Spacing Bar diameter in millimetres
mm 6 8 10 12 16 20
100 283 503 785 1131 2011 3142
110 257 457 714 1028 1828 2856
120 236 419 654 942 1675 2618
130 217 387 604 870 1547 2417
140 202 359 561 808 1436 2244
150 188 335 524 754 1340 2094
160 177 314 491 707 1257 1963
170 166 296 462 665 1183 1848
180 157 279 436 628 1117 1745
190 149 265 413 595 1058 1653
200 141 251 393 565 1005 1571
210 135 239 374 539 957 1496
220 128 228 357 514 914 1428
230 123 228 341 492 874 1366
240 118 209 327 471 838 1309
250 113 201 314 452 804 1257
Note: These are the commonly used diameters for slabs (freely available in
the market ) . For other diameters say 14 mm , one may actually find out
the spacing. For normal slabs, diameters upto 12 mm are usually provided .
Larger diameters ( 16 mm or 20 mm ) are used in very heavy slabs like
foundation slabs.
~
D
H Distribution steel
L
Main steel

< Span / >

( a ) Simply supported one - way slab

Distribution steel
— i

L
Main steel

/
-
/
-Main steel
*
//
//
//
-
Distribution steel J
i=?
f

/
r

h* Span / Span / / —
>

( b) Continuous one- way slab

FIG. 10-3
Art . 10 - 3] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 381

( 3 ) Reinforcement requirements:
( i ) Minimum reinforcement: The reinforcement in either direction in slabs
shall not be less than followings :
0.0015 bD for mild steel bars
0.0012 bD for HYSD bars.
In case of the beams , the minimum reinforcement is specified to avoid
the possibilities of sudden failure due to overloading when the design
moment is less than the nominal flexural strength of the beam . In case
of the slabs this possibility is not considered . It is observed that when the
slabs are overloaded, the _ loads have a tendency to be distributed laterally
reducing the possibilities of such a failureTThe minimum reinforcement
required here is to resist the stresses due to shrinkage and temperature .
0.85 is
Thus in slabs , the minimum reinforcement less than permitted .
fy
( ii ) Maximum diameter : The diameter of reinforcing bars shall not exceed
one-eighth of the total thickness of the slab.
( iii ) Minimum diameter : SP: 34 gives the guideline for minimum diameter of
bars in slabs . Accordingly , for main bars the minimum diameter shall
be 10 mm for plain bars and 8 mm for deformed bars . For distribution
bars, the minimum diameter shall be 6 mm in any case .
These requirements shall apply to all kinds of slabs .
( 4) Shear stress: In normal cases the shear in slabs is not critical . However shear
shall be checked in accordance with the code requirements of clause 40.2 . This
is discussed in art. 7- 5 for beams. For solid slabs the design shear strength in
concrete shall be kzc where value of Tc is given in table 7- 1 and k has the
value given as below :
Overall depth
Value of k
of slab, mm
< 150 1.3
150 < D< 300 1.6 - 0.002 D
D > 300 1.00
It can be seen from the above values that higher shear stresses are permitted
for thinner slabs. This is due to the observations made that thin plates can
resist more shear per unit area . If shear is critical in slabs , usually the shear
<L ' reinforcements are not provided but the depth of slab is increased .
Y )
According to clause 40.2.3, the nominal shear stress should not exceed 0.5 Tc max
>
given in table 7- 2* For M 20 grade concrete , TV >
0.5 x 2.8, i .e . , Tv 1.4 N / mm 2.
(5 ) Deflection: This shall be checked in the same manner as the beams. The slabs
are thin elements and deflection may govern the thickness of the slab .
( 6 ) Cracking: To ensure that the cracking of the slabs is not excessive, spacing of
the reinforcements shall be limited to the following :
For main bars , spacing > 3d
> 300 mm
,
For secondary bars spacing > 5d
> 450 mm
where d = effective depth of slab .
382 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
( 7 ) Cover: For mild exposure, specified clear cover is 20 mm . This can be reduced
by 5 mm when the reinforcement of 12 mm diameter or less is used . In most
slabs, the bar diameter is not more than 12 mm . We may take clear cover of
12 mm and clear cover of 20 mm when 0 > 12 mm for mild
15 mm for 0
exposure . ^
(8 ) Development Length: The development length in the slabs shall be checked in
the same manner as for beams.
For checking development length , LQ may be assumed as 8 # for HYSD bars
( usually end anchorage is not provided ) and 12 0 for mild steel ( U hook is
provided usually whose anchorage length is 16 0). Now , LQ is limited to 12 0
or effective depth whichever is greater. For slabs , it is assumed that the effective
depth is usually more than or equal to 12 0. Therefore assuming LQ = 12 0 for
mild steel is valid . However , for HYSD bars provided without U or ell bend ,
the actual LQ may be smaller. Therefore , LQ is assumed as 8 # for HYSD bars .
10- 4. Simply supported one- way slab: Typical details of reinforcement for
a simply supported one - way slab are shown in fig. 10 - 4. It can be seen that 50% bars
can be bent up where moment reduces to 50 %, i . e ., at 0.146 / from support . For
different slabs, the widths of supports may be different . Instead of specifying distance
of bent from centre of support, SP : 34 - 1987 ( Handbook on concrete reinforcement and
detailing) specifies this distance as 0.1 / from the face of the support. The bars are
bent and not curtailed and hence, curtailment rules shall not apply. In fact, for one
way slab , curtailment would not result economical . SP : 34 - 1987 , does not encourage
the designer to curtail the reinforcement , for simply supported slabs.

50% bars bent up

i &

Wall or beam - Distribution steel

Main steel
K -H K H
0.1 / 0.1 /
/ H
( a ) With bent bars

0.15 / 0.15 /
50%

50%
100 %

0.1 / 0.1 /
/ *
( b) Without bent bars

Typical details of simply supported slab

FIG . 10 - 4
Art . 10 - 4 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 383

The bent bars help in shear and also resist some negative moment induced at
support . In fact the slat is considered as capable of free rotation (simply supported )
at supports and thus no negative moment is assumed to occur at supports . However ,
some negative moment is always induced due to monolithic nature ot the structure .
^

If the bars are not bent , about 50% of main steel shall be used at top at the support
as indicated in fig . 10 - 4 ( b) . Designer may choose to curtail the bars or let all the bars
enter the support . If curtailment is chosen , the rules for curtailment shall be checked .
Note that the bars can be bent up or curtailed only if continuing bars provide minimum
reinforcement and also the check for development length is satisfied .
Typical details with bent bars and with curtailed bars are shown in fig . 10 - 4 .
Example 10 - 1 .
A simply supported one - way slab of clear span 3.0 m is supported on masonry
walls of thickness 350 mm . Slab is used for residential loads . Design the slab . The
materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Live load
shall be 2 kN / m 2 .
Solution :
Depth of slab : The first trial of depth of slab can be arrived at by considering
deflection criterion . Assuming percentage of steel reinforcement, find out modification
factor as explained in art. 8- 1. Percentage of steel depends on the loading on slab . A
designer, after some practice will be able to find out his own thumb rules for the trial
depth .
Assume 0.30 per cent steel as a first trial with service stress of 0.58 /y = 0.58 x 415
span
= 240 N / mm 2. Basic d ratio = 20. Also modification factor from fig. 8- 1 is 1.45 .
Then permissible —^—
span
ratio = 20 x 1.45 = 29. The depth d =
3100
Considering mild exposure and maximum diameter of reinforcement be 12 mm , clear
106.9 mm .

cover 15 mm . Therefore D = 106.9 + 6 4- 15 = 127.9 mm .

Assume 130 mm overall depth of slab .
DL = 0.13 x 25 = 3.25 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.00 kN / m 2
Live load = 2.00 kN / m 2
Total 6.25 kN / m 2
Factored load = 1.5 x 6.25 = 9.4 kN / jflm 2.
Effective span ( 1 ) 3000 4- 350 = 3350 mm c / c supports
( 2 ) 3000 4- 110 ( effective depth ) = 3110 mm .
Use 3.11 m effective span .
Moment and shear :
Consider 1 m length of slab
load = 9.4 kN / m .
Maximum moment = 9.4 x 3.112 11.36 kNm.
8
3
Maximum shear = 9.4 x - = 14.1 kN ( based on clear span ) .
384 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 10
Effective depth required for flexure
~

( Q, ==
4 11.36 x 106
1000 x 2.76 =
64.15 mm .

2.76 for M 20 mix and Fe 415 steel )

^ provided = 130 - 15 ( cover ) - 5 ( assume 10 0 bar )

= 110 mm ( O . K.)
Design for flexure :
MU = 11 , 36 x 106 = 0.939
-'l bd 2 1000 x no 2
X Pt =
100 Ati
bd = 0.281
9 0.281 x 1000 x 110
St
100 = 309 mm 2.
Provide 8 mm # about 150 mm c / c = 335 mm 2.
Note that use of design tables give correct answer for steel required .
Half the bars are bent at 0.1 l = 0.1 x 3100 = 310 mm .
Remaining bars provide 167.5 mm 2 area.
100 As 100 x .5
bD 1000 x 130 =
0.129 > 0.12

i . e ., remaining bars provide minimum steel . Thus half the bars may be bent up .
0.15 x
Distribution steel = 1000 x 130 = 195 mm 2, using mild steel .
100
Maximum spacing 5 x 100 = 500 or 450 mm , i .e ., 450 mm . I
Provide 6 mm 0 about 140 mm c / c = 202 mm 2.
Check for shear :
For bars at support
correct d = 130 - 15 - 4
= 111 mm
100 As 100 x 167.5
0.15.
bD 1000 X 111 =
For slab upto 150 mm thickness, k = 1.3
— 145 —
ht H
TC from table 7- 1 = 0.28 N / mm 2. ht — 175 — —175 —
/
H H
Design shear strength
Details at support for bottom bars
= k TC = 1.3 x 0.28 FIG. 10-5
= 0.364 N / mm 2 .
A
Actual. L ,
shear stress 13.5 X io 3
= 0.122 N / mm 2 < 0.364 N / mm 2 ( safe )
1 QQ 0 x m
Check for development length:
Refer to fig. 10 - 5.
 4.o < ^
Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 5 365
Art . 10- 4 ]
Lo = 145 mm . LQ is limited to 12 0 = 96 mm or
d = 100 mm , whichever is greater.! r\
,

,
^6 *

L0 = 100 mm .
For continuing bars , As = 167.5 mm 2. Also, the ends of the reinforcement are
confined by compressive reaction .
fy ^ st
= 0.87 fy Ast d 1 - b d f c V
415 x 167.5
- 1000
^„ 1 = 0.87 x 415 x 167.5 x 111 1 x 111 x 20
x 10-6

= 6.5 kNm .
Vu = 13.5 kN .

1.3
Kl + LQ where L& = 47 #
K 4 <

1.3 x 6.5
x 106
+ 100 > 47 #
13.5 x 103
or 15.4 mm # ( O . K .)
Check for deflection:
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 x 335
Pi = 1000 x 111 = 0.3
303
service stress= 0.58 x 415 x 335 = 218 N / mm 2.
modification factor = 1.62
span
permissible
d
ratio = 20 x 1.62 = 32.4
span 3100
actual
d
ratio = 111
= 28 < 32.4 ( O. K. )
Note: The depth could be slightly reduced . Try with D = 125 mm from beginning and
rework the problem
Check for cracking:
Maximum spacing permitted for main reinforcement
= 3 x 100 = 300 mm .
Actual spacing = 150 mm < 300 mm ( O. K.)
For distribution steel , maximum spacing permitted
= 5 x 100
= 500 or 450 mm, i . e ., 450 mm .
Spacing provided = 150 mm ( O . K. )
For tying the bent bars at top , 6 mm 0 about 150 mm c / c distribution steel
shall be provided.
386 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
Sketch : The cross - section of the slab is shown in fig. 10 - 6.

o o
rrr\ L 6 mm <J> @ 140 c/c
zrr:
H
— 8 mm # @ 150 mm c/c alternate bent
h* H
•

335 335
H* 3350 c/c H

FIG. 10- 6
Supplementary details:
( 1 ) The slab requires a minimum bearing equal to its depth on masonry walls.
The problem arises for a twin type house where the central wall is a
common wall . If the slab of house A is already cast having full bearing on
the central common wall ( refer to fig. 10 - 7 ) , for the casting of slab of
house B, there can be two alternatives :
( i ) 130 mm ( thickness of slab for B block ) cast slab shall be removed and
slab for B block is cast .
( ii ) For slab of block B, the level is changed and full bearing may be given
on walls .
( 2 ) While providing 130 mm bearing, the development length of slab bars
shall be checked once again .

r Common wall

House A r
A
nA House B

230
3000 HH
230
3300
350
3300 H-H
230
— 3000 -N-H
230
(a ) Plan at slab level
Minimum 130 mm to be removed

< k
130 H
Slab of house B
Cast slab Cast slab to be cast
of house A of house A V
*4 K
130
( b ) Alternative 1 (c) Alternative 2

Bearing of slab on masonry wall

FIG . 10-7
Example 10 - 2.
A simply supported one - way slab of effective span 4 m is supported on masonry
walls of 230 mm thickness . Design the slab . Take live load equal to 2.5 kN / m 2 and
floor finish equal to 1 kN / m 2 . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Art . 10 - 4 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 387

Solution:
Assuming 0.35 per cent steel, a trial depth can be found out by using deflection criteria.
Service stress = 0.58 fy = 0.58 x 415 = 240 N / mm 2 .
Modification factor from fig. 8 - 1 is 1.4 .

permissible ——
span
-j ratio = 1.4 x 20 = 28
, 4000 _ 142.9 mm .
“ required
28
D = 142.9 + 15 ( cover ) + 5 ( assume 10 # bar )
= 162.9 mm .
Assume an overall depth = 170 mm .
Self weight = 0.17 x 25 = 4.25 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.00 kN / m 2
Live load = 2.50 kN / m 2
7.75 kN / m 2
Total
Factored load = 7.75 x 1.5 = 11.6 kN / m

11.6 x
42-
%
Maximum moment = 8 =
23.2 kNm .

Maximum shear = |= 23.2

11.6 x kN.
Design for flexure :
d = 170 - 15 - 5 = 150 mm .
Mu 23.2 x 106 1.03
1000 x 150 x 150
bd 2
pi = 0.299
0.299 x 1000 x 150 449 mm 2.
St
^ 100 =
Provide 10 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 462 mm 2 .

100 As
—
Half the bars are bent at 0.1 l 400 mm , and remaining bars provide 231 mm 2 area .
100 x 231 0.136 > 0.12
bD 1000 x 170 =
i.e., remaining bars provide minimum steel. Thus, half the bars may be bent up .
0.12 x
Distribution steel = 1000 x 170 = 204 mm 2 .
100
Maximum spacing = 5 x 160 = 800 or 450 mm , i.e., 450 mm .
Provide 8 mm # @ 230 mm c / c = 217 mm 2.
Check for shear:
For bars at support, d = 150 mm
As 231 mm 2
100
— 100 x 231
= 0.154.
bD 1000 x 150
Tc = 0.28 N / mm 2
388 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
For 170 mm thick slab
k = 1.26
k TC = 1.26 x 0.28 = 0.353 N / mm 2.
24 x 103
Actual shear stress = 1000 x 150 =
0.16 N / m 2 < k TC ( Safe )
Check for development length :
Consider LQ = 8 # for continuing bars
= 231 mm 2
As
Assume , Mul = 0.87 fy Ast ( d - 0.42 xj
where *u Xu , max = 0.48 d.
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 231 x ( 150 - 0.42 x 0.53 x 150) x 10’ 6

= 9.73 kNm
Note: Different formulae are used for calculations in different worked examples.
Note that the lever arm of balanced section is assumed as actual lever arm .
This is conservative , however used for speedy calculations . If the check is not
satisfied , one may exactly find out the value of Aful . Refer to example 10 - 3.
Vu = 24 kN
Mu 1
1.3 + L0 Ld
i .e . 1.3 x 9.73
x 106 + 8 # > 47 #
24 x 103
39 # > 527
# < 13.51 mm ( O. K. )
Check for deflection :
span
Basic ratio = 20
d
100 x 462
P i = 1000 x 150 = 0.308
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 449 = 234 N / mm 2
462
modification factor = 1.42
span
permissible ratio = 20 x 1.42 = 28.4
4
span 4000
26.66 < 28.4
150 =
actual ratio = ( O . K.)
d
Check for cracking:
Maximum spacing permitted for main reinforcement
= 3 x 160 = 480 mm or 300 mm , i .e . , 300 mm .
Actual spacing = 170 mm ( O . K. )
Maximum spacing permitted for secondary reinforcement
= 5 x 160 = 800 mm or 450 mm , i .e ., 450 mm
Actual spacing = 230 mm ( O . K.)
For tying the bent bars at top , provide 8 mm # @ 230 mm c / c .
Art . 10 - 4 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 389

Sketch: The cross - section of the slab is shown in fig. 10 - 8.

i 4
r T ° T r*
°- r Tm 8 mm # @ 230 c/c
.,m /
z

10 mm # @ 170 mm c/c alternate bent

H« H
400 400
4000

FIG. 10 - 8
Example 10 - 3.
A simply supported one - way slab of a corridor of an office building of a clear
span 2.4 m is supported on beams of 230 mm width . Design the slab for a live load
of 5 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415 .
Solution :
Assume 115 mm thick slab with 10 mm diameter bars .
d = 115 - 15 ( cover ) - 5 = 95 mm .
Loads :
Self weight 0.115 x 25 = 2.88 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.00 kN / m 2
Live load = 5.00 kN / m 2
8.88 kN / m 2 .
Total
Factored load = 1.5 x 8.88 = 13.3 kN / m 2 .
Span = ( i ) 2.4 + 0.10 = 2.5 m
( ii ) 2.4 4- 0.23 = 2.63 m c / c supports.
Adopt 2.5 m span .
Consider 1 m length of slab

Mu = 2.52
8
x 13.3 = 10.39 kNm
2.4 x 15.96 kN ( based on clear span )
Vu = 2 13.3 =
( a ) Moment steel :
MU = 10 , 39 x 10 (i 1.15 < 2.76.
bd 2 1000 x 952
Singly reinforced section .

1 - 1 - /4.6 wu 4201
ck
X
1 - 1 - = x 1.15 = 0.343
P t = 50 = 50
fy ^ fck 415 / 20
0.343 x 1000 x 95
^ st “
100 = 326 mm 2/ m .
Spacing
^ 3 x 100, i . e ., 300 mm .
390 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
Provide 8 mm # @ 150 mm c / c = 333 mm 2 / m .
Half the bars are bent at 0.1 L = 240 mm from face of the support.
Remaining bars provide 167 mm 2 area .
100 A s 100 x 167
0.145 > 0.12 ( minimum )
bD 1000 X 115 =
i . e ., remaining bars provide more than minimum steel .
0.15 x
Distribution steel = 1000 x 115 = 173 mm 2 ( mild steel ) .
100
Spacing
Provide 6 mm <J> @ 160 mm c / c
^ 5 x 100 or 450 mm , i . e . , 450 mm .
= 175 mm 2.
( b ) Check for development length :
At support As = 167 mm 2, L 0 = 8 # ( assume ) , = 47 #
fy
Mu1 = 0.87 fy Ast d 1 -
- 415 x 167 x 10-6
= 0.87 x 415 x 167 x 95 l \ 1000 x 95 x 20
= 5.52 kNm
Vu = 15.96 kN
Mu1
1.3 + L0 Ld
1.3 x 5.52 x 106
15.96 x 103
+ 8 # 47 # , assuming La = 8 #
11.53 > #
JL
^ provided = 8 mm ( safe )
( c ) Check for shear :
100 100 x 167
At support = 0.176
bD 1000 x 95
100 A %
For = 0.15, TC = 0.28 N / mm 2
bD
100
and = 0.25, TC = 0.36 N / mm 2
bD
100 As
for = 0.176 , Tc = 0.30 N / mm 2, by interpolation .
bD
For 115 mm depth , = 1.3
design shear strength =
* k Xc = 1.3 x 0.3 = 0.39 N / mm 2
15.96 x IQ 3 0.168 N / mm 2 < k TC
= 1000 x 95 =
( safe )
( d ) Deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 x 333
Pi = 1000 x 95 =
0.35
326
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 234 N / mm 2
335
Art . 10 - 4 ) Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 391

modification factor = 1.48

span
permissible 1.48 x 20 = 29.6
d
span 2500
actual = 26.3 ( safe )
d 95
The designed section is shown in fig. 10 - 9.

115
i ’O <8> XL
K
260 - r
6 mm 4> @ 160 rpm c/c
8 mm # @ 150 mm c/c
2630 c/c
260
-H
>+< 2400 —H
230 230

FIG. 10 - 9
Example 10 - 4.
A one - way terrace slab has a clear span of 3.6 m and is supported on 230 mm
thick masonry walls . It is proposed to have a small terrace garden on both the edges
for a width of 500 mm total including garden pardi as shown in fig. 10 - 10 ( a ) . Gardening
load may be taken as 20 kN / m 3 including earthwork , watering, pardi , etc ., for a depth
of 250 mm . Water - proofing load of coba water - proofing is 1.75 kN / m 2, average . Live
load = 1.5 kN / m 2 .
Design the slab. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
Sometimes gardening is done on terrace slab , or any other slab . The area should
be water - proof . Water - proofing is common for all terrace slabs . Although low water
cement ratio , low slump concrete , proper compaction , effective curing, etc ., make the
slab water - proof , its water - proofing quality can be tested only after a heavy monsoon .
For workability, slab concrete may have larger w / c ratio ( not more than maximum as
specified by IS : 456) and it may require water proofing. Coba water - proofing is one
of the methods of water - proofing and is a popular method . Its average load may be
taken as 1.75 to 2.25 kN / m 2 depending on its thickness , direction of slope and direction
of span . Presently we shall assume a uniform load of 1.75 kN / m 2 .
The gardening load is also specified . To get natural water - proofing, M 20 grade
concrete is used here .
Assume an effective depth of slab 140 mm and overall depth 160 mm . The effective
span for flexure is minimum of
( i ) 3600 + 140 = 3740 3.8 m
( ii ) 3600 + 230 = 3830 mm .
i .e. l = 3.8 m .
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 10 - 10 ( b ) . The loads for AC or DB and CD
portions are calculated as follows:
Overall thickness = 160 mm .
392 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
AC / DB CD
DL LL DL LL
Self weight 0.16 x 25 4.00 + 0 4.00
+ 0
water - proofing 1.75 + 0 1.75
+ 0
gardening 0.25 x 20 5.00 + 0 0+ 0
floor finish 1.00
+ 0
live load 0 + 0 0+ 1.5
Total 10.75 + 0 6.75 + 1.5
Total factored load 16.13 + 0 10.13 + 2.25
^ 16.2 kN / m 2 £S£ 12.40 kN / m 2
Consider 1 m length of the slab .
Factored load AC / D B = 16.2 x 1.0 = 16.2 kN / m
CD = 12.4 x 1.0 = 12.4 kN / m .
Refer to fig. 10 - 10 ( b ) .

M uymax = 25.38 x 1.9 - 12.4 x 1.92 2

- 3.8 x 0.48 x 1.66

= 22.82 kNm .
V u, , max = 25.38 - ( 0.1 + 0.14 ) x 16.2, at d from face
= 21.50 kN .
Flexure :
Mu 22.82 x IQ 6 1.164 < 2.76
bd 2 1000 x 140 x 140
4.6 x 1.164
Y 20 = 0.348
Pi = 50 415 / 20
0.348 x 1000 x 140
^ st — 100 = 487 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c, alternate bent at 0.1 x 3600 = 360 mm from
face of the support .
/ lst = 490 mm 2, As = 245 mm 2 ( remaining bars )
Spacing
^
3 x 140 or 300 mm , i .e., 300 mm
Distribution steel : This is equal to 0.12 % ( Fe 415 ) of gross area.
( O. K. )

0.12 x
1000 x 160 = 192 mm 2.
100
Provide 8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c = 200 mm 2.

Shear :
Spacing
^
5 x 140 or 450 mm , i . e ., 450 mm ( O . K. )

x 103 x
Tv = 21.50
1000 x 140
140 = 0.154 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 245
bd 1000 x 140 = 0.175

TC = 0.3 N / mm 2
Art . 10 - 4 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 393

k = 1.28
k xc = 1.28 x 0.30
= 0.384 N / mm 2
Tv < Tc (O . K .)

110
-H- <-
z
X
X
-
X <- 500 -H
X
Earthwork for gardening
X
X Garden pardi Terrace tiles
X
X 250 Coba water proffing

%
/A/ * H
X 380

+H * - 100
3600 clear >
230
( a ) End section

16.2 kN/ m 16.2 kN/ m

12.4 kN / m

A B

480 —
C
> « 2840
3.8 m effective span
D
480
>

>
25.38 kN 25.38 kN
( b ) Loading diagram
25.38 kN
17.6 kN
480
< 1420 H-

K 1420 >
480

17.6 kN
(c ) S.F.diagram 25.38 kN

FIG . 10 - 10
Development length :
fy A A
Mu 1 = 0.87 fy As d 1 -
bdfckj
= 0.87 x 415 X 245 x 140 ( l - 1000 x 140245x 20 x 10-6 = 11.93 kNm .
415 x

Vu = 21.5 kN , Lo = 8 # (assume )
Ld = 47 # M 20 concrete , Fe 415 steel
394 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10

Now 1.4 + Ld

. 1.3 x 11.93
x 106 > 47 #
i.e + 8 #
21.5 x 103
# < 18.5 mm ( O. K. )
Deflection :
Basic —a
j ratio = 20
100 Asi
100 x 490
p x 140 =
035
‘ 1000hi
487
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 240 N / mm 2
490 =
modification factor = 1.4

permissible

^
actual
ratio

S
d
1.4 x 20
3800
140 =
27.14
Sketch: The designed slab is detailed in fig . 10 - 11.
= 28
< 28 ( O . K.)

160
* - 8 mm # @ 250 mm c/c >
360 360
^ 10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c alternate bent 2
K 3600
230 230
FIG. 10- 11
Supplimentary details : Slabs may be loaded by one or the other ways. In this
example , the slab is loaded with gardening loads. Few more such loads are naratted
below.
( 1 ) Movable partition loads : Sometimes position of partitions is not fixed . Then ,
1 to 2 kN / m 2 uniform load may be considered on slabs for such cases, after
confirming the type of partitions (glass , wooden , etc . ) For fixed brick wall
partitions, loads are considered as concentrated loads on slabs. For such loads
refer to art. 10 - 9.
( 2 ) Filter loads : Slab may be supporting filler loads. Toilet sunk slabs , etc ., are
located down from the usual level to accommodate sanitary fittings . Remaining
space is filled with light weight filler like cinder , coal , etc. An overall unit
weight of filler material may be 8 to 10 kN / m 3, after confirming the material
for filling. If brickbats are used , 20 kN / m 3 load may be assumed .

1 0 - 5 . D e t a i l i n g o f s l a b s: There are two methods of detailing the slabs.

( 1 ) Provide one drawing indicating typical details of slab such as fig . 10 - 4 ( a ) or
fig. 10 - 4 ( b ) , whatever the style is followed for the job and specify the reinforcement
type, diameter and spacing, etc . , in a tabular form such as that shown in
table 10 - 2 which follows . If there are many different types of the slabs in the
building, this method may be preferred .
Art . 10 - 5] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 395

TABLE 10 - 2
SCHEDULE OF SLAB REINFORCEMENTS
Reinforcement provided
Parallel to shorter side Parallel to longer side
Slab Thickness Straight Bent ( or Straight Bent ( or Remark
mark in mm ( or full ) curtailed ) ( or full ) curtailed )
DIA SPA DIA SPA DIA SPA DIA SPA
120 10 # 300 10 # 300 60 150 Straight slab
S2 130 12 # 350 10 # 350 8# 170 Sloping slab
S3 110 10 # 150 60 140 Sunk slab

——
# > HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415
0 > M .S. bar
T
230

—
<
360
< 8 mm # @
250 mm c/c
<
360
—
8460 8000
10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c
( alternate bent )

10 mm # @ 320 c/c (st.)

OR
[+ 10 mm # @ 320 mm c/c ( bent.)
( 160 mm thick slab)

230
K - 3830 H
< 3600 >4 —K
230 230
K 4060 H
FIG . 10- 12
396 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 10
( 2 ) If one or two slabs are to be shown , direct detailing in the plan is preferred
as indicated in fig. 10 - 12. Dotted reinforcement means that it is a top reinforcement.
Only two main and two distribution bars ( not for the full length ) shall be shown .
The detailing is such that when the drawing is placed on the table , it looks like
a plan , and when it is lifted in front of the eyes, it looks like a section .
In any case , the better detailing is one which can be best understood by the
fabricator. Simplified and easy - to - understand detailing is better than nicely drawn complicated
detailing. The choice of the type of detailing depends on the job type and number of
slabs to be detailed .
For estimating purpose or for billing, the mass of the reinforcement is required .
You have studied such calculations in the subject of Estimating and Costing. A structural
designer is usually asked to give the estimate of the reinforcement requirement either
to estimate or to check the bills raised by the contractor. While checking the bills ,
one should study carefully the conditions of contract particularly for rolling allowance
given and the allowance for lap splices.
Example 10 -5 .
Find out the mass of the steel required for the slab of fig. 10- 12 .
Solution :
Length of straight bar ( no hook ) = 3600 + 2 x 230 - 2 x 25 ( side cover ) = 4010 mm .
Length of bent bar = 4010 + 140 ( effective depth ) = 4150 mm .
Length of distribution bar = 8000 + 2 x 230 - 2 x 50 ( side cover ) = 8360 mm .
The calculations may be tabulated as follows :
TABLE 10 - 3
CALCULATION OF REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENTS
( A ) Details of length of reinforcements:
Sr. No . Item Diameter No . No. in each Length Total
1 Slab 51
8.46
straight bars 10 # 1 4.01 106.0
0.32
8.46
Bent bars 10 # 1 4.15 109.7
0.32
4.06
Distribution bars 8 # 1 8.46 137.4
0.25
( B ) Details of mass of reinforcements :
Diameter Length in m Mass / m Mass Total
10 # 215.7 0.62 133.73 133.73
8 # 137.4 0.39 53.59 53.59
Adding 5% for cutting and wastage and 5% for laps , total 10 % ( for estimate purpose
and not for billing ) and rounding up the values , the mass of the steel required is
10 mm # 133.73 x 1.1 ^ 150 kg
8 mm # 53.59 x 1.1 60 kg
Total 210 kg
210
Steel required per square metre area = 6.11 kg / m 2.
8.46 x 4.06
Art . 10 - 6 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 397

The above calculations of steel requirement per square metre are useful for quick
estimate of the reinforcement requirements in the early stages of the construction . The
value may be different for different types of slabs and different grades of steel.
10- 6. Inclined slabs: Inclined slabs are very popular. Some of the terrace slabs are
provided with appreciable slope and manglore tiles are laid on them . Modern architects
prefer to use one or many sloping slabs even for a small house . It is therefore necessary
for us to study the design of such slabs . The sloping slabs are indicated in fig. 10 - 13.

r* A B
3m 3m 3m 3m

5.5 m

J M P Z
Is i
"
Js 2
3m 7
K X Y
^A
(a ) Terrace level plan
1.0 m
S>
1.5 m
3.2 m
J11 m
3.2 m

0.6 m ~

H
4m 1.5 m 3 m
( b) Section A- A
1.0 m
S2 1.0 m
3.2 m 0.6 m
|
j !m
3.2 m

0.6 m
^ .
4m 1.5 m 3m
>

(c ) Section B- B
FIG . 10- 13
Sloping slabs are designed in a way similar to the horizontal slabs , however , a few
points are discussed below which shall be taken care of . The sloping slabs may be :
( 1 ) Spanning perpendicular to the slope as shown in fig. 10- 14 ( a) . Also refer to the
slab S\ of fig. 10 - 13.
( 2 ) Spanning parallel to the slope as shown in fig. 10- 14 ( b ) . Also refer to the slab
S 2 of fig. 10 - 13.
398 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
Consider a small length of a sloping slab as indicated in fig. 10- 14 ( c) . The load P can
be resolved into two components . The tangential component Pt will tend to slide
the slab. This force should be resisted at the interface of the slab and the supports
of the slab by suitable arrangement or by friction between the slab and the
support or by the inclined bearing force . Both the above types of the inclined
slabs are now discussed .

A D
/ \
/ \
P
/ \ E
/ Spanning \ H
/ \ j Pn = P cos 0
/ / \ \
/ / \
/ \ Spanning Slope
/ \
/ \ \
/ Slope \
/ \ G
/ \
\
B C
(a) (c )

(1) Slabs spanning perpendicular

to the slope : Refer to slab of
fig. 10- 14 (a) and slabs S\ of fig. 10- 13.
The slabs are spanning perpendicular
to the slopes. These slabs are designed
by considering 1 m inclined length
of the slab . The normal component
P cos 0 will produce bending moment
in the span , whereas the tangential
component will produce axial thrust
in the slab . The concrete is very
strong to resist this thrust, but at
the supports AB and CD of
fig. 10 - 14 ( a ) , this thrust shall be
resisted by friction between masonry
and slab . This thrust can also be
resisted by providing masonry steps
which will be filled by slab concrete
while casting the slab . This is FIG. 10- 15
indicated in fig. 10 - 15 .
The concrete filled in the steps acts as a key between the slab and the wall and
the inclined force can be resisted by inclined force provided by the bearing of this
key. The total resistance to sliding by friction and bearing Ptl , should be more than
P { with a factor of safety of 1.55. In most cases, with step arrangement , this is
satisfied . However , one should individually check for a given practical problem .
The reinforcement details of these slabs are exactly similar to normal slabs , however ,
while laying the reinforcement , remember that the spacing is specified on inclined length .
( 2 ) Slabs spanning parallel to the slope: Refer to the slab of fig. 10- 14 ( b ) and the
slab S 2 of fig. 10 - 13. The discussion for resisting friction is very much similar to slab
spanning perpendicular to the slope .
Art . 10 - 7 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 399

In fig . 10 - 14 ( b ) , the friction can be resisted by the supports EH and FG\ and if
possible , by supports EF and HG also as discussed in the previous paragraphs. However ,
these slabs differ from previous one in respect of flexure design .
Slab EFGH of fig. 10 - 14 ( b ) will be designed as bending between EH and FG
supports on horizontal projected span . The slab is usually designed as a beam of 1 m
width . Consider 1 m length of slab which becomes 1 m width of the beam . The span
of this slab is a horizontal projection of inclined length EF or GH .
Consider a small length of sloping slab in the direction of spanning as shown in
fig. 10 - 16 . The overall thickness D shall be as indicated in the figure . If the projected
horizontal length of this slab is 1 m , its inclined length is sec 0 metres . The dead
loads comprising of self weight of the slab and floor finish have a length of sec 0 ,
therefore , on horizontal span of 1 m , these loads shall be multiplied by sec 0 . For live
loads , however , this correction is not required , as these loads are specified on horizontal
projections .

r- Live load

~
— D
07 '
Floor finish
- Slab

DL LL
4 Sec 0 + 1.5 kN / m 2

K 1m -H

FIG. 10 - 16
Let the thickness D of the slab be 100 mm . Let floor finish be 1.5 kN / m 2 (including
manglore tiles) and the live load be 1.5 kN / m 2 which is always specified on plan area.
The dead loads on inclined length are :
Self weight 0.1 x 25 = 2.5 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.5 kN / m 2
Total 4.0 kN / m 2
Now dead load of inclined length of sec 0 , i .e., 4 x sec 0 is acting on horizontal
span of 1 m . Therefore dead load on horizontal span is 4 cos 0 kN / m 2. The live load
is, of course , 1.5 kN / m 2. The slab is now designed as a beam of 1 m width as usual .
The reinforcement detailing is similar to that of the normal slabs . If slab £ 2
of fig . 10 - 13 ( a ) is to be designed , the reinforcement details are similar to that of
horizontal span . In designing this slab , however, remember (in present case) that beam
PZ is shown inverted , therefore , the flexure reinforcement is not confined by compressive
reaction . This shall be taken into account for checking shear and development length .
10- 7. Straight slabs having a small length inclined along the
span: Let a small area of a straight slab of fig. 10 - 17 ( a ) spanning between two
supports be sloped along the span as shown in fig. 10 - 17 ( b ) . In such cases , loading
on straight portion and that on sloped portion are different. For considering the
span of the slab, horizontal projection shall be considered .
400 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10

230 230
>4 H- 3600 H K

Toilet sunk sloping

ss

360 : 400 mm inclined length

C \

- 10 mm # @ 120 mm c/c L l
4 160 mm thick slab

<- 8 mm # @ 250 c/c

360 360

(a ) Plan

r 10 # @ 240 c/c ( > Ld )

360
H -\ 600 (> Ld )

Filling
v .

—
— 10 mm # @ 120 c/c
8 mm # @ 250 mm c/c < Beam provided to
transfer a small horizontal
force at the interface

( b) Section X -X
FIG . 10 17 -
The detailing of such slabs require care. According to the calculations, the slab
is simply supported inducing tension at bottom . The theoretical rein - forcement is
required as shown in fig. 10 - 18 ( a) . However , this arrangement is not satisfactory
because when the reinforcement is tensioned , it gives a thrust in concrete at P and
will try to straighten as indicated . This will split the concrete and consequently
lead to failure . This is not desirable .
The point P is therefore , considered as a point of lap and two sets of reinforcement
are provided as shown in fig . 10 - 18 ( b ) . Reinforcement of both the sets should
extend on both sides on opposite faces ( top face here ) for a distance of Now
when the reinforcement is tensioned , it will press the concrete at Q and R instead
of P. At Q and R, sufficient concrete depth is available to resist the thrust. Such
a detail of reinforcement is also known as scissor reinforcement which is attributed
to it’s shape .
What will be the detailing if the angle of slope of the slab with horizontal in this
case is 90° ? Similar detailing can be extended as shown in fig. 10 - 19 .
Art . 10 - 8 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 401

P
.
r:
A i i

Straightening of
bar induces tension
and splits up concrete
( a ) Wrong arrangement

> Ld

Q
P
FT
Set A

Set B -I

( b) Correct arrangement
FIG . 10 - 18
K
K
360
> <-
> Ld

V • • T Ld

r /
/

/ /

«—H*4 3600 H
230 230
FIG . 10- 19
.
10 - 8 Cantilever slab: The design
criteria for cantilever slab are the same as
previous articles. An example of cantilever
1.2 m
0.15 m ::
I
L
_—_ S3
x
Column 300 x 300

B3
slab is a balcony slab in a building.
While designing a cantilever balcony ,
one should check the counter balancing loads. I y= 6 m 1 m high parapet
S2 Si
The cantilever slabs are indicated in fig. 10 - 20.
If the internal slab is continuous with cantilever B2 B1
slab such as S 2 ~ S of fig 10 - 20 , then
<

^ as cantilever slab
slab Si can be designed 0.15 ml y
capable of free rotation at support B j . The B4
slab S 3 is not continuous with £2 and will
1 0.15 m 0.15 m
induce torsion in beam B $ . However , *4K >fM —
reinforcement of slab S3 can be continued lx= 3 m 1.2 m
in S 2 if they are positioned at the same Cantilever balcony slab
level and the torsion in £ 3 can be reduced . FIG. 10 - 20
402 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 10
Usually the formwork of slab Sj or £3, when designed as cantilever , is kept tight
to provide a little camber . Usually 20 mm camber is provided per metre span of cantilever,
i . e . , camber : span = 1 : 50 .
Example 10 - 6 .
Design the slab S 2 - S\ ° f fig - 10 - 20 , if it is to be used for residential purpose .
At the free end of slab S\ there is a concrete parapet of 75 mm thick and 1 m high .
The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Use
IS : 875 for live loads .
Solution :
( a ) Estimation of loads :
For slab Y2 live load shall be 2 kN / m 2 . For slab *Sj which is a balcony slab ,
live load shall be 3 kN / m 2 . Assume 120 mm thick slab .
DL LL
Slab S2 .
1
'
self load = 0.12 x 25 = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 2 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 2 kN / m 2
Pu = 1.5 ( 4 + 2 )
= ( 6 + 3 ) kN / m 2 .
DL LL
Slab S } : self load = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 3 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 3 kN / m 2
Pu = 1.5 ( 4 + 3 )
= 6 + 4.5 kN / m 2 .
Weight of parapet
0.075 x 25 x 1 = 1.875 kN / m .
Pu = 1.5 x 1.875 = 2.8 kN / m .
9 kN / m 6 kN/ m

< 3m w 1.2 m H
A B C
( a ) Loads for maximum positive moment
2.8 kN
9 kN / m 10.5 kN / m

4 3m *+< 1.2 m
A B C

( b ) Loads for maximum negative moment , maximum shear for

cantilever span and maximum reaction at support B
FIG . 10 - 21
Art . 10 - 8 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 403

( b ) Analysis :
Consider 1 m long strip .
( 1 ) To get maximum positive moment in slab S 2 only dead load on slab and
total load on slab S 2 shall be considered . The parapet load is a dead load
<

but will not be considered as sometimes the owner of the building or

architect may change his mind and would provide simply a railing.
Considering fig. 10 - 21 ( a )
cantilever moment =
1.22 x 6 = 4.32 kNm .
2
9 x 3 4.32
Reaction at A = 12.06 kN .
2 3
12.06 1.34 m .
Point of zero shear from A =
9
12.06 x 1.34 - 1.34 2 x 9
Maximum positive moment = 2
16.16 - 8.08 8.08 kNm . =
To check shear and development length at A, shear may be considered
as 12.06 kN . Note that for the cantilever , clear span is considered .
( 2 ) To get maximum negative moment and maximum shear at B, the slab is
loaded with full loads as shown in fig. 10 - 21 ( b ) .
1.22
-
±J
Maximum negative moment =
^ 10.5 + 1.2 2.8
X X

=7.56 + 3.36 = 10.92 kNm .

9 x 3 10.92
Maximum shear at B , =
^ u , BA ~ 2
+
3
13.5 + 3.64 17.14 kN

Fu BC = 10.5 X 1.2 + 2.8 = 15.4 kN .

( c ) Moment steel:
Maximum moment = 10.92 kNm
10.92 x 106
^ required 1000 x 2.76 = 62.9 mm

- 5 ( assume 10 # bar )
^provided = 100
120 - 15
mm ( O. K. )
Mu ( +) = 10008.08 106 x
x 100 x 100 =
0.81
bd 2
pt = 0.236
0.236 x 1000 x 100
^ st (+) =
100 - 236 mm 2
Mu ( -) = 10.92 x 106 1.09
bd 2 1000 x 100 x 100
pt = 0.324

^ .
« H =
0.324 x 1000 x 100
100 = 324 mm 2.
For positive moment provide 8 mm # about 170 mm c / c giving 294 mm 2
alternate bent up and for negative moment provide 8 mm # about 340 mm c / c
( bent bars extended) + 10 mm # about 340 mm c/ c giving total 378 mm 2 area . The
arrangement of reinforcement is shown in fig. 10 - 22. Note that at simple support,
the bars are bent at 0.1 l whereas at continuity of slab it is bent at 0.2 l.
404 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10

0.12 144 mm 2 .
Minimum steel = 100 x 1000 x 120 =
294
Remaining positive moment bars give = 147 mm 2. Thus bars can be bent up.
0.15
Distribution steel = 100 x 1000 x 120 = 180 mm 2.
Provide 6 mm 0 about 150 mm c / c = 187 mm 2.
For negative moment reinforcement
Ld = 47 #
( 8 + 10 )
Average = 47 x
2 = 423 mm .
The bars must be anchored upto 423 mm . Also they should be extended
upto 12 # beyond the point of contraflexure , which may be found out . Alternatively
as a thumb rule , a bar shall be given an anchorage equal to the length of the
cantilever . Adopting this , carry the top bars upto 1200 mm in the internal
span . This is shown in fig. 10 - 22.
K 1200 + H-- 1200 H
- 8 # @ 340 c/c ( bent )
Clear cover 15 mm strictly

—
+ 10 # @ 340 c/c (extra )
T
120 % r w
• W » »
A
8 # @ 170 c/c 25 mm camber
6 0 @ 170 c/c
> K h+ -H 6 0 @ 150 c/c
300 600
H- - H
150
3000
S2
*4 K
150
— 1200
Si
-N

Longitudinal section through S 2 - Sj

FIG . 10 - 22
( d ) Check for development length :
fy
^ st
At A, Mul = 0.87 fy Ast d -
T/T
( l 00 - 415 x 147
= 0.87 x 415 x 147 x 10-6
1000 x 20
= 5.15 kNm .
Vu = 12.06 kN.
Consider L0 = 8 #

Then 1.3 + L0 Ld
5.15 x 106
1.3 x + 8 # > 47 #
12.06 x 103
which gives # 14.23 mm ( OK.)
At B, Afui = 5.15 kNm .
Near point of contraflexure , i . e ., 0.15 / from B
Vu = 17.14 - 0.45 x 9 = 13.09 kN
Art . 10 - 8 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 405

1.3 x 5.15 x 106 >

+ 8 # 47 #
13.09 x 103
which gives # < 13.11 mm (O . K.)
( e ) Check for shear :
Span AB\
At A, = 12.06 kN ( for maximum loading ) .
At B, shear at point of contraflexure = 13.09 kN .
Use Vu = 13.09 kN .
13.09 x 103 0.131 N / mm 2
Shear stress T v = 1000 x 100 =
100 As 100 x 147
1000 x 100 =
0.147
bD
= 0.28
k Tc = 0.28 x 1.3 = 0.364 N / mm 2 > TV ( O . K.)
Span BC:
= 17.14 kN .
x 103
Shear stress Tv = 17.14
1000 x 100 =
0.171 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 378
1000 x 100 =
0.378
bD
k tc = 1.3 x 0.421 = 0.547 N / mm 2 > xv ( O . K.)
( f ) Check for deflection :
Slab S‘2 shall not be treated as a continuous slab , since an overhang may not
justify the continuity of slab at point B. If the minimum dead load moments
of cantilever slab exceeds the maximum fixed end moments of span AB with
full load , then and then it can be considered as continuous over support B.
For span AB
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 Asi 100 x 294
0.3.
bd 1000 x 100 =
236
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 193 N / mm 2
294 =
Modification factor = 1.82 .
span
Permissible ratio = 20 x 1.82 = 36.4.
d
span 3000
Actual
d
ratio = 100 = 30 < 36.4 ( O. K. )
For span BC
span
Basic ratio = 7
d
100 Ast 100 X 378
= 0.38.
bd 1000 x 100
406 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
324
= 0.58 x 415 x 378 = 206 N / mm ^
service stress
Modification factor = 1.63
span
ratio permissible = 7 x 1.63 = 11.4
d
span 1200
actual ratio = 12 > 11.4
d 100
Just increase of 5 mm depth will solve the problem . However , as the camber
will be provided to counteract the deflection , this small increase is not made .
(s) Check for cracking :
( 1 ) Main bars:
Spacing permitted = 3 x 100 = 300 mm
spacing provided = 170 mm ( O . K.)
( 2 ) Secondary bars:
Spacing permitted = 5 x 100 = 500 or 450 mm , i . e . , 450 mm
spacing provided = 150 mm ( O . K. )
( H ) Cambering :
1200
Camber =
50 =
24 mm
Provide 25 mm camber at free end .
( i ) Supplementary details :
( 1 ) Stability against overturning may be checked using dead load on span AB
and double the total load on span BC. If reaction at A is not negative , the
slab is safe against overturning . If it is negative , the slab at point A
requires counter - balance . In this type of case , the counter - balance is provided
by the self - weight of beam and the load from masonry walls on beam at A.
( 2 ) To cast the concrete parapet, 6 mm diameter bars are anchored in slab and
erected . The parapet is cast afterwards. If reinforced brickwork ( R . B) parapet is to
be provided , the spacing of 6 mm 0 bars is provided to adjust with the size
of brick . In any case it is advisable to provide parapet after the formwork is
removed specially in case of cantilever. Otherwise , after removing the
formwork , as a natural phenomenon , the cantilever slab will settle down and
would result in cracks in masonry work at points such as x and y of fig. 10- 20.
10- 9. Concentrated load on slabs: Sometimes it is necessary to put concentrated
loads on slabs . The examples are curtain walls , heavy luggage on slabs etc . Slabs are
sometimes used as parking floors that receive concentrated vehicle loads . Also the
bridge deck slabs receive very heavy concentrated loads . Such loads may not be
considered as uniform loads distributed on whole area but we need to find out effective
width of the slab that carry such loads and design such area for more loads.
Method of finding such effective widths of slabs is described in clause 24.3. 2 of
IS : 456 and shall be referred .
For slabs other than solid slabs , the effective width shall depend on the ratio of
the transverse and longitudinal flexural rigidities of the slab . Where this ratio is one ,
that is , where the transverse and longitudinal flexural rigidities are approximately
equal , the value of effective width as found for solid slabs may be used . But as the
ratio decreases , proportionately smaller value shall be taken .
Any other recognized method of analysis for cases of slabs discussed above and
for all other cases of slabs may be used with the approval of the engineer - in - charge .
Art. 10 - 11 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 407

10-10- Two- way slabs: The two- way

spanning slab occurs when the slab is
H* lx -H

supported on all four edges. The two - way / x = Shorter side

action can be well studied by considering Bl / y = Longer side
a thin flexible membrane supported on
all four edges. This is illustrated in fig. 10 - 23. Membrane
If ly is much greater than / x , the membrane
deflection is in direction of / x. Now keeping B2 B2
lx constant, / y is reduced and the deflection h
of the membrane is observed . When / y = Support
2 lx\ from this point it can be observed
that the membrane starts deflecting in
the direction of / y also . If / y is further BI
reduced , the deflection decreases in the
direction of / x and increases in the direction
of ly. When / y = / x, the membrane deflects FIG. 10 - 23
as a saucer. The deflection in this case is smaller than what it was for the first case ,
i . e., ly > > lx . When / y > 2 / x , the case is a one - way spanning and when / y < 2 lx
ly
or j- < 2 ; the case is a two - way spanning.
The above discussion shows that when a two - way slab is used , compared to one - way
slab , the deflections and bending of slab are reduced , i . e ., bending moment is reduced .
In fact , bending moment is distributed in both the directions . This increases the load
carrying capacity of the slab .
The two - way slabs can be simply supported or restrained slabs. In simply supported
slabs, the corners can lift away from the support while for restrained slabs , the corners
are held down by edge beams. The corners are held down by means of the stiffness
of the beam and therefore at corners, torsion is induced . The slab should be capable
of resisting torsion at corners. Also the edge beams shall be designed for torsion .
When there is a continuity in slab , the corners are held down by means of continuity
effect and hence , no provision for torsion is required for continuous slab on all four
sides. It should be clear that this slab will not induce any torsion in supporting beams.
10- 11. Simply supported two- way slabs: Here the corners can lift away
from the supports and do not require the provision for torsion . These slabs can be
designed in accordance with Annex D of IS : 456 - 2000. The moments can be found out
as follows :
When simply supported slabs do not
have adequate provision to resist torsion
at corners and to prevent the corners from I
lifting, the maximum moments per unit I
I I -My
width are given by the following equations:
J L ±_
Mx = ax. W. 11 l m
1 I
lx

My = a y . W . l\ . Mx
I
Referring to fig . 10 - 24
Mx , My = moments on strips of unit
t
width spanning lx and / y
respectively l m
-
+*

ax, ay = coefficients given in table Simply supported two - way slab

10 - 5 FIG. 10- 24
408 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10

lx , l y =
lengths of the shorter span and longer span respectively
w = total design load per unit area.
The coefficients are given in table 23 of IS : 456 which are reproduced in table 10 - 4 .
TABLE 10 - 4
BENDING MOMENT COEFFICIENTS FOR SLABS SPANNING IN TWO
DIRECTIONS AT RIGHT ANGLES, SIMPLY SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES

'y 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
'x
ax 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118 0.122 0.124
ay 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.05 5 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014

IS : 456 also states that at least 50% of the tension reinforcement provided at
mid - span should extend to within 0.1 / x or 0.1 ly of the support, as appropriate .
The shear stresses shall be checked as per one - way slab . The load causing maximum
shear is shown in fig. 10 - 25. The loads on beams supporting solid slabs spanning in
two directions at right angles and supporting uniformly distributed loads , may be
assumed to be in accordance with fig . 10 - 25 .

Load causing
1m shear at support
<

Beam A

Load carried
1m
by beam A

1
Beam B Load carried by beam B

Loads on beam
FIG . 10 - 25
The deflection of two - way slabs shall be checked as per one - way slabs.
Note 1: For slabs spanning in two - directions , the shorter of the two spans should be used
fo calculating the_ span to effective depth ratios.
^
Note 2 : For two - way slabs of small spans ( upto 3.5 m ) with mild steel reinforcement , the
span to overall depth ratios given below may generally be assumed to satisfy
vertical deflection limits for loading class upto 3 kN / m 2:
Simply supported slabs 35
Continuous slabs 40
For high strength deformed bars of grade Fe 415 , the values given above should be
multiplied by 0.8.
The bar spacing rules remain the same as per one - way slabs.
Art . 10 - 11 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 409

Example 10 - 7.
A drawing room of a residential building measures 4.3 m x 6.55 m . It is supported
on 350 mm thick walls on all four sides . The slab is simply supported at edges with
no provision to resist torsion at corners . Design the slab using grade M 20 concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . rA
Solution : ^ ^ y °.

^ I Co
Consider 1 m wide strip . Assume 180 mm thick slab , with 160 mm effective depth . -yywv
/ x = 4.3 + 0.16 = 4.46 say 4.5 m .
ly = 6.55 + 0.16 = 6.71 say 6.75 m .
Dead load : self 0.18 x 25 = 4.5 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.0 kN / m 2
Live load ( residence ) = 2.0 kN / m 2
Total 7.5 kN / m 2 Lf ^3 u
For 1 m wide strip
Pu = 1.5 X 7.5 = 11.25 kN / m . 3
^
V
3n> — k

ly * 4 6 r»
6.75
4.5
1.5 ol ot I
•ML ^ *
M UX = 0.104 x 11.25 x 4.52 = 23.7 kNm
M uy = 0.046 x 11.25 x 4.52 = 10.48 kNm
23.7 x 10 ( )

1000 x 2.76
= 92.7 mm

^short = 180 - 15 ( cover ) Al -

= 160 mm > 92.7 mrnS . ) P. ^rrT..J . ( O. K.)
4mg =
160 - 10 = 150 mm
Larger depth is provided to satisfy deflection check .
Mu ( short ) = 23.7 x 106
= 0.926 U. 1
bd 2 1000 x 160 X 160 .

p t = 0.273 Pi n » i b» A 7
Ick
0.273 x 1000 x 160
( short ) = 437 mm 2 . klfth
^ St
100 j
Mu ( long) = 10.48 x 106 0.466
bd 2 1000 X 150 X 150 =
pt = 0.129
st
^100—
0.129 x 1000 x
=) 194 jmm 2 .
Minimum steel =
0.12 x
100
1000 x n?sv
216 mm 2 .
Provide 10 mm # about 180 mm c / c = 436 mm 2 in short span and 8 mm # about
230 mm c / c = 217 mm 2 in long span .
The bars cannot be bent or curtailed because if 50 % of long span bars are curtailed ,
the remaining bars wiil be less thari ffllfliTTlUfll . " """" "

At top on support , provide 50 % of bars of respective span to take into account

—
any possible negative moment created due to monolithic nature of slab .
410 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I . ~ [ Ch . 10
Check for development length :
? 3)
• r
Long span V f ~= \ \ .2 5 x 2.25 = 25.31 kN .
^ 415 x 217
Mui = 0.87 x 415 x 217 |l 50 1000 x 20
x 10-6
11.40 kNm . Q
Assuming LQ = 8 #
11.40 x 10 (i 0
fo + h
1.3 x + 8 # > 47 # 1 . d . -fcK
Q
25.31 x 103
which gives # 15.01 mm . . . . ( OK.)
short span Fu = 11.25 x 2.25 = 25.31 kN .
x
160 - 415 436

^ x 10 6
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 436
1000 x 20
"

= 23.76 kNm .
Assuming LQ = 8 #

1.3 x 23.76
x 10 °
+ 8 # > 47 #
25.31 x 103
which gives # 31.3 mm (O. K.)
Note that the bond is usually critical along long direction .
Check for shear :
This is critical along long span
x 103
Shear stress = 25.31
1000 x 150
- 0.169 N / mm 2
100 At 100 x 217
1000 x 150 =
0.145
bd
Tc = 0.28 N / mm 2
k Tc = 0.28 x 1.2 = 0.336 N / mm 2 ( O . K .)
Check for deflection:
The deflection shall be checked along short span .
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 At 448 x 100
bd 1000 x 160 = 0.28 .
435
=0.58 x 415 x 234 N / mm 2
448 =
service stress
Note that A st, req is used here .
Modification factor = 1.5
span A
Permissible ratio = 20 x 1.5 = 30 6
d
span
uV
4480 ( O . K .)
actual
d
ratio = = 28
Check for cracking:
Maximum spacing permitted for short span steel
= 3 x 160 = 480 or 300 mm , i .e., 300 mm .
Spacing provided = 180 mm ( O. K.)
Ex . 10 ] Simply Supported and Cantilever Slabs 41 1

Maximum spacing permitted for long span steel = 3 x 150 = 450 mm .

Spacing provided = 230 mm ( O . K.)
Sketch : The designed reinforcements of slab are shown in fig. 10- 26 .

> -
350
4 «- 6550
6900
H
350
>
350 r
T

II I
i 10 # @ 340 c/c
10 # @ 170 c/c

4300
4650 —
690
H
r 8# @ 230 c/c
690

8# @ 460 c/c

I
I
^Y
350 l

( a ) Plan
460 460
H H 10 # @ 340 c/c H H

180 > ••• TTrD

Y >— 10 # @ 170 c/c
L 8 # @ 230 c/c
N —>-H
350
4300 —
350
>
( b ) Section A - A

FIG . 10- 26
Note: It is possible to bend short span reinforcement alternately. Rework the problem
considering alternate bent short span reinforcement.

EXAMPLES X
( 1 ) Design a simply supported one way slab of span 2.8 m centre to centre of
supporting beams of a corridor in office building. The live load shall be taken
as 5 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 . Consider floor finish = 1 kN / m 2 .
( 2 ) A simply supported slab of clear span 2.6 m is supported on 350 mm thick brick
wall at one end and on 230 mm thick brick wall at the other. Loads on the slab
are 1 kN / m 2 floor finish and 2 kN / m 2 live load . Design the slab . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 3 ) A simply supported toilet sunk slab of clear span 2.8 m is supported on top
of 230 mm thick beam at one end and at the bottom of a 230 mm thick beam
at the other. The depth of sunk is 450 mm . Assume the cinder filling @ 8.2 kN / m 3,
floor finish 1 kN / m 2 and live load 1.5 kN / m 2 . Design the slab . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
412 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 10
( 4 ) In example ( 3 ) above , design the slab if it is a toilet sunk slab of a cinema
theatre with live load 5 kN / m 2 . The other loads being the same .
Note : In examples (3 ) and (4 ) note that one side of the slab is supported by beam at
bottom. The reaction at this end induces torsion in the slab.
Therefore , the shear check shall be made at the support and also for the check for
development length —Mul
p—
*u
shall not be increased by 30 %.
( 5 ) Design a terrace slab having simply supported span of 3.2 m . The loads are: floor
finish 1 kN / m 2, water proofing 1.75 kN / m 2 and live load 1.5 kN / m 2. The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 6 ) Determine the mass of reinforcement required for the slab of example ( 1 ) in
kg/ m 2. Also determine the mass of reinforcement in kg/ m 2 for the slab of example ( 3) .
Compare the two results.
( 7 ) Design and detail a one way sloping slab where the slope is along the span . The
slab spans between two R . C. C. beams of 230 mm width . The clear distance
between the beams is 3 m in plan and the slab has a slope of 1 in 3. The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . The
water - proofing and finishing load is 3 kN / m 2 on inclined length and the live load
on plan area is 1.5 kN / m 2 .
( 8 ) A slab ABC is supported at A and B and BC is overhang . AB = 4 m and
BC = 1.2 m . At C, there is a concrete parapet of 0.9 m high and a dropwall below
the slab of 0.6 m depth . Thickness of parapet is 100 mm whereas that of dropwall
is 50 mm .
Design the slab for residential loads. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 9 ) Design the slab £3 of fig. 10 - 20 contilevered from bottom of the beam B $ . Size
of the beam is 300 mm wide x 600 mm overall depth and slab is at the
top of the beam B3 (live load on this slab may be taken as 1.5 kN / m 2 as it is
not to be used as a balcony slab ) . Design and detail the slab . Show the anchorages
of the bar properly.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( Hint : The anchorage may be in the form of stirrups of beam B f ) . -
( 10 ) Design a terrace slab of a room 3.2 m x 4.3 m size and simply supported on all
four sides on 230 mm thick masonry walls . The water - proofing load shall be
taken as 2 kN / m 2 and live load may be taken as 1.5 kN / m 2 . Use M 20 grade
concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Floor finish may be taken as 1 kN / m 2.
( 11 ) A two - way simply supported slab is resting on 230 mm thick masonry walls on
all four sides . If the room dimensions are 4.5 m x 4.5 m , design the slab for
residential loads. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
( 12 ) Design the top cover of a water tank 3 m x 5 m in size and having thickness of
side walls 750 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
( 13 ) Design the top cover of a water tank 3.6 m diameter and having thickness of side
walls 750 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
( Hint : Circle may be considered as a square of an equivalent area . The
reinforcement provided shall be in the form of jali . )
 hapter CONTINUOUS BEAMS
AND SLABS
rui -
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
11- 1. Introductory: While casting the concrete floor , a large amount of concrete
is usually placed at a time . The reinforcements also extend from one member to the
other. The beams, slabs and part of the columns are all cast at a time . This makes the
components of the floor , viz . , beams , slabs , columns, etc., monolithic.
In monolithic floor construction , the continuous beams occur frequently. These
beams can be analysed by the elastic theory applicable to homogeneous material . For
the analysis , we do not use ultimate or inelastic methods for reinforced concrete
structures because the reinforced concrete is not a homogeneous material and also our
theories and tests are not sufficiently advanced .
Bi B2 B3
A
T T 3m
A

4 5 6
B 6m B
rr
<N
CQ J P»
PJ
22 J 22
o
!B r*
22 -
r*',
. 3m
B7 Bg 9
c C
J J JB 3m
B 6m
m
(N
22
Bio

J NO
P*
CQ
B 11

1B CQ
as
n
J
12
Oi
r*
22
~.
I
3m
I
B

B is B 15
c X
A
14
: c
!B ; iB 18 3m
16 B 17
B 6m B
CN
<N
cc tB '<TN
22 J oc
Pi
22 J a 3m
A 1 19 B 20 B 21 i A
6m >4< 6m H* - 6m

A - A : Edge frame - L beams, B - B : Intermediate T beams, C-C : Intermediate frames

Typical cast - in - situ R . C. C . floor

FIG. 11 - 1
Consider a typical cast - in - situ R . C . C. floor as shown in fig. 11 - 1 . The slabs are
one - way spanning continuous and supported on beams . The slabs are designed as
continuous slabs capable of free rotations at the supports.
B io n ~ i 2 anc 16 17 ~ - 18 are the floor beams or secondary
The beams “
^ ^
*

^^ ^ ^ “

beams and may be designed as continuous beams capable of free rotations at the
supports like i?24 anc *^
25 which are called the main beams.
In general , secondary beams support the slabs and they are supported on main
beams (and not the columns) . Main beams support the slabs and secondary beams and
they are supported on columns. The main beams together with columns are designed
as continuous frames .
414 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
Capable of free rotations at the supports means that they are not monolithic with
supports. In monolithic construction , beam supports for the slabs and the main beam
supports for the secondary beams are considered simple because the torsional stiffness
of such supports is much less. If these supports are considered monolithic with beams,
they should be designed for torsion .
The beams By - B 2 ~ B 3; B7 - B% - Bg\ 22 23 24 i 25 26 27 > etc ., are supported
_
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
“ ""

on columns . These beams together with columns shall be designed as continuous

“

frames . These are called main beams .

In this chapter , only continuous beams and slabs not monolithic or not cast
integrally with the supports are considered . This means that only beams like B - B - B
^ ^with^
of fig . 11 - 1 will be studied here . The slabs are usually designed as not monolithic
support except for some special cases such as an isolated slab cantilevered from beam
or a sunshade projection from the lintel . The design of main beams like B - B - B
etc., are dealt in a separate chapter. ^ ^ ^
11- 2. Analysis parameters: Important Fixed Simply
analysis parameters are summarized as follows: supported
4 A A
( 1 ) Effective span : The effective span End span 1 Internal span End span 2
for continuous beams or slabs may
be taken as under in context with FIG . 11 - 2
fig. 11 - 2.
Let Zeff = effective length of beam or slab
/clear = dear distance between supports
*4 ff = effective depth of beam or slab
La = width of the supports.
1
(i) When La < 4lear
4 ff = ( 4lear + <4ff) or c c
^ °f supports whichever is less
1
( ii ) When La > /clear or 600 mm whichever is less
For end span 1 /eff /clear
1
For end span 2 4 ff = 4lear +
2 l ^eff or
^ a whichever is less ]
For internal span /eff /clear 1

( iii ) For continuous frames

/eff = c / c distance between supports .
( 2 ) Stiffness: The relative stiffness of the members may be based on the moment
of inertia of the section determined on the basis of any one of the following
definitions .
( i ) Gross section : The gross section of the member ignoring reinforcement .
( ii ) Transformed section : The concrete cross- section plus the area of reinforcement
,

transformed on the basis of modular ratio .

( iii ) Cracked section : The area of concrete in compression plus the area of
reinforcement transformed on the basis of modular ratio .
The assumptions made shall be consistent for all the members of the structure
throughout the analysis . However , for deflection calculations, appropriate values of
moment of inertia as specified in Annex C of IS : 456 should be used .
Art . 11 - 3] Continuous Beams and Slabs 415

The first definition is generally used in analysis of continuous beams . For a

rectangular section , the moment of inertia is bD 3 while for a flanged beam this
y

shall be separately worked out .

After arriving at the width and thickness of flange, the centroidal axis is found out
and the moment of inertia about this axis is found out . For ready reference , graphs
be
of ratio
w
— verses coefficient K { are given in chart 88 of SP: 16 . Then moment of
i
inertia of a flanged beam will be i t x y bwD 3 .
^ ^
Example 11 -1 .
Find out the moment of inertia of a flanged beam as shown in fig. 11 -3.
bf = 1500 H
\o
x = 150
Df = 100 J 1 ;
D = 500
3
<D \*
(l] 0 +

if IT -
i ( i r x i *1 bw = 250 mm
FIG . 11 - 3
Solution :
_
Taking moments about top flange
x
1500 x 100 x 50 + 250 x 400 x 300
1500 x 100 + 250 x 400
150 mm
S . 2. x » 0
1

1
| -
7X =
^
x 250 x 5003 + x 1250 x 1003 ( 1500 x 100 + 250 x 400) x 1502
10.4 x 109 + 0.42 x 109 - 5.62 x 109
=
5.2 x 109 mm ^4.
=
Or by using chart 88 of SP : 16
Df 100 bf 1500
= 250 = Kt = 2
0.2 6
D 500 K
1 x
I= 2 x 250 x (500) 3 = 5.2 x 109 mm 4 .

11 - 3. Live load arrangements: To obtain the maximum span moments and

support moments , different arrangement of live load shall be made as under :
Arrangement of live load :
_
( 1 ) Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on two adjacent s p j u i s.
This arrange menPg> vestne maximum support moments.
( 2 ) Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on alternate spans.
This arrangement gives the maximum span moments .
For a three span continuous beam the above requirements are shown in fig. 11 - 4 .
Case ( 1 ) gives the load arrangement to get maximum negative moments at supports
while case ( 2 ) gives the load arrangement to get maximum^ ( and also minimum )
positive moments at mid - span . Note that the complete analysis of this beam requires
four moment distributions.
416 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11

DL + LL DL + LL DL

(a)

DL DL + LL DL + LL

( b)

Case 1 DL + LL on two adjacent span

DL + LL DL DL + LL

(c )

Case 2 DL + LL on alternate span

Arrangement of live load
FIG . 11 - 4
11- 4. Redistribution of moment: M
the loads on an indeterminate ductile
beam are continuously increased beyond
the service loads, the sections with maximum
moments are over - stressed first. Although u
the reinforced concrete is not a pure ductile,
MP /
IM
3

it resembles some ductility because we /

/
/
/ t Idealised Ii u^-
always design the structure to be more 7
/

ductile . If the load is further increased , 7

7
the highly stressed sections will not fail , 7
c 7
U r/
if the adjacent sections can pick up the £ r/
loads. The adjacent sections can pick up o
the loads because of the inelastic deformations
s
of the beam sections. A typical moment -
curvature relationship for under - reinforced >
sections is plotted in fig. 11 -5. The actual Rotation , 0
curve for plastic deformation is idealized Typical M -0 curvature for
to a straight line parallel to x- axis. The under - reinforced sections
curve indicates that for the under - reinforced FIG . 11 -5
Art . 11 - 4 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 417

section subjected to its nominal flexural capacity Afp the steel yields and can support
the moment A/p for upto a very large deformations. Because of this inelastic deformations,
the adjacent sections can pick up the additional loads .
The phenomenon in which an over - stressed reinforced concrete section shifts the
loads to the adjacent under - stressed sections in an indeterminate structure is called the
moment redistribution . '
This ability of over - stressed ductile sections is extensively used in steel design
termed as plastic design. For reinforced concrete , being a material with limited ductility ,
the use of moment redistribution is limited by the code . The basic concepts of moment
redistribution are now discussed in the following paragraphs and then are applied to
continuous beams.

Pu
A i1 B

*2\ dr& 2
C

( a ) Deflected shape of the beam ( b ) Details of plastic hinge

Formation of plastic hinge

FIG . 11 - 6
Plastic hinge : To understand the concept of a plastic hinge , consider a simply
supported beam of fig . 11 - 6 , where it is subjected to central point load Pu , i . e . ,
PJ
moment Mu = —— = A/ p, the nominal flexural strength of a highly stressed section .
Under the load , the beam deflects to 8 j . The beam can support the load Pu ( producing
moment Afp ) with deflection 8 j . If now a smallest load 8 PU is applied in addition to
Pu, the beam will further rotate and deflect to 82 - When a section sustaining a jnoment
Afp can rotate , a plastic hinge is said to have formed.
*

Fixed beam: Next consider a 30 kN / m

fixed beam of fig. 11 -7 loaded A B
to failure . The elastic analysis
shows that maximum moments
of 90 kNm and 45 kNm occur
at the support and at the centre
respectively. If the beam is exactly
reinforced to resist these moments, (a ) Plastic hinges forming linkage
three plastic hinges at A, B and 1.26 m 1.26 m
C will be formed (one more than K H r 45 kNm
the degree of indeterminacy )
simultaneously before the failure . +
A sort of linkage is formed in 90 kNm 90 kNm
the structure containing three
hinges . If any additional load
is applied to the structure , it ( b ) Elastic B.M .diagram
fails. Thus it cannot resist any Fixed beam loaded to failure
further load . FIG. 11 -7
418 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
Now consider the same beam reinforced such that the nominal flexural strengths
of the sections at the supports and at the mid - span are 80 kNm and 55 kNm
respectively. ( Moment capacity is reduced by 10 kNm at support and increased by
10 kNm at centre . )
According to elastic analysis, we have
wu l2
Mp = 12
'

Wu x 62
80 = 12
= 26.66 kN / m .
As the load on beam is continuously increased , two plastic hinges are formed at
the supports when the load is reached to 26.66 kN / m . The moment at the centre with
26.66 x 62
this load is
24 = 40 kNm . As the beam is reinforced for resisting a moment
of 55 kNm at centre , the plastic hinge will not be formed at the centre . If now the
load on beam is further increased , the sections at the supports will act as hinges . It
can be seen from fig. 11 -5, that the under - reinforced sections can resist the moment
Mp with increased rotations . The supports will now act as simple supports permitting
rotations at the supports and the moment at centre will increase when the load is
further increased . When the moment at centre becomes 55 kNm , i . e . , the nominal
flexural strength of the section at the centre , the third hinge will be formed at the
centre . At this stage , to maintain the equilibrium , we have
x 62
8
80 = 55

wu = 30 kN / m as before .
The loading and the moment diagrams are shown in fig. 11 -8.
In fig. ll - 8 ( a ) note that two plastic hinges ( P. H .) at A and B are formed as per
elastic analysis. In fig. 11 -8 ( b ) the plastic analysis is considered . Here 3 plastic hinges
are formed as the capacities of all three sections at A, B and C are exhausted .
•Note carefully that while considering moment redistribution in this case ,
point of inflection ( P. I . ) shifts towards the supports .
The above two cases shall be studied carefully. In both the cases , the failure takes
place at 30 kN / m load , however , in the second case we are redistributing the moment
which permits the maximum moment in the beam to 80 kNm instead of 90 kNm as
in the first case . To decide the size of the member, we use the maximum moment .
Thus with the use of moment redistribution phenomenon , we can use the smaller size
member. This is benificial in general continuous structures where for the continuous
beam , the beam behaves as flanged beam at centre and as rectangular beam at support .
It is obvious that the flanged section can permit larger moment of resistance than the
same sized rectangular section .
For a pure ductile homogeneous material like steel , 100 per cent redistribution of
moment is permissible . For the reinforced concrete being a material with limited
ductility , the following points should be noted while applying moment redistribution .
( 1 ) There should not be serious cracking in concrete .
( 2 ) There should be adequate ductility at the hinge points .
—
To ensure the above objective ihe code permits redistribution of moment upto
15 percent for elastic theory of design without any checks _ jmd 30 percent ion. limit
state method of design subjecMx some requirements discussed in jhejollowing paragraphs.
^
Art . 11 - 4 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 419

40 kNm
PI
±5 PI

80 kNm 80 kNm

1.27 m 1.27 m
PI = Point of inflection
( a ) Elastic analysis

A 30 kN / m N B
P. H . P.H.
N
\
c
3m 3m *4
6m H
•

55 kNm
D '
D'
+
80 kNm 80 kNm

1.08 m 1.08 m
P.H . = Plastic hinge
£ p*
'
( b ) Moment redistribution

FIG. 11 -8
Code requirements : According to clause 37.1 . 1 of IS : 456 , the redistribution of
moment may be carried out satisfying the following requirements :
( 1 ) Equilibrium between the internal forces and the external loads is maintained-
This condition is basic and does not need any discussion .
( 2 ) The ultimate moment of resistance provided at any section of a member is not
less than 70 per cent_ of the moment at that section obtained from elastic
maximum moment diagram covering all appropriate combinations of loads .
Referring to fig . 11 -8, it can be seen that when redistribution of moment is
made , the point of contraflexure moves from D to D' i . e . towards the support .
If the design is made based on redistribution of moment, we will consider that
the negative moment exists upto AD ' only. However , when the service loads
are placed on the structure , the negative moment exists upto AD and thus
cracking may occur at D if we design the beam based on moment redistribution .
420 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
To ensure that cracking will not occur at service loads , the code stipulates that
the moment of resistance of the section must not be less than 70 per cent of
the elastic maximum moment at that section . Choosing a value of 70 per cent
is based on load combination DL + LL where the partial safety factor is 1.5.
1
The elastic moment is x 100 = 67 per cent of the factored moment at any
1.5
section . Thus the code chooses a value of 70 per cent.
( 3 ) The elastic moment at any section in a member due to a particular combination
of loads shall not be reduced by more than 30 per cent of the numerically
largest moment given anywhere by the elastic maximum moment diagrams for
the particular member covering all appropriate combination of loads .
As discussed earlier , 100 per cent redistribution of moment can be carried out
in steel structures ( perfectly ductile material .) The reinforced concrete is a
material with limited ductility and hence considering this aspect , the code
restricts the reduction of moment by 30 per cent . Note that there is no limit
placed on the amount by which the moments can be increased ( either at
mid - span or at the supports) . The provisions ( 2 ) and ( 3) are not complementary.
There are separate reasons of choosing them .
__
( 4 ) At sections where the moment capacity after redistribution is less than that
from the elastic maximum moment diagram , the following relationship shall
be satisfied :
SM <
+ 0.6
d 100
where xu = depth of neutral axis
d = effective depth
6 M = percentage redistribution in moment
This provision is included to ensure the sufficient ductility i . e . rotation capacity
of the section where the moment is redistributed . The equation indicates the
fact that with increase of depth of neutral axis, the rotation capacity decreases,
and with the increase of percentage of moment redistribution , more ductility

is demanded . The depth of neutral axis increases with the increase of f for
U
singly reinforced sections and
A„
-yy for doubly reinforced sections . It
^
may be observed that larger percentage of redistribution is possible for
under - reinforced sections. Note that if the section is balanced , only 7 per cent.
12 per cent and 14 per cent moment redistributions are possible with mild
steel , Fe 415 grade steel ; and Fe 500 grade steel respectively .
( 5 ) In the structures in which the structural frame provides lateral stability ( unbraced
frame - refer to art . 17- 2 ) , the reduction in moment allowed in ( 3) shall be
restricted to 10 per cent for the structures over 4 storeys in height .
-
11 5 . Reinforcement requirements: The requirements for positive moment
reinforcement, tension and compression reinforcement, etc ., are discussed in art. 9 - 4.
The negative moment reinforcement shall comply the following :
At least one - third of the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the
support shall extend beyond the point of inflection for a distance not less than the
effective depth of the member or 12 b or one - sixteenm of the clear span whichever is
greater.
According to the code requirements, typical reinforcement details for continuous
beams and slabs are discussed in the articles to follow.
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 421

11- 6. Typical continuous beam details: The practice of bending the bottom
bars to resist the shear and also negative moment at the support in continuous beams
is now becoming obsolete . Instead , the bottom bars are carried through the support
and can be used as compression bars for a doubly reinforced section at the support .
Some of the positive moment bars may be curtailed if the remaining bars are more
than one - third the area required at mid - span and the curtailment requirements are
satisfied . The actual point of cut off should be theoretically found out .
For negative moment reinforcement , to comply with the code requirements, the
points of inflections for different spans shall be found out . For the case where all the
spans are equal and loaded with the same load , the point of contraflexure lies at about
0.15 l from the support. However , with different arrangements of live loads , this is not
the case . ( Referto the worked examples . ) For some cases , the point of inflection lies
at 0.25 / to 0.35 / from the support . Therefore the support reinforcement may be
curtailed progressively. And 20% of negative moment bars shall be extended in the
span as shown in fig. 11 -9.
Depending on above requirements, for a continuous beam of approximately equal
spans three o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e and loaded with uniformly distributed loads with live
load not exceeding the dead load ; the typical details of reinforcement are shown in
fig. 11 - 9 . For other cases, the actual analysis shall be made .
20% 60% 100% 100 % 60% 20%
«- —H-«—
K
+ <-
« ++< --
H
H —H-
H
—
>

0.25 / l 0.25 l 2
h* *~K H
0.15 / ,1 o r 4 5 0 0.15 l 2 or 45 b

y y \
f \
i i
l \ y H*
A
Ld > i Ld
3 3
i i

H >H H -
0.1 / l
,
0 . 1 5 / 0.15 12
< l2
33% 100% 25 % 25 % 100%
«— *4<
Reinforcement as percentage of that required for
>
—
( i ) Maximum hogging moment over support (100% ) - Top bars
(ii ) Maximum sagging moment in span ( 100% ) Bottom bars -
Typical flexure reinforcement details for continuous beam
FIG. 11 -9
11- 7. Flexure design considerations: Consider a beam in fig. 11 - 1.
A line diagram of this beam is shown in fig. 11 - 10 ( a) . Consider points E, F o r G . At
this section, the moment is positive, which induces compression at top. At the top , the
422 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
concrete of the flange area is available and also the span of the slab is perpendicular
to that of the beam . Therefore , the beam acts as a tee beam . Now consider a section
near the support B or C.

( a ) Continuous beam B 4 - - B6

Central point loads are due to reaction from secondary beams

( b ) Continuous beam B
^5 - B-,6 - B 27
FIG. 11 - 10
At this section the moment is negative inducing compression at the bottom . The
slab concrete is not available in compression zone of this section and the beam acts
as a rectangular beam .
_
Now consider beam 25 26 27 as shown in fig. 11 - 10 ( b ) . The beam acts as a
^ ^ ^
“ J

rectangular beam at a section near the support B or C as discussed above . At point

E, F or G the beam acts as a tee beam . However , in this case , as the main reinforcement
of slab is parallel to the beam , transverse reinforcement shall be provided as shown
in fig . 11 - 11. Such reinforcement shall not be less than 60 per cent of the main
reinforcement at mid - span of the slab . If such reinforcement is not provided , these
sections should be designed as rectangular beams .

L L
> 7 «— bw > 7 -M

c: D

L = span of slab

<— Beam B 25

Section at E of beam B 25

Transverse reinforcement in flange of T beam when

main reinforcement of slab is parallel to the beam
FIG . 11 - 11
Example 11 - 2 .
A part plan of an R. C.C. floor is shown in fig. 11 - 12. Design the beams B3 and
B ± . Total load on slab is ( 4 + 4 ) kN / m 2 ( i . e., DL + LL) . Assume that the beams are
not monolithic with the supports . Assume 230 mm x 500 mm rib of the beam and slab
thickness of 120 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
Art . 11 -7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 423

115
I r
X
230 thick wall

3000

•*- Template
Bi B2
350 thick wall
3000

f
3000
B3 B4 \

\J

j i

l
l
i
l
\
l
i

175 6000 6000 175

5650 5650
350 350 350
FIG. 11 - 12
Solution:
( a ) Load calculations and analysis:
Load from slab 3 ( 4 + 4 ) 12.00+ 12 kN / m
Self weight 0.23 x 0.5 x 25 2.88+ 0 kN / m
Total 14.88+ 12 kN / m
Factored load 1.5 ( 14.88 + 12 ) = 22.3 + 18 kN / m
The load arrangements for maximum moments are shown in fig. 11 - 13.
Case ( a ) gives the maximum negative moment at B while case ( b ) gives the
maximum positive moment in span AB. For maximum positive moment in span
BC,. the same moment as per span AB shall be used because of symmetry. The
moment distributions are carried out for both the cases . The distribution factors
are 0.5 : 0.5 because of symmetry. Spans for moment calculations are centre
to centre of supports .
Case ( a ) 40.3 kN/ m 40.3 kN / m B
Fixed end moments : A C
FEM AB = FEM BA
— FEM ^ x 62= FEMQX
40.3
Q K 6m 6m

( a ) Maximum negative moment at B

120.9 kNm
12
Free shears : 40.3 kN / m B 22.3 kN / m

^AB = ^40.3
BA =
X
VBC = VCB
6
A
T
“
120.9 kN . 6m 6m -H
2
Case ( b ) ( b ) Maximum positive moment in span AB

Fixed end moments : FIG . 11 - 13

40.3 x 62
FEM AB = FEMnA = 12
120.9 kNm

FEM BC = FEM CB = 22.3 x 62 = 66.9 kNm

12
424 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
Free shears :
40.3 x 6
^AB “
2^BA = 120.9 kN
22.3 x 6
VBC = CB = 2^ = 66.9 kN .
The moment distribution and the analysis are now carried out .
Case ( a )
Moment distribution :
0.5 0.5
- 120.9 120.9 - 120.9 120.9
+ 120.9 60.45 - 60.45 - 120.9
0 181.35 - 181.35 0
Shear correction :
120.9 120.9 120.9 120.9
- 30.23 30.23 30.23 - 30.23
point of 90.67 151.13 151.13 90.67
zero shear 2.25 m 2.25 m

^AB (+) = ^BC (+ )

2.252
= 90.67 x 2.25 - 40.3 x 2 = 204 - 102 = 120 kNm .
Point of contraflexure from A
x2
90.67 x - 40.3
2 =
0
x = 4.5 m i .e. 1.5 m from B.
Case ( b )
Moment distribution :
0.5 0.5
- 120.9 120.90 66.90 66.9
+ 120.9 60.45 33.45 - 66.9
0 181.35 - 100.35
- 40.50 - 40.50
0 140.85 - 140.85 0
Shear correction :
120.90 120.90 66.90 66.90
- 23.48 23.48 23.48 - 23.48
Point of 97.42 144.38 90.38 43.42
zero shear 2.42 m 1.95 m

MAB ( +) = - 40.3 x 2.422

97.42 x 2.42
2
= 235.75 - 118 = 117.75 kNm
1.952
MRC ( + ) = 43.42 x 1.95 - 22.3 x 2
= 84.67 - 42.4 = 42.27 kNm .
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 425

102 117.75 1.16 2.11 m 102 kNm

4 >
i
X
40.17
I \
1
\ 4 >
H Case(a ) J V 'y
< 1.95 m
2.25 m Case( b) s' 1 140.85 kNm
4- H
N- 181.35 kNm 2.25 m
2.42 m H >
1.5 m 1.5 m
( a ) Bending moment diagrams
4- H
•

151.13 kN 2.25 m
97.42 H* H
90.67 90.68
1.95 m
+H 43.42
2.25 m
144.38 90.67
4 H
2.42 m 151.13 kN
Case ( a ) J
Case ( b) -
( b) Shear force diagrams
40.3 kN/m

7 Template
/y 7/y 7/y
/y 7 7/y
7 /y
7 7
7

H H 5.65 m H H 5.65 m > 4

0.35 0.35 0.35

4 6m 6m >

2.42 m 2.42 m
K 151.13 kN K
97.42 120.7 0.76 m
66.99 ^ F 0.755 m->4 4-
> 4

> H- 0.755 m 66.99

> K
0.76 m 120.7
97.42
151.13 kN
H — 3.75 m 3.75 m H
(c) Design shear diagram with full load on all spans

FIG . 11 - 14
Point of contraflexure from A
x 2-
97.42 x - 40.3
^2
= 0
x = 4.84 m i .e . 1.16 m from B.
Point of contraflexure from C

- x2
43.42 x 22.3
2 = 0
x = 3.89 m i .e ., 2.11 m from B .
426 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11

Note that ( + ) is the maximum positive moment of span BC. It may

happen that at the point of zero shear (case of an internal span of a continuous
beam ) the moment induced is negative in the span . This will be then called
minimum moment in the span . If that is the case , span BC shall be reinforced
for that moment at top .
The design moments shall be now as follows:
Negative moment at B, Mu (-) = 181.35 kNm .
Positive moment in span AB or BC, Mu ( + ) = 117.75 kNm . •*

The maximum shears shall be as follows:

^AB = ^CB = ^151.13

7.42 kN
kN.
BA = BC =
The moment and
^shear ^ fig. 11 - 14 ( a ) and fig. 11 - 14 ( b ) .
diagrams are shown in
As the ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive reaction , the
shear at distance d from the face of the support ( i .e . 175 + 580 = 755 mm from
centre of support ) shall be considered in design . Considering this , the design
shear diagram with full load on all spans is shown in fig . 11 - 14 ( c ) .
( b ) Design for flexure :
Positive moment :
Mu = 117.75 kNm .
The beam acts as a flanged beam . The width of flange , bf , is computed as
0.7 x 6000
bi = -g- + + 6 Df -
6
+ 230 + 6 x 120

= 1650 mm < 3000 mm , i . e ., bf = 1650 mm .

Assuming one layer of 20 mm diameter bars and 30 mm clear cover considering
mild exposure and maximum 10 mm diameter stirrups
d = 500 + 120 - 30 - 10 = 580 mm
1650
= 7.17
K 230
Df 120
D 580 = 0.207.
From table 6- 10,
M u ,lim
= 0.643.
/ck
Mu lim = 0.643 x 20 x 230 x 5802 x 10 ~6
= 995 kNm > 117.75 kNm .
117.75 x 106 627 mm 2.
^ st
0.87 x 415 ( 580 - 60 ) =
Provide 4 - 16 mm # = 804 mm 2.

^stdim is not checked here as it is a flanged section and Mujim is very large.
Two bars may be curtailed . The moment of resistance of remaining bars

= 0.87 fy Asl j . £0
2
= 0.87 x 415 x 402 (580 - 60) x IQ-6 = 75.4 kNm .
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 427

Note that lever arm assumed here is d - Df2 *

Theoretical cut off point can be found out from case ( b ) as

2
76.2 = 97.42 * - 40.3 *
2
i.e . * -
2 4.83 x + 3.78 = 0
x = 0.98 m or 3.85 m .
According to curtailment rules , the bars are cut off at 12 0 or deff whichever
is greater , i . e . , 580 mm past the section .
From A, curtail 2 - 16 # bars at 980 - 580 = 400 mm from A and at 3850 +
580 = 4430 mm , i . e ., 1570 mm from B.
The curtailment rules are to be satisfied . The third rule that the continuing
bars provide double the area required for flexure at cut off point and the shear
3
does not exceed th that permitted .
Moment at 0.4
^
m from A
= 97.42 x 0.4 - 0.42
2
x 40.3
= 35.74 kNm

^
Double this area
St
-
=
35.74 x IQ 6
0.87 x 415 ( 580 - 60 )
2 x 190 = 380 mm 2.
= 190 mm 2 .

Continuing bars provide 402 mm 2 area which is more than 380 mm 2 ( O . K .)

Moment at 4.43 m from A
= 97.42 x 4.43 - 40.3 x 4.432
2
= 36.2 kNm
36.2 x 106
^ — st
0.87 x 415 ( 580 - 60 )
= 193 mm 2.
Double this area = 2 x 193 = 386 mm 2.
Continuing bars provide 402 mm 2 area which is more than 386 mm 2 ( O . K . )
Minimum design shears at cut off points , referring to design shear diagram

K =
^ [ 66.99] = 89.32 kN at 0.40 m from A

=|[ 151.13 - 1.57 x 40.3]

= 117.14 kN at 1.57 m from B.
While designing shear reinforcements, this will be taken into account .
Negative moment reinforcement
—
Mu 181.35 kNm
b = 230 mm , d = 620 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 560 mm .
The beam acts as a rectangular beam .
MU = 181.35 X IQ 6
<
5602 =
2.51 2.76.
bd 2 230 x
0.844 x
Pt = 0.844, ^ st = 100
230 x 560 = 1087 mm 2 .
428 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
From this tension reinforcement, 20% reinforcement is to be continued in the
span , i . e ., 0.2 x 1087 = 218 mm 2 . 2 - 12 # anchor bars ( 226 mm 2) will serve the
purpose . Provide 2 - 12 # ( anchor ) + 2 - 16 # + 2 - 20 # extra = 226 + 402 + 628
= 1256 mm 2.
The theoretical cut - off points and actual positions for curtailing 40 % bars
i . e., 1 - 20 # + 1 - 16 # may now be determined . Remaining bars provide 226 +
201 + 314 = 741 mm 2 area .
The strength of section is controlled by top reinforcement only and is
given approximately by
M . R . = 0.87 fy Asi ( d - 0.42 xu )
= 0.87 x 415 x 741 (560 - 0.42 x 0.48 x 560) x 10 *6

119.62 kNm .
The theoretical cut off can be given by an equation
.2
V

90.67 x - 40.3
Y = 119 62 Icase (a) l
x 2 - 4.5 x -
5.94 = 0
x = 5.57 m from A , i .e., 0.43 m from B.
Cut off 2 - 20 # bars at 430 + 560 ( deff ) = 990 mm , say 1000 mm from B.
At 1000 mm from B i . e . at 5 m from A, the moment is
90.67 x 5 - 40.3 x 52 = - 50.4 kNm .
Moment capacity required at actual cut off point as per curtailment rules
= 2 (- 50.4 ) = - 100.8 kNm .
Moment capacity of the section = - 120.68 kNm ( O . K. )
Note that shear capacity will be increased as per positive reinforcement curtailment
check .
Let us now determine the point of curtailment of 80% of bars . Remaining bars
are 2 - 12 # , i . e . 226 mm 2.
Moment capacity = 0.87 x 415 x 226 ( 560 - 0.42 x 0.48 x 560) x 10-6
= 36.5 kNm .
Distance from A for this moment
2
90.67 * - 40.3 * = - 36.5
2
x2 - 4.5 * - 1.81 = 0
x = 4.87 m .
i . e., at 1.13 m from B.
Cut off the bars at 1130 + 560 ( eff )
^ —
1700 mm from B.
20 per cent bars shall be continued throughout the span . Note that this is
required for case ( b ) in span BC where point of contraflexure lies at 2.11 m
from B.
Continue 2 no. 12 mm # bars giving Ast = 226 mm 2 area . These will be used
as anchor bars .
Note that this example indicates that the simplified rules given in fig . 11 - 9
may not be applied for two span continuous beam .
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 429

( c ) Design for shear reinforcement :

At A , Vu = 66.99 kN
also Vu = 89.32 kN upto 0.40 m from A ( curtailment )
100 As 100 x 2 x 201
bd 230 x 580 = 0.3
= 0.389 N / mm 2
Vuc = 0.389 x 230 x 580 x 10 ~3 = 51.89 kN .
For minimum shear reinforcement ( tables 7- 3 and 7- 4 ) , 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c,
Fus = 94.6 i.e . 94.6 x 580 x 10 ~3
d Fus = = 54.87 kN.
Capacity of section with minimum shear reinforcement
=
51.89 + 54.87 = 106.76 kN > 89.32 kN.
The minimum reinforcement will be sufficient.
Provide 6 mm <J) @ 130 mm c / c
At B, Fu = 120.7 kN
also Vu = 117.14 kN at 1.57 m from B.
Section with shear capacity of 106.76 kN ( minimum shear reinforcement ) occurs at
151.13 - 106.76 1.10 m .
40.3
However , provide stirrups upto 1.57 m as per above requirement .
100 As 100 x 1256
0.975, Tc = 0.614 N / mm 2.
bd 230 x 560 =
100 4
Note that negative reinforcement is used to calculate
bd ’
Vuc = 0.614 x 230 x 560 x 10 3 = 79.08 kN
~

Fus = 120.7 - 79.08 = 41.62 kN (1)

At 1 m from B
Vu = 151.13 - 40.3 = 110.83 kN
or Vu = 117.14 kN ( curtailment )
As = 2 x 113 + 314 + 201 = 741 mm 2
100 As 100 x 741 0.555, TC = 0.497 N / mm 2
bd 230 x 580 =
note that d = 580 mm .
Vuc = 0.497 x 230 x 580 x 10 3 = 66.30 kN "

Pus = 117.14 - 66.30 =50.84 kN ( 2)

At 1.57 m, As ~ 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2 ( positive moment reinforcement )
100 As 100 x 402
0.301, TC = 0.384 N / mm 2
bd 230 x 580 =
Vuc = 0.384 x 230 x 580 x 10-3 = 51.22 kN
7US = 117.14 - 51.22 = 65.92 kN ( 3)
430 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3) , Vus = 65.92 kN

^dus 65.92 x
580
103 113.65

Use 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 250 mm c / c

d = 145.2
1570
No . of stirrups = + 1 8.
250
Finally from A, provide 6 mm 0 stirrups @ 130 mm c / c and from B, provide
8 mm # stirrups @ 250 mm c / c upto 8 no .
( d ) Check for development length:
At Ay Mui = 75.4 kNm ( calculated previously )
Vu = 97.42 kN
LQ = 12 # or deff whichever is greater , assume 12 # .
Ld = 47 #
check 1.3 Ki + L0 La
75.4 x 106
1.3 x + 12 # > 47 #
97.42 x 103
# < 28.74 mm ( OK.)
At point of contraflexure i . e ., 1.5 m from B
Afui = 75.4 kNm
Vu = 151.13 1.5 x 40.3 = 90.68 kN
LQ = 12 # [ LQ is much more than this. It can be taken
equal to deff . However to permit the lapping
of bars we shall consider 12 # .)
75.4 x 106
Then , 1.3 x + 12 # > 47 #
90.68 x 103
# < 30.88 mm ( O . K .)
( e ) Deflection :
S
Basic
d
ratio = 26
100 x 4 x 201
Pi = 650 x 580 = 0.083
627
= 0.58 x 415 x 282 N / mm 2
804 =
service stress
modification factor = 1.7. ( fig . 4 , IS : 456 )
K 230
0.14 < 0.3
bf 1650 =
Reduction factor = 0.8 ( fig . 6 , IS : 456 )
5 26 x 1.7 x 0.8
Permissible
d
ratio = = 35.36
S 6000
actual
d
ratio
580
10.34 < 35.36 ( O. K.)
( f ) Spacing of bars:
230 - 60 - 4 x 16
mm .
Clear distance between bars = 3 = 35.33
Art . 11 -7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 431

Maximum distance permitted = 180 mm

minimum distance permitted 16 mm (0 of bar ) =
= 20 mm ( max . C . A . ) + 5 mm i .e . 25 mm .
For negative moment bars , two layers are provided . Thus the criteria are
satisfied .
The designed beam is detailed in fig. 11 - 15 .
1700 1700
< >+< H
1000 1000
H- > M - —H
r*~ ® r — --
2 12 # + 2-20 # + 2-16 #
2- 12 # 2 12 # + 1-20 # + 1-16 #
£ £
2-12 #
V . ±J

/
T 4-16 # (2st. + 2 curtailed) 7
/ !4-16 # 7
/
/
Template

(2st. + 2 curtailed )
w-
/

'-
/
y- W-
CD > <
400 K H-* -
400
1570 1570
<- 6000 c/c *4 * - — 6000 c/c H

M-K 5650 mm H-H 5650 mm

350 350 350
D 8# D 8# D
N 60 @ 130 c/c 8 N 8 60 @ 130 c/c N
S 250 S 250 S

(a ) Elevation
- 2- 12 # ( throughout )
+ 1 -20 # + 1 - 16 # ( 3400 long )
2- 12 # + 1 -20 # + 1 - 16 # (2000 long )
120 - * F 4 120

500 500

4- 16 # 2- 16 #
230 -H ( 2st. + 2 curtailed )
H- H- 230 -H
( b) Section A - A (c) Section B- B
Details of beam B \ - B
FIG . 11 - 15
Example 11 - 3 .
Perform the moment redistribution in example 11 -2 by 30 per cent and comment .
Also design the beam for flexure and check the code requirements for redistribution
of moments .
432 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
S o l u t i o n:
Maximum negative moment occurs at B for case ( a ) . Reduce this moment by
30 percent and use the same moment for case ( b ) also.
Moment at support B = 0.7 x 181.35 = 126.95 kNm . Both the cases will be now
modified with this moment such that equilibrium between external forces and internal
forces is maintained .
Case ( a )
Shear correction :
120.90 120.90 120.90 120.90
- 21.16 21.16 21.16 - 21.16
99.74 142.06 142.06 99.74
Point of zero shear 2.47 m 2.47 m

- 2.472
A/ AB ( + ) = A/RC ( + ) = 99.74 x 2.47 40.3 x
2
246.36 = - 122.93 = 123.43 kNm
Point of contraflexure from A
2
99.74 * - 40.3 * = 0
2
x = 4.95 m , i .e ., 1.05 m from B.
Case ( b )
Shear correction :
120.90 120.90 66.90 66.90
- 21.16 21.16 21.16 - 21.16
99.74 142.06 88.06 45.74
Point of zero shear 2.47 m 2.05 m
A/ AB ( + ) = 123.43 kNm , as before
A/ RC (+) = 45.74 x 2.05 - 22.3 x 2.052 = 46.9 kNm .
2 4
The maximum factored moments are now as follows:
A/ AB ( 4 ) = A/ RC ( 4 ) = 123.43 kNm
" "

A/ B (-) = 126.95 kNm .

Positive moment steel
123.43 x 106
^ st
0.87 x 415 ( 580 - 60 )
= 657 mm 2
Provide 4 - 16 mm # = 804 mm 2
Curtail 2 - 16 # bottom bars at 200 mm from A and at 1200 mm from B. The
checks for curtailment are left to the reader.
Negative moment steel
A/ u 126.95 x 106
230 x 5602
= 1.76 < 2.76 , singly reinforced .
bd 2
pt = 0.551
0.551 x
^ st — 100
230 x 560 = 710 mm 2.
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 433

20 % of negative moment reinforcement = 0.2 x 710 = 142 mm 2 .

Provide 2 - 12 # = 226 mm 2 top anchor bars throughout the beam .
At support, provide 3- 16 # extra top bars .
Ast (-) = 226 + 3 x 201 = 829 mm 2 .
Checks for moment redistribution :
First three checks are taken care of while analyzing the beam . The fourth check
shall be made at support . First find out the depth of neutral axis at the support.
At support b = 230 mm , d = 560 mm , d ' = 40 mm
Asc = 2 - 16 # = 402 mm 2; Asl = 829 mm 2.
Equating the forces
0.36 fck b xu + Asc fsc = 0.87 fy st
'
^
,
fsc for
f
=-dj 0.1 is 353 N / mm 2.
0.36 x 20 x 230 xu + 402 x 353 = 0.87 x 415 x 829
1656 xu = 157404
*u = 95.05 mm.
5M <
Check + 0.6
d 100
95.05
+ 0.3 < 0.6
560
0.17 + 0.3 < 0.6
i . e. 0.47 < 0.6 ( O . K. )
Comments :
( 1 ) Because of the redistribution of moment , the negative moment is usually
reduced and positive moment be increased . As the negative moment is to
be resisted by a rectangular section , this gives the economy in design and
the depth of beam can be reduced . The positive moment is resisted by a
flanged section having a very large moment resisting capacity.
( 2 ) The redistribution of moment is extremely useful in case of continuous
slabs where we do not design the section as doubly reinforced and the
depth of slab depends on negative moment .
( 3 ) Even though the redistribution of moment is not used in design , its knowledge
is very useful while providing the reinforcement. For example , consider a
continuous beam which requires 1289 mm 2 support steel ( negative moment )
and 860 mm 2 mid - span steel ( positive moment ) . It is obvious that the
exact steel cannot be provided by reinforcing bars. If 3- 20 mm # ( 942 mm 2 )
is provided for the positive moment , 4 - 20 mm # ( 1256 mm 2 ) may be
provided for negative moment ( instead of 4 - 20 mm # + 1 - 12 mm # =
1369 mm 2) considering a small amount of redistribution of moment .
Example 11 - 4.
An R . C . C. floor is used as a banking hall whose plan is shown in fig. 11 - 1 . Design
the beams The slab thickness is 120 mm . Consider live load as 3 kN / m 2
and the floor finish 1 kN / m 2 . Permit 20 percent moment redistribution in the beam .
The rib size shall be 230 mm x 450 mm . The column size is 300 mm x 300 mm for
all columns, and main beams are 300 mm wide x 570 mm overall. The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement at grade Fe 415.
434 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
S o l u t i o n:
( a ) Load calculations and analysis:
Load on slab :
Slab 120 mm thick 0.12 x 25 = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 3 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 3 kN / m 2
Load on beam :
From slab = 3 ( 4 + 3) =
12.00 + 9 kN / m
Self weight = 0.23 x 0.45 x 25 = 2.58 + 0 kN / m
Total 14.58 + 9 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 ( 14.58 + )
9 = 21.87 + 13.5
say ( 22 + 14 ) kN / m .
Three cases are considered for getting maximum values of moments. Case ( a )
gives maximum negative moment at B. The same moment shall be used at C
also because of symmetry . Case ( b ) gives the maximum positive moment in
span BC while the case ( c ) gives maximum positive moments in span AB and
CD. The reader is expected to perform the analysis. The results are given in
figures 11 - 16 ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) .
36 kN /m

85 kN 245.9 kN 183.2 kN 49.9 kN

6m K 6m 6m
Loading
114.9 kN
85 kN 82 kN
2.27 m

«
\l
49.9 kN
2.36 m
.1 kN
131 kN
< >
2.81 m
Shear

100.3 kNm 1.28 m 1.6 m 1.22 m 1.46 m

56.6 kNm
45.6 kNm
+

96.56 kNm
138 kNm
Moment
Case ( a ) Maximum moment at B
FIG. 1116 ( a)
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 435

48.67 kN
191.33 kN 191.33 kN 48.67 kN
h* 6m H - 6m-
Loading
6m — H

108 kN 83.33 kN
48.67 kN

K -
2.21 m 48.67 kN
83.33 kN
108 kN
Shear
1.58 m 1.2 m 1.2 m 1.58 m
H
"
~

53.84 kNm 58 kNm 53.84 kNm

+ +

104 kNm 104 kNm

Moment
Case ( b ) Maximum positive moment in span BC
FIG. 11 - 16 ( b )

90.4 kN 191.6 kN 191.6 kN 90.4 kN

K 6m -6m— 6m H
-

Loading
125.6 kN
90.4 kN 66 kN

2.51 m 66 kN
K -H 90.4 kN
125.6 kN 3m
Shear
113.5 kNm 113.5 kNm
0.98 m 0.98 m
+ H-H +
6.6 kNm

105.6 kNm 105.6 kNm

Moment
Case ( c ) Maximum positive moments in spans AB and CD
FIG . 11 - 16 (c )
436 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
Factored maximum moments:
B or C, negative moment = 138 kNm
AB ( + ) = CD ( +) = 113.5 kNm
BC ( + ) = 58 kNm
BC ( Minimum -ve ) = 6.6 kNm .
The moment redistribution shall be now carried out .
Maximum negative moment 138 kNm . Reduce it by 20 per cent .
=
Then Mu = 0.8 x 138 = 110.4 kNm .
For all the cases , redistribute ( increase or decrease ) the moment at
B or C = 110.4 kNm ( Hogging) .
The results are shown in figs . 11 - 17 ( a ) , 11 - 17 ( b ) and 11 - 17 ( c ) .
Maximum design moments :
Support B or C = 110.4 kNm > 0.7 x 138 kNm (O. K.)
AB or CD ( + ) = 111.6 kNm > 0.7 x 113.4 kNm
BC (-) = 11.6 kNm
BC ( + ) = 51.6 kNm > 0.7 x 58 kNm .
36 kN / m 22 kN / m D

89.6 kN 234.4 kN 192.4 kN 47.6 kN

K 6m 6m 6m -H

Loading

108 kN
89.6 kN 84.4 kN
2.16 m
4 H

r* >
47.6 kN
2.49 m
108 kN
126 kN
H —3m H
Shear
111.6 1.12 m 1.31 m 1.31 m 1.67 m
H > \ < -H
51.6 kNm
—
< H* - H
' 51.32 kNm
x.
N
+ ^ +

2.49 m
-H
\>
V
/
/
/

—
A
/
/.
/
/ „
4
2.16 m
\ /110.4
\ /
110.4
3m H
Elastic moments
Moment Redistributed moments
Case ( a )
FIG . 11 - 17 ( a )
Art . 11 - 7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 437

47.6 kN 192.4 kN 192.4 kN 47.6 kN

< 6m 6m 6m >

Loading
108 kN
84.4 kN
47.6 kN
2.16 m
*

47.6 kN
2.16 m 84.4 kN
108 kN
Shear
1.68 m 1.31 m 1.31 m 1.68 m
—
51.3 kNm H— H H 51.6 kNm < H — 51.3 kNm
-H ±
\
+
K H- H
2.16 m 2.16 m
110.4 kNm 110.4 kNm
Moment Elastic moment
Redistributed moment
Case ( b )
FIG . 11 - 17 ( b)

89.6 kN 192.4 kN 192.4 kN 89.6 kN

« 6m H*
- 6m +~ f< 6m H
Loading
126.4 kN
89.6 kN 66 kN

K
2.49 m 66 kN
126.4 kN H —3m H
89.6 kN

Shear
111.6 kNm 111.6 kNm

110.4 kNm 110.4 kNm

-- Elastic moment
Moment
Case ( c )
— Redistributed moment

FIG . l 1 - 17 ( c)
438 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
The design shear diagram is shown in fig. 11 - 18 .
Note that after redistribution , the design positive moments also have been
reduced .
36 kN / m 36 kN / m 36 kN /m

H 6m H«- 6m H

(a ) Beam
126.4 kN
89.6 kN 110.4 kN

110.4 kN 89.6 kN
126.4 kN
( b) Design shear diagram
FIG . 11 - 18
( b ) Design for flexure :
Span AB or CD:
Mu (+) = 111.6 kNm .
The beam acts as a flanged beam

bf
to
g + w + 6 D(
"

*
0.7 x 6000
if = 6 + 230 + 6 x 120
= 1650 mm > 3000 mm .
Assuming one layer of 20 mm diameter bars
d = 450 + 120 - 30 - 10 = 530 mm .
0.205 x
Minimum ^4 st = 100
230 x 530 = 250 mm 2

if 1650
230 =
7.17
bw
Df 120
530 =
0.226
D
Mu Jim
= 0.674 , from table 6 - 10
/ck b w d 2
Mu Jim = 0.674 x 20 x 230 x 5302 x 10 6
'

= 870 kNm > 111.6 kNm

11 1.6 x IQ 6
^ st = 0.87 x 415 ( 530 - 60 )
= 658 mm 2 .
Provide 6 - 12 mm # = 678 mm 2 .
 Art . 11 -7 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 439

Span B C:
Mu ( + ) = 51.6 kNm

^ st —
51.6 x 10
0.87 x 415 ( 530
° - 60 ) = 304 mm 2
Provide 3- 12 mm # = 339 mm 2.
In span A B, curtail 3- 12 # at 300 mm ( 0.05 l ) from A and at 900 mm
( 0.15 / ) from B. Continue 3- 12 # in span B C as required for flexure .
The checks for curtailment are left to the reader.
1500 1500 1500 1500
H >
900 900 900 900
*—H
2- 10 # + 3-16 # ( Extra ) — — 22-1010 ## + 23-16 ## Extra
—
( )
2-10 # + 2- 16 # — 1 - + - 16
r®
2- 10 # 2- 10 # 2- 10 #
- ^TT
£ .
T7
£ rr
T 7 -
*
£ m
.
I I
.
I i I I I J !

B 23 6- 12 # B26 3- 12 # B29 B32

/»
300 300
¥
300
B 10 (230 x 570) Bn ( 230 x 570) B 12 ( 230 x 570) 300
K 6000 6000 *- 6000 >
Ll
<>
D D D D
N 6 mm 6 @ 130 mm c/c N 6 mm (J) @ 130 mm c/c N 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c/c N
S S s s

120
i 2- 10 #
120
i \ w
2- 10 # + 3- 16 # extra at top

450 450
20 # pin
6- 12 # d - 3- 12 #

230 230
Section A - A Section B - B
Details of beams BIQ- B - B
FIG. 11 - 19 ^ ^
Support B or C :
A/ u ( -) = 110.4 kNm
Mu 110.4 X 10 G 1.71 < 2.76.
230 x 5302
bd 2
The section is singly - reinforced .
/> = 0.534 ,
st
^
0.534 x
100 — 230 x 530 = 651 mm 2
440 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
20 % of steel should be carried through the span = 0.2 x 651 131 mm 2 .
Provide 2 10 mm # anchor bars = 157 mm . At support , provide 3- 16 mm #
- 2
extra at top , one of which may be curtailed at 0.15 / = 900 mm from centre
of support B and remaining 2 - 16 mm # at 0.25 l = 1500 mm from B. The
checks for curtailment are left to the reader.
The design for shear and checks for development length , deflection and cracking
shall be carried out as usual . The shear design induces minimum shear reinforcement
i . e., 6 mm p @ 130 mm c / c throughout the beam .
The designed beam elevation and sections are shown in fig . 11 - 19 .
11- 8 . Simplified analysis for uniform loads: As explained earlier , for
three span continuous beam , six different moment distributions are necessary if the
spans are different and the loads are also different . We have also studied about moment
redistribution where some adjustment in positive and negative moments can be made .
The number of moment distributions can be reduced if there is a symmetry in spans,
size of beams, and also in loading. Based on this discussion , it is possible to develop
the moment and shear coefficients for a continuous beam not monolithic with supports .
Using the moment redistribution theory , the coefficients are given in clause 22.5 of
IS : 456- 2000 and are reproduced here .
11- 9. Moment and shear coefficients for continuous beams: Unless
more exact estimates are made , for continuous beams ( capable of free rotation at
supports ) of uniform cross - section which support substantially uniformly distributed
loads jjver three or more spans which do not differ bv more than 15 % of the longest ,
the bending moments and shear forces used in Resign may be obtained usingthe
coefficients given in table 11 - 1 and table 11 - 2 respectively.
^

. TABLE 11 - 1
BENDING MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
Span moments Support moments
Type of load Near middle At middle of
At support At other
next to the interior
of end span interior span
end support supports
Dead load and 1 1 O 1
imposed load ( fixed ) 5 + 12 c. 10

Imposed load ( not fixed ) f' + 10

1
r? + 12
1
- i 1
9
Note: For obtaining bending moment the coefficient shall be multiplied by the total
design load and effective span .
TABLE 11 - 2
SHEAR FORCE COEFFICIENTS
At support next to
Type of load At end the end support At all other interior
support supports
Outer side Inner side
Dead load and
imposed load ( fixed )
0- 0.4 0.6 0.55 ( 37 0.5

Imposed load ( not fixed ) ( lO 0.45 © 0.6 (c? 0.6

W 0.6
Note: For obtaining the shear force , the coefficient shall be multiplied by the total
design load .
Art . 11 - 9 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 441

For moments at supports where two unequal spans meet or in case where the spans
are not equally loaded , the average of the two values for the negative moment at the
support may be taken for design .
Where coefficients given in table 11 - 1 are used for calculation of bending moments ,
redistribution of moment shall not be permitted . This is because the redistribution is
already considered while fixing the coefficients .
Where a member is built into a masonry wall which develops only partial restraint ,
the member shall be designed to resist a negative moment at the face of the support
Wl
of , where W is the total design load and / is the effective span or such other
restraining moment as may be shown applicable. For such a condition shear coefficients
given in table 11 - 2 at the end support may be increased by 0.05.
Example 11 -5 .
Design the beam of example 11 - 4 by using the coefficients .
Solution :
The beam loading and the assumed section is shown in fig. 11 - 20.
1600 ( N .T.S.) -
> >

120
( 22 + 14) kN / m

K
230
( a ) Beam loading ( b) Assumed section

FIG . 11 - 20
( a ) Analysis for shear and moments by using coefficients:
Moments :
1
x 22 x 62 + 1 x 14 x 62
^ u, £
^u G
, j2 10
= 66 + 50.4 = 116.4 kNm
1 x 1 x
M» F 22 x 62 + 14 x 62
' 16 12
= 49.5 + 42 = 91.5 kNm
1 x 1
= M\1 , c ~ - 22 x 62 - - x 14 x 62
10
= - 79.2 - 56 = - 135.2 kNm.
Shears :
Vu( AB ) = Vu [ DC ) = 0.4 x 22 x 6 + 0.45 x 14 x 6
= 52.8 + 37.8 = 90.6 kN
V\i ( BA ) = K (CD ) = 0.6 x 22 x 6 + 0.6 x 14 x 6
= 79.2 + 50.4 = 129.6 kN
K ( BC ) = Vu ( C B ) = 0.55 x 22 x 6 + 0.6 x 14 x 6
= 72.6 + 50.4 = 123 kN .
442 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
The results obtained here by using coefficients may be compared with the
exact results from example 11 - 4 . Note that the coefficients usually give conservative
results . Also the use of coefficients give rise to some uncertainties , e . g ., it
does not indicate the rise of negative moment in span BC. The comparision of
varoius results is tabulated below.
Comparision of moments :

Moment Exact analysis 20 % redistribution Using coefficients

moment in kNm moment in kNm moment in kNm

^A B ( + ) = MCD + 113.5 + 111.6 + 116.4

+ 58 (- 6.6 ) + 51.6 (- 11.6 )
^BC ( + ) + 91.5
A/ B = Mc (-) - 138 - 110.4 - 135.2
Comparision of shears :

Shear
Exact analysis 20 % redistribution Using coefficients
shear in kN shear in kN shear in kN

^AB “

^DC 90.4 89.6 90.6

^BC “

^CD 131 126.4 129.6

^BC “
^CB 114.9 110.4 123
( b ) Design for flexure :
Positive moments :
The moment capacity of tee beam from example 11 - 4 = 660 kNm .
116.6 x IQ 6
Span AB and CD, = 687 mm 2 .
0.87 x 415 ( 530 - 60 ) =
^ st

Span BC, 91.5 x IQ 6

Ast = 0.87 x 415 ( 530 - 60 ) = 539 mm 2
Provide 6 - 12 mm # ( 678 mm 2 ; will do) in span AB and CD. Curtail 2 - 12 mm #
at 300 from A and D ( 0.05 / ) and 900 mm from B and C (0.15 / ) . Continue
5 - 12 mm # in span BC ( 565 mm 2 ) .
Negative moment :
MU B = Mn C = 135.2 kNm
%

b = 230 mm and d = 530 mm

Mu 135.2 x 106
= 2.09 < 2.76 , singly reinforced
bd 2 230 x 5302
p = 0.674 {

0.674
—
^ st 100 x 230 x 530 = 822 mm 2.
20 % i4 st = = 165 mm 2.
Provide 2 - 12 mm # anchor bars throughout the spans. At supports , provide
4 - 16 # extra top . Steel at supports = 226 + 804 = 1030 mm 2 . Curtail 2 - 16 #
at 900 mm from B or C ( 0.15 / ) and 2 - 16 # at 1500 mm from B or C ( 0.25 / ) .
Design for shear , checks for development length , deflection and cracking are
left to the reader.
Art . 11 - 10 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 445

TABLE 11 -3
d = 100 - 15 -5= 80 mm
Steel required
Moment
Point
Mu " u
b d*
Pi ^ st> mm 2
Steel provided

1
(1)
12
x 5.25 x 2.752 1.23 0.369 295 8 mm # @ 400 mm c / c ( bent )
1 4- 10 mm # @ 400 mm c / c
(+) + 10 x 6 x 2.752 ( straight ) = 321 mm 2.
= 3.31 4- 4.53
= 7.84 kNm .
1
(2)
16
x 5.25 x 2.752 0.98 0.289 231 8 mm # @ 200 mm c / c
1 ( alternate bent ) = 250 mm 2.
(+) + x 6 x 2.752
= 2.48 4- 3.78
= 6.26 kNm .
1
( 3) rr x 5.25 x 2.752 1.41 0.429 343 8 mm # @ 400 mm c / c 4- 12
10
mm # @ 400 mm c / c ( extra top )
H + -1 x 6 x 2.752
= 407 mm 2
= 3.97 4- 5.04
= 9.01 kNm .
1
(4 ) x 5.25 x 2.752 1.31 0.396 317 8 mm # @ 400 mm c / c
12
4- 10 mm # @ 400 mm c / c
( -) 4- -1 x 6 x 2.752 ( extra top ) = 321 mm 2.
= 3.31 4- 5.04
= 8.35 kNm .
For distribution steel using mild steel
0.15 x
Minimum area = 1000 x 100 = 150 mm 2 .
100
Maximum spacing = 5 x 100 = 500
or 450 mm , whichever is less i . e ., 450 mm .
Use 6 mm 0 @ 180 mm c / c = 155 mm 2.
Note: Use of 6 mm 0 mild steel for distribution steel is popular even when HYSD
steel is used as main reinforcement for it is more ductile. Moreover minimum
diameter of HYSD steel freely available in market is 8 mm which gives larger
spacing e . g . 416 mm in the given case. Even if the cracking requirements are
satisfied , the usual practice of providing the spacing of bars is 100 mm to
250 mm in slabs.
The above arrangement of bars is shown in fig . 11 - 23. The arrangement of bars
can be done in many ways. If the bars are bent or curtailed , care must be taken
that continuing bars provide ( a ) minimum reinforcement and ( b) check for
development length is satisfied . In this example, alternate bars are bent . When
half the bars are bent , for the remaining bars, the continuing bars provide area
which is more than minimum ( i . e., more than 120 mm 2 ) .
446 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 11
- v I
i 12 mm # @ 400 mm c/c

825
i
i
i
i
i
825
(ext . top ) i
i
825 i
i
i
! 823
i
— 10 mm # @ 400 mm
c/c (ext.top)
( i
i
1 - i
i r
x 1. -1
r
' '
/ ri i i
i 1
—
V y
*
i
i
H 6 mm d @ 180 mm c/c
8 mm # @ 400 mmjc/cj ( bent ) 8 mm # @ 200 c/c
+ 10 mm # @ 400 rpmjc/c ( st.) ( alternate bent )
i

(a ) Plan
8 mm # @ 400 mm c/c ( bent )
+ 12 mm # @ 400 mm c/c (ext .top)
825 825 825 825
t

^
~W'
100 * 80 |rN >
.
» ! *
f \ 9 / f t
* *
» •
275
t
550 550 550 550

_ —
I 6 mm (j) @ 180 mm c/c
8 mm # @ 400 c /c ( bent ) + 8 mm # @ 200 c/c ( alternate bent )
10 mm # @ 400 mm c/c (st . )
2750 2750 2750
( b) Section A - A
Details of continuous slab
FIG . 11 - 23
While selecting the diameter and spacing of the reinforcement, care must be
taken to see that spacing remains the same for all four moments , however ,
diameters may be changed . This may produce , uneconomical design for internal
spans . Some designers curtail the bars at the centre of the support and adopt
different spacing in different spans . However , according to IS : 456 at least
one - fourth bars at the continuous support shall extend along the same face of

the support upto a distance equal to —Ld . If the said method is to be adopted ,

the width of the support shall be equal to

2
i .e .
2 x
—^Ld—
47 # = 31.3 # = 251 mm
for this case . Alternatively the bars can be extended from both the adjoining ^
31.3
spans upto 2
# which would seem odd if different spacing is adopted .
Therefore , the spacing shall be made the same as far as possible , sacrificing
economy sometimes .
( d ) Check for development length :
Span AB is critical for checking this requirement .
At support A
0.4 x 5.25 x 2.75 + 0.45 x 6 x 2.75 = 5.78 + 7.43 = 13.21 kN .
Vu =
A s = 10 mm # @ 400 mm c / c = 196 mm 2
415 x 196
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 196 80 - 1000 x 20 x 10-6 = 5.37 kNm .
Art . 11 - 11 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 451

277
A 138 mm 2.
* 2
415 x 138
Mui = 0.87 x 415 x 138 ( 90 1000 x 20
x 10-6
= 4.34 kNm .
Assuming L0 = 8 #

1.3 " ul
+ LQ LD
4.34 x 10 f>
1.3 x + 8 # > 47 #
12.86 x 103
i .e . # 11.25 mm ( O . K.)
At support B, point of contraflexure is assumed at 0.15 l from B
Vu = 0.6 x 10.15 x 3 - 0.15 x 3 x 10.15
= 18.27 - 4.57 = 13.7 kN
Mu i = 4.34 kNm , as before
LQ = 12 # ( actual anchorage is more than 12 # but LQ is
limited to 12 # or d, i . e . 90 mm whichever is greater ) .

1.3 x 4.34
x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
13.7 x 103
# < 11.77 mm ( O . K. )
( f ) Check for deflection :
Maximum positive moment occurs in span AB. Therefore , this check is critical
in span AB.
100 Ast 100 x 277
1000 x 90 =
0.308
bd
span
Basic
d
ratio = 26
272
= 0.58 x 415 x 277 = 236 N / mm 2
service stress

modification factor = 1.45

—span
j—
ratio permissible = 1.45 x 26 = 37.7
span 3000 ( O . K. )
90 =
actual ratio 33.33
d
( g ) Check for cracking :
This is incorporated in design calculations .
( h ) Sketch :
Designed section is shown in fig . 11 - 25 .
1 1 - 1 1 . R e s t r a i n e d t w o - w a y s l a b s: In restrained two - way slabs, the corners
are restrained and not allowed to lift away from the supports. If this is done , torsion
is induced at corners and the slab shall be suitably reinforced for torsion . According
to IS : 456 - 2000, the slabs spanning in two directions at right angles and carrying
uniformly distributed load may be designed by any acceptable theory or by using
coefficients given in Annex D of IS : 456 - 2000 . This is explained as follows :
452 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
TABLE 11 - 5
BENDING MOMENT COEFFICIENTS FOR RECTANGULAR PANELS
SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WITH PROVISION FOR TORSION AT CORNERS
Long
span
Type of panel coeffi -
Case cients
no .
and moments Short span coefficients ax cty for
considered ( values of / y / / x )
all values
of ly / lx
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
( 1) (2) ( 3) (4) (5 ) (6) (7) (8) 0) ( 10 ) ( ID
1 Interior panels:
Negative moment at 0.032 0.037 0.043 0.047 0.051 0.053 0.060 0.065 0.032
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid span 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.039 0.041 0.045 0.049 0.024
2 One short edge discontinuous:
Negative moment at 0.037 0.043 0.048 0.051 0.055 0.057 0.064 0.068 0.037
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid - span 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.036 0.041 0.044 0.048 0.052 0.028
3 One long edge discontinuous:
Negative moment at 0.037 0.044 0.052 0.057 0.063 0.067 0.077 0.085 0.037
continuous edge .
Positive moment at mid - span 0.028 0.033 0.039 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.059 0.065 0.028
4 Two adjacent edges discontinuous:
Negative moment at 0.047 0.053 0.060 0.065 0.071 0.075 0.084 0.091 0.047
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid - span 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.049 0.053 0.056 0.063 0.069 0.035
5 Two short edges discontinuous:
Negative moment at 0.045 0.049 0.052 0.056 0.059 0.060 0.065 0.069
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid - span 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.049 0.052 0.035
6 Two long edge discontinuous:
Negative moment at 0.045
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid - span 0.035 0.043 0.051 0.057 0.063 0.068 0.080 0.088 0.035
7 Three edges discontinuous
( One long edge continuous ):
Negative moment at 0.057 0.064 0.071 0.076 0.080 0.084 0.091 0.091
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid - span 0.043 0.048 0.053 0.057 0.060 0.064 0.069 0.073 0.043
8 Three edges discontinuous
( One short edge continuous ):
Negative moment at 0.057
continuous edge
Positive moment at mid -span 0.043 0.051 0.059 0.065 0.071 0.076 0.087 0.096 0.043
9 Four edges discontinuous:
Positive moment at mid - span 0.056 0.064 0.072 0.079 0.085 0.089 0.100 0.107 0.056
Art . 11 - 11 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 453

The maximum bending moments per unit width in a slab are given by the following
equations :
A = aYA
. w . / X2 and A/v = av
7 7
. w. / X2 .
where ax and oty are coefficients given in table 11 -5
w = total design load per unit area
Afx , My = moments on strip of unit width spanning / x and / y
respectively
/ x, ly = lengths of shorter span and longer span respectively.
<r 5m -5m 5m >

f
3m 4 3 4

i
3m 2 1 2

3m 2 M 2

3m 2 3 2

Cut out
3m 5

3m 5

Cut out
3m 5

8
3m 7

i
(a )
4 5m H -H

3m 9 lx
2 1
<- >
i 1. Negative moment
at continuous edge
I 41
2.Positive moment
T at mid span
( b) —v -J
(c ) Location of moments
—+
Panel types for two - way slabs and location of moments
FIG . 11 - 26
454 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
Table 11 -5 gives nine separate possible arrangements of two - way restrained slabs.
These possibilities are illustrated in fig. l l - 26 ( a ) and fig. 11 - 26 ( b ) . Fig. 11 - 26 ( c) shows
the location of different moments. The slabs are designed according to rules given in
Appendix C of IS : 456.
/x t
Edge strip
8 A
a*
. •
c
~E I
"
Middle strip to Middle strip /x
<u <D
-tua
xt
CD CD
*
o
UJ /
Edge strip
8 X
h h
8
K
i' y 8 h
* y
(a ) For span / x ( b) For span / y
Division of slab into middle and edge strips
FIG . 11 - 27
Rules for designing two - way restrained slabs :
( 1 ) Slabs are considered as divided in each direction into middle strips and edge
strips as shown in fig. ll - 27 ( a ) and fig . 11 - 27 ( b ) , the middle strip being three -
quarters of the width and each edge strip one - eighth of the width .
( 2 ) The maximum moments calculated as above apply only to the middle strips
and no redistribution shall be made .
( 3 ) Tension reinforcement provided at mid - span shall extend in the lower part of
the slab to within 0.25 / of a continuous edge or 0.15 l of a discontinuous
edge .
( 4 ) Over the continuous edge of a middle strip , the tension reinforcement shall
extend in the upper part of the slab at a distance of 0.15 l form the support ,
and at least 50 per cent shall extend to a distance of 0.3 l
( 5 ) At a discontinuous edge , negative moments may arise . They depend on the
degree of fixity at the edge of the slab but, in general , tension reinforcement
equal to 50 per cent of that provided at mid -span extending to 0.1 l into the
span will be sufficient .
( 6 ) Reinforcement in edge - strip , parallel to that edge , shall comply with the
minimum reinforcement requirements , cracking requirements as explained
previously for one - way slabs and for torsion as explained in ( 7 ) , ( 8) and ( 9 ) .
( 7 ) Torsion reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is
simply supported on both edges meeting at that corner. It shall consist of top
and bottom reinforcement , each with layers of bars placed parallel to the
sides of the slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance of one -
fifth of the shorter span . The area of reinforcement in each of these four
layers shall be three - quarters of the area required for the maximum mid - span
moment in the slab .
( 8 ) Torsion reinforcement equal to half that described in ( 7) shall be provided at
a corner contained by edges over only one of which the slab is continuous .
( 9 ) Torsion reinforcements need not be provided at any corner contained by
edges over both of which the slab is continuous .
/y
( 10 ) Where is greater than 2, the slabs shall be designed as spanning one - way.
/
*
 -
Art . 11 11 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 455

r Edge strip
w n
Middle strips ®s

A
A/
(a ) Plan
K 0.3 / 0.3 / 2 —>
0.1 / i
*H — N--
0.5 A sl
0.15 /
<-
l I 0.15 / 2
^
I
A tL Ast i

i — Cut not more then 50% of bars —' h*

0.15 / 1
-* K
0.25
H
0.15 / 1 0.25 / l 12
Span - / 1 l2
( b) Section A - A
IS requirements for two - way slabs
FIG . 11 - 28
The above requirements are illustrated in fig . 11 - 28. It is important to note that
curtailment of bar can be done only if the continuing bars provide minimum reinforcement
and satisfy the development length requirements. Usually in most cases the bars cannot be
curtailed as they are restricted by these requirements .
Example 11 - 8 .
A part plan of a banking hall is shown in fig. 11 - 29 ( a ) . The slab is restrained with
edge beams . Using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 ,
design slab S\ .
Solution :
Assume 150 mm thick slab .
Self load 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 kN / m 2 wu = 1.5 x 7.75 = 11.62 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.00 kN / m 2
l
Live load = 3.00 kN / m 2
5
5
1. ±
Total 7.75 kN / m 2 .
x
'
The coefficients for moments are shown in fig. 11 - 29 .
( a ) Middle strip :
Muh Mu 3 = 0.047 x 11.62 x 52 = 13.65 kNm .
Mu 2 = 0.035 x 11.62 x 52 = 10.17 kNm .
456 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
H 5m

5m
sor-
Si I |1
T
B
- 0.047
I m <
q 3
-SoJ| Si
D . O

C/3
IS C/3
5
<
5m 1 Middle Strip 1 & 2 ” 0.035
M
m
SI 1 LU
I
A 4 B
*4 4*-3750 -> K 5m
625 625
(a ) Plan ( b) Moment coefficients
FIG . 11 - 29
For M 20 mix and Fe 415 steel ,
Q , = 2.76
13.65 x 106 70.32 mm .
^ required = 1000 x 2.76 =
For positive moment reinforcement
10 - 5 = 120 mm ( second layer ) .
^
provided =
For negative moment reinforcement
^
d = 150 - 15 - 5 = 130 mm (O. K .)
M u ( +) = 10.17 x IQ 6 = 0.706.
bd2 1000 x 120 x 120
/> t = 0.205
0.205 x 1000 x 120
^ st ~
100 = 246 mm 2.
Provide 8 mm # about 200 mm c / c = 250 mm 2.
(-) 13.65 106 x
bd 2
= 1000 x 130 x 130 =
0.81
p t = 0.236
0.236 x 1000 x 130
st 100 = 307 mm 2
Provide 8 mm # about 150 mm c / c = 333 mm 2.
0.12
Minimum steel = 100 x 150 x 1000 = 180 mm 2 .
At discontinuous edges 4 and 5, 50 % of the positive steel is required at top
1
2 —
x 250 = 125 mm 2.
This is less than minimum . Therefore , use minimum steel at locations 4 and 5.
Provide 8 mm # about 260 mm c / c = 192 mm 2.
More steel is provided to match with the torsion reinforcement .
Art . 11 - 11 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 457

( b ) Edge strip :
In edge strip, minimum reinforcement is provided equal to 8 mm # about
260 mm c / c .
( c ) Torsion steel:
3
At corner A Steel required = x 250 = 188 mm 2.
^
Use 8 mm # about 260 mm c / c = 192 mm 2. This will be provided by minimum
steel of edge strip .
1
At corner B Steel required = x 188 = 94 mm 2.
Use 8 mm # about 260 mm c / c = 192 mm 2, provided by the minimum steel .
Note that positive reinforcements are not curtailed because if they are curtailed ,
the remaining bars do not provide minimum steel .
( d ) Check for shear :
At point 1 or 3
5 . 13.65
S. F. = 11.62 x
2
+
5 = 29.05 + 2.73 = 31.78 kN .
100 As 100 x 333
1000 x 130 =
0.256
bd
= 0.362 N / mm 2
k TC = 1.3 x 0.362 = 0.471 N / mm 2 ( 150 mm thick slab ) .
Actual shear stress = 31.78 x 103 = 0.244 N / mm 2.
1000 x 130
At point 4 or 5
S. F. = 11.62 x
5
2 =
29.05 kN
100 As 100 x 250
1000 x 120 =
0.208
bd
Tc = 0.424 N / mm 2
IQ 3
Actual shear stress = 29.05 x 0.242 N / mm 2 ( O . K.)
1000 x 120 =
( e ) Check for development length :
This is critical at point 4 or 5.
At point 4 or 5
Vu = 29.05 kN . No bar is curtailed or bent up.
415 x 250
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 250 \ 20 - 1000 x 20 X 10-6 = 10.36 kNm .
\
Assume L 0 = 8 #

1.3
Ki + L0 Ld
K
where Ll] for M 20 mix = 47 #
x 106
1.3 x 10.36 + 8 # > 47 #
29.05 x 103
which gives # 11.89 mm ( O . K. )
458 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
( f ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic
4
ratio = 26
positive moment steel = 250 mm 2
actual d = 150 - 1 5 - 8 - 4 123 mm
1 0 0 Asl 250 x 100
1000 x 123 =
0.203
bd
246
= 0.58 x 415 x 237 N / mm 2
250 =
service stress

625
—
r
- ®
3750
625

m
<

625
i * Edge strip
; 8 # @ 260 c/c

Middle strip
® 3750
;' A}

Ii 8 # 200 c/c
@
t t

Edge strip
625
S r 8 # @ 260 c/c

—H
Edge strip Middle strip Edge strip
8# @ 260 c/c 8 # @ 200 c/c 8# @ 260 c/c
(a) Bottom plan
- 8# @ 150 c/c
500
r8# @ 200 c/c r 8# @ 260 c/c

cri
8# @ 260 c/c *TJ r 150

H — 1500 >K 1500 H

625
3750 — >
625
( b ) Section A - A

Reinforcement details
FIG . 11 - 30 ( a )
Art . 11 - 11 ] Continuous Beams and Slabs 459

modification factor = 1.68

span
permissible
d
ratio 1.68 x 26 = 43.68
span 5000
actual
d
ratio
123 =
40.65 < 43.68 ( O . K.)
( g ) Check for cracking :
Main reinforcement :
Maximum spacing permitted = 3 x 120 = 360 mm .
Spacing provided = 200 mm ( O . K.)

i T 625
1000
I
500 T f I
I
8# @ 240 c/c
i n
I H
1000

3750
I 500 8 # @ 140 c/c

.
I
8
v ~.
< r
T 'i /

1000 1 625
i kI i 8# @ 240 c/c

8
VO

1000 H 1 500 H 1500 — H

625
3750
8 # @ 140 c/c
— 625
8 # @ 240 c/c 8# @240 c/c
(c ) Top Plan
8# @ 240 c/c
r 8 # @ 140 c/c
8# @ 240 c/c

f 4 4
t
150
X

8# @
8 # @ 180 c/c
240 c/c
u -M-
K 1500 — K 1500 -H -
500
r«
625
-
M k- - 3750 —
625
(d ) Section B- B
Reinforcement details
FIG . 11 - 30 ( b )
460 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 11
( h ) Secondary reinforcement :
The bottom reinforcements are both ways and therefore there is no necessity
of secondary reinforcements. However , top reinforcement in edge strip requires
the secondary steel for tying the bars .
0.12 x
This is 150 x 1000 = 180 mm 2.
100
Provide 8 mm # about 260 mm c / c = 188 mm 2 for uniformity in spacing .
The arrangement of reinforcement is given in fig. 11 - 30. For clarity , top and
bottom reinforcements are shown separately.

EXAMPLES XI
Note: If live load is not given in the data , use suitable live load from IS : 875 . A proper
judgement will be required .
( 1 ) Design a two span continuous beam ABC where AB = BC = 5 m and supported
on masonry walls at A, B and C having 230 mm thickness. The beam is rectangular
( provided at the lintel level of a house ) and carries a characteristic dead load
inclusive of its self weight of 20 kN / m . It also carries a live load of 10 kN / m .
Design the beam using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415, if
( a ) the depth is not restricted , and
( b ) the overall depth is restricted to 450 mm overall .
In both the cases the width of the beam is restricted to 230 mm .
(2) Redesign the beam of example ( 1 ) in both the cases by using 20 % moment
redistribution
(3) Design the beam B - B - B of fig. 11 - 1 if it carries a characteristic dead load
^ ^ equal
inclusive of self weight ^ to 28 kN / m and a characteristic live load of
12 kN / m . Slab thickness is 120 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Solve the problem with classical analysis.
Note: Load from slab may be found by using shear coefficients.
(4) Solve example ( 3) by using 30 % moment redistribution , keeping the same size .
Also comment , if size can be reduced .
(5) Solve example ( 4 ) by using approximate method of analysis given by IS : 456 .
Compare the results of examples ( 3) , ( 4 ) and (5) .
(6) A two span continuous slab ABC where AB = 3.6 m and BC = 3.0 m is to be
designed for a live load of 3 kN / m 2. The slab rests on masonry walls 230 mm
thick . Design the slab by performing actual analysis using different arrangement
of live loads. Give reasons, why the coefficients of shear and moment given by
IS : 456 cannot be used here . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
(7) Redesign example ( 7) by performing 20 % moment redistribution and check whether
the depth can be reduced .
(8) A five span continuous one way slab is to be used for school building. The centre
to centre distance of supporting beams is 3.2 m . Design the slab using M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415
(9) A four span continuous one - way slab is to be used for a marriage hall. The centre
to centre distance of supporting beams is 3.6 m . Design the slab using M 20
grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Art . 12 - 3] Torsion 463

12- 2. Effect of torsion: Provision of reinforcement: The plane of torsion

is perpendicular to the plane of bending moment. Torsion induces shear stresses in the
beam . Because of the torsion a beam fails in diagonal tension forming spiral cracks
around the beam . The behaviour of concrete structures subjected to torsion is complicated
and not clearly understood . As a simplification , the effect of torsion is split up into
( a ) equivalent shear and ( b ) equivalent bending moment. The provision of reinforcement
is then simplified to vertical stirrups in addition to stirrups for diagonal tension
induced due to vertical shear force and longitudinal reinforcement in addition to the
reinforcement required for bending moment .
A space truss analogy for the behaviour of torsion is shown in fig. 12 - 2 . In this
analogy , the longitudinal reinforcements, the stirrups and struts of concrete in compression
together form a space truss to resist the torsion .
The longitudinal reinforcement helps in reducing the crack width through dowel
action and stirrups crossing the cracks resist shear due to vertical loads and torsion .

Longitudinal bars

Stirrups
Concrete strut

Space truss analogy

FIG. 12 - 2
12 - 3. Code provisions: According to clause 41 , IS : 456 design for torsion
shall be made as follows :
General: When torsional stiffness of the member is not considered in analysis , the
minimum shear reinforcements as specified by the code are sufficient . When a section
of the member carries torsion , its effect is divided into two actions as follows:
( i ) additional moment due to torsion
( ii ) additional shear due to torsion .
The section will be now designed for so called equivalent moment and equivalent
shear where
equivalent shear = applied shear due to loads + additional shear due to torsion
equivalent moment = applied moment due to loads + additional moment due to
torsion .
Note that this simplified method is given for solid rectangular sections . For flanged
sections the simplification can be used by substituting b for bw .
For torsion also, like wise shear design , the section located within distance d from
the face of the support may be designed for the torsion as computed at distance d .
The empirical method of determining equivalent shear and equivalent moment is
now described .
464 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12
Design rules: The design rules for torsion as indicated above are based on equivalent
shear and equivalent moment . They are explained below.
( 1 ) Shear and Torsion - Equivalent shear: Equivalent shear , Ve shall be calculated
from the formula :
T
K = Vu + 1.6 -hru ( 12 - 1 )
where Ve = equivalent shear
Vu = shear
Tu = torsional moment
b = breadth of beam .
The equivalent nominal shear stress, Tve is given by

Tve ( 12 - 2 )
bd
The equivalent nominal shear stress, Tve shall not exceed the values of x cymax
as given in table 7- 2 .
If xve does not exceed xc as given in table 7- 1, only minimum shear reinforcement
shall be provided as explained in art. 7-9 . However , if xve exceeds xc , both
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement shall be provided as explained below.
( 2 ) Longitudinal reinforcement : The longitudinal reinforcement shall be designed to
resist an equivalent bending moment Afej , given by
Me \ = Mu + Mt ( 12 - 3 a )
where Mu = bending moment at the cross - section

1 + D
and Mt = Tu 1.7
b ^ ( 12 - 3 b )
where Tu = torsional moment
D = overall depth of the beam
b = breadth of the beam .
If the numerical value of M { as defined by equation ( 12 - 3) , exceeds the numerical
value of the moment A/ u , longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided on the
flexural compression face , such that the beam can also withstand an equivalent
i
moment Afe 2 given by Me 2 = Mt - Afu, the moment Afe 2 being taken as acting
in the opposite sense to the moment M.
( 3) Transverse reinforcement : Two -legged closed hoops enclosing the corner longitudinal
bars shall have an area of cross - section A sv » given by

— ru . * v vu . sv ( 12 - 4 a )
^ sv
bxdx ( 0.87 /y )
+
2.5 ( 0.87 /y )
but the total transverse reinforcement shall not be less than
( Tve - Tc ) b sv
0.87 /y ( 12 - 4 b )

where Tu = torsional moment

Vu = shear force
5V = spacing of the stirrup reinforcement
 Art . 12 - 3 ] Torsion 465

bi = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of the width
dx = centre to centre distance between corner bars in the direction of the depth
b = breadth of the member
fy = characteristic strength of shear reinforcement
Tvc equivalent shear stress as defined in Equation ( 12 - 2 )
=
xc = shear strength of the concrete as specified in table 7- 1.
( 4 ) Distribution of torsion reinforcement : When a member is designed for torsion ,
torsion reinforcement shall be detailed as below.
( i ) The shear reinforcement shall be in the form b
of closed stirrups. The spacing of the stirrups 1
shall not exceed .
+
if" T “

( a ) *1 Jl m m
4
( b ) 300 mm D
d di yi

where *1 , yi = short and long dimensions of

the stirrups .
( ii ) All corners of the members should have a
longitudinal bar. The longitudinal bar shall
be placed as near as practicable to the face .
( iii ) If the cross - sectional dimension of the member
exceeds 450 mm , uniformly distributed
longitudinal side face reinforcement of at least Details of torsion
0.1 percent of the web area shall be provided . reinforcement
Spacing of such reinforcement shall not be FIG. 12 - 3
more than 300 mm . Also the diameter of
such reinforcement may not be less than
10 mm as recommended by the author.
Example 12 - 1 .
A rectangular beam section of size 230 mm width x 400 mm overall depth , is
reinforced with 2 no . 10 mm diameter bars at the top and 3 no . 16 mm diameter bars
at bottom being tension reinforcement . It is subjected to characteristic loads , shear
force of 18 kN , a torsional moment of 1.2 kNm and a bending moment of 18 kNm .
1 Check for the torsion reinforcement . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Mu = 18 x 1.5 = 27 kNm
Tu = 1.2 x 1.5 = 1.8 kNm
Vu = 18 x 1.5 = 27 kN
b = 230 mm
rf = 400 - 30 8 = 362 mm .
Tu
Equivalent shear force Vc = Vu + 1.6 —b
= 27 + 1.6 x 1.8 x 106 x 10-3 = 39.52 kN .
230
466 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12

Equivalent nominal shear stress

39.52 x 103
xve = 230 x 362 =
0.475 N / mm 2

100 As 100 x 3 x 201

bd 230 x 362 = 0.72 .
From table 7- 1, Tc = 0.55 N / mm 2 > xve.
There is no need of torsion reinforcement . However , minimum stirrups shall be
provided .
Using 2 - legged 6 mm diameter M . S. stirrups , Asw = 2 x 28 = 56 mm 2.

Now , ^4 sv
>
"
0.4
0.87 /y
SV

56 0.4
230 x JV
>
“
0.87 x 250 which gives
5V 132.4 mm .
Provide 6 mm d , two - legged stirrups about 130 mm c / c.
Example 12 - 2.
A rectangular beam section of size 230 mm wide x 600 mm overall depth is
subjected to a factored sagging bending moment of 48 kNm ; factored shear force of
48 kN and a factored torsional moment of 18 kNm . Design the reinforcement at the
section . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution:
Mu = 48 kNm b = 230 mm
Vu = 48 kN D = 600 mm
Tu = 18 kNm
Assuming 30 mm cover and 20 mm diameter bars in one layer ,
d = 600 - 30 - 10 = 560 mm .
Tu 18
—
A

Ve = Vu 48 + 1.6 x
b =
Equivalent shear + 1.6 r~
0.23
= 48 + 125.2 = 173.2 kN .
Equivalent shear stress
Ve
Tve
bd
173.2 x 103 1.34 N / mm 2.
230 x 560 =
For M 15 mix from table 7- 2
2
tmax = 2.8 N / mm
Tve = < T c , max ( O . K. )
Assuming tension reinforcement = 0.5 %
TC = 0.48 N / mm 2 < Tve.
Thus, design of torsion is necessary.
Art . 12 - 3] Torsion 467

Longitudinal reinforcements :
Equivalent bending moment
Mel = Mu + Aft
1 + D 1 + 600
= A/U + ru 230 b = 48 + 18
1.7 1.7
= 48 + 38.2 = 86.2 kNm .
Since Mu > Mt , no reversal of moment is considered and therefore steel on
compression side is not required .
Now Me i = 86.2 kNm
86.2 x 10 (i
^ required 2.76 x 230 =
368 mm < 560 mm ( OK. )

To find steel area

Me1 86.2 x 106 1.20
bd 2 230 x 560 x 560
pt = 0.359
0.359 x 462 mm 2.
230 x 560 =
^ st “
100
Provide 3 no . 16 mm diameter bars = 603 mm 2.
d = 600 - 30 - 8 = 562 mm .
At the top provide 2 no . 12 mm diameter anchor bars. Various dimensions are
shown in fig. 12 - 4 .
As the depth of beam is more than 450 mm , side reinforcement shall be provided .
Minimum area on each face
1 0.1 x
230 x 600
2 * 100
= 69 mm 2.
However , use 1 - 10 # on each face at the centre of the web .
526
Spacing of bars =
2 =
263 mm .
Spacing shall not exceed
( 1 ) 300 mm
( 2 ) web thickness = 230 mm .
The second criterion is not satisfied . Therefore , provide 4 - 10 # side face
reinforcement as shown in fig. 12 - 4 .
Area on each face = 2 x 78.5 = 157 mm 2 > 69 mm 2
and spacing =
Transverse reinforcements :
526
—
175.3 mm < 230 mm ( O . K. )

Assuming 8 mm # two - legged stirrups

x4 sv = 2 x 50 = 100 mm 2

. *v
^ sv — Ml ( 0.87 / ) y 2.5 dy ( 0.87 /y ) -
468 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12
Referring to fig . 12 - 4
bx = 230 - 60 - 16 = 154 mm
dx = 600 - 60 - 6 - 8 = 526 mm
x{ = 230 - 60 + 8 178 mm
yi = 600 - 60 + 8 = 548 mm.
18 x 106 4 8 x 1 0 3 *v
Substituting, 100 = 154 x 526 x 0.87 x 415 +
2.5 x 526 x 0.87 x 415
= ( 0.615 + 0.101 )
sv = 0.716 sv
xv = 139.6 mm (i)

> xve 0.87Te fy sv

Also
( - ) b .
Asv 230
As = ^ = 603 mm 2
st r- 2-12 #
100 As 100 x 603
230 x 560 =
0.468
bd
xc = 0.464 N / mm 2. 600 548 526
\4-10/# 175
( 1.30 - 0.464 ) x
230 sy / \
Substituting, IOO i 0.87 x 415 8# @ 135 c/c
i i
which gives Sy < 187 mm ( 2) * H H
3-16 #
Now spacing should not exceed 154
H
(a) = 178 mm 178
+ y\
( b ) *1 178 + 548
181.5 mm FIG . 12 - 4
4 4
( c ) 300 mm
i .e . Sy > 181.5 mm (3)
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and (3) , provide 10 mm 0 two - legged stirrups about 135 mm c / c . The
designed section is shown in fig. 12 - 4 .
.
1 2- 4 G e n e r a l c a s e s o f t o r s i o n: The analysis for torsion in reinforced
concrete beam is done by using the elastic theory. Two most general cases of torsion
are discussed below.
(1) Cantilever slab inducing torsion in supporting beam: A beam i?3 simply supported
at columns for vertical loads and restrained against torsion which is subjected
to torsion due to cantilever slab S 2 is shown in plan in fig . 12 - 5 ( a ) .
[ Note that if level of slab and that of S 2 were the same , 5 2 could be *

cantilevered from 51 w i t h o u t inducing any torsion in beam 2? 3. Here it is

*

assumed that reinforcement of slab 2 is anchored in beam . If the main reinforcement

^
of slab S 2 is anchored in slab S \ through the beam i? 3, upto 12 0 beyond the

torsion in beam 53.] ^ ^ ^

point of contraflexure , Sj and 2 can > e ma e continuous without inducing

Let total load on slab be Wsj , on slab S 2 be Ws2 and load acting directly
on beam ( e . g. self - weight of beam and masonry wall if any ) be
 Torsion 469
Art . 12 - 4 ]

Then total load on beam B 3 is W — ^— sl

+ Wb + Ws 2 - The shear , moment
and torque diagrams for beam B 3 are shown in fig. 12 -5 ( c ) .

Bi
_ _L ±J

W
2
r
®
<N
33
/
Si
7
S2 1
® Shear
W
2
L
32

Bi
"
T T1
Moment
( a ) Plan
Wb (Ws 2 ) a

t t 2
(Ws 2 ) a
Ws , 2
ws 2 Torque
Wsl
W= ^y i + W b + Ws 2
a
4 «--
( b) Section A - A (c ) Diagrams for beam B 3

FIG. 12 -5
Note that beam B 3 is considered as simply supported for vertical loads and
fixed for torsion at column supports . If beam - column joint is assumed rigid ,
partial fixity will be developed at the support . However , such cases are not
considered here . It is possible to develop connection of beam and column such
that beam is simply supported for vertical loads at supports and restrained
against torsion . For vertical loads also , moment resisting connections can be
developed .
( 2 ) Cantilever beam inducing torsion in supporting beam: A beam B % simply
supported at columns for vertical loads and restrained against torsion is
shown in fig. 12 - 6 ( a ) and fig. 12 - 6 ( b ) . W \ and J4^2 are uniformly distributed
loads while W 3 is a central point load on beam B 3 inducing a torsional
moment . The loading, shear , moment and torque diagrams for beam B 3 are
shown in fig. 12 - 6 ( c ) .
470 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12

B1

- h -t - ( W )
W3 Wl + 2

Beam BC
Loading

r
® L (N
/
7
£
w3
ca ® VV 2

W
2 Shear

,
( W + W2 L) W 3L
B1 +~
- -I -4 - £ 8

(a) Plan ;
W2 Moment
W3 a
2
W3 a
W = W| + W 2 + W 3 2
-> H- Torque
a
( b ) Section A - A (c ) Diagrams for beam B 3

FIG . 12 - 6
Example 12 - 3 .
A canopy slab and beam are shown in fig . 12 -7. The beam is simply supported
at supports for vertical loads and fixed for torsion . Live load on slab is 1.5 kN / m 2.
Floor finish is not required . Design the slab and beam . Size of column is
300 mm x 600 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
( 1 ) Design of slab :
Assume the slab thickness as 170 mm at support A and 100 mm at free end B.
Loads on slab are :
A B
Slab self 0.17 x 25 4.25 kN / m 2

0.10 x 25 2.5 kN / m 2
Live load 1.50 kN / m 2 1.5 kN / m 2
Total 5.75 kN / m 2 4.0 kN / m 2
Factored load ( w x 1.5 ) 8.63 kN / m 2 6.0 kN / m 2
Art . 12 - 4 ] Torsion 471

1.8 x 1.8 x
Vu = 2 8.63 + 6.0 = 7.77 + 5.4
2
= 13.17 kN
Mu = 7.77 x 0.6 + 5.4 x 1.2 = 4.66 4- 6.48
= 11.14 kNm
d = 170 - 15 - 4 = 151 mm

MU = 11.14 x 10 (i
= 0.49 N / mm 2,
bd 2 1000 x 1512
100 A ,t
bd = 0.14

0.14 x
1000 x 151 = 211 mm 2 .
=
100 ^ st

Provide 8 mm # @ 230 mm c / c = 217 mm 2.

3 x ( 100 - 15 - 4 )
>^
Spacing
243 mm ( O . K. )
0.12 x 1000 x 170 204 mm 2 .
minimum steel = 100 =
20 kN / m
300
H—H — 1800 — H

x 600
f Column 300 « 5m »

i
i i
Load
50
kN 50
CQ kN

r
® ®
Shear
62.5 kNm
5m

Moment

—
i
i
i 32.8
kNm 32.8
kNm
Plan Torque
225 62
A
170 B :
kN H — 2.2 m —H
i 100
600
Iff
-
> H-
225
kN

300 H 2.5 m
Section A - A Equivalent shear diagram
(a ) Canopy ( b ) Diagrams for Bj

FIG . 12 - 7
 I

472 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12

( 2 ) Distribution steel:
Using 6 mm 0 M . S. bars
0.15 x 170 4- 100
100 = 1000
2 = 203 mm 2.
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 135 mm c / c . As = 207 mm 2.
( 3 ) Shear check :
x 103
= 13.17
1000 X 151 =
0.087 N / mm 2 .
100 As 100 x 217
1000 x 151 =
0.144
bd
k xc = 1.25 x 0.28 = 0.35 N / mm 2 ( safe )
( 4 ) Development length :
= 56 x 8 = 448 mm .
Provide anchorage of 500 mm . The bars are anchored in beam .
( 5 ) Deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 7
100 As 100 x 213
bd 1000 x 151 = 0.141
211
Service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 213 = 238 N / mm 2
modification factor = 1.8
span
allowable ratio = 7 x 1.8 = 12.6
d
span 1800
actual
d
, ratio
151
11.92 < 12.60 ( Safe )
( 6 ) Design of beam :
1.8 x 1.8 x
Load from slab = 2
5.75 + 4.0
2 = 5.18 + 3.6
8.78 kN / m .
Self - weight 0.3 x 0.6 x 25 = 4.50 kN / m
Total 13.28 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 x 13.28 = 19.92 say 20 kN / m .
Torsional moment = 7.77 x ( 0.6 + 0.15 ) 4- 5.4 ( 1.2 4- 0.15)
Tu = 5.83 4- 7.29 = 13.12 kNm / m .
Maximum shear force at support
5
Vu = 20 x 50 kN.
2 =
Maximum positive B . M. at centre
= 20 x 52 = 62.5 kNm .
8
Maximum torque at support
5
x 13.12 = 32.8 kNm .
2
At support :
Mu = 0 b = 300 mm
Vu = 50 kN D = 600 mm
Tu = 32.4 kNm d = 600 - 30 - 10 = 560 mm .
Art . 12 - 4 ] Torsion 473

T
L
32.8
Equivalent shear Ve = Vu + 1.6 -fu- =
1.6 x 50
0.3
= 50 + 174.9 = 224.9 kN .
The equivalent shear diagram for the whole beam is shown in fig. 12 - 7 ( b ) .
Equivalent shear stress
224.9 x 103
T v e = 300 x 560 = 1.34 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm .
2

Assuming tension reinforcement = 0.5 °/o

T c = 0.48 N / mm 2 < xve.

Thus design for torsion is necessary.

( 7 ) Longitudinal reinforcement :
Equivalent bending moment
Mel = Mu + Mt
TU 1 + I 32.8 1 + 600
)

= Mu +
b
= 0 +
^ 1.7
300
1.7
= 0 + 57.88 = 57.88 kNm .
This is less than positive moment at centre and will be taken care with those
reinforcement . However , Mu < M { and reversal of moment shall be considered .
-
Me 2 = Mt Mu = 57.88 0 = 57.88 kNm . -
At support the beam behaves as a rectangular beam .
Me 2 = 57.88 kNm
Me 2 57.88 x 10(i
= = 0.615 N / mm 2
bd 2 300 x 5602
pt = 0.177

^.
0.177 x
s = 300 x 560 = 297 mm 2 .
100
Minimum steel
0.205 x 345 mm 2 .
300 x 560 =
100
Provide 2 - 16 # = 402 mm 2.
It is seen from the bending moment and the torque diagrams that at centre , the
torque is zero and increases towards the support , while positive bending moment
is maximum at centre and decreases towards the support . Design at any section
for longitudinal bars shall be done using the summation Mu + M { as done for
the section at support . In this case , if design for top bars at support and
bottom bars at centre is done , it will be sufficiently accurate .
At centre , Mu = 62.5 kNm .
When moment is small , the effect of ell beam may not be taken into account
to reduce the calculations . Consider a rectangular beam .

Mu = 62.5 x IQ**
= 0.664 N / mm 2.
bd 2 300 x 5602
pt = 0.192
474 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12

0.85 x 100
P t , min
415 = 0.205
0.205 x 300 x
560 = 344 mm 2.
st ~
100^
Provide 4 - 12 mm # = 452 mm 2.
These bars are utilised at support to resist the equivalent moment due to
torsion Afel equal to 57.88 kNm .
As the depth of beam is more than 450 mm , side face reinforcement should
be provided .
Area of one bar required
0.1 x 1 x
300 x 600 = 90 mm 2 on each face .
100 2
Use 1 - 12 mm # on each face at centre.
560 - 35
Spacing =
2 = 262.5 mm .
Spacing should not exceed
( 1 ) 300 mm
( 2 ) Web thickness = 300 mm ( O. K. )
For positive moment reinforcement
452 x 100
fit =
300 x 560 =
0.269

^bd 2
ul
= 0.92

Aful = 0.92 x 300 x 5602 x 10 ~6 = 86.55 kNm .

At support Fe = 224.9 kN .
L 0 = 12 # or deff whichever is greater ( maximum ) = 560 mm .
But actual

1.3 ^ u .
L 0 = 300 mm

+
.'. LQ = 300 mm .

— Lj

1.3 x 86.55
x 106 + 300 > 47 #
224.9 x 103
# 19.48 mm
12 mm . . ( O. K . )
^ provided ~

4- 12 #
( 8 ) Transverse reinforcement :
Assuming 8 mm # two - legged stirrups
A sv = 2 x 50 = 100 mm 2

Tu 600 548 528

^
• sv
( 0.87 /y )
*1 dx
+
2.5 dx ( 0.87 /y )
Referring to fig. 12 - 8 4-12 #
H- 228 -H
= 300 - - 12 = 228 mm
60
h»- 248 -H
d\ = 600 - 60 - 12 = 528 mm H— 300 — H

*1 = 300 - 60 + 8 = 248 mm FIG . 12 -8

Art . 12 - 4 ] Torsion 475

yi = 600 - 60 + 8 = 548 mm
32.8 x 106 50 x 103 sv
Then 100 = 228 x 528 x 0.87 x 415 + 2.5 x 528 x 0.87 x 415
= 0.755 5V + 0.105 5V = 0.86 sy
Sy 116.3 mm (i)
( T v e - Tc ) b
1.34 N / mm 2
Also

100 4
^4 s v
^ 0.87 fy Tc =
(1.34 - 0.369 ) x 300 x
100 x 452 *v
bd 300 x 560 = 0.269 100 i 0.87 x 415
> 123.9 mm (2)
Spacing should not exceed
( i ) *1 = 248 mm

( ii ) *1 + y\ 248 + 548
199 mm
4 4
( iii ) 300 mm i .e . , sy
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3 ,
199 mm
^
) provide 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 115 mm c / c .
(3)

For 300 mm wide beam , minimum stirrups from table 7- 3 is 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c

Vus
for which 121.
d
Fus = 121 x 560 x 10-3 = 67.76 kN
Shear resistance of concrete
0.369 x 300 x 560 x 10 3
Vuc = z c b d = '
= 62 kN
From equivalent shear diagram , this shear occurs at
67.76
x = 2.5 -
225 =
2.2 m .
There is no meaning of changing the shear reinforcement . Therefore provide 8 mm
# @ 115 mm c / c throughout the beam .
The designed section and elevation are shown in fig. 12 - 9.

r® *
4- 12 #
£
2- 12 # 4- 12 # p 8 # @ 1 3 0 c/c, r Shape
I
I T
f
*

>
^ ( A)
5000
L- 4- 12 #
V 600 2- 12 #
300 300 - -
8# @ 115 mm c/c
— Anchored slab bar
D 4- 12 #
N 8 mm # @ 1 1 5 m m c/c throughout ^- 300
S

Elevation Section A - A
FIG . 12 - 9
476 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12
Example 12 - 4 .
For the beam as shown in fig. 12 - 10 , loading from slab is 8 kN / m . Self - weight
of beam and masonry wall above the beam B$ transfers a U . D . L. of 10 kN / m on beam .
Beam BC at centre of beam B % is cantilevered from B $ and carries a U . D . L . of
20 kN / m inclusive of self - weight . Beam B $ is simply supported for vertical loads and
restrained against torsion . Design the beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
18 kN r 27 kN / m
H- 2.5 m -H
76.5 •• 76.5
B1 kN kN
K 5m >
Loading
2.5 m
BC 76.5 9 kN
100 thick slab y kN
E (N
CQ
Z-
/ CQ
-
r* .
T
76.5
9 kN kN
600 2.5 m Shear
B1 106.87 kNm
1
< > W-
300 300 Moment
(a ) Plan 4.05 kNm
4.05 kNm

Torque
( b) Beam diagrams

FIG . 12 - 10
Solution :
Load on By from slab 8 kN / m
Direct load on beam = 10 kN / m
Total 18 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 x 18 = 27 kN / m .
Factored central point load from BC = 0.6 x 20 x 1.5 = 18 kN .
Torque at centre of beam = 0 .
Torque just right or left of the centre of beam
at
18 ( 0.3 + 0.15 )
Tx u =
2 = 4.05 kNm .
Shear force at support
1
Fu =
Maximum B . M . at centre ^
( 27 x 5 + 18) = 76.5 kN.

2.52
= 76.5 x 2.5 - 2 x 27
191.25 - 84.38 = 106.87 kNm .
Art . 12 - 4 ] Torsion 477

The S. F. , B . M . and torque diagrams are shown in fig. 12 - 10.

At centre of the beam
Mu = 106.87 kNm , Vu = 9 kN and Tu = 2.7 kNm
adopt b = 300 mm
1 x 5000
D =
10 = 500 mm .
Assuming 30 mm cover and 20 mm diameter bars in one layer
d = 500 - 30 - 10 = 460 mm .

Equivalent shear Ve = Vu + 1.6 —T u

= 9 + 1.6 x
4.05
0.3 = 30.6 kN .

30.6 x 103
Tve =
300 x 460
= 0.222 N / mm 2 < 0.324 N / mm 2,
being design shear strength for minimum tension reinforcement .
There is no need of designing torsion reinforcement at centre .
Positive B . M . = 106.87 kNm
Mu 106.87 x 10(l 1.68 N / mm 2 .
bd 2 300 x 460 x 460 =
pt = 0.523
0.523 x 300 x 460
^ st ~
100 = 722 mm 2.
Use 4 - 16 # = 4 x 201 = 804 mm 2 .
It may be noted that the beam acts as an ell beam at centre . As long as the beam
is singly reinforced , when considered as a rectangular beam with b = iw, there is
hardly a change in reinforcement , when considered as an ell beam or a rectangular beam .
At centre , provide minimum shear reinforcement 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @
300 mm c / c using table 7- 3.
For positive moment reinforcement
100 x 804
Pt = 300 x 460 = 0.583
M u1
1.848
bd 2
Mul = 1.848 x 300 x 4602 x 10 6 = 117.3 kNm "

4.05
Ve = 76.5 + 1.6 x 0.3 = 98.1 kN.
1.3
Ve
+ £o -
assume L 0 = 12 #

1.3 x 117.3
x 106 12 # > 47 #
98.1 x 103
# < 44.41 mm
^ provided ^ mm (Safe )
478 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12
At support Ve = 98.1 kN
98.1 x 103 0.71 N / mm 2
Tve =
300 x 460 =
100 As 100 x 804
300 x 460 =
0.583
bd
xc = 0.49 N / mm 2
Tve > Tc, design for torsion is necessary.
Vac = Tc b d = 0.49 x 300 x 460 x 10~3 = 67.6 kN .
98.1 kN

55.66 kN
30.6 kN
N— 1.57 m
A C B
1.57 m H
30.6 kN
55.66 kN
98.1 kN
2.5 m 4
— 2.5 m

Equivalent shear force diagram

FIG . 12 - 11
The minimum shear reinforcement for 300 mm wide beam is 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c

for which 121 .

d
Vus = 121 x 460 x 10-3 = 55.66 kN.
From fig. 12 - 11, this occurs at 2.5 - 55.66 - 30.6 x 2.5 = 1.57 m .
98.1 - 30.6
The designed stirrups for torsion are required upto 1.57 m .
Longitudinal reinforcement :
Equivalent bending moment at support
1 + D 1 + 500
^ el “ = Mu + Tu ^b = 0 + 4.05 300
1.7 1.7
= 6.35 kNm .
Positive moment reinforcement designed at centre is sufficient . However , as
Mt > A/ u , reversal of moment shall be considered .
Me 2 = Mt - Mu = 6.35 kNm

Me 2 = 6.35 X 10 (i
= 0.1 minimum steel .
bd 2 300 x 4652
0.205 x
st = 300 x 460 = 283 mm 2
^ 100
Use 3- 12 # = 339 mm 2 at top . These bars will be used anchor bars.
As the depth is more than 450 mm , side face reinforcement should be provided .
Art . 12 - 4 ] Torsion 479

Area of one bar required on each side

1 X 0.1 x
300 x 500
2 100 = 75 mm 2.
Use 1 - 12 # bar as side face reinforcement on each side .
436
Spacing = = 218 mm .

Spacing should not exceed

( 1 ) 300 mm
( 2 ) web thickness = 300 mm ( O. K . )
Transeverse reinforcement :
Assuming 8 mm # two - legged stirrups
Asy = 2 x 50 = 100 mm 2.

^ sv — h dx ( 0.87 /y )
+
2.5 dx ( 0.87 /y )
From fig. 12 - 12 ( b )
b ! = 300 - 60 - 16 = 224 mm *1 = 300 - 60 + 8 = 248 mm
d\ — 500 - 60 - 6 - 8 = 426 mm yj = 500 - 60 + 8 = 448 mm
4.05 x 106 x sv 76.5 x 103 x sv
Then 100 = 224 x 426 x 0.87 x 415 + 2.5 x 426 x 0.87 x 415
= 0.118 5 + 0.199 JV = 0.317
V 5V

sy 315 mm < ( 1)
Ke ~
Tc ) b .
. e . 100 i
( 0.71 - 0.49 ) x
300 x sv
Also
^ *
sv
0.87 /y
i
0.87 x 415
or sv } 547 mm .. (2)
Spacing should not exceed
+ yi
( 2 ) *1
248 + 426
( 1) xj = 248 mm ;
4 4 = 168.5 mm ; ( 3) 300 mm .
i .e .
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and 3 ,
$v
^ 168.5 mm
( ) provide 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 160 mm c / c .
(3)

1570 -t 1
No . of stirrups
160
- = 11 .
Provide 8 mm # @ 160 mm c / c , 11 no ., then provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c
in central portion .
Check for deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 Ast 100 x 804
bd 300 x 460 = 0.583
722
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 216 N / mm 2
804
modification factor = 1.3
480 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 12
span
permissible ——— ratio 1.3 x 20 = 26
span 5000
actual ratio 10.87 ( Safe )
d 460
v V
3- 12 # r 3- 12 #
2- 12 #
r
i
f
A
UI® L 4- 16 # 500 y , ,
d
2 - 12 #

H* 5000

4 - 16 #
D 8# 8# 8# D b 1, = 224 x , = 248 H- b .l -H
N 11 rest 11 N d ,I H— X —H
S 160 300 160 S
= 426 y j = 448 j

K- 300 H —
( a ) Elevation ( b ) Section A - A

FIG . 12 - 12
The designed beam elevation and section are shown in fig. 12 - 12 .

EXAMPLES XII
( 1 ) A tee beam of size 300 mm x 450 mm overall depth is subjected to a factored
shear force of 30 kN , a factored torsion moment of 3 kNm and a factored
bending moment of 42 kNm at the centre . Design the reinforcements . Thickness
of slab is 120 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
( 2 ) A rectangular beam of size 300 mm x 500 mm overall depth is subjected to
factored hogging bending moment of 30 kNm , shear force of 30 kN and a torsion
moment of 16 kNm at support . Design the reinforcement at the given section .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 3 ) A rectangular beam of span 3 m is subjected to a characteristic load of 10 kN / m
inclusive of self - weight . It is also subjected to a characteristic torsion moment of
3 kNm . Design the beam for flexure , shear and torsion . The width of beam is
300 mm . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
( 4 ) The projection of a canopy in fig. 12 -7 is now increased from 1800 mm to 2 m .
The thickness of slab at support is 200 mm and at edge 100 mm . The span of
beam is now 6 m and size of the beam is 300 mm x 600 mm overall . If the other
data remain unchanged , design the reinforcement for the canopy beam . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( 5 ) For the beam as shown in plan in fig. 12- 10 , loading from slab is 10 kN / m .
Self - weight of beam and masonry wall above the beam transfers a U . D . L .
of 12 kN / m on beam . Beam BC at centre of beam B3 is cantilevered from beam
B3 and carries a U . D . L . of 16 kN / m inclusive of self - weight and a point load of
6 kN at the end of a cantilever. Beam B$ is simply supported for vertical loads
and restrained against torsion at supports . Design the reinforcement at the centre
and support of beam B3. The loads are characteristic loads . The materials are
grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
 hapter
STAIRS
ri 3i
.
13- 1 Stair slabs: The staircase is used to give an access to different floors of
a building. The components of stair are shown in fig. 13- 1.
The inclined slab of a stair is known as flight of stair while the straight portion
other than the floor level is known as the landing. While going on flight , one travels
vertically. The landing is provided midway either to turn the position and / or to relax
while going up. The vertical height of the step is known as rise and the available
horizontal distance on a step is known as tread . Tread consists of going and nosing.
The net horizontal distance used in plan is known as going and additional nosing is
provided to get the required tread . This is shown in fig. 13 - 1.
Nosing is not always provided . If the space H — Landing -
>
for staircase is sufficiently available , then nosing Step
is not necessary. However , this is decided by
the Architect in charge . K
Tread
The stairs are grouped into following two Nosing Going
types according to their use . - 4-H

( 1 ) Private stairs
( 2 ) Common stairs .
Private stair is for the use of one family
and common stair is for the use of more than
one family or the stair of a commercial
building, theatre halls , school buildings , etc .
For a private stair , care is taken to see that Nomenclature of a staircase
rise is not more than 200 mm and tread is not FIG. 13- 1
less than 230 mm . These are minimum requirements
and usually a tread of 250 mm to 280 mm and a rise of 175 mm to 200 mm are
provided depending on the space available .
For common type stairs the rise is reduced and tread is increased . This will depend
on the use of the building and the space available . In any case the clear head - way of
2.1 m is required on any step and for a particular flight the diamensions of tread and
rise for aTI steps are kepTme same .
13- 2. Classification of stairs: There are many types of staircases provided
in buildings . Structurally speaking, the types of staircases are two :
( 1 ) Spanning longitudinally e . g., between floor beams of one floor to other floor
or one floor ~ to landing beam .
( 2 ) Spanning in transverse direction i . e. each step is spanning between two parallel
beams or cantilevered from one beam or wall .
According to arrangement of stair , some popular stairs are described below.
( 1 ) Straight stair : This is a long narrow staircase that may or may not have
landing. These stairs are popular in buildings, where the stairs are kept outside
the building. This is shown in fig. 13 - 2 ( a ) .
( 2 ) Dog -legged stair : This consists of two separate opposite flights as shown in
fig. 13 - 2 ( b ) . The clear distance between two flights in plan may be zero to
150 mm . Landing is provided where the two flights meet .
482 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
(3 ) Open well stair : This consists of two or more flights and an open well between
the flights in plan . Two flights open well stair is similar to the dog- legged stair
except that the clear distance between two flights in plan is more than 150 mm
and is structurally spanning between the flights. In general, open well stair has
a stair well which may be used for ventilation purpose or sometimes it is used
as a lift well . Open well stairs are shown in fig. 13- 2 (c ) , fig. 13 - 2 (d ) and fig. 13- 2 ( e ) .
Building inside

4
UP
Ground floor Mid landing Landing at F. F. level
( a ) Straight stair
A B C A B C
S S
E E
o SQ o Cfi

ae
c
X 2 UP , c
E3
E X §
eg X
X
3
-J J
E
X
eg
< \
5
•

a
O
<
s s
F E D F E D
( b ) Dog - legged stair ( c ) Two flight open well srair

A B C Landing
UP-
UP Landing
7\ Open
well \ 7
\7

DN Landing Landing Landing

F E D
( d ) Three flight open well stair (e ) Four flight open well stair
Common types of staircases
FIG. 13 - 2
13 - 3. Design requirements for stair:
( 1) Live loads on stair : This is given in IS : 875 and shall be taken as follows .
( i ) Stairs, landings and corridors for floors in dwelling houses , tenements ,
hospital wards, bed rooms and private sitting rooms in hostels and dormitories,
not liable to over - crowding, the live load shall be 3 kN / m 2 of floor area .
( ii ) Stairs , landings and corridors for the above - mentioned floors liable to
over - crowding and for all other classes the live load shall be 5 kN / m 2 of
floor area.
( iii ) The live load mentioned in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) shall be subjected to a m i n i m u m
of 1.3 kN concentrated load at the unsupported end of each step for stairs
constructed out of structurally independent cantilever steps.
Note that live load on stairs for a given building is 1 kN / m 2.
( 2 ) Effective span of stair: The effective span of stair without stringer beams shall
be taken as the following horizontal distances .
( i ) Where supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning parallel
with the risers, the distance centre to centre of beams.
Art . 13 - 3] Stairs 483

( ii ) Where spanning on to the edge of a landing slab , which spans parallel with
the risers ( fig. 13 -3) , a distance equal to the going of stairs plus at each
end either half the width of landing or one metre , whichever is smaller.
( iii ) Where the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs , they
shall be considered as acting together to form a single slab and the span
determined as distance centre to centre of the supporting beams or walls,
the going being measured horizontally.
\
X Y Span in metres
i i <1m <1m G+X+Y
<L
<1m >1 m G+X+1
I
>1m <1m G+Y+1
Going —
< >1 m >1 m G+1+1
X X G Y Y
Effective span for stairs supported at each end
by landing spanning parallel with the risers
FIG. 13- 3
K- W-H

eo
—
a
r3
G
-

M —
W
2
W The load areas common to
2 two systems to be taken as
Loading one half in each direction
Loading on stairs with open wells
FIG . 13 - 4
(3 ) Distribution of loading on stairs : In the 110 mm
case of stairs with open wells, where spans *+« Loading
crossing at right angles occur , the load 150 mm
on areas common to any two such spans
/
may be taken as one - naif in each direction /
~ /
as shown in fig. 13- 4 where flights or
"

landing are embedded into walls for a

length of not less than 100 mm and are
designed to span in the direction of the 75 mm
flight, a 150 mm strip may be deducted Effective breadth
from the loaded area and the effective
breadth of the section increased by 75 mm Loading on stairs built into walls
for purpose of design ( fig . 13 - 5 ) . FIG . 13 - 5
484 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
( 4 ) Depth of section: The depth of section shall be taken as the minimum thickness
perpendicular to the soffit of the staircase . This is shown in fig. 13 - 1.
1 3 - 4 . R e d u c i n g t h e s p a n: The excellency of the staircase design lies in
providing thickness of stair as small as possible . The staircase is a very important
element of the building which gives a beauty to the building. Therefore , architects require
that when the thickness of stair is visible , it should be as less as possible because
thicker elements usually do not look aesthetic. The designer has to find out the methods
to reduce the thickness which can be best done by reducing the span of the staircase .
Consider the stair of fig. 13- 2 ( a ) , which is supported at plinth level by a beam or
wall from foundation . At the other end , it is supported at the slab level by a beam .
If an intermediate beam can be provided , say at mid - landing, without disturbing any
architectural view , the span of the staircase is reduced . The intermediate beam shall
be provided within the step so that it is not visible . The beam is cantilevered from
the wall because the level of the beam is between the plinth level and the slab level .
We shall see later on regarding how to support this beam . Note that the cost of
providing the beam and its fixity in the wall may be more , however , it reduces the
span and thus it reduces the thickness of stair slab . Also note that the thickness of the
stair is visible if we provide railing for the stair. If a parapet wall is constructed , the
thickness would not be visible . The provision of such intermediate beam is left to the
judgement of the engineer in charge . Here , we discuss the ideas to reduce the span .
For the dog - legged stair of fig . l 3 - 2 ( b ) , at the first sight it seems that it is
supported at slab level by a beam AF and at the landing level by a beam or a wall
CD. The level of each step is different, therefore , the stair spans longitudinally. Now ,
if the supports BC and ED exist , i . e . if these are load bearing walls , the landing slab
BCDE can span between BC and ED supports . The slab BCDE is thus spanning in both
the directions i .e . longitudinally and transversely.
If the landing span is designed to span completely between BC and ED, then its
effect is to reduce the moments in the flights which are spanning between AF and CD.
Such reduction in moment of the flight slab can be done by reducing its span as given
by IS : 456 and is explained in art . 13 - 3. Note that while using the table of fig. 13 -
3, it is necessary that the supports such as BC and ED of fig. 13- 2 are available and
the landing slab would span between these supports.
It is necessary for the designer to completely study about the available supports
and find out the ideas to reduce the span from the available planning. This will not
only reduce the thickness of stair , but also reduce the total load on the building. The
provision of intermediate hidden beams is a very common method adopted on sites
to reduce the thickness of the stair .
Example 13 - 1 .
The arrangement of a dog- legged staircase in a residential building is shown in
fig. 13 - 6. Rise of step is 160 mm and tread is 250 mm . Nosing is not provided . The
materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Design
the staircase .
Solution :
Assume 150 mm thick waist slab . Both the landings can span on walls.
Landing A or B
Self -load 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1.00 kN / m 2
Live load ( residence ) = 3.00 kN / m 2
Total 7.75 kN / m 2
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 485

Pu = 1.5 x 7.75 = 11.63 kN / m 2

Span = 1950 + 150 = 2100 i .e . 2.1 m .
Consider 1 m length of slab .

M = 2.12 x 11.63 = 6.41 kNm .

8
Reinforcement will be in second layer. Assuming 10 mm # bars
d = 150 - 15 ( cover ) - 10 - 5 = 120 mm .
Mu 6.41 x 10 G
= 0.445
bd 2 1000 x 120 x 120
pt = 0.127
0.127 x 1000 x 120
^ st 100 = 152 mm 2.
0.12 180 mm 2 .
Minimum steel = 100 x 1000 x 150 =
Provide 8 mm # about 270 mm c / c = 185 mm 2.
Maximum spacing = 3 x 120 = 360 mm ( O . K.)
Template i
t 230
Y/////////// /////////////Z7/S 230

UP
1 5 9 10 i
900
I

Floor A V B
"
150 1950

20 19 2 900
15 11 T

230 230
i l
900 900
H- H 2250 - K > <
300 230
FIG . 13- 6
( 1 ) Check for shear :
2.1 x 11.63
VK u =
2 = 12.21 kN.
Shear stress = 12.21
x 103
1000 x 120 =
0.102 N / mm 2 < 0.28 N / mm 2 ( too small ) .

(2 ) Check for development length :

Assuming L 0 = 8 # ( HYSD bars )
100 x 185
= 1000 x 120 = 0.154
Mul
= 0.536 ( From table 2 , SP: 16 )
bd 2
= 0.536 x 1000 x 1202 x 10 6
"
= 7.72 kNm
Vu = 12.21 kN
7.72 x 10 (i
1.3 x + 8 # > 47 #
12.21 x 103
which gives # < 21.07 mm ( O. K .)
486 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
( 3 ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 Ast 100 x 185
0.154
bd 1000 x 120 =
152 198 N / mm 2.
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x
185
modification factor = 1.8
span
ratio permissible = 1.8 x 20 = 36
d
span 2100
actual ratio = 17.5 < 36 (O. K. )
d 120
( 4 ) Design of flight :
Span and loading on both the flights are the same . Therefore same design will
be adopted .
Loads :
Inclined length of waist slab for one step
= V2502 + 1602 = 296.8 mm .
Assuming 150 mm thick waist slab
self - load in plan = 296.8 x 0.15 x 25 = 4.45 kN / m 2.
250
Floor finish length for one step
160 + 250 = 410 mm .
Floor finish = 410 x 1 = 1.64 kN / m 2
250
0 + 160 x
Weight of step 25 = 2.00 kN / m 2
2000
Live load = 3.00 kN / m 2
Total 4.45 + 1.64 + 2.00 + 3.00
= 11.09 kN / m 2 .
Pu = 1.5 x 11.09 = 16.64 kN / m 2.
Landing is spanning in
transverse direction . The span 16.64 kN /m
of stair according to discussion 11.63 kN / m 11.63 kN / m
made in art . 13 - 1 and loading 1 , I L,
T T V T T T T T T ' T
for 1 m width of stair is shown
in fig. 13 -7.
Ra = 24.83 kN Rb = 24.83 kN
RA = RB = 0.525 x 11.63 < 2250 mm <-
525 525
-I- 2.25 x 16.64
2 4r 3300 mm -H

= 6.11 + 18.72 Loading on flight

= 24.83 kN FIG . 13-7

x 11.63 - 1.1252 x 5.01

2
Mu = 24.83 x 1.65 - 1.65 2 2
= 40.97 - 15.83 - 3.17 = 21.97 kNm .
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 487

21.97 x 10 ( )

1000 x 2.76 =
99.48 mm
^required
= 150 15 - 5 = 130 mm ( O. K.)
^ provided
Mu 21.97 x 106 1.30
bd 2 1000 x 130 x 130
px = 0.392
0.392 x 1000 x 130
^ st
100= = 510 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # about 150 mm c / c = 523 mm 2 .
0.12 x
Distribution steel = 150 x 1000 = 180 mm 2
100
50 x 1000
spacing of 8 mm # bar = 180 = 277 mm .
Provide 8 mm # about 270 mm c / c = 185 mm 2.
( 5 ) Check for shear :
Vu =
24.83 kN
24.83 x IQ3
= 1000 x 130 = 0.191 N / mm 2
100 4. 100 x 523
1000 x 130 =
0.402
bd
ic = 0.433 N / mm 2 , and k = 1.3 for 150 mm thick slab .
Design shear strength , £ TC = 1.3 x 0.433 = 0.563 N / mm 2
Tv < k x c ( O. K.)
If the reinforcements are provided throughout at bottom , at landing, the bar
will tend to split the concrete as shown in fig. 13 - 8 ( a ) . To avoid this , two
separate sets of bars are used as indicated in fig . 13 - 8 ( b ) .
Note that this is equivalent to a lap at point P and the top bars on both sides
should be extended upto Ld and bottom bars into the support .
Here , Ld = 47 # = 47 x 10 = 470 mm .
Ld
/ H
X Set A
y x
P
L Set B

Straightening of bar induces

tension and splits up the concrete
( a ) Wrong arrangement ( b ) Correct arrangement

Reinforcement details at landing

FIG. 13 - 8
At point P, the bending moment is reduced . If designer wishes and if checks
for shear , development length and curtailment rules can be satisfied ; he or she
can reduce the bars of set B. In such cases instead of reducing the number of
bars, it is advisable to reduce the bar diameter keeping the spacing constant
488 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 13
for the bars of set B , e .g. , for a given problem , 8 mm # about 150 mm c / c
may be used in set B, if other checks are fulfilled . However , in this problem this
reduction is not done and for set B also , 10 mm # about 150 mm c / c are used .
( 6 ) Check for development length :

For pt = 0.402 ,
Mu 1.329
bd 2
1.329 x 1000 x 130* x 10 6
Mu = "
= 22.46 kNm
Vu = 24.83 kN.
Assume LQ = 8 #
(i
1.3 x 22.46
x 10 > 47 #
+ 8 #
24.83 x 103
which gives # < 30.16 mm ( O . K .)
From crossing of bars , the bars must extend upto 47.7 x 10 = 477 say 500 mm .
400 minimum
H H V

* A

150 mm thick waist slab

8# @ 270 c/c
( Landing )
10 # @ 150 c/c
^
8# @ 270 c/c J
10 # @ 150 c/c - T

150
Flight - B

400 minimum
K >

4S. . i 150

L 8 # @ 270 c/c
( Landing )
-10 # @ 150 c/c
8 # @ 270 c/c

Ljr L 1 0 # @ 150 c/c

• 1
f m m.
150 mm thick waist slab
-
J Flight - A
- 8 # @ 270 c/c
( Landing )
FIG . 13 - 9
( 7 ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 Ast 100 x 523
= 0.402
bd 1000 X 130
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 489

510
= 0.58 x 415 x 235 N / mm 2
523 =
service stress

modification factor = 1.38

span
permissible ratio = 1.38 x 20 = 27.6
d
span 3300
25.38 < 27.6 ( O . K.)
130 =
actual ratio =
d
( 8 ) Check for cracking:
Main bars: maximum spacing permitted = 3 x 130 = 390 mm .
Spacing provided = 150 mm ( O. K.)
Distribution bars : maximum spacing permitted = 5 x 130 = 650 mm or
450 mm whichever is less , i . e ., 450 mm .
Spacing provided = 220 mm ( O . K. )
( 9 ) Sketch :
The reinforcements for both the flights are shown in fig . 13 - 9 .
Example 13 - 2 .
Design a single flight staircase of fig. 13 - 10 . The live load shall be 3 kN / m 2 .
Height of the floor = 3.2 m . Riser = 200 mm , tread = 230 mm ( nosing will be
provided to comply with minimum 250 mm tread size ) . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.

Building inside
— 230 mm thick wall
/
/

^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 15|
i

l
-h
i

I
16
/
/
/
/
% I l /

'// '/////
*
150 mm thick masonry - Landing at
parapet 0.75 m high
I slab level
Beam at slab level —
>4 r+
230
3450 mm -H— -1000
230
H -H

FIG . 13- 10
Solution :
Assume 180 mm thick waist slab . Inclined length of waist slab for one step
= V2302 + 2002 = 304.8 mm .
Waist slab self weight in plan
0.18 x 25 x 304.8 = 5.96 + 0 kN / m 2.
= 230
0 + 0.2 x
Weight of steps = 25 = 2.5 + 0 kN / m 2.
2
Floor finish length for each step
= 250 ( 230 tread + 20 nosing) + 200 ( riser ) = 450 mm .
450 x
Floor finish load = 1 kN / m 2 = 1.96 kN / m 2.
230
490 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
Parapet load is assumed to be uniformly distributed on the slab . Parapet load is
0.15 x 0.75 x 20
1 x 1 = 2.25 kN / m 2 .
The total distributed load on the stair are as follows :
( 1 ) Loads on flight :
Waist slab = 5.96 4- 0 kN / m 2
steps = 2.50 -f 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.96 4- 0 kN / m 2
parapet load = 2.25 4- 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 4- 3 kN / m 2
Total = 12.67 4- 3 kN / m 2
Factored load 1.5 ( 12.67 4- 3) = 19 4- 4.5 kN / m 2
( 2 ) Loads on landing :
waist slab ( 150 mm ) 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 4- 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.00 4- 0 kN / m 2
parapet = 2.25 4- 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 4- 3 kN / m 2
Total = 7.00 4- 3 kN / m 2
Factored load 1.5 ( 7 + 3) = 10.5 -
4 4.5 kN / m 2.
Also the end parapet point load
CD = 2.25 x 1.5
(3.75 4 0) kN
= 3.75 kN / m .
( 19 4 4.5) kN/ m
The loading diagram is ( 10.5 4 4.5)
shown in fig . 13 - 11, for M I N I
C
1 m wide stair. A B
Maximum ( + ) ve moment 3.68 m
*4-*1.115 m
When cantilever has only
dead load FIG . 13- 11

-- 52
MBC = 10.5

^ + 3.75 1.115
'
X X

= 6.53 + 4.18 = 10.71 kNm .

RA — 23.5 x 3.68
^
10.71
3.68 = 43.24 - 2.91
= 40.33 kN .
Point of zero shear at

x
40.33
1.71 m
23.5
Mu ( 4- ) = 40.33 x 1.71 - 23.5 x 1.712
2
=
=
68.96 -
40.33 kN.
34.36 = 34.60 kNm .

^ u ( AB )
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 491

Maximum ( - ) ve moment

(-) = 1.1152 x 15 + 3.75 x 1.115 = 13.51 kNm

2
3.68 13.51
^ = 23.5 x 2 + 3.68 = 46.91 kN
u , BA

VuBC = 15 x 1.115 + 3.75 = 20.48 kN.

( 3 ) Positive moment reinforcement :
Mu = 34.60 kNm
d = 180 - 15 - 5 = 160 mm
34.60 x 106 1.35
bd 2 1000 x 160 x 160
pt = 0.409
Asi = 654 mm 2 .
Provide 10 mm # @ 120 mm c / c for which Asi = 654 mm 2 .
$
Basic ratio = 20
d
100 Asi 100 x 654
bd 1000 x 160 = 0.41
654
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 654 = 240 N / mm 2
modification factor = 1.32
S
permissible ratio = 20 x 1.32 = 26.4
S 3680 ( O . K. )
ratio =
160 =
actual 23
d
( 4 ) Negative moment reinforcement :
Mu (-) = 13.51 kNm
d = 150 - 15 - 5 = 130 mm
13.51 x 106
1000 x 130 x 130 =
0.8
bd 2
p { = 0.233, /lst = 303 mm 2.
Provide 8 mm # @ 120 mm c / c with
Ast = 416 mm 2, to match the spacing of bars .
5 ratio
Basic
d = 7

100 Ast 100 x 416

bd 1000 x 130 = 0.32

415 x
303
service stress = 0.58 x 416
175 N / mm 2
modification factor = 1.95
permissible
d
S
—s ratio = 7 x 1.95
1150
= 13.65

actual
d
ratio = 130 = 8.84 ( O. K . )
492 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
( 5 ) Check for shear :
At A, shear AB, Vu = 40.33 kN
100 As 100 x 654
1000 x 160 =
0.41
hi
= 0.437 N / mm 2
k = 1.20
kzc = 1.2 x 0.437 = 0.524 N / mm 2
40.33 x IQ3
TV = 1000 x 160
= 0.252 N / mm 2.
Tv< *46.91
TC ( O. K. )
At B, shear BA, Vu = kN
100 As 100 x 416
1000 x 160 =
0.26
bd
xc = 0.364 N / mm 2
k = 1.2
k xc = 1.2 x 0.364 = 0.437 N / mm 2
46.91 x IQ3
Tv = 1000 x 160 =
0.293 N / mm 2
Tv < kxc ( O . K .)
At B, shear BC, Fu = 20.48 kN
100 x 416
Pt = 1000 x 130 = 0.32
x c = 0.393 N / mm 2
k = 1.3
ATC = 1.3 x 0.393 = 0.51 N / mm 2
20.48 x IQ3
Tv = 1000 x 130 = 0.158 N / mm 2
Tv < * TC ( O . K .)
At point of contraflexure (0.15 / from B )
Vu = 46.91 - 0.15 x 3.68 x 23.5 = 33.94 kN
33.94 x 103
Tv = 1000 x 160
= 0.212 N / mm 2
k TC = 0.524 N / mm 2 ( as before)
TV < k xc ( O. K. )
( 6 ) Development length :
At A , Pt = 0.41,
Mn = 1.35
bd 2
Mul = 1.35 x 1000 x 1602 x 10 6
'
= 34.56 kNm
Vu = 40.33 kN
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 493

Mu1
I' d
1.3
K
+
^ 0 -

1.3 x 34.56 x 106 + 8 # > 47 #

40.33 x 103
# < 28.56 mm ( O. K.)
At point of contraflexure

1.3 x 34.56 x 106 + 8 # > 47 #

33.94 x 103
# < 33.94 mm ( O. K. )
Development length for negative moment reinforcement
= 47 x 8 = 376 mm (i)
Anchorage beyond point of contraflexure = 12 diameter
i . e ., 0.15 x 3680 + 12 x 8 mm from B
= 648 mm ( 2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) anchorage required = 648 mm .
As a thumb rule provide anchorage of 1000 mm , i.e ., equal to the length of
cantilever.
The negative moment reinforcement is placed in the form of alternate chipiya
as shown in fig. 13- 12.

— 8( mm # @ 120 mm c/c

alternate chipiya )
1000 H

16 , ,
15 150
x
14 Chipiya
13 (8 mm # @ 240 mm c/c)
12 r — Beam at slab level
230 8 mm # @ 230 mm c/c
h«-H 6 - 10 mm # @ 120 mm c/c
200
J 4
5

3
2 180 mm thick waist slab

Plinth level 1
T

Beam with minimum reinforcements

-
«- Wall from foundation

FIG . 13 - 12
( 7 ) Distribution steel :
0.12 x 1000 x 180
In AB portion = 100 = 216 mm 2
8 mm # @ 230 mm c / c = 217 mm 2.
494 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
0.12
In BC portion = 100 x 1000 x 150 = 180 mm 2
8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c = 200 mm 2.
The reinforcement details of the stair are shown in fig. 13 - 12 .
Note: The thickness of stair in cantilever is less than that of internal portion AB. In
construction , the top level is kept constant . At plinth level a small beam over the
masonry is usually provided with minimum reinforcement and with minimum
230 mm x 230 mm size to give proper seating to the stair case .

Example 13 - 3 .
In Example 13- 2, the beam at the slab level is available at the end of the landing.
Design the staircase by using an intermediate beam . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
In this case the horizontal span of the stair will be a simply supported span of
4680 mm . This will demand for larger thickness . Practically speaking, even 150 mm
thickness is more from aesthetic point of view. The designer should try to reduce the
thickness as far as possible .
In the present case , let us propose to provide an intermediate beam within the step
no. 10 . This will approximately divide the span equally.
This beam is a cantilever beam which may not have anchorage inside , as the level
of this beam is intermediate between the floor and the ceiling.
Note the following points :
( 1 ) An R . C . C. column might be available at step no. 10 . If it is so , the beam may
be cantilevered from the column . If the column is available at step no . 9 or 11 ,
the position of beam BC\ may be changed accordingly.
( 2 ) The 11 th step may be at linted level ( or 12 th step ) . If loft slab is available
inside the building at this position , the beam may be extended inside to get
required counterbalancing.
( 3 ) If any of the above two arrangements is not available , the beam may be
designed as a cantilever from the wall keeping proper safety. The proper
connections shall be developed to fix the beam in the wall by means of sufficient
counterbalancing . Note that masonry should not be allowed to resist tension .
The third scheme is discussed in this example .
( 1 ) Design of stair :
Provide the intermediate beam in 10 th step . Assume 100 mm thick waist slab .
The loads in the flight AB and landing BC are as follows:
Load AB BC
DL LL DL LL
305
Self 0.1 x 25 x ( sloping) 3.30 + 0
230
0.1 x 25 ( straight ) 2.5 + 0
floor finish as / ex . 2 1.95 -I- 0 1. 0 + 0
step load as / ex . 2 2.50 4- 0
parapet load as / ex . 2 2.25 + 0 2.25 + 0
live load 0 + 3 0 + 3
Total 10.0 + 3 kN / m 2 5.75 + 3 kN / m 2
factored loads 19.5 kN / m 2 13.2 kN / m 2
Art . 13- 4 ] Stairs 495

The loading diagram for 1 m wide 19.5 kN / m

13.2 kN / m
stair is shown in fig. 13 - 13.
Assuming both the spans loaded
with total loads and carrying out
A to B 1m
C
analysis, we get the followings : h* 2.3 m H — - 2.38 m H

( 2 ) Fixed end moments: FIG . 13 - 13

AD = DA = 19.5 x 2.32
12 =
8.6 kNm

DC = 19.5 x 2.382 _ 6.3 x l 3 ( 4 x 2.38 - 3 x 1)

12 12 x 2.383
= 9.2 - 0.25 = 8.95 kNm
6.3 x l 2
CD = 9.2 -
12 x 2.382
x ( 6 x 2.382 - 8 x 1 x 2.38 + 3 x l 2)

= 9.2 - 1.66 = 7.54 kNm .

( 3 ) Free shears:
= x 2.3 = 22.43 kN .
^u , AD
^ DA = 19.5
u, 2
x 2.38 6.3 x 0.5
u
^ , DC = 19.5 2 2.38
= 21.88 kN
2.38 6.3 x 1.88
u , CD = 19.5 x
^ 2 2.38
= 18.22 kN .
( 4 ) Moment distribution :
0.5 0.5
- 8.60 + 8.60 8.95 + 7.54
+ 8.60 + 4.30 3.77 - 7.54
0 + 12.90 - 12.72 0
0.09 0.09
0 + 12.81 - 12.81 0
( 5) Shear correction :
Free shear 22.43 22.43 21.88 18.22
Correction - 5.57 + 5.57 + 5.38 - 5.38
Final shear 16.86 28.00 27.26 12.84
Point of zero <
shear 0.865 m 0.972 m
( 6 ) Positive moments :
x 0.865 - 19.5 x 0.8652
^u ,AD = 16.86 2
= 7.28 kNm
12 84 x 0 972 - 13 2 x 0.9722
Afu DC =
2
= 6.24 kNm .
496 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
( 7 ) Negative moment steel:
d = 100 - 15 - 5 = 80 mm
Mu 12.81 x 106
bd 2 1000 x 80 x 80
= 2.00
Pt = 64 >
°-
Ast = 512 mm 2 .
Provide 10 mm # @ 150 mm c / c = 523 mm 2. The extra top bars are
provided for 0.3 l as shown in figure .
( 8 ) Positive moment steel :
Mu 7.28 x 106 1.14
bd 2 1000 x 80 x 80
Pt — 0.34,
A st = 272 mm 2.
The reinforcement will be kept the same in both , the spans, viz., AD and AC.
Provide 8 mm # @ 150 mm c / c = 333 mm 2 . Larger steel is provided to
match with support steel . Note that at the slab level, scissor type reinforcement detail is
necessary. Required development length = 47 # = 47 x 8 = 376 mm , say 400 mm .
( 9 ) Distribution steel :
Using mild steel
0.15 x
1000 x 100
=
100
= 150 mm 2
Provide 6 mm (J) @ 180 mm c / c = 156 mm 2.
( 10 ) Deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 26
100 Asi 100 x 333
1000 x 80 =
0.416
bd
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x
272
373
= 197 N / mm 2 l
modification factor = 1.58
permissible —span— ratio = 26 x 1.58 = 41.
^
span 2300
80 =
actual ratio = 28.75 ( O . K. )
d.
Check for shear , development length , etc., are left to the reader. The designed
reinforcements are detailed in fig. 13 - 14 .
( 11 ) Design of central beam BC\ :
Loading = 28.00 + 27.26 = 55.26 kN / m . Clear span of the beam is 1 m . The
beam is adjusted in step no . 10 as indicated in fig. 13- 14 . Fig. 13 - 15 shows
the details of this beam . The effective depth d = 209 - 30 - 6 = 173 mm .
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 497

400

,6 T

15 100
A
14 i
13
Beam at slab level
12
11 150 mm c/c
/ JO 8 mm # @

s
'O' 9
8
Beam - BCj adjusted in step no. 10
230 7 ( Refer to fig. 13- 15 for details )
H -H 6 10 mm # @ 150 mm c/c
200
^3
4
5 6 mm 0 @ 180 mm c/c
8 mm # @ 150 mm c/c

2 y
Plinth level 1
100 mm thick waist slab
T

Beam with minimum reinforcements

-*- Wall from foundation

FIG . 13 - 14
The effective span
230
l = 1000 +
2
( centre of wall ) = 1115 mm
178 i e i 1089 mm , whichever is less,
’ 2 =
or / = 1000 +
2
i .e . / = 1.089 m .
,, _
x 54.48 = 32.3 kNm 1.0892
2
Vu = 1.0 x 54.48 = 54.48 kN ( based on clear span )
Mu 32.3 x 10 ( i 4.69 > 2.76.
bd 2 230 x 173 x 173 =
Design as a doubly reinforced section .
d'
d
35
173
0.20. ~
From table 6 - 8 p { = 1.627, >lsl = 647 mm 2
pc = 0.757, ^4 st = 301 mm ^.
Provide 3- 16 # + 1 - 12 # = 716 mm 2 tension reinforcement . Anchorage length
= Lj = 47 x 16 = 752 mm . To provide proper development length , the
reinforcement will be bent by 180 ° ( at top 90 ° bent 4- 90 ° bent at bottom )
forming the chipiya open at tip of the cantilever. These bars are also used at
bottom as anchor bars and compression reinforcement . Note that all the four
chipiya have different depths and are open at the tip of the cantilever.
498 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13

x 103
Tv = 54.48
230 x 173 =
1.37 N / mm 2
100 As100 x 716
1.80
bd 230 x 173
= 0.760 N / mm 2
Fus = ( 1.37 - 0.760 ) x 230 x 173 x 10 ~3 = 24.27 kN .
Use 6 mm 0 two - legged M . S. stirrups with Asv = 56 mm 2.
0.87 x 250 x 56 x 173
sv = = 86.82 mm .
24.27 x 103
0.87 Asv fy 0.87 x 56 x 250
maximum 5V = 132.4 mm
0.4 b 0.4 x 230
0.75 d = 0.75 x 173 = 129.75 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 80 mm c / c .
Clear distance between bars
230 - 2 x 30 - 3 x 16 - 1 x 12
3 = 36.67 mm < 180 mm .
span
Basic
d
ratio= 7.0
p =
{ 1.80
647
service stress= 0.58 x 415 x 716 = 218 N / mm 2
modification factor = 0.92
Pc = 1 - 8
Modification factor = 1.37
span
permissible —span^— ratio = 7 x 0.92 x 1.37 = 8.82
1114
actual
d
ratio =
173 =
6.44 ( O . K.)
The beam reinforcements are detailed in fig. 13 - 15 .
The beam is designed assuming that it is fixed in the wall . Such fixity can be
assumed if there is a column from which this beam can be projected . In this
case , let us provide an R . C . C . beam inside the wall and running parallel to the
wall ( say from 8 th to 12 th tread ) of length 5 x 230 = 1150 mm . The level of
this beam is at 10 th step . The depth of this beam shall be more than 209 mm
say 300 mm . Let this beam be numbered as B\ . Now the bracket BCj may be
projected from this beam . The necessary counterbalancing will be provided by
the loads on beam B\ . If necessary , the length of B \ may be increased .
Now the beam B \ is loaded from top . In limiting conditions , the inverted arch
action will provide more loading on beam The beam Bj is continuously
supported by masonry wall , but is subjected to pure torsion due to beam BC \ .
The torsional moment on B ± is
Tu = 1 x 32.3 = 16.15 kNm .
2
The section of B i ( 230 x 300 mm overall ) shall be designed for torsional
moment of 16.15 kNm . The check for counterbalancing and design of torsion
are left to the reader .
Art . 13 - 4 ] Stairs 499

Provide 3- 16 mm # top bars and 3- 16 mm # bottom bars in beam B\ . Also

provide 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 150 mm c / c .
During construction , the wall is completed upto slab level . The formwork for
stair is provided . Then required length and depth of beam BC \ is provided by
removing the masonry leaving friction grips .
Slab level

BC ,
2- 16 # + 2- 12 # chipiya
* 3-16 # + 1- 12 # —12
,
TB 1 , 2,3,4
4
3
34
400
2 200 109
i 1
109 i
; L 3- 16 # + 1 - 12 #

6 mm @ 80 mm c/c
( 200 + 109 ) + 109
-
H+- 230-W * 1000 Average depth = 2 = 209 mm
( a ) Detail of BCj ( b) Section of BC j

Inverted arch action is called in to play

-A l I
/
/
/

B1 /

\
\ rBCl r; 3- 16 mm # /
w E
r ' i
i
f
< ^ LA i
J 300
/

L I
V 1

3- 16 mm # 8 mm # @ 150 mm c/c
H 9 —
Step Nos.
10 1 1 »-H 12 —H

Remove masonry - keep friction bond

Beam B i - 230 x 400 overall

FIG. 13- 15
Then reinforcement of beam Bj and BC \ are provided . The details for the
beam B\ and BCy are shown in fig. 13- 15.
500 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13

1 3 - 5 . T r e a d - r i s e r s t a i r c a s e: A typical tread - riser stair also called slabless

stair is shown in fig. 13 - 16 . This stair is very popular in modern constructions. The
cost of such a stair is 1.5 to 2.0 times that of the simple stair due to larger cost of
formwork and reinforcement . However , it looks delicate and therefore popular in
modern bunglows , where aesthetic is given more importance .

Parapet
Landing Level \\

9
^ y 160
8
7 U . D. L .
6
U . D.L. \ \
5
v
4 U . D. L.
3
- Slab Level 1 Point load

1 Point load
t
( b) Loading

I
I
<
230 250 each 900 230
( a ) Stair
1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 kN 15.5 kN/ m

> 250 mm each < 935 - >

195
A B
Ra= 34.16 kN Rb = 34.16 kN
< 3380 mm —
(c ) Loading Diagram
FIG . 13- 16
The loading of the stair is considered into two parts consisting of:
( i ) Uniform distributed load on tread
( ii ) Concentrated point loads at the centres of risers.
The loads are indicated in fig . 13 - 16 ( b ) and the loading diagram is shown in
fig . 13- 16 ( c ) . The shears and moments in the stair are found by considering given
spans and support conditions . In the stair shown in fig. 13 - 16, simple supports are
assumed . The moment is sagging inducing the tension at bottom . The required position
of reinforcement is shown in fig . 13 - 17 ( a ) . It can be seen that at every step , the
reinforcement at A and B are bent due to geometry of the stair.
Under the action of applied flexural tension , the reinforcement at A or B has
tendancy to be straighten . At A, this will press the concrete where the concrete is capable
to resist this thrust . However , at B, the straightening of reinforcement will induce spalling
of concrete . As usual , here also we shall apply the scissor type reinforcement details .
Art . 13 - 5 ] Stairs 501

Alternative I given in fig . 13 - 17 ( b ) shows the reinforcement details according to

the above discussion . At first sight, the detailing looks very proper , however , physically ,
the provision of L is very difficult . For 10 mm diameter Fe 415 HYSD reinforcement ,
^
L = 470 mm , whereas L for 8 mm diameter reinforcement is 47 x 8 = 376 mm in
^
concrete of grade M 20 . To ^ adjust this length is usually difficult .

B
A
Concrete spalls at B
, n=-L
A
B
A
^Lj r >

A
( a ) Required position of -
( b ) Alternative 1
reinforcement

(c) Alternative - II

FIG . 13 - 17
Alternative II presented in fig. 13 - 17 ( c) gives a solution for this problem . The
reinforcement is provided in the form of stirrups which can provide complete development
length as shown . Thus the main reinforcement of the tread - riser stair consists of the
stirrups as indicated . The diameter of such bars should be as small as possible ,
preferably 8 mm so that bending and making stirrups of very small width ( due to
small thickness of stair ) will be easier. At every junction of stirrups , minimum three
bars in perpendicular direction are required to tie the stirrups. These bars are used
as distribution reinforcement .
Reducing the thickness by reducing the span is more important here . The delicacy
of the stair is clearly seen here . Therefore , the designer should find out the possible
method of reducing the span . Any riser of the stair can function as an intermediate
beam and help reducing the span if the geometry permits. The practical thickness of
such stairs is 80 mm to 120 mm .
The worked example presented here , explains only the method of design . Reducing
the span may be in the line of Example 13-3 if possible . The distribution reinforcement
with higher diameter may form the reinforcement of the intermediate beam provided
in any selected step .
Example 13 - 4 .
Design the tread - riser staircase of fig. 13 - 16 . The floor finish is 1 kN / m 2 and live
load is 3 kN / m 2 . The width of stair is 1 m . It is not possible to span landing in
transverse direction . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
502 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
S o l u t i o n:
Assume 160 mm thick treads and risers . The uniform and point loads are calculated
as follows with reference to fig. 13 - 16 .
( 1 ) Uniform loads:
Width of stair = 1 m
self weight 0.16 x 25 = 4.0 + 0 kN / m
floor finish 1 x 1 1.0 + 0 kN / m
live load 1 x 3 = 0 + 3 kN / m
parapet 0.75 x 0.15 x 20 = 2.25 + 0 kN / m
Total 7.25 + 3 kN / m
factored load = 1.5 ( 7.25 + 3) = 15.5 kN / m .
( 2 ) Point loads :
Self weight 0.16 x 0.175 x 25 = 0.7 + 0 kN
Floor finish of riser 0.175 x 1 = 0.175 + 0 kN
Total 0.875 + 0 kN
factored point loads = 1.5 (0.875 + 0 ) = 1.3 kN .
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 13 - 16 ( c ) .
3.38 1.3 (0.185
Rft = 15.5 x + + 0.435 + 0.685 + 0.935 +
2 3.38
1.185 + 1.435 + 1.685 + 1.935 + 2.185 + 2.435)
= 26.2 -i- 5.04 = 31.24 kN
RA = 26.2 + 10 x 1.3 - 5.04 = 34.16 kN.
Point of zero shear from A lies at C i . e. at 7 th point load .
u , C = 34.16 x 1.685 - 1.3 ( 1.5 + 1.25 + 1.0 + 0.75 + 0.5 + 0.25)
^
15.5 x 1.6852
2
= 57.55 - 6.83 - 22.0 = 28.72 kNm
d = 160 - 15 - 5 = 140 mm

^ .2C
u 28.72 x 106
1000 x 140 x 140
1.465
bd
0.448 /> , =
0.448 x 1000 x 140
st
^ 100 = = 627 mm 2.
Provide 8 mm # @ 75 mm c / c = 667 mm 2.
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100
bd
^st 100 X 667
1000 x 140 =
0.476
627
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x
667

modification factor
—
=
226 N / mm
1.25
2
Art . 13 - 5 ] Stairs 503

permissible —e ratio = 20 x 1.25 = 25

5 3380
( O . K.)
actual
d
ratio = 140 = 24.14
( 3 ) Check for shear :
Vu = 34.16 kN
100 As 100 x 667
1000 x 140 =
0.476
bd
xc = 0.467 N / mm 2
k = 1.28 for 160 mm overall depth
k xc = 1.28 x 0.467 = 0.598 N / mm 2
x IQ3
= 34.16
1000 x 140 =
0.244 N / mm 2

Ty < kTc ( O . K. )
( 4 ) Distribution steel:
0.12
= 100 x 160 x 1000
= 192 mm 2.
3 no. 8 mm # are provided at each junction of tread and riser. In one metre
length along the span there are 3 x 2 x 4 = 24 no. 8 mm # are provided
with As = 24 x 50 = 1200 mm 2. Too much area is provided .
Note that 6 mm d mild steel reinforcement is not used here because according
to the rules of stirrups reinforcement, it should be bent around the reinforcement
of diameter at least equal to the diameter of the stirrups .
At landing, however 6 mm diameter M . S . bars can be used as distribution
reinforcement , or spacing of 8 mm # bars can be increased .
Provide 8 mm # distribution steel @ 250 mm c / c = 200 mm 2, in landing portion .
Note that if landing slab could span in transverse direction , this reinforcement
would become main reinforcement and could be designed accordingly. Not
only that , but it would have reduced the span of the stair case .
( 5 ) Check for development length :
At A, pt = 0.476

^bd 2ul
= 1.55

1.55 x 1000 x 1402 x 10 6

Mul = "

= 30.4 kNm
Vu = 26.2 kN

1.3
Mui + L0 Ld
1.3 x 30.4
x 106 + 8 # > 47 #
26.2 x 103
38.67 mm .#
The designed reinforcements are shown in fig. 13- 18 .
504 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 13
450 450
H K -H —
160

Beam at landing level

-* - 3-8 mm # (Typical )
-< 8 mm # @ 75 mm c/c
in the form of stirrups

r
Beam at slab level

FIG . 13- 18
1 3 - 6 . C l o s u r e: The designs presented in this chapter can be extended to design
practical staircases . The thickness of stair can be reduced by reducing the span (finding
out suitable arrangement from given conditions ) .
Also, if the deflections are not vvarrented , the thickness can be reduced by increasing
the concrete grade and providing slight cambers to counteract at least the dead load
deflections .
EXAMPLES XIII
( 1 ) Design the stair case of fig. 13 - 6 if the live loadis 5 kN / m 2. Use M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 2 ) A stair - room is 3 m wide . A dog- legged stair is to be provided in two flights for
a floor height of 4.2 m . The rise and tread shall be 150 mm and 300 mm
respectively. The stair is to be used for an office building. Propose the architectural
arrangement and design the flights. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 3 ) Design a single flight staircase of fig . 13- 10 if rise = 175 mm and tread =
275 mm , for the following cases :
( a ) It has cantilever landings at base and the top
( b ) It has an intermediate landing of 1000 mm length .
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcements of grade Fe 415 .
( 4 ) Design a tread - riser staircase for a shopping centre having semi - basement for
going from ground level ( ± 0.0 ) to the plinth level ( + 1.5 m ) . Live load = 5 kN / m 2 .
Use M 20 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade reinforcement .
( 5 ) Design the staircase of fig. 13 - 16 by using an intermediate step beam . The thickness
of the stair should not be more than 80 mm . If necessary provide two intermediate
step beams. Design and detail the step beam / beams in line with Example 13 - 3.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 6 ) Redesign the stair of worked Example 13- 4 by using higher grade concrete and
excluding the deflection check . Intermediate beam is not permitted . The thickness
shall be as smaller as possible . Propose for the cambers to counteract the deflection .
 hapter
LOAD CALCULATIONS - 1
ri 41 .
' Vi1,1

14 - 1. Introductory: In previous chapters, we have studied the complete designs

of beams and slabs. In many problems , the loading on slabs and beams were given ;
in some problems we found out the loading. In this chapter , we shall try to find out
the loading on various elements like slabs and beams systematically. Analysis and
design of a multi - storeyed building shall be kept in mind while reading this chapter.
Before we design any building , it is very necessary to understand the complete
structural system of the building. How the loads act on them , how are they transmitted
from one element to the other , etc ., must be visualized initially. If a loading diagram
of the beam is given , it may be easy to design it , however , the first part of the
problem , i . e. finding out the loads on the beam requires thorough knowledge of the
structural system and the way in which the load transfer takes place .
The buildings are designed to carry some live loads , functional loads and many
other loads during its life span . To carry the loads , we provide the structural systems
like slabs , beams , columns, etc . , which also have dead loads . Functional loads may be
dead loads like tiles , walls, partitions , etc ., and other loads include wind , earthquake ,
impact , etc.
The loads are usually first carried by the slabs although the beams may be subjected
to direct loads. The slabs will transfer the loads to the beams by bending and shear.
The loads on the beams will be transferred to the columns by bending and shear.
Columns will resist loading by axial compression with bending and will transfer them
to the foundations . Foundations will also resist the loads by bending and shear and
ultimately transfer them to the good soil . Thus it is very important to understand the
complete geometry of the building and the sequence of load transfer.
The buildings are subjected to many types of loads as discussed in chapter l . Here ,
we shall limit our discussion to vertical gravity loads , i . e. , dead and live loads. The
other loads are discussed in Vol . II of this book in chapter Load Calculations II .
14 - 2. Loads on slabs: In most cases , the loads on slabs are uniformly distributed
on area . Sometimes, slabs may be subjected to concentrated loads also . The loads on
slab usually consist of :
( 1 ) Self weight of the slab
( 2 ) Floor finish - tiles , finishing, screed , etc .
( 3 ) Live loads
( 4 ) Any other loads if specified .
These are discussed as follows :
( 1 ) Self weight of the slab : Self weight of the slab is found out by using the value
of unit weight of reinforced concrete . In slabs , the weight is specified per
square metre area . According to IS : 456, the unit weight of plain concrete is
24 kN / m 3 and that of reinforced concrete is 25 kN / m 3. The uniform load per
square metre is given by
Self weight = length x width x thickness x unit weight
= 1 m x 1 m x thickness x 25 kN / m 3
= thickness in metre x 25 kN / m 2.
If slab has thickness of 120 mm , we have , the uniform dead load
= 0.12 x 25 = 3 kN / m 2.
506 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14

Loads on slabs are always specified in kN / m 2 (or similar ) unit. Therefore we

may not write length ( = 1 m ) and width ( = 1 m ) of the slab in
calculations . We simply write :
Self weight of slab = t ( thickness in metres ) x 25 kN / m 2 ( 14 - 1 )
( 2 ) Floor finish: Loads of floor finish depend on the type of finishing used . To find
out the weights of different finishes , IS : 875 ( Part I ) shall be consulted . In
most cases we estimate the floor finish as 0.8 to 1.0 kN / m 2. We shall consider
floor finish equal to 1.0 kN / m 2 , unless otherwise specified .
In buildings , the last floor slab , i . e . terrace is usually covered by water - proofing
material for protection against rain . While estimating floor finish loads , such
loads should be taken into account . The floor finish loads for typical floor slab
and terrace will be thus different .
(3 ) Live loads: Live loads on the floors are usually due to movement of furniture ,
people , etc . In a real sense they are not producing uniform loads , but concentrated
loads on some area . They also produce limited impact . To account for these
loads , IS : 875 ( Part II ) specifies uniformly distributed live loads on full areas,
which may be referred . Note that different live loads are specified on typical
floor and on terrace , considering the functional uses of the building. For
example, live load on a typical floor of a residential apartment building may
be taken from IS : 875 ( Part II ) as 2 kN / m 2 .
( 4 ) Any other loads: The designer shall take into account, the other specified and
non - specified loads . Non - specified loads , for example, if in an office building,
the positions of partition walls are not fixed , he or she has to consider extra
loads due to movable partitions ( 1 to 2 kN / m 2 distributed on full area ) .
For a strong and economical design work , the designer should make a survey
for counting the loads . The clients are not expected to remember and specify the
loads. It is the designer who has to make questions regarding the functional aspects
of the building and find out the loads. Some of the usual questions to the Architect
and client are listed at the end of this article.
r Tiles
r Floor slab

Cinder filling Sanitory fittings

Vj

Toilet sunk slab

FIG. 14 - 1
Toilets in the building ( Indian water closet and bath ) are required at the same
level as the floor level . Pan of Indian w / c requires about 400 to 450 mm
depth , which necessiates to make the toilet slabs to sink by 400 to 450 mm
than the usual floor level . [ In the absence of such sunks , the toilets have to
be raised from the floor level , or European toilets have to be provided ] . After
providing the sanitary arrangement , the remaining space will be filled up by
light weight filling like cinder, coal , etc . The section through toilet is shown
in fig . 14 - 1. The slab loads of this toilet should include the additional filling
loads . In ordinary constructions, the voids are filled with brick bat lime concrete ,
the load of which shall be properly calculated . To reduce the loading on such
Art . 14 - 2 ] Load Calculations - 1 507

slabs, it is usual to provide light weight filler materials such as cinder , coal ,
etc . Whatever the filling is considered , proper loads should be taken into
account and should be specified on the structural drawings.
Many times, in some of the balconies and on terrace , gardening is done on
large area . Additional loads of waterproofing, earth filling and water etc . ,
should be taken into account . About 200 mm thick saturated earth and 50 mm
additional water loads would be sufficient , in the absence of proper data. The
section through gardening in shown in fig. 14 - 2 .

K 450 Parapet

Water
Saturated
Terrace — Water proofing 250
“
r
earth

LSlab
Beam

FIG . 14- 2
Designer should also fix up the position of overhead water tank on terrace .
The stair cabin slabs may be treated as bottom slab of overhead water tanks .
Following is a list of a few questions, which should be made before starting
the load calculations :
(* ) Will there be any future extension of this building ? If yes , specify whether
it will be vertical , horizontal or both .
( ii ) Are you going to provide waterproofing on the terrace ? Of which type ?
( iii ) Are you. going to use some or the whole area of the terrace or some
balconies as terrace garden ?
( iv ) What kind of the filler material will be used for toilet sunks ?
( v ) Specify the positions of lofts in the building.
( vi ) What will be the position of water tank on the terrace ?
( vii ) Will there be any additional heavy, load on the columns ? ( For example ,
a swimming pool of small size may be constructed on terrace . )
( viii ) If the building is longer than 45 m , where will the expansion joint be
provided ?
We have enumerated different loads occurring on the slabs. This is not a
complete list and the designer should study all the functional aspects of the
building which requires a large design experience in the field .
While writing the loads, it is a good practice to specify dead and live loads
separately. If one separate element like a slab , or a beam , is to be designed ,
the total load may be considered . However , when a complete building is to be
designed , one should specify dead and live load separately.
Some of the reasons for doing this are:
( 1 ) When these loads are transferred to columns in a multi - storeyed building,
live load reduction is allowed .
508 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14
( 2 ) While designing for wind and earthquake loads , different load combinations
are required to be worked out . This will necessiate writing the dead and
live loads separately.
Example 14 - 1 .
An R . C . C . slab of 130 mm thickness is to be designed for an office floor where
separate storage facilities are not available . Find out the loading on the slab . Consider
floor finish as 1 kN / m 2 .
Solution :
As the separate storage facilities are not provided , from IS : 875, the live load is
4 kN / m 2 . The loads on the slab are as follows. Note the style of writing the loads:
DL LL
Self weight of slab 0.13 x 25 = 3.25 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.00 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 4- 4 kN / m 2
4.25 + 4 kN / m 2
Total load
The characteristic loads on the slab are ( 4.25 + 4 ) kN / m 2. We shall specify the
first load as dead load and the second as live load .
Example 14 - 2 .
A simply supported one - way toilet slab is 450 mm sunk and 120 mm thick . It will
be filled with cinder filling @ 8.6 kN / m 3. Determine the loads on the slab if it is to
be used as a toilet slab
( 1 ) in residential flats
( 2 ) in cinema theatre .
Solution :
In both the cases , live loads will be different . For residential flats , live load may
be taken as 2 kN / m 2 , but for the cinema theatre toilet, it shall be taken as 4 kN / m 2.
The filling will be considered on all the areas, which will include the loading of w / c
pans, sanitary lines , etc.
( 1 ) Residential flat ( toilet ):
DL LL
Slab self 0.12 x 25 = 3.00 + 0
filling 0.45 x 8.6 = 3.87 + 0
floor finish = 1.00 + 0
live = 0 + 2
Total load 7.87 + 2
. . Total characteristic load on slab is
*
( 7.87 + 2 ) kN / m 2 .
( 2 ) Cinema theatre ( toilet ) :
DL LL
Slab self 0.12 x 25 = 3.00 + 0
filling 0.45 x 8.6 = 3.87 + 0
floor finish = 1.00 + 0
live load = 0 + 4
Total load 7.87 + 4
Total characteristic load on slab is ( 7.87 + 4 ) kN / m 2 .
Art . 14 - 3] Load Calculations - 1 509

14- 3. Loading on beams from one- way slabs: For a rectangular panel of
slab , spanning in one direction , supported by two parallel supports ( beams, walls or any
other supports ) , the loading on both the supports will be distributed equally by symmetry.
Consider a one - way slab as shown in fig. 14 - 3, supported on all four edges by
beams but as / y > 2 / x, the slab will be assumed as spanning one - way. By this
assumption , the loads will be transferred to two parallel beams , vvii z., B j and B :i .
Note that the loads on slab are distributed on areas , while on beams, they are
distributed on lines. Units of loads will be kN / m 2 for slabs and kN / m for beams.
The beams may have to support the loads other than that transferred from slabs.
These may be the self weight of the beam , the loads from masonry directly
supported by beams and the concentrated load from other beams , if any. Although
the beams have finite widths, they are assumed as a line and the loads are found
and distributed on line .

MT
8.2 m c/c beams

T
3 m c/c
Bi
\
3.3 m
floor

-
B2 / height
beams
B4 \ ® /
/
B3
'
«—H
1m
230 thick
i
masonry
( a ) Plan ( b) Section X - X

FIG . 14 - 3
To find the loads on the beam B b consider 1 m length of beam shown shaded
in fig . 14 - 3 ( a ) . While designing the slab ,
we consider 1 m length of slab and
design the slab as a beam of 1 m width . Therefore, the reaction of the slab will
be the load per metre run on the beam . For example, if the slab of fig. 14 -3 ( a )
is loaded with ( 4 + 3) kN / m 2, and has aspan of 3 m , the reaction of slab per
metre length of the beam will be
3 (
= 2
4 + 3) = 6.0 4- 4.5 kN / m .
And this will be the load on the beam from the slab.
Now consider the system of fig . 14 - 4 where a part of the slab is overhanging.
This case is different than that of fig. 14 - 3. In this case , a strip of 1 m length of
slab shall be considered and analysed separately for two cases as shown in fig. 14 - 4 ( c )
and fig. 14 - 4 ( d ) .
(1) Beam B % : When total load is placed on full beam as shown in fig . 14 - 4 ( c ) , the
maximum reaction would occur. Many times , in hurry , the designer considers

load on B% from slab as + 1.315 mj

( DL + LL ) + DL of parapet. In fact ,
the actual reaction on this beam is larger than this value by an amount equal
to shear correction ( i . e ., cantilever moment divided by span , here 3 m ) . Thus
it is necessary to analyse properly and find out the loads correctly.
510 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . 1 [ Ch . 14

( 2 ) Beam B ± : The loading of slab shall be taken from the diagram of fig. 14 - 4 ( d ) .
The reaction of slab will be equal to

(i d l - cantilever3 moment
3
+ 2 LL.
3 ( .DL
The slab loads on this beam may be assumed as + LL ) and will be —
conservative .
[ — 115 mm thick
h* 8.2 m c/c beams r 1 m high parapet
/
/
/
B1 120 mm thick 1
2
N LL = 2 kN / m /
3 m c/c B4 /
beams B2 230 thick / 3.3 m floor
masonry /
/ height
Si X /
Y
0.115 T
A
S2
B3 LL = 3 kN / m 2 i
1.2 m « — Drop wall
1 130 mm thick
4
1 m X

( a ) Plan ( b ) Section X -X

DL + LL DL DL + LL
DL

BI Bi B 7
|
h* 3m >++ > 3m *+* >
1.315 m 1.315 m
(c ) Calculation of load on B 3 ( d ) Calculation of load on B 1

FIG . 14 - 4
14- 4. Wall loads and self weight of beams: These are calculated per
metre run . The load = length x width x depth or height x unit weight . For the beam
load calculations, we consider l m length of the beam . Therefore length = l m , always
and this figure ( i . e ., I m ) may not be written in calculations .
For l m length of the beam
If the depth of web of a tee beam or the depth of a rectangular beam is 400 mm
and width of 230 mm , its self weight is
0.23 x 0.4 x 25 = 2.3 kN / m (i)
If this beam supports a masonry wall of 230 mm thick and 3 m height of unit
weight 20 kN / m 3, the load from the wall is
3 x 0.23 x 20 = 13.8 kN / m (2)
Example 14 - 3 .
The slab of fig. 14 - 3 is 120 mm thick and supports finishing load of 1 kN / m 12 and live
load of 3 kN / m 2 . All four side beams carry 230 mm thick brick walls . The unit weight of
brick wall with plaster may be taken as 20 kN / m 3. Determine the characteristic loads
for which the slab and beams shall be designed . The floor height is 3.3 m , floor to floor.
Art . 14 - 4 ] Load Calculations - 1 511

Solution :
( 1 ) Loading on slab:
DL LL
Self weight 0.12 x 25 = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 3 kN / m 2
Total ( 4 + 3) kN / m 2
The slab should be designed for a load of ( 4 + 3) kN / m 2.
Note that the first figure always indicates dead load while the second represents
live load .
( 2 ) Loads on beams B\ and B % \
Beams B \ and J93 will carry the same load by symmetry. Assume the size of
web ( rib ) of the beam as 230 mm x 600 mm . The height of masonry will be
3.3 - 0.12 - 0.6 = 2.58 m . The load per metre run on the beam is now
calculated .
DL LL

Load from slab

masonry wall
1 ( 4 + 3)
0.23 x 2.58 x 20 =
6.00 + 4.5 kN / m
11.87 + 0 kN / m
self wt . of beam 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 = 3.45 + 0 kN / m
Total load 21.32 + 4.5 kN / m
( 3 ) Loads on beams B 2 and 54:
J

These beams will not carry any loads from slab . They are subjected to the
loads from wall and self weight . Assume the size of rib of the beam as 230 mm
wide x 300 mm deep . Then height of the wall supported by these beams is
3.3 - 0.12 - 0.3 = 2.88 m . The loads are calculated as follows:
DL LL
Load from slab 0 + 0 kN / m
from wall 0.23 x 2.88 x 20 13.25 + 0 kN / m
self weight 0.23 x 0.3 x 25 1.73 + 0 kN / m
Total 14.98 + 0 kN / m
Total laod ( say ) = ( 15.00 + 0 ) kN / m .
Example 14 - 4 .
Determine the loads on beam B 3 of fig. 14 4 ( a ) for a typical floor. Note that the
slab thickness for internal and external slabs are different and also they are subjected
to different live loads. Usually balconies are designed for higher loads than the floor.
Solution :
As discussed in art . 14 - 4, to find the loads on beam B $ from slab , actual loading
diagram of slab shall be drawn . Let us first calculate the loads on slabs.
Sr. DL LL
Self 0.12 x 25 = 3.0 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.0 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 2 kN / m 2
Total 4.0 + 2 kN / m 2
512 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14

% DL LL
Self 0.13 x 25 = 3.25 4- 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.00 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 4 3 kN / m 2
Total 4.25 4 3 kN / m 2
Parapet and drop wall : ( 3.68 + 0 )
( 4.25 + 3 ) kN / m
The depth of drop wall may be (4 + 2) kN / m
considered as equal to that of beam
depth , i .e . , 600 mm in this case
assuming rib of B 3 as 230 mm x K-
A
3m — B
I —
H - -H
C
1.315 m
600 mm .
Weight per metre run FIG. 14 - 5

= 0.115 X (1 4 0.6 )
20 = 3.68 kN / m
X 1 X

Now analyse the slab as per fig . 14 - 4 ( c ) and fig. 14 - 5.

DL :
3 x 2
R' B = - 4 4 1.315 x 4.25 4 1.315 x 4.25 x 1 + 3.68
2 3
1
+ 3.68 x 1.315 x 3
= 6 + 5.59 + 1.22 + 3.68 + 1.61 18.1 kN / m .
LL :
3 x 2
R" B 2 4 1.315 x 3 4 1.315 x 3 x 1
2 2 3
= 3 4 3.95 4 0.86 = 7.81 kN / m .
= R' B 4 R " u = ( 18.1 4 7.81 ) kN / m .
Loads on B 3:
DL LL
From slab as / above calculation = 4 18.1 7.81 kN / m
from wall 2.58 x 0.23 x 20 11.87 4 0 kN / m
self weight 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 3.45 4 0 kN / m
Total 33.42 4 7.81 kN / m
The loads on B 3 are (33.42 4 7.81 ) kN / m . \

.
14 - 5 Loading on beams from two- way slabs: Loading on beams from
two way slab is triangular or trapezoidal . They shall be considered as shown in
fig. 10 - 25 of the earlier chapter.
14- 6. Unit loads: For finding out the loads on a number of slabs and beams of
a large floor , it is better to find out unit loads .
First of all , the structural layout plan shall be drawn , on which the beams and
slabs should be numbered . There may be more than one type of slabs , viz . , with
different thickness , different live loads , different structural supports and different
locations . Slabs may be numbered as 5 j , S 2, £3, etc ., depending on their structural
behaviours and thicknesses shall be assumed ; which require a thorough knowledge and
more practice . Then for different slabs , the loading shall be found out.
Art . 14 - 6 ] Load Calculations - 1 513

The beams in a plan will be numbered like B B$ , etc . Sizes of the beams may
<

be different . It is uneconomical to vary the sizes from ^ beam to beam but for a given
floor , depending upon the functional requirements , 2 or 3 different sizes may be
provided . Then unit loads of ribs of beams for 1 m length of different sizes shall be
found out and listed separately .
For a typical floor of the building , assume that the height of floor on complete
floor area is constant . If the depths of the beams are different , the heights of the wall
they support , will also be different . Unit loads of different thicknesses of walls shall
be found out and listed separately . These loads are listed in kN / m 2 .
In this way , the unit loads for different slabs , self weights of different sizes of
beams , partition and main walls , etc . , should be found out . Usually , no deductions are
made in wall loads for openings like windows , doors , etc .
However , if these openings are large , suitable reduction in the wall loading may
be made at the discreation of the engineer - in - charge . The first page of the load calculations
will be thus consisting of unit loads of various elements .
Example 14 -5 .
For the typical floor level plan shown in fig . 14 - 6 , mark the slabs and beams and
find out loads on beams . Draw the loading diagrams of all the beams . The building
is GF + 4 upper floors with floor height 3960 mm . Consider live load = 4 kN / m 2
on floor and 5 kN / m 2 on balcony and stair.
Solution :
( 1 ) Preparation of structural layout : First of all a structural layout of the floor is
drawn as shown in fig . 14 -7. The slabs are numbered from S \ to the beams
from to BY 3 and columns from Cj to C 18 . In the stair case region , note that
beam ZJ? 14 will be at landing level , usually at or near the lintel level .
( 2 ) Calculation of unit loads :
( i ) Slabs Siy S2 > S3 and S4 , 130 mm thick:
DL LL
Self weight 0.13 x 25 = 3.25 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.00 4- 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 4 kN / m 2
Total 4.25 + 4 kN / m 2
( ii ) Slab S 5 : 120 mm thick :
DL LL
Self weight 0.12 x 25 = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 5 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 5 kN / m 2
( iii ) Stair slab:
Stair slab consists of inclined slab with steps for going and straight slab
for landing .
Landing : 150 mm thick
DL LL
Self 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 + 0 kN / m 2
finish = 1.00 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 5 kN / m 2
Total 4.75 + 5 kN / m 2
514 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14

16730 >
230 230 230
— 4270 3770 *4-K 3770 H 3770 H

w, w, I
w, f
w,
( 1200 x 1500 )
OFFICE 230 x 450 ( typical )
£ 4270 x 3880
D
HALL
8450 1 230 thick
11770 x 7990 brick wall
11380
OFFICE
4270 x 3880 £
D r 1200 x 2250
fl “—r I
I 11 ii
I
SD ,
~

SD , SD ,
I I I I
2700 VERANDAH
UP (Tread = 250, Riser = 165)
1
Typical floor plan
FIG . 14 - 6

115 4500 c/c 4000 4000 4000 115

-HK >H >4f <
B1 B2 B3 B4
225 1 C|
fF \
\ /
/
7
* C2 lc5
I \ Si / 11
II
4110 32
NO
\
\
/
/
\
/
11
I I 22
-
O' I
I
I
CQ
CN

/ \ I
\ II
/
/
/
B \
.
N
\ 11 S2 o
<N S3 C4
S4
i

I CQ CQ C8
' II I
\
\
Si / 11
130 mm I r*l
in I I
\ / I (N

II JT
3890 32
I
/
> < ~
\ 11 CQ
11
thick I
I
CQ

/ \ I
I /
/ ' Bt \
\ M B? Bg B9
i

c 9 if
•t
'
=== -
*= =!i ! C io Cn *====
C 12
i c13
I PM
r~~
3040 S5 i (N

—
32 11200 1 1 32
I I
120 mm thick I
I
32

it
115
f C 14 Bio C 15 B 11 C 16 B 12 C 17 B 13 C 18

>FH
4280
>r4
4000
—H-* *+4
225 4000 4000 225

Structural lay out

FIG . 14 -7
A r t . 14 - 6 ] Load Calculations -1 515

Inclined :
Inclined length per step = + R2
= (2502 + 1652) 1/ 2 = 300 mm .
300
Self weight 0.15 x 25 x
250 = 4.50 4- 0 kN / m 2
0.25 + 0.165
finish 1 x = 1 . 6 6 + 0 k N / m2
0.25
live load = 0.00 + 5 kN/m2
average thickness
step li5 = 82.5 mm -> 0.0825 x 25 = 2.06 + 0 kN / m 2
2
Total 8.22 4- 2 kN / m 2
( iv ) Self weight of beams:
All beams except 2? 2 o 230 x 300 rib
“ B‘i\ “

21 - 230 x 600 rib

230 x 300 rib
20
^ “
^
0.23 x 0.3 x 25 = 1.73 kN / m
230 x 600 rib -> 0.23 x 0.6 x 25 = 3.45 kN / m .
(v) Wall loads:
230 mm thick brick wall is planned everywhere . Assuming 20 kN / m 3
unit weight of wall with plaster , the unit load of 230 + 20 ( plaster ) = 250
mm thick wall is
0.25 x 20 = 5 kN / m 2 .
( 3) Loads on beams:
Now we are ready to calculate the loads on the beams.
( a) B\ - B2 - B% - B± continuous beam :
4.11
B { from slab , trapezoidal load with maximum height = 2
m
4.11 (
4.25 + 4 ) = 8.73 4- 8.22 kN / m .
2
B\ - B‘2 - B $ - B ± UDL from self and wall. B - B % - B ± are not loaded
with slab loads . ^
DL LL
From wall ( 3.96 - 0.13 - 0.3 ) x 2
5 kN / m = 17.65 4- 0 kN / m
self weight 230 x 300 mm = 1.73 4- 0 kN / m
Total = 19.38 4- 0 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig . 14 - 8 ( a ) .
( b) Beam B$ :
4.11
From slab , trapezoidal load with maximum height = m
^
= 2 x ( 4.25 4- 4 ) = 17.47 -
4 16.44 kN / m .
UDL from wall and self weight
17.65 4-
Wall = 0
1.73 4-
self = 0
19.38 4-
Total 0 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 -8 ( b ) .
516 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14
( c) Beam - B7 - - By :
Bft - Loading same as B , as the stair case load will be transferred to
^ and to Byj at slab level .
LB \± at landing level
B? - BH - By
DL LL
From S $ : ( 4 + 5) = .5.86 + 7.33
Wall as / B 1 17.6 5 + 0
self = 1.73 + 0
Total 25.24 + 7.33 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 - 8 ( c) .
(d ) Beam Z? l 0 - Bn - B - #13: DL LL
2? 10 - Wall + self as / i?2 19.38 + 0 kN / m .
Bn - Bl 2 - B 13
2.93
From : f - ( 4 + 5) 5.86 + 7.33
Parapet 1 x 5.0 5.00 + 0
self 1.73 + 0
Total 12.59 + 7.33 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 - 8 ( d ) .
(e) Stair loading :
Staircase slab reactions: The loading diagram of staircase slab is shown
fig . 14 - 8 ( e ) . The reactions per metre width of slab will be the loads on
supporting beams . These are calculated as follows :
Dead load : AB = 4.75 x 1.315 = 6.25 kN
BC = 6.15 x 3.185 = 19.59 kN .
3.8425 1.5925
Reaction on LBU = 6.25 x + 19.59 x
4.5 4.5
= 12.27 kN / m
Reaction on Bn = 6.25 + 19.59 - 12.27 = 13.57 kN / m .
Live load reactions are equal on both the beams
4.5
=5 x 11.25 kN / m .
2
Finally , loads on LBU = ( 12.27 + 11.25 ) kN / m
and loads on By =, ( 13.57 + 11.25 ) kN / m .
( f ) Load on LB14:
DL LL
From stair slab 12.27+ 11.25 kN / m
wall 17.65
+ 0 kN / m
self 1.73-I- 0 kN / m
Total 31.65+ 11.25 kN / m
Loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 -8 (f ) . Note that this beam is at landing
level and is simply supported .
A r t . 14 - 6 ] Load Calculations - 1 517

2.055 2.055
h« —
H H H
0.39
8.73 + 8.22 kN / m ( 19.38 + 0) kN / m
\ ( 31.65 + 11.25 ) kN / m
I
B , B2 B3 B4
4.5 m >+<- 4.0 m *+*- 4.0 m — 4.0 m *H -
f + 3.04 m-H
( f ) Beam LB14
( a ) Beam Bi - B 2 - B 3 - B4
2.055 2.055
<- H < ( 19.38 + 0) kN / m -
0.39
( 8.73 + 8.22 ) kN / m
+ 16.44 ) kN /m

4£ - ( 19.38 + 0) kN / m
B5
h<
Bl 5
— 3.89 m
1
H + 4.11 m -H
H 4.5 m H
( b ) Beam B 5 ( g ) Beam Bls - B 16
2.055 2.055
—
H H
0.39
H ( 27.88 + 8 ) kN / m
( 8.73 + 8.22) kN / m
8.73 + 8.22 kN / m
( 25.24 + 7.33) kN / m
1-

B6 t B7 B8 B9 B17 f Big B 19

4.5 m
— ( 19.38 + 0) kN / m
>+<- 4.0 m 4.0 m — <— 4.0 m H
h* 3.04 3.89 m - H* 4.11 m —*H
( h ) Beam B 17 - BJ 8 - BJ 9
( c ) Beam B6 B 7 - - B8- B 9
( 19.38 + 0) kN / m
£ 12.59 + 7.33 kN/ m
( )
20.45 + 16 kN / m

H
Bio
4.28 m H*
B11
4.0 m
B 12
4.0 m
T B 13
4.0 m -H
B 20
K 8m
( d ) Beam BIQ - Bn - B^ * B 13 ( i ) Beam B 2o
23 + 19.2 kN / m
6.15 + 5 kN /m
4.75 + 5 r B 2I
A
f B
3.185 m
^
C ( j) Beam B 21

( 27.88 + 8 ) kN / m
1.315 m 6.73 + 0
K- 4.5 m H
LB 14 Bn B 22 B 23 B24
( 12.27+ 11.25) ( 13.57+ 11.25)
kN / m kN / m h+ 3.04 m H 3.89 m
—
> *

( k ) Beam B22 - B 2
4.11 m

^-
( e ) Stair loading B 24

Loading diagrams
FIG . 14 - 8
518 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 14

(g) Beam ~
^16: 4.11
Slab load triangular with maximum height of m
2
4.1 1
2
( 4.25 + 4 ) = 8.73 + 8.22 kN / m
UDL : wall = 17.65 4- 0 kN / m
self = 1.73 + 0 kN / m
19.38 + J kN / m
Total
Loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 - 8 ( g ) .
(h ) Beam Byj
_ _
18 519: ^
B 17 - from stair [ refer to (5) ] = 13.57 + 11.25 kN / m
self = 1.73 4- 0 kN / m
Total 15.3 + 11.25 kN / m
^ 18 " & 19 *
From S 2 • ( 4.25 -
4 4) = -
8.50 4 8 kN / m
wall as / B l 17.65 + 0 kN / m
self = 1.73 + 0 kN / m
Total 27.88 + 8 kN / m
4.11
Triangular load from Si as / /? 15 with central height of m
2
= 8.73 + 8.22 kN / m .
Loading diagram is shown in fig . 14 - 8 ( h ) .
(i ) Beam B20:
From slab 4 ( 4.25 + 4 ) = 17.00 + 16
self 230 x 600 rib = 3.45 + 0
Total 20.45 + 16 kN / m
Loading diagram is shown in fig . 14 - 8 ( i ) .
( j) Beam B2\ : <

Load on this beam will be slightly different than B 2 o - The reason is that the
slab S 4 is simply supported on B 24 and continuous over B 2 j . IS coefficients
may be used for such a case . Use dead load shear coefficients from table 11 - 2.
DL LL
From S % : 0.55 x 4.25 x 4 4 0.6 x 4 x 4 = 9.35 4- 9.6 kN / m
-

S 4 : 0.6 x 4.25 x 4 4- 0.6 x 4 x 4 = 10.20 4- 9.6 kN / m

self = 3.45 4- 0 kN / m
Total 23.00 4- 19.2 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 - 8 ( j ) .
00 Beam B22 —^ 23 ~
^
24 *
DL LL
B 22 - Parapet 1 x 5.0 = 5.00 + 0 kN / m
self = 1.73 + 0 kN / m
Total 6.73 4- 0 kN / m
Ex . 14 ] Load Calculations - 1 519

Beam i?23 - 24:

^
From slab |( 4.25 + 4) = 8.50 + 8 kN / m
wall as / 2?! = 17.65 + 0 kN / m
self = 1.73 + 0 kN / m
Total 27.88 + 8 kN / m
The loading diagram is shown in fig. 14 -8 ( k ) .

E X A M P L E S XIV
An office building typical floor plan is shown in fig. 14 - 9 . Draw the loading
diagrams for all beams . Also draw S. F. and B . M . diagrams for beam B 3 - B 4. Design
data is given below :
( 1 ) Planning : Ground floor - Parking
First floor - Contractor’s office
Second floor - Structural engineer ’ s office
Third floor - Architect ’s office .
( 2 ) Building centrally air - conditioned .
( 3 ) Plinth height - 600 mm
Floor height - 3200 mm
Toilet - 450 mm sunk with cinder filling @ 8 kN / m 3.
Distributed partition load - 1.5 kN / m 2.
( 4 ) All R . C . C. columns 300 mm x 300 mm .
900 +<

Beam and parapet wall at slab level • P i

l l l l l l i l l
l l l l l l i l l
i i ii •
oo
c
o
c
1
T
r4

|
Ed
UP
I 1
'

4000
I
BI

Studio
B2
l B 12
i Bg i
BlO
r i
Waiting room I 1
"

i i

3000 I
r
Clerk
B3
glass partition
' H^ T
i
B
D
9
Toilet
'

!
B ii
B7
Li Chamber
Toilet

11 L - JB 5^ - T T B6
— 6000 — + 3000 —
> H

• All internal walls 150 mm thick with plaster )

(
• All external walls 250 mm thick ( with plaster )
Typical floor plan
FIG . 14- 9
 hapter
SIMPLE DESIGNS
^ 151
15 - 1. Introductory: Having understood the basic principles of designs for
elements of structure and also about the gravity load calculations , we shall now
proceed to solve a few simple problems of design .
15- 2. Design S.F. diagram: As stated by the code , where the ends of the
reinforcements are confined by compressive reaction , design shear at the support will
be that existing at distance d from the support provided that the beam carries generally
uniform load or where the principal load is located farther than 2 d from the face of
the support. We shall now use this advantageous provision for most of our designs and
will not check for enhanced shear strength of sections close to the support as discussed
in chapter 7. We may then draw the modified shear force diagram also . This has been
explained in fig. 15- 1.
20 kN / m

k i
V 500
— —
M 4.3 m c/c H
-H
—
0.3 m
K 4.0 m
— -

0.3 m
<-
A st

>
( a ) Beam loading
230
0.5 ni
43
jrr- H - H-K 0 15 m -
0.5 111
3O 4Q 43 kN
0.15
( b ) S . F. diagram
30 kN
0.5 m
KH
HH-

0.5 111 30 kN
N 4.0 m clear
(c ) Modified shear force diagram
FIG . 15 - 1
A beam with 4.0 m clear span , 4.3 m c / c span loaded with 20 kN / m load is shown
in fig. 15 - 1. In many cases the difference between c / c span and clear span is small ,
and c / c span which is considered for bending moment is also considered for shear
calculations. This is just for simplicity , otherwise for shear calculations , clear span
shall be considered . When the ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive
reactions , the shear force at distance d shall be found out and used for the design at
support also . This is shown in fig. 15 - 1 ( c ) .
We shall now work out a few simple practical designs.
Example 15 - 1.
A drawing room of a residential house of clear dimensions 4.0 m x 6.0 m has a
2 m wide x 1.5 m high window opening centrally located on 6 m side wall . The plan
of the room , section through the window and the elevation of the window are shown
in figs . 15- 2 ( a ) , 15 - 2 ( b ) and 15 - 2 ( c ) respectively .
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 521

Design the sunshade and the lintel for the window opening. Assume that the slab
transfers a characteristic load of ( 6 + 4 ) kN / m on the supporting long walls . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
230 T

2000

r
T
6000 Drawing room A 2000 A
4mx6m

2000

230 I
*+ < 4000 > K
230 ( a ) Plan
230
230
>4-K
7
120 thick slab
1 m parapet
1000
r Slab T
7
7
4
120
450 /\ 60° 60° \
450

1500 600
< 2m >

7
750 Floor Floor 7
7
(c ) Elevation ( b ) Section A - A
FIG . 15 - 2
S o l u t i o n:
( a ) Design of sunshade : Assume 80 mm thick sunshade slab . The loads are :
Self weight 0.08 x 25 = 2.0 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 2.5 kN / m 2
Total 2.0 + 2.5 kN / m 2
Note the following:
( 1 ) Floor finish load is not necessary.
( 2 ) Higher live load is assumed as the area is smaller and higher loads may
be observed during construction like supporting upper floor sunshade formwork
while casting or supporting 2 -3 persons while painting work is in progress.
( 3 ) Additional loads may have to be considered if some architectural decorations
are made .
522 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

Now factored load = 1.5 ( 2 + 2.5 ) = 6.75 kN / m 2 .

As only a few elements are to be designed , DL and LL are summed up .
Per metre length of slab , w = 6.75 kN / m .
d I ) ( on
Effective span = clear span + = clear span + — higher side ) —
80 0.64 m .
= 600 +
2 =
640 mm =
Au/ u = a 7 r xv
6.75 ——
0.642 1.38 kNm

Vu = 6.75 x 0.6 = 4.05 kN . ( based on clear span )

Assume 8 mm # bars .
We have
Mu
d. = 80
1.38 x 106
- 15 ( cover ) - 4 = 61 mm .

0.37 < 2.76 .

bd 2 1000 x 61 x 61 =
Design as a singly reinforced section .
p { = 0.105
0.105
Ast = 100 x 1000 x 61 = 64 mm 2
0.12 x
Minimum steel = 1000 x 80 = 96 mm 2.
100
Maximum spacing = 3 x 61 183 mm .
Provide 8 mm # @ 180 mm c / c, ^4st = 277 mm 2.
100 x 277
Pt = 1000 x 61 = 0.454 < 0.96 ( i . e ., piJim ) ( O . K .)
Note that the use of lower size bar , say , 7 mm would be economical , provided
—
it is available in the market . IS : 1786 1985 has introduced HYSD bars of
diameters 4 mm , 5 mm , 7 mm and 9 mm also for manufacturing.
For distribution steel use 6 mm (J> mild steel
0.15
As = 100 x 1000 x 80 = 120 mm 2.
Maximum spacing = 5 x 61 = 305 mm .
Provide 6 mm (J) @ 230 mm c / c = 121 mm 2
Maximum shear , Vu = 4.05 kN
100 As = 0.454
bd
TC = 0.458 N / mm 2.
For 80 mm thick slab , k = 1.3.
Design shear strength k xc = 1.3 x 0.458 = 0.595 N / mm 2 .
=
4.05 x IQ 3
= 1000 x 61 = 0.066 N / mm 2 ( too small ) .
Anchorage required = development length
A
s t, r e q u i r e d 57
= 47 # x = 47 # x
277 =
9.67 #

=
•
^
9.67 x 8 = 78 mm
st, p r o v i d e d
( very small )
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 523

The bars will be anchored as shown in fig . 15 - 3 . This will be used as a

standard detail for all such sunshades . Thickness of sunshade may be reduced
to 60 mm at the tip of the cantilever .
Checking for deflection is not necessary .
230 600 H

Lintel ( Reinforcement not shown for clarity )

- 6 mm 0 @ 230 mm c/c
8 mm # @ 180 mm c/c
so
|60

Alternate chipiya
Details of sunshade ( chajja)
FIG . 15- 3
Note : At the tip of sunshade , alternate chipiya is provided to ensure that the reinforcement
will not sit to bottom rather than remaining at the top .
( b ) Design of a lintel.
It can be observed from fig . 15 - 2 ( c ) that arch action is not possible as the
height of masonry above lintel and below the slab is not sufficient . Therefore ,
the loads on lintel consist of :
( 1 ) Load from parapet in the terrace if this slab is terrace , or masonry in the
upper floor upto cill level assuming the same opening in the upper floor .
Assume 1 m height in both the cases .
( 2 ) Loads from slab
( 3 ) Load from masonry above lintel and below the slab .
( 4 ) Self weight of lintel
( 5 ) Loads from sunshade .
Let the size of the lintel be 230 mm wide x 350 mm deep overall ( 4 brick
layers ) with 350 mm bearing on both the sides . Consider the unit weight of
masonry with plaster be 20 kN / m 3 and thickness of wall ( 230 mm + 20 mm
plaster ) as 250 mm . The moment from sunshade will induce torsion in lintel ,
but is neglected here being a small quantity .
( i ) Loads on lintel :
From slab = 6.00 + 4.0 kN / m
Wall ( 1 4- 0.45 ) x 0.25 x 1 x 20 = 7.25 + 0 kN / m
From sunshade 0.6 ( 2.0 + 2.5 ) = 1.2 + 1.5 kN / m
Self weight 0.23 x 0.35 x 25 = 2.01 + 0 kN / m
Total 16.46 + 5.5 kN / m
Span of lintel = ( clear span + effective depth ) = 2.0 + 0.3 = 2.3 m .
Shear and moment are found out as follows :
Factored load wu = 1.5 ( 16.46 + 5.5 ) kN / m ^ 33 kN / m
9 0
Vu = 33 x ~
7j- = 33 kN . ( Based on clear span )

Mu = 33 x Mi
8
= 21.82 kNm .
524 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

For the section d = 350 - 30 - 6 = 314 mm .

Mu 21.82 x IQ 6
230 x 314 x 314 =
0.962
bd 2
pt = 0.284 and Asi = 206 mm 2 .
Provide 3 - 10 # = 235 mm 2
100 x 235 ( O . K .)
0.325 < 0.96 (/> ( bal )
Pi = 230 x 314 = |

Provide 2 -8 # as anchor bars .

Note that the ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive
reaction . Anchor all the reinforcement in support as per code requirement .
( ii ) Check for development length :
Mul = 21.82 kNm
Vu = 33 kN
L 0 = 175 - 30 = 145 mm
} 12 # ( = 120 mm ) or d e f f ( = 314 mm ) whichever is
greater , i . e . , 314 mm .
L 0 = 145 mm .
Id = 47 #

1.3 " ul
+ > Z, d
21.82 x 106
1.3 x + 145 > 47 #
33 x 103
# < 21.37 m m ( O . K.)
( iii ) Check for shear :
Shear at distance d from the face of support = 33 - 0.314 x 33 = 22.64 kN .
22.64 x IQ 3
T v = 230 x 314 = 0.313 N / mm 2
p { = 0.325 ; = 0.396 N / mm 2
T v < T c, . . minimum shear reinforcement .
Use 6 mm 0 two - legged M . S . stirrups .
Asv = 56 mm 2 , /y = 250 N / mm 2
0.87 Asv fy 0.87 x 56 x 250
* v = 0.4 b 0.4 x 230
132.4 mm

£ 0.75 d (= 0.75 x 314 = 235.5 mm ) £ 300 m m .

Provide 6 mm < stirrups @ 130 mm c / c .
S f
( iv ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
pt = 0.325
As t , r e q
service stress = 0.58 fy x — = 0.58 x 415 x 206 = 211 N / mm 2
s t,p r o 235
modification factor = 1.60
span span 2300
permissible —-— = 1.6 x 20 = 32 ; actual 314 = 7.32 . . . (Safe )
^
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 525

(v ) Spacing of bars:
Maximum clear distance allowed = 180 mm
Minimum clear distance required = 25 mm
230 - 60 - 3 x 10
Actual clear distance = = 70 mm (O . K . )
2
The designed sunshade and the lintel are shown in fig. 15 - 4 .

® I- 2-8 # r 2-8 #

S ) T 3- 10 #
"
-
r7 fir5
350
8 # @ 180 c/c
— 6 0 @ 230 c/c
/
2300 >
at 1»
350
—2302000
(

6 mm 0
x 350

@
)

130 mm c/c
350
*

K
230
1- 340 #
>+«-
^
( alternate chipiya )
600 - -H

(a ) Elevation ( b ) Section A - A

Details of sunshade and lintel

FIG. 15 - 4
Note the following:
In case of sunshade , check for deflection was not considered as important but in case
of lintel , it is very important . For lintels above some openings , many times the larger
deflections are observed in practice which will also bend the wooden or steel frame
fixed for window. This will make the closing and opening of shutters difficult .
Example 15 - 2 .
The plan of an R . C.C. floor ( typical ) is shown in fig. 15 -5. The structural layout
is shown in fig . 15 - 6 . Design beam B j . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . Live load is 3 kN / m 2.
Solution :
The plan of a floor is shown in fig. 15 -5. First of all we shall fix up the structural
layout . We shall provide 230 mm wide R . C. C . beams on periphery which will be
hidden in the wall . Also provide beams B± and B<2 as well as slab spannings can be
now shown in fig. 15- 6. Note that beam B2 * s provided in a line with partition wall
which makes the spans of S\ and S2 different .
The structural layout of the floor is shown in fig. 15 - 6. Note that all the slabs are
one - way slabs. Also note that since the width of the beam B 2 is taken as 230 mm , it
will not flush with partition wall . If 115 mm wide beam is selected , it can flush with
partition wall , however , minimum 200 mm width is specified by IS : 456 - for fire
resistance . Refer to clause 21 of the code .
Note that beams Bj and B2 are secondary beams and can be designed as simply supported.
Loads on slab
Self weight 0.12 x 25 = 3 + 0 kN / m 2
Floor finish = 1 + 0 kN / m 2
Live load = 0 + 3 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 3 kN / m 2
526 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

3.0 m — 2.6 m -H K 3000 >+* 2600 H

1 I
\ \
400 mm x 400 mm 400 mm x 400 mm
columns columns

B2
E 9
o 2 / /
sC / /
Si S2
*1
115 mm thick
wall 2.8 m high
( Internal )

T B , I I I
* B I A
r 1
B

\
E
00
230 mm thick
wall 2.8 m high
g
CN CN
( External ) S3
\
X

K 5.6 m c/c > K 5600

Floor plan All slabs 120 mm thick , All beams 230 mm x 500 mm
All dimensions are in mm
Plan of R . C . C Floor Structural layout
FIG . 15- 5 FIG. 15 - 6
Loads on B2
From slab S\ and S 2\ 0.5 ( 3 + 2.6 ) ( 4 + 3) = 11.2 + 8.4 kN / m .
Wall with 12.5 mm plaster both sides @ 20 kN / m 3
( thickness = 115 + 2 x 12.5 = 140 mm )
0.14 x 2.8 x 1 x 20 = 7.84 + 0 kN / m
Beam self 0.23 x 0.5 x 25 = 2.88 + 0 kN / m
Total 21.92 + 8.4 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 ( 21.92 + 8.4 ) « 33 + 12.6 kN / m
Reaction on supporting beams = (S 3 + 12.6 ) = 99 + 37.8 kN
Loads on B 7 ^
2.8
From S3 = ( 4 + 3) = 5.6 + 4.2 kN / m
2
wall as / i? 2 = 7.84 + 0 kN / m
beam self as / B 2
Total
—
16.32 + 4.2 kN / m
2.88 + 0 kN / m

Factored load = 1.5 ( 16.32 + 4.2 ) = 24.5 + 6.3 kN / m

Point load from B 2 = ( 99 + 37.8 ) kN.
As only one beam is to be designed , DL and LL may be summed up .
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 527

Total load on beam B\\ 137 kN 31 kN / m

UDL = 24.5 + 6.3 « 31 kN / m .
Point load = 99 + 37.8 « 137 kN . i i
D = 120 -I- 500 = 620 mm
d = 620 - 30 - 20 - 10 v
>*
r
( two layers of 20 mm *4 5200 -
400 400
diameter bar ) K 3000 >+< 2600 -

= 560 mm . 5600 c/c -H

Span : ( 1 ) 5200 + 560 ( rfeff ) t i

= 5760 mm , Ra = 150.4 kN Rb = 160.2 kN

(a ) Loading diagram
or ( 2 ) 5200 + 400 ( c / c supports) 144.2
= 5600 mm , whichever is 126.9 kN
smaller .
Span = 5.6 m . 150.4
58.6 kN 560 mm
Loading , S . F. and B . M . diagrams
are shown in fig. 15 -7, calculations
of S. F. and B . M . are left to the
560 mm 81.4
reader. 160.2
The beam is an ell beam . The
properties of the beam are : 136.6
154 kN
(b) S .F. diagram
bw = 230 mm
d = 560 mm 311.7
238.8 216.7
, 5600
h = + 3 x 120 + 230 134.9
' IT 90.6
= 1056 mm
> ( 1400 4- 115 = 1515 mm , «
lm lm lm
-
-H *
lm
-
H< K-H
lm 0.6m
i . e . actual width )
(c) B .M. diagram
bf “ 1056 mm .
Analysis of beam B\
( 1 ) Design for flexure : FIG. 15- 7
Mu = 311.7 kNm , from B . M . diagram .
1056 D( 120
= 4.6, and = 0.214.
K 230 d 560

From table 6 -7, ^ u , lim , T

= 0.411
/ck *w
MuMmJ =
^ 0.411 x 20 x 230 x 5602 x 10 "6

= 627 kNm > applied -

Assume lever arm = d
2 =
- 560 - 60 = 500 mm

311.7 x IQ 6 1727 mm 2
^
s t ~ 0.87 x 415 x 500 =
Provide 6 - 20 # = 1884 mm 2 .
Provide 2 - 12 # as top anchor bars.
528 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
Curtail 2 - 20 # at 0.08 / = 0.08 x 5600 450 mm , from the face of the
supports without any checks .
Reader may check for curtailment .
( 2 ) Check for development length :
2
stl = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm
^
Mul = 1256 x 0.87 x 415 x 560 x 10 ~6 = 253.95 kNm
Vu = 158.2 kN ; L0 = 12 # ; Ld = 47 #
As the ends of the reinforcement is confined by compressive reaction
Mu1
1.3 + L0 Ld
253.95 x 10 (i >
1.3 x + 12 # 47 #
158.2 x 103
# 59.62 mm . . ( Safe )
( 3 ) Design for shear: As the ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive
reaction , the shear at distance d from the face of the support shall be used to
check the shear at the support . Shears at distance d from both the supports are
marked in fig. 15 - 7 ( b ) .
Use 6 mm 0 two - legged M . S. stirrups .
Asv = 2 x 28 = 56 mm 2
Spacing of minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 sv fy
Jv =
^ 0.87 x 56 x 250
0.4 x 230
132.4 mm .
0.4 b
Spacing should not exceed
( i ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 560 = 420 mm ; ( ii ) 300 mm ; ( iii ) 132.4 mm ( minimum )
i . e . 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .

Now, A , = 4 x 314 = 1256 mm 2 ( as 2 - 20 # are curtailed )

100 As 100 x 1256
230 x 560 =
0.975
bd
xc = 0.614 N / mm 2
Vuc = T c b d = 0.614 x 230 x 560 x 10 ~3 = 79.1 kN (1)
Shear resistance of minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y d 0.87 x 250 x 56 x 560 x
V u s, m i n 10 -3 = 52.4 kN ( 2 )
* v 130
Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement
= 79.1 + 52.4 = 131.5 kN (3)
At A V u = 126.9 kN ( at distance d ) < 131.5 kN
Provide minimum shear reinforcement , i .e ., 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .
At B V u = 136.6 kN > 131.5 kN .
Shear reinforcement more than minimum will be provided in portion
136.6 - 131.5
0.56 +
31 = 0.73 m from face of support.
Fus = 136.6 - 79.1 = 57.5 kN .
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 529

Using 6 mm 0 M .S. stirrups with Asv = 56 mm 2

0.87 x 250 x 56 x 560
Jv = 118.6 mm
57.5 x 103
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 115 mm c / c.
730
No . of stirrups = 1 « 8.
115 +
Finally at A> provide 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c and at B, provide 6 mm 0 @
115 mm c / c - 8 No .
( 4 ) Check for deflection :
5
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 Ast 100 x 1884
= 0.32
bed
f 1058 x 560
1727
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 220 N / mm 2
1884
modification factor = 1.65
K 230
= 0.218
if 1056
Reduction factor = 0.8
5 20 x 1.65 x 0.8 = 26.4
Permissible
d
ratio =
S, 5600
Actual
a
ratio = 560
10 < 26.4 ( Safe )
( 5 ) Spacing of bars:
Maximum clear distance = 180 mm
Minimum clear distance = 25 mm
Actual clear distance 230 - 60 - 20
between bars 3
- 20 = 30 mm ( OK. )
( 6 ) Detailing :
The designed beam is shown in fig. 15 -8.
. 2 - 10 # 2-10 #
*
i i. B2
1201 i
I i

450 L- 6-20 # ( 4 st . + 2 curtailed ) 450

u® 500
h* 3000 2600 *
^ M i
5200 KH
400 (230 x 720) 400 L6 -
20 #
( 4 st . + 2 curtailed )
D 60 D
N 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c/c 8 :N K H
s 115 S 230

( a ) Elevation ( b) Section A - A
FIG. 15-8
530 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
Example 15 - 3 .
Plan of a small room is shown in fig . 15 - 9. If the live load on the slab is 2 kN / m 2,
design the slab and beams. Note that the beam is inverted , i .e. downstanding beam is
not permitted . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
Solution :
( A ) DESIGN OF SLAB

The span is smaller of

( i ) c / c supports = 3.0 + 0.23 = 3.23 m
( ii ) clear span + de = 3 + 0.15 ( assume ) = 3.15 m .
^
Use l = 3.15 m . Depth of slab may be assumed by using deflection criterion .
span
Assuming modification factor of 1.5, permissible —-— ratio is given by
£ 1.5 x 20
d = 30
3150
d = 30
105
D =
105 + 15 ( cover ) + 5 ( assume 10 mm diameter bar ) = 125 mm .
Assume D = 125 mm and d = 125 - 15 - 5 = 105 mm .
( 1 ) Loads :
DL LL
Self weight 0.125 x 25 = 3.125 + 0
Floor finish = 1.000 + 0
Live load = 0.000 -f 2
Total 4.125 + 2 kN / m 2
Factored loads = 1.5 ( 4.125 + 2 ) = 6.2 + 3 kN / m 2
Consider 1 m width of slab , wu = ( 6.2 + 3) kN / m
3.15 2 (6.2
Mu = 8
+ 3) = 7.69 + 3.72 = 11.41 kNm
3 0
Vu =
^ ( 6 - 2 + 3) = 93 + 4 - 5
Note that the shear is based on clear span .
( 2 ) Design for flexure :
= 13.8 kN

MU 11.41 x IQ 6
= 1.04 < 2.76 ( O . K. )
bd2 1000 x 1052
/>, = 0.308
0.308 x 1000 x 105
A = = 323 mm 2.
* 100
Provide 8 mm # @ 150 mm c / c = 333 mm 2 .
Minimum area of reinforcement = 0.12 x 125 x 1000 = 150 mm 2 .
100
Bent alternate bar at 0.1 x 3.15 = 0.315 m = 315 mm , from face of the support.
Remaining bars provide steel area 166.5 mm 2 which is more than minimum .
Distribution steel using mild steel
0.15
= 100 x 1000 x 125 = 187.5 mm 2.
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 531

Provide 6 mm <(> @ 140 mm c / c = 200 mm 2.

Actual d = 125 15 - 4 = 106 mm .
Spacing of main bars should not be greater than 3 d or 300 mm whichever
is small = 3 x 106 = 318 mm or 300 mm , i . e ., 300 mm ( O. K . )
Spacing of distribution bars should not be greater than 5 d ( = 5 x 106
= 530 mm ) or 450 mm whichever is small
i . e., 450 mm (O . K.)
(3) Check for development length :
100 x 333
Pt 1 = 1000 x 106 x 2 = 0.157
Mu1
bd 2
= 0.547
Mul = 0.547 x 1000 x 1062 x 10 6 = 6.15 kNm "

Vu = 13.8 kN
The supporting beam is inverted . Note that the ends of the slab reinforcement
is confined by tensile reaction. Assume L 0 = 8 # .
Also Id = 47 #
Mu l
+ L0 47 #
K
6.15 x 106 + 8 # > 47 #
13.8 x 103
# 11.42 mm ( O . K .)
( 4 ) Check for shear :
Vu = 13.8 kN
100 As
bd = 0.157

= 0.286 N / mm 2
D = 125 mm ; k = 1.3.
Design shear strength ,
k xc = 1.3 x 0.286 = 0.372 N / mm 2
13.8 x 103 0.13 N / mm 2 < 0.372 N / mm 2 . . . (Safe )
v = 1000 x 106
=
(5) Check for deflection:
$
Basic
d
ratio = 20
100 x 333
Pt = 1000 x 106 = 0.31
323
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 233 N / mm 2
333
modification factor = 1.50
S
permissible ratio = 20 x 1.50 = 30
S ratio 3150
actual
d = 106 = 29.7 < 30 (Safe )
532 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

( 6 ) Detailing:
Thickness of slab = 125 mm .
Main steel : 8 mm # @ 150 mm c / c alternate bent at 315 mm from face of
support as shown in fig. 15 - 10.
Distribution steel : 6 mm 0 @ 140 mm c / c .
T 230 x 500

6000
r®
® 230 X
B1

t CQ oa i [
BC 1

125 mm — 8(alternate
< mm # 150 mm c/c
@
bent )
3000 thick slab
X
T
: 1 i 230 x 500 L6 <t> @ 130 mm c/c

1500

i
u
QQ
u
22
230 ;; LL
K
~
r
6000
Bi
>+*
^1
H
1500
>+-K
230
3000
230
u®
(a ) Plan (a ) Structural plan

A
/ /
/ /
/ 3 m high /
/
brick wall above
/
125 T\ zz
5001 6 mm (J) @ 130 mm c/c
L- 8 mm # @ 1 5 0 mm c/c
3000 H t*—- >
(alternate bent )
230 230 315 315
(b) Section A- A ( b) Section A - A
Plan of the room Details of slab reinforcement
FIG . 15 - 9 FIG. 15- 10
( B ) DESIGN OF A BEAM - BC
( 1 ) Loads: ^
Load from wall , assuming unit weight of 20 kN / m 3
= [0.23 + 0.02 ( plaster ) ] x 20 = 5 kN / m 2 .
DL LL
From slab 3.23 ( 4.125 + 2 ) 6.67 + 3.23
2
From wall 5 x 3 15.00 + 0
Self weight 0.23 x 0.5 x 25 2.88 + 0
Total 24.55 + 3.23 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 ( 24.55 + 3.23) = 36.8 + 4.85 kN / m
Art. 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 533

( 2 ) Analysis:
Following two cases will be considered .
( i ) Span AB loaded with DL + LL and cantilever BC with DL only. This will
give maximum positive moment in span AB and maximum shear Vu
Refer to fig. 15- 11 .
( ii ) Beam ABC loaded throughout with DL + LL. This will give maximum
negative moment in cantilever and maximum shears RU BA an < RU , BC
Refer to fig . 15 - 12 .
>
^ *

Case I :
X MA = 0
41.65 x 62 + 36.8 x 1.5 x 6.75 = 6 R B
2
7? B = 187 kN.
ZF = 0
RA = 41.65 x 6 + 36.8 x 1.5 - 187 = 118.1 kN
From A, S. F. = 0 at x = 118.1 = 2.84 m.
41.65
Maximum ( + ) ve moment = 118.1 x 2.84 - 41.65 x
2.842 167.4 kNm .
2
Fig. 15- 11 shows loading, S. F. and B. M . diagrams which are self - explanatory.
41.65 kN / m 36.8 kN / m
A C
B
20
\< H 5500
m- 4-H * ->
500 500 1250

4- 6m -> 4 H
1.5 m
R = H 8.1 kN
A Rb = 187 kN
( a ) Loading diagram
118.1
107.7 kN

55.2 . 46

K 2.84 m H

131.8 kN
( b ) S .F. diagram

0.329 m
167.4 kNm > 4-

28.75 kNm

(c) B . M. diagram 41.4

Analysis for maximum positive moment and shear at A

FIG. 15- 11
534 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
Case II :
I MA = 0
41.65 x 7.52 = RE x 6 =* RE = 195.2 kN .
2
IF = 0
= 41.65 x 7.5 - 195.2 = 117.2 kN.

Maximum ( -) ve moment = 41.65 x 1.252 = 32.54 kNm (at the face) .

2
Maximum ( + ) ve moment = 117.2 x 2.81 - 41.65 x 2.812 164.9 kNm .
2
Fig. 15- 12 shows loading , S. F. and B . M . diagrams which are self - explanatory.
41.65 kN /m
A mmc
1 500
5500
B

HH*
500 1250
« 6m > 4- H
1.5 m
RA = 117.2 kN RdB = 195.2 kN
(a ) Loading diagram
1172 106.8 kN

62.5 ^ 52.1

( b ) S.F. diagram 122.3 132.7 kN

164.9 kNm
—
0.372 m
-H H-
32.54

46.9
(c) B.M . diagram
Analysis for maximum negative moment and shear at B
FIG . 15- 12
Note that for analysis centre to centre distance is used and the corrections
for the S. F. and B . M . at the face of supports are done .
( 3 ) Design for flexure :
( i ) Mu ( + ) = 167.4 kNm
D = 500 4- 125 = 625 mm
d = 625 - 30 - 10 ( assume 20 mm diameter bars ) = 585 mm .
As the beam is inverted and slab concrete exists in tension zone , it will
be designed as a rectangular beam .
167.4 x IQ 6
bd 2 230 x 5852
= 2.13 < 2.76.
pt = 0.689; and Ast = 927 mm 2.
Provide . 4 st = 3- 20 # = 3 x 314 = 942 mm 2, all straight.
i
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 535

( ii ) 32.54 kNm .
Mu (-) =
Reduce the depth . Consider 350 mm depth of rib .
D = 125 + 350 = 475 mm
d = 475 - 30 - 10 = 435 mm .
The beam acts as an ell beam as the slab concrete is available in
compressive zone .
Approximate ylst = 32.54 x 106
0.87 / ,
0.87 x 415 ( 435 - 62.5 )

= 242 mm 2 .
Provide 2 - 16 # = 2 x 201 = 402 mm 2. These bars shall be anchored
in the support for 12 diameters beyond the point of contraflexure or L
whichever is greater. ^
( a ) 250 ( upto centre of column )
+ 372 [ point of contraflexure - case 2 ] + 12 x 16 = 814 mm .
A
^s t , r e q u i r e d 242
( b ) Ld = 47 # x A = 47 x 16 x 402 = 453 mm .
^s t , p r o v i d e d
•

From ( a) and ( b ) , the reinforcement shall be anchored for 814 mm . As

a thumb rule provide the anchorage equal to the cantilever , i . e., 1250 mm .
In some cases , for cantilever greater than 1.5 m , as a thumb rule , we
provide the anchorage equal to 1.5 times the cantilever. Reinforcement
provided are shown in fig. 15 - 13. It is a good practice to draw the sketch
and write the reinforcement as design proceeds. Also note that as the
bottom level is the same , the reduction in depth of beam is made from top .
Provide 2 - 10 # as anchor bars .
( 4 ) Check for development length :
100 X 942
At A , P t = 230 x 585 = 0.7, = 2.157
bd 2
Mu = 2.157 x 230 x 5852 x lO ’6
= 169.8 kNm
7 = U 107.7 kN , L 0 = 250 - 25 = 225 mm ( no hook )

1.3
Mul— + LQ Z,,j ( as the ends of reinforcement are confined
by compressive reaction )
1.3 x
169.8 x 106 + 225 > 47 #
107.7 x 103
# < 48.4 m m ( O. K.)
At point of contraflexure
Mul = 169.8 kNm , Vu = 132.7 - 0.372 x 41.65 = 117.2 kN
L0 > 12 # ( = 192 mm )
or deff (= 705 mm ) , whichever is greater i . e . , 705 mm .
Actual =
LQ 372 + 250 - 25 = 597 mm .
=
LQ 597 mm

1.3 x 169.8
x 106
+ 597 > 47 #
117.2 x 103
# < 52.7 m m ( O . K.)
536 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
For negative moment reinforcement, development length check is incorporated
in the calculation of reinforcement for flexure .
r^ ®
1250-H 1250
K -
L^
2- 10 # * 2 6 # 2500 long
k M

-OH L 3-20 # HO L 2-10 #

480 480
®
K 6000 1500 -H
K 5500 > H
500 500 1250
(a ) Elevation
dia. 6 <(>
no. 6 mm $ @ 130 c/c all
c/c 130
230
K H
2 - 10 # 230
2-16 # 2500 long

500

125 125
3-20 # 1- 2- 10 #
( b) Section A A - (c) Section B -B
Details of beam B\ - BC l
FIG . 15 13 -
( 5) Check for shear :
Design shear force diagram is drawn in fig. 15 - 14 . As the ends of the
reinforcement are confined by compressive reaction , shear at distance d
from face of support is considered .
41.65 kN/m

117.2 kN 195.2 kN
K 6 m c/c *4< H
1.5 m
118.1
1*^107.69G
i i
83.32 kN 62.5
0.585 m

A H-H
7B\C
0.585 m
K 2.84 m H 97.9 77]
^
122.3 132.7 kN
K 3.19 m H
FIG. 15 - 14
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 537

Span AB
For 230 mm wide beam , minimum shear reinforcement using 6 mm
< j> two - legged M . S. stirrups, is 6 mm <J> @ 130 mm c / c.
Shear taken by these stirrups
0.87 /y Asv d 0.87 x 250 x 56 x 585 x -3
10 = 54.8 kN .
130
100 4. 100 x 3 x 314
bd 230 x 585 = 0.7
=
Tc 0.544 N / mm 2
Vuc = TCBD = 0.544 x 230 x 585 x 10-3 = 73.20 kN .
Shear resistance of the section with minimum shear reinforcement
54.8 + 73.2 = 128 kN.
=
This is more than design shear at A or B.
Provide 6 mm 4> @ 130 mm c / c throughout.
Span BC
Vu = 53.2 kN .
100 As100 x 2 x 201
= 0.401
bd 230 x 435
T c = 0.432 N / mm 2
Fuc = TCBD = 0.432 x 230 x 435 x 10~3 = 43.2 kN .
Shear resistance of minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y A% v d 0.87 x 250 x 56 x 435 x 10-3 40.76 kN.
130 =
Shear resistance of the section with minimum shear reinforcement =
43.2 + 40.76 = 83.96 kN , which is greater than design shear at B.
Provide 6 mm (j> @ 130 mm c / c.
( 6 ) Spacing of bars:
230 - 60 - 20
Clear distance between bars in span AB =
2
- 20 = 55 mm .
Clear distance between bars in span BC
—
230 - 60 - 2 x 16 = 138 mm .
Clear distance in both the cases f 180 mm
f 25 mm ( O. K . )
The designed beam is shown in fig. 15- 13. Dotted line in the elevation indicates
the slab line .
Example 15 - 4 .
Fig . 15- 15 shows a part plan of the canopy of a residential building. Internal walls
are 350 mm thick and 10 m long. Clear floor height is 3 m and slab transfers a load
of 20 kN / m on the walls. Bottom level of canopy is at 2.1 m from the plinth level
( which is also the lintel level of whole building) . Design the canopy slab and canopy
beam . Also check the counter - balancing loads on the beam . Live load on slab is
2 kN / m 2 and floor finish 1 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
538 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
-v • 10 m Residence

350 — 4 4000 > < 350

Cantilever canopy
3400
7700 x 3400

M-1500 -H^ 4700 1500-H

FIG . 15- 15
Solution :
( 1 ) Design of slab:
Assume 140 mm thick slab . DL LL
Dead load 0.14 x 25 = 3.5 + 0
Floor finish = 1.0 + 0
Live load = 0 + 2
Total 4.5 + 2 kN / m 2
Factored load = ( 6.75 + 3) kN / m 2.
For analysis , centre to centre span is used . To get maximum positive moment,
cantilever is loaded with DL and internal span with DL + LL. For maximum
negative moment , DL + LL is considered in cantilever.
M u ( + ) = 4.352 x 9.75 - 1.6752 x 6.75
8 2
= 23.06 - 9.47 = 13.59 kNm .

<->
d
- 4'
= 140 -
x 9.75 = 10.97 kNm .
15 - 5 = 120 mm .
Ptbd
Mu kNm
bd 2
Pi ^ — st
100

13.59 x 106
+ 13.59 = 0.944 0.279 335 mm 2 / m
1000 x 1202
10.97 x 106
- 10.97 = 0.762 0.222 266 mm 2 / m
1000 x 1202
Provide 8 mm # @ 140 mm c / c = 357 mm 2 as positive moment reinforcement
( all straight ) and 8 mm # @ 140 mm c / c = 357 mm 2 as negative moment
reinforcement.
Negative moment reinforcement shall be anchored for 47 # = 47 x 8 =
376 mm , or 12 0 beyond the point of contraflexure . As a standard detail ,
provide 1500 mm anchorage ( equal to the length of cantilever ) .
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 539

0.15 x 210 mm 2 / m .
Distribution steel ( mild steel ) = 140 x 1000 =
100
Provide 6 mm <(> @ 130 mm c / c = 215 mm 2.
For main bars, spacing should not exceed
3 x 120 = 360 mm ( OK.)
For distribution bars, spacing should not exceed
5 x 120 = 600 or 450 mm (O. K.)
( i ) Check for development length :
For internal span , assume point of contraflexure at
0.15 x 4.35 = 0.65 m from centre of support.
100 x 357
Pi = 1000 x 120 = 0.298, bd 2 1.01

Mui = 1.01 x 1000 x 1202 x 10-6 = 14.54 kNm

4.35 x
Vu =
2
9.75 -
0.65 x 9.75 = 14.87 kN
L0 = 8 #, Ld = 47 #

17
K
+ Lo Ld
14.54 x 106 + 8 # > 47 #
14.87 x 103
# < 25.07
mm ( O . K .)
Note that the ends of reinforcement are not confined with compressive
reaction .
( ii )
Check for deflection :
100 Ast 100 x 270
For cantilever ,
bd 1000 x 120 = 0.225
span
basic
d
ratio = 7
266
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 277 = 231 N / mm 2
modification factor = 1.6

—-—
span
permissible
span
= 7 x 1.6 = 11.2
1500
actual 12.5.
d 120
Observe that code requirements are not satisfied within a range of 5- 10
percent. However, the design will not be revised .
This is because
( a ) there is no partition wall below the slab which may crack because of
the excessive deflection
( b ) deflection due to dead loads can be overcome by providing camber.
Provide a 25 mm camber for the overhang portion . Even if the deflection
requirement is satisfied , usually camber is always provided to counter - act
the dead load deflection for cantilever.
540 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

100 Asi 100 x 341

1000 x 120 =
For central span , 0.284
bd
The cantilevers provide partial fixity at the support . Hence , the basic
span ratio is more than 20 but less than 26. Consider an average value .
S
Basic ratio = 23.
d
335 226 N / mm 2
357 =
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x
modification factor = 1.6
span
Permissible ratio = 23 x 1.6 = 36.8
d
span 4350
36.25 < 36.8 ( Safe )
120 =
actual raio
d
Although the deflection requirements are not severe in this example , the
practical designer can use his arguments and knowledge in satisfying the
deflection criteria as shown in above paragraphs. This may be too early
for a student, but not very uncommon for a practicing engineer.
( iii ) Check for shear :
Cantilever Vu = 9.75 x 1.5 = 14.63 kN
100 As 100 x 277
1000 x 120 =
0.23
bd
k TC = 1.3 x 0.344 = 0.447 N / mm 2
14.63 x 103
Tv = 1000 x 120 = 0.122 N / mm 2 (Safe )
Internal span: Vu at face of support = - x 9.75 = 19.5 kN
19.5 x 103 0.162 N / mm 2
TV = 1000 x 120 =
100 As 100 x 357
bd 1000 x 120 = 0.3
k TC = 1.3 x 0.384 = 0.499 N / mm 2 (Safe )
( 2 ) Design of beam:
4.7
Characteristic load from slab = 1.5 + x 6.5 = 25.03 kN / m
2
Self - weight ( 350 x 600 rib ) = 0.35 x 0.60 x 25 = 5.25 kN / m
Total = 25.03 + 5.25 = 30.28 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 x 30.28 = 45.42 kN / m

= 3.42
2
x 45.42 = 262.53 kNm

Vu = 3.4 x 45.42 = 154.43 kN

D = 600 + 140 = 740 mm
d = 740 - 30 - 10 = 700 mm
Mu 262.53 x 106
= 1.53 N / mm 2
bd 2 350 x 7002
pt = 0.471
0.471 x
350 x 700 = 1154 mm 2.
^ st “

100
Art . 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 541

Provide 4 - 20 mm # 1256 mm 2, At bottom , provide 3- 10 # as anchor bars.

Note that here 3 bars are used as anchor bars to reduce the clear distance
between bars .
( i ) Check for shear :
Vu = 154.43 kN
100 As 100 x 1256
350 x 700 =
0.51
bd
T c = 0.483 N / mm 2
= 154.43 103 = 0.63 N / mm 2
x
350 x 700
Tv > xc ; shear design is necessary.
Fus = 154.43 - 0.483 x 350 x 700 x 10 3 = 154.43 - 118.3 =
~
36.13 kN
Vr u s 36.13 x IQ3
d 700 = 51.6 .
From table 7- 2, 6 mm 0 @ 200 mm c / c can be provided , however , from
table 7- 3, for 350 mm wide beam minimum shear reinforcement 6 mm 0
@ 85 mm c / c shall be used . The spacing being too small , use 8 mm #
@ 250 mm c / c ( Fe 415) .
Provide 8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c two - legged stirrups in cantilever portion
and 6 mm 0 @ 200 mm c / c in wall portion ( anchorage portion of beam ) .
( ii ) Check for development length :
Bars shall be extended to 47 x 20
= 940 mm on both side of the support ( satisfied )
( iii ) Check for deflection :
100 Ast 100 x 1256 0.512
bd 350 x 700 =
1154
0.58 x 415 x 221 N / mm 2
= 1256 =
Service stress
modification factor = 1.35
span
basic
d
ratio = 7;
span
and permissible —^— ratio = 7 x 1.35 = 9.45
span 3400
ratio = (Safe )
710 =
actual 4.79
d
For a cantilever beam usually a camber is provided in practice equal to
span
as a thumb rule.
50
3400 68 mm .
In this case , camber = 50 =
Provide 75 mm camber for the beam ,
( iv ) Spacing of bars:
Clear distance between bars =
350 - 60 - 4 x 20
= 70 mm
3
minimum clear distance permitted = 25 mm
maximum clear distance permitted = 180 mm (Safe )
542 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

i
i

i
350 > I 4 4000 mm > 350
5.1 m
H- 1500 i 1500 -H
i

t i 1 i i i

3400
*- 1500
*
i i i
i
i
i
i
i
*
1500 -H
LI _ . —
H-1500

tfczz i
1500
%

C
*i D
r 6 mm (f) @ 130 mm c/c
i
r*1 i
I
i
8 mm # @ 140 mm c/c 1
cc !i l i>
——
i I r 8 mm # @ 140 mm c/c at top,

(alternate chipiya )
(a ) Plan
1500 350 4000 mm 350 1500
K > +* H
p 6 | 130 c/c
( ) @

600 Bi Bi
140 P
L 8 mm # @
r8 mm # @ 140 mm c/c (all straight )
140 mm c/c (alternate chipiya )
-
(b) Section A A of slab reinforcement
N — 350 4-20 #
r^ ®
rf Slab r 4-20 #
' / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /77, 8500 Long

600

3-10 # -J
^Dt
( 75 mm camber
B j ( 350 x 740)
K 5100 3400 H 140 +
6 mm 0 @ 200 mm c/c 8 mm # @ 250 mm c/c i 3-10 #
(c) Details of beam B i -
Section B B
FIG . 15 - 16
( v) Counter - balance :
Height of masonry in counter - balance = 3.0 - 2.1 - 0.74 = 0.16 m .
Assuming unit weight as 20 kN / m 3
weight of masonry = 0.16 x 0.35 x 20 = 1.12 kN / m
self - weight = 0.35 x 0.74 x 25 = 6.48 kN / m
load from slab = 20.00 kN / m
Total 27.60 kN / m
Let x be the length of counter - balance .
Equilibrium should remain even when the applied moment is doubled .
 -
Art. 15 - 2 ] Simple Designs 543

Equating 2 x 3.4—— 1
2
x 30.28 = 27.6 *
x = 5.03 m .
2

10 m length of counter - balance is available .

Provide 1.5 x 3.4 = 5.1 m ( thumb - rule ) anchorage to the beam .
Designed slabs and beam are shown in fig. 15 - 16 .
( vi ) Practical note: In internal part, the masonry between slab and beam is very
small . It is advisable to use large depth of beam in internal part.
Example 15 - 5 .
A cycle stand shade consists of an R. C. slab which cantilevers 2.7 metres on each
side of a central beam . The R. C. beam is simply supported on columns 230 mm x
450 mm at ends , over a clear span of 6 metres. Design the shade for a live load of
2 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution:
( 1 ) Design of slab :
Consider 250 mm thick slab at support and 100 mm at the free end .
Loads At support At free end
DL 0.25 x 25 6.25
0.10 x 25 2.5
LL 2.00 2.0
Total 8.25 kN / m 2 4.5 kN / m 2
2.7 2.7
Shear= 4.5 x
2
+ 8.25 x
2 =
6.08 4- 11.14 = 17.22 kN
Moment = 6.08 x 1.8 + 11.14 x 0.9 = 10.94 4- 10.03 = 20.97 kNm
Vu = 1.5 x 17.22 = 25.83 kN
Mu = 1.5 x 20.97 = 31.46 kNm .
d = 250 - 15 - 5 = 230 mm ( assume 10 mm 0 bar )
MM = 31.46 x 106
= 0.594
bd 2 1000 x 2302
pt = 0.176
0.176 x 1000 x 230 405 mm 2 .
= 100 =
Provide 10 mm # @ 190 mm c / c = 413 mm 2. These are provided with alternate
chipiya to maintain proper depth during construction .
0.12 x 250 + 100
Distribution steel =
100
1000
2 = 210 mm 2 .
Provide 8 mm # @ 230 mm c / c = 217 mm 2.
(i) Check for shear:
d = 250 - 15 - 5 = 230 mm
100 As 100 x 413
1000 x 230 =
0.18
bd
k Tc = 1.1 x 0.304 = 0.334 N / mm 2
25.83 x 103 0.112 N / mm 2 (Safe )
= 100 x 230 =
544 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

( ii ) Check for development length :

Ld = 47 x 10 = 470 mm .
Bar should extend 470 mm on both sides of support. Sufficient anchorages
are available. For economy half the bars may be curtailed at i . e ., at

1.35 m . Reader may verify the moment and area of steel required at 1.5 m ^
and whether sufficient development length is provided .
( iii ) Check for deflection :
span
Basic ratio = 7
d
100 4.
bd = 0.18
405
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 236 N / mm 2
413
modification factor = 1.8
span
permissible —^—
span
ratio = 7 x 1.8 = 12.6
2700 ( satisfied )
actual
d
ratio = 230 11.74

However , provide a camber of = 60 mm , and do not revise the design .

Reader should verify the cracking requirements.
( 2 ) Design of beam:
Live load from slab = 5.63 x 2 = 11.26 kN / m
6.25 + 2.5 x
Dead load from slab =
2 2 x 2.7 = 23.63 kN / m
Self ( 230 x 600 overall ) 0.23 x 0.6 x 25
= 3.45 kN / m
Total 38.34 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 x 38.34 = 57.5 kN / m .
Span: ( i ) 6.0 + 0.45 = 6.45 m , or
( ii ) 6.0 + 0.55 ( deff ) = 6.55 m , whichever is small .
Take l = 6.45 m .
6.452
Mu = 8 x 57.5 = 299 kNm
6 172.5 kN.
Vu = 2 x 57.5 =
Assuming 25 mm diameter bars in two layers
d = 600 - 30 - 25 - 15 = 530 mm .
The beam should be designed as an isolated tee beam. Average flange thickness
f
may be considered.
D f = 100 +
250
175 mm .
2
As a preliminary design , 175
assume lever arm = d - t
" 530 - 2 = 442.5 mm .
_ Mu 299 x 106
= 1872 mm 2.
^ St
0.87 /y Z 0.87 x 415 x 442.5
Provide 4 - 25 # bars = 1964 mm 2.
 -
Art . 15 2 ] Simple Designs 545
V

The section is now checked for its limiting moment of resistance .

b( = i 'o
+ =
6450
6450
+ 230 = 1483 mm .
0
+ 4 + 4
b 5630
> 6000
Use bf = 1480 mm .
175
Here
d
~
530 = 0.33
bf 1480
and
bw
~
230 = 6.43

^u.lim.T 2 = 0.732 (from table 6-9)

/ck K d
Mu.iim.T = 0.732 k 20 K 230 x 5302 x 10 6 = 946 kNm . ... (Safe)
'

(i ) Check for development length:

Aful = 1964 x 0.87 x 415 x 442.5 x 10 6 = 313.7 kNm *

Vu = 172.5 kN
M u1
1.3 + L0 Ld ; L0 = 12 # , and Ld = 47 #
1.3 x 313.7
x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
172.5 x 103
# 67.5 mm (Safe )
( ii ) Check for shear:
Shear at distance d (= 530 mm )
= 172.5 - 57.5 x 0.53 = 142 kN
100 As 100 x 1964 1.64
bd 230 x 520
= 0.736 N / mm 2
142 x IQ 3
T v = 230 x 530 = 1.16 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2.
Ku, = 142 - 0.736 x 230 x 530 x 10 3 = 142 - 89.72 ”
= 52.28 kN

^dus 52.28 x
530
103
= 98.6

8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c. having
Fus 121
Minimum shear reinforcement for 230 mm wide beam is 6 mm <J> @ 130 mm c / c,
t'us
for which
d = 94.6.
Designed stirrups are required for a distance of
( 121 - 94.6 ) x 530 x 10 ~ 3
0.52 +
57.5 = 0.763 m .
763
No . of stirrups = 1 ^ 4 no.
300 +
Provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c upto 4 no., then 6 mm d @ 130 mm c / c
in remaining portion .
Use 2 - 12 # as anchor bars.
546 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
( iii ) Check for deflection :
100 Ast 100 X 1964
1480 x 530 =
0.25
bed
1872
Service stress = 0.58 x 415 x 229 N / mm 2
1964 =
Modification factor = 1.58
K 230
1480 =
0.155
bf
Reduction factor = 0.80
span
Basic
d
ratio = 20
span
Permissible ratio = 20 x 1.58 x 0.8 = 25.28
d
span 6450

-n
Actual ratio 12.4 ( Safe )
d 520
®
T 230
<- 2700 2700 >

10 mm ( j) @ 190 mmjc/c 100

2700 &
alternate chipiya ! B|
250
T
-M — i
230 1 -- --!
1
4 1 '
Beam
8 mm # @ 230 mm c/c —J
2700
8 mm #@ 230 mm c/c
10 mm # @ 190 mm c/c
(alternate chipiya )
—
U
H 6000 mm -H- f<
450 450
>
( a ) Plan (b) Section A - A through slab
>
—
r 2-12 #
2-12 (()
r 1
250

> 4-25 #
,
B ( 230 x 600) 350
H
450
«- — 6000 mm - 450 i
D
N
8#
4
6 (J)
Rest
8#
4
D
N - -
<
230
H
4-25 #

S 300 130 300 S

Elevation Section B -B
(c ) Details of beam B l
FIG . 15 - 17
Art. 15 - 3] Simple Designs 547

( iv ) Spacing of bars:
Clear distance between bars =
230 - 60 - 3 x 25
= 47.5 mm .
2
Minimum distance permitted 25 mm =
maximum distance permitted
180 mm = ( OK. )
The designed slab and beam are shown in fig. 15 - 17.
1 5 - 3. L o a d s f r o m t w o - w a y s l a b s: Two - way slabs are well discussed in
chapter 10 of this book . The loads transferred on edge beams from the two - way slab
are indicated in fig . 10 - 25. It can be observed that the loads are triangular and
trapezoidal in nature .
While designing beam A or beam B, the loads from slab are assumed as above .
However , as an alternative simplified method , the loads may be converted as equivalent
U . D . L . for the purpose of calculation of moments . By equating maximum moment of
triangular load and equivalent U . D . L. on a simply supported beam , we get the value
of equivalent uniformly distributed load as
W /
we = 3 x
where we = equivalent U . D .L. for purpose of calculation of moment
w = uniformly distributed load on slab .
If the equivalent U . D. L . is found out on the basis of fixed end moments , it gives
the value as
w lx
we = 3.2 '

w lx
For the practical purpose , we may use we = ——
for calculation of moments for all
kind of spans. For calculation of free shear , the actual triangular area may be found out .
w l 2
= 2l v £2l lx
Thus free shear
' X
2 x X
8
Similarly for beam B, equivalent U. D . L. for calculation of
X w
moment may be given as

'^
‘i x
3 - and
y

f [2 >< 5 x T x T + ('x
and free shear =
w lx (2 / - y.
8
Example 15 -6.
A part plan of a drawing room is shown in fig. 15 - 18 . The slab is 120 mm thick
two - way and designed for a total load of 6 kN / m 2. Design the beam B\ which also
carries a 230 mm thick masonry 2.7 m high . Consider the load from masonry as
5 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
W lx / 2
Load from slab = 3 - = - (i) = 10.22 kN / m
6
' y
Load from masonry = 2.7 x 5 = 13.50 kN / m
Self - weight ( 230 x 450 rib ) = 0.23 x 0.45 x 25 = 2.58 kN / m
Total 26.3 kN / m
548 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

Factored load = 1.5 x 26.3 = 39.45 kN / m

39.45 x 62 177.52 kNm .
Mu = 8

Cut out

\
< 230 thick
4000 brick masonry

120 thick slab \

Bi
4- Bed block

K 6000 H
FIG. 15- 18
Shear force:
Load on beam = trapezoidal load + 16.08 kN / m .
U) l a 6 x 4 ( x6
(2 /y - g + 16.08
f
S. F.
=
=
Vu =
72.24 kN^
1.5 x 72.24 = 108.36 kN
X
8
2 - 4) + 48.24

D =120 + 450 = 570 mm

d =570 - 30 - 10 = 530 mm .
Beam is acting as an ell beam . Assume lever arm
Df 120
= 530 - 2 = 470 mm
177.52 x 106 1046 mm 2.
^st
0.87 x 415 x 470 =
“

Provide 2 - 20 mm # 4- 2 - 16 mm # = 1030 mm 2, all straight.

A very small difference of 16 mm 2 will not force us to revise the design since
the actual lever arm will be greater than 470 mm when actually calculated . The
reader may verify this. In case of flanged beams, if found doubtful, you should
determine actual moment of resistance .
100 As 100 x 1030
230 x 530 =
0.84
bd
Tc = 0.582 N / mm 2.
Shear at distance d = 108.36 - 0.53 x ( 1.5 x 16.08) = 95.58 kN
effect of trapezoidal load being neglected .
Art . 15 - 3] Simple Designs 549

For minimum stirrups 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c

-Fusj- = 94.6 ; Vus = 94.6 x 530 x 10-3 = 50.13 kN .

Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement
= TCBD + Vus = 0.582 x 230 x 530 x 10 ~3 + 50.13
= 70.95 + 50.13 = 121.08 kN > 95.58 kN.
Provide minimum shear reinforcement throughout the beam .
Provide 2 - 10 # anchor bars .
As all the bars are taken into the support
Mul = Mu = 177.52 kNm ; Vu = 108.36 kN .
Mu1
= 12 # ( assume ) .
1.3
K
+
^ 0 - ^d ‘
» LQ

1.3 x 177.52
x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
108.36 x 103
or # 60.84 mm
# provided = 20 mm (Safe )
Checks for deflection and spacing of bars are left to the reader. The designed
elevation and section are shown in fig. 15- 19 . Use 2 -8 # anchor bars .
r- ® r 2- 10 #
— 2- 10 #

120 /

- - Bed block 450

- 2-20 # + 2-16 #
i m
K 6000 mm c/c - H

230
5770 mm clear
230 K-
230
—-
H
2 20 # + 2-16 #

D D
N 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c/c N
S S

(a ) Elevation (b) Section A A -

FIG . 15- 19
Example 15 - 7.
A plan of a three storeyed building is shown in fig. 15 - 20. Design the slabs and
beams B a n d B ± . The live load is 4 kN / m 2 . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
The slabs are two span continuous slabs. Assume 120 mm thick slab . The unit loads
are calculated as follows :
Loads DL LL
Self weight 0.12 x 25 3 + 0 kN / m 2
Floor finish 1 + 0 kN / m 2
Live load 0 + 4 kN / m 2
Total 4 + 4 kN / m 2
550 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

115 4=
r 230 thick wall
TT TT
II ll
3000 ll ll
II
JJ LL
B1 n B2 rr B3
VI
3000 « II « II
II
ll
115 = =
K 6000 6000 H* - 6000 H
>+-K 17770
230 230
FIG . 15- 20
Consider 1 m length of slab .
w = 4 + 4 kN / m .
The number of spans are two . Therefore , the IS coefficients cannot be used . We
have to carry out moment distribution in such cases . To reduce the labour of calculations ,
the coefficients for UDL and for point loads , for different number of spans and for
dead and live loads are given in table B - 3 of Appendix B of this book , provided that
the spans are equal . We may thus use these coefficients for our problem .
M ( + ) = 0.071 x 4 x 32 + 0.096 x 4 x 32 = 2.556 + 3.456 = 6.012 kNm .
M (-) = 0.125 x 4 x 32 + 0.125 x 4 x 32 = 4.5 + 4.5 = 9 kNm
-
FBA = 0 38 x 4 x 3 + 0.44 x 4 x 3 = 4.56 + 5.28 = 9.84 kN
BA , max = 0.62 x 4 x 3 + 0.62 x 4 x 3 = 7.44 + 7.44 = 14.88 kN .
We then have
^
Mu ( + ) = 1.5 x 6.012 = 9.02 kNm
Mu (-) = 1.5 x 9 = 13.50 kNm
-
KU AB = 1 5 X 9.84 = 14.76 kN
V u , max = 1.5 x 14.88 = 22.32 kN
d = 120 -
15 - 5 = 100 mm
Mu (+) = 9.02 x 106
1000 x 100 x 100 =
0.902
bd 2
pt = 0.265, ^4 st = 265 mm 2.
Provide 8 mm # @ 180 mm c / c = 278 mm 2.
Mu
( -) = 13.5 x 10 (i 1.35
bd 2 1000 X 100 x 100
pt = 0.409, Asl = 409 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 100 mm c / c = 436 mm 2
3 d, i.e. 300 mm
Spacing
^ ( O . K .)
Provide 8 mm # @ 360 mm c/ c extra ell bars at discontinuous support as shown
in fig. 15- 21.
Distribution steel , using mild steel
0.15
As = 100 x 1000 x 120 = 180 mm 2.
 -
Art . 15 3] Simple Designs 551

Provide 6 mm 0 @ 150 mm c / c, As = 187 mm 2.

Maximum shear force
Vu = 22.32 kN .
22.32 x 103
Tv = 1000 x 100
= 0.223 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 436
1000 x 100 =
“ 0.436
bd
Tc = 0.449 N / mm 2 > Tv ( OK.)
r 230 thick wall 8 mm # @ 360 mm c/c
t
115

10 # @ 180 c/c
*t
i

750 r M-H 750

n
3000
8
Os
u
i
u_ _
C
r
—4Ti ITI 8 #
u _
@ 225 c/c

B1,8 . I
l
Tl B2 rr ~

B3
Os
~T m
3000 120 mm > m 11 2Q I
thick slab
115
- r ii

6 0 @ 150 c/c
iL

K 6000
8# @

—
180 c/c
* 6000
17770
6000 H

230
300
Plan
900 900
— 10 mm # @ 180 mm c/c
300
230

T r <- - K- -H r <--
120 r?i
( N.T.S.) t *
t <-
Wall
3000
( j— B3
3000
Wall
1 H
8 mm # @ 180 mm c/c
Section A - A 6 mm 0 @ 150 mm c/c
FIG . 15 - 21
To check for development length , assume LQ = 8 # .
A/ u 1
1.3 + LQ Consider Afuj = Afu.

1.3 x 9.02 x 10 6 >

+ 8 # 47 #
14.76 x 103
# 20.3 mm ( OK . )
5 ratio
Basic
d = 26
100
bd
^ st 100 X 278
1000 x 100 = 0.278
552 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 15
265
service stress 0.58 x 415 x
= = 229 N / mm 2
278
modification factor = 1.52
5
permissible — = 1.52 x 26 = 39.52
S ratio 3000 (O. K.)
100 =
actual 30
d
The depth could be reduced by 10 mm .
Details of slabs are shown in fig. 15- 21 .
Beam B - B - B :
^ ^ ^
Load on beam from slab = 2 x 0.62 ( 4 + 4) x 3 = 14.88 + 14.88 kN / m .
Self weight , assuming 230 x 500 rib
= 0.23 x 0.5 x 25 = 2.88 + 0 kN / m .
Total load = 17.76 + 14.88 « 1 8 + 1 5 kN / m
= 27 + 22.5 kN / m .
The loading diagram is shown in fig . 15- 22 .
27 + 22.5 kN /m

6m 6m 6m
A B C D
FIG . 15- 22
Using IS coefficients
1 1
MU ,AB ( +) = j2 x 27 x 62 + JQ x 22.5 x 62 = 81 + 81 = 162 kNm

,B
Mu BC
^u C
( +)

VuA£ =
=
1 x
10
X 27 x 62 +

27 x 62 +
9
^ 4
x 22.5 x 62 = 60.75 + 67.5 = 128.25 kNm .

x 22.5 x 62 = 97.2 + 90 = 187.2 kNm

0.4 x 27 X 6 + 0.45 x 22.5 x 6 = 125.55 kN
VU ,BA = 0.6 X 27 X 6 + 0.6 x 22.5 x 6 = 178.2 kN
Vu ,BC = °-55 x 27 x 6 + 0.60 x 22.5 x 6 = 170.1 kN
( 1 ) Flexure design:
d = 120 + 500 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 560 mm, considering two layers of 20 mm
diameter bars. Beam acts as a flanged beam for positive moments.
0.7 x 6000
bf =
6 + 6 x 120 + 230 = 1650 mm .
bi 1650
230 =
7.17
bw
Df 120
d 560 = 0.214

^ ,lim ,T 2
u
= 0.64
/ck K d
MuMmJ = 0.64 x 20 x 230 x 5602 x 10 6
'

= 923.2 kNm Much larger value .

Art . 15 - 3] Simple Designs 553

x 106
Ast (+ ) for span AB and CD = 0.87 x162
415 ( 560 - 60 ) =
897 mm 2

128.25 x 106 710 mm 2.

^ sl ( +) for span BC =
0.87 x 415 ( 560 - 60 ) =
4 st
i (-) at B or C ( rectangular section )
187.2 x IQ 6
230 x 560 x 560 =
2.60
bd 2
/> t = 0.883, Ast = 1137 mm 2
Provide 5- 16 # (= 1005 mm 2) for span AB and CD and 4 - 16 # (= 804 mm 2 )
for span BC.
At supports B or C, 1137 mm 2A st =
227 mm 2.
20 % =
Provide 2 - 16 mm # as anchor bars and at support 2 - 20 # + 1 - 16 # extra. The
extra top bars will be provided for 0.25 / = 1500 mm in both spans.
Asi = 402 + 628 + 201 = 1231 mm 2.
( 2 ) Shear design :
Span AB:
VUtAB = 125.55 kN, VUtBA = 178.2 kN.
100 As 100 x 5 x 201
bd 230 x 560 = 0.78
x c = 0.567 N / mm 2
Vuc = TC M = 0.567 x 230 x 560 x 10~ 3 = 73.0 kN.
Minimum shear reinforcement for 230 mm wide beam .
6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .
Shear provided by minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y d
V us,min ^ sv X 56 x 0.87 x 250 x 560 x IQ 3"

130
52.5 kN .
=
Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement
= 73 + 52.5 = 125.5 kN .
At distance d from A (ends of reinforcement confined by compressive reaction )
Vu = 125.55 - 0.560 x 49.5
= 97.83 kN < 125.5 kN.
Provide 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c .
At distance d from B
Vu = 178.2 - 0.560 x 49.5 = 150.5 kN .
Shear reinforcement more than minimum required for a distance
150.5 - 125.5
= 0.56 + 49.5 = 0.56 + 0.505 = 1.065 m .
Note that shear resistance of concrete is based on positive moment
reinforcement since the shear in check near to the point of contraflexure .
At support, the shear resistance is still higher because in that case negative
moment reinforcement area will apply.
554 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 15

Vus = 150.5 73 = 77.5 kN .

^d us 77.5 x 103
560
138.4 .

Provide 8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c ^dus

= 144.4
1.065
No . of stirrups = 1 6 no.
0.25 +
Finally , in span AB, at A, provide 6 mm <J) @ 130 mm c / c and at B provide
8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c, 6 no .
Span BC :
B or C, Vu BC = Vu ,CB = 170.1 kN
At d, Vu = 170.1 - 0.56 x 49.5 = 142.4 kN.
100 At 100 x 4 x 201
bd 230 x 560 = 0.62
Tc = 0.518 N / mm 2
Fuc = 0.518 x 230 x 560 x 10 ~3 = 66.7 kN
Fus = 142.4 - 66.7 = 75.7 kN

^d us 75.7 x
560
103 135.2.

Provide 8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c
^ d = 144.4
Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement ( 6 mm
<(> @ 130 mm c / c )
= 66.7 + 52.5 = 119.2 kN.
Shear reinforcement is required for distance
142.4 - 1 19.2
= 0.56 + 49.5 = 0.56 + 0.469 = 1.029 m .
No . of stirrups = 1.029 + 1 6.
0.25
Provide 8 mm # @ 250 mm c / c , 6 no. from B and C in span BC. For the
rest of the portion , 6 mm | ( ) @ 130 mm c / c may be provided .

( 3 ) Development length :

AB: 1.3 x 162 x 106 > 47 #

+ 12 #
125.55 x 103
# < 47.93 mm ( O . K. )
1.3 x 128.25 x 106
BC : + 12 # > 47 #
( 170.1 - 0.15 x 6 x 49.5 ) x 103
# < 37.94 mm .
Development length is satisfied .
( 4 ) Deflection:
Span AB, basic —
d
ratio = 26
100 Ast 100 x 1005
1650 x 560 =
0.109
b'f d
897
0.58 x 415 x 215 N / mm 2
= 1005 =
service stress
Art . 15 - 3] Simple Designs 555
modification factor = 2.00
K 230
= 0.14
h 1650
reduction factor = 0.8 .

permissible
d
S
—
5
= 26 x 2 x 0.8
6000
= 41.6

actual 10.71 ( Safe )

d 560
Span BC ( Safe )
1500 1500 1500 1500
K *t +-- K
r® r©
2-16 # + ( 1 -20 # + 2-16 # ) Extra
2-16 # r®
i- ± = I=-t
J
,
2-16 #
£ £
2- 16 #

-B 2 %
I ~+ Bi 3
l 5-16 # U f 4-16 # *5-16 #
® L®
L ©
K 6000 6000 -
+* 6000
B 4 ( 230 X 620) B 5 (230 x 620) B 6 ( 230 X 620)

D 8# D 8# 6# 8# D 8# D
N 6 <)) @ 130 c/c 6 N 6 Rest 6 N 6 6 <(> @ 130 c/c N
S 250 S 250 130 250 S 250 S

r 2-16 # 2- 16 # + (1-20 # + 2-16 #) Extra r 2- 16 #

120 :: - 120 - 120

500 500 500

« >
I
5-16 # 5-16 # 4- 16 #
H- 230 -H H- 230 -H H<- 230 -H
Section A - A Section B-B SECTION C-C
FIG . 15- 23
(5 ) Spacing of bars:
Clear distance between bars =
230 -2x 30 -3 x 16
61 mm
2
> 25 mm
< 180 mm ( OK . )
The details of beam B - B -B
^ ^ ^ are shown in fig. 15 - 23.
Beam B ± :
Load on Bi = VUjBA + Vu BC
= 178.2 + 170.1 = 348.3 « 350 kN ( point load )
556 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15

Self weight ( 300 x 500 rib )

= 0.3 x 0.5 x 25 = 3.75 kN / m
= 1.5 x 3.75 « 6 kN / m .
The loads are shown in fig . 15 - 24 .

Vu AB ~ V
^ BA — 6 x 3 -f
350
^
= 193 kN .
6 x 62 +
. 350 x 6
= 27 + 525 = 552 kNm .
4
350 kN r 6 kN / m
A B
3m 3m

K 6m H
FIG . 15 - 24
The beam is a rectangular beam .
Mu 552 x 106 = 5.87.
bd 2 300 x 560 x 560
This is too much . The beam can be designed as doubly reinforced section
as usual . In this example , for practice , we shall provide extra slab bars to
make the beam acting as a flanged beam . Provide extra slab reinforcement
over Z? i 2 for a distance of - = 750 mm on both sides to make the beam
as a flanged beam .
Ast = 0.8 x 276 = 221 mm 2 .
Provide 8 mm # @ 225 mm c / c , Ast = 222 mm 2 .
Destribution steel using mild steel
0.15 x
120 x 1000 = 180 mm 2 .
100
Provide 6 mm <J) @ 150 mm c / c , As = 187 mm 2 .
Now bf = 1500 mm .
1500
5
K 300 =
120
d 560 = 0.214 .

^ u ,lim ,T 2
•

= 0.473
/ck K d
Afu ,lim ,T = 0 473 X 20 X 300 X 5602 x 10 ~ 6

= 709.5 kNm > 537 kNm .

552 x 106
^
st —
0.87 x 415 ( 560 - 60 )
= 3057 mm 2 .
Provide 5 - 28 # = 3080 mm 2, in two layers . At top , provide 2 - 16 # as
anchor bars .
Check for moment of resistance of the section is left to the reader.
Ex . 15] Simple Designs 557

Vu = 193 kN
193 x 103
= 300 x 560 =
1.15 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 3080
1.83
bd 300 x 560
Tc = 0.762 N / mm 2
TC bd = 0.762 x 300 x 560 x 10 3 '
= 128 kN.
Vus = 193 128 = 65 kN
Vr U S 65 x 103 116.
d 560
Provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c
V
^d
us
= 120.3 throughout the span .
Details of B ± are shown in fig. 15 - 25.

2- 16 # 2- 16 #
r*~ ®
£ 120 ::
!5 - 28 #

Jr
K
®
3000
B 12 ( 300 x 620)

— —+« 3000
a
H
500
H - 6000 mm H

D D
N 8 mm # @ 300 c/c N 5- 28 #
s S 300 —H
Elevation Section A - A
Details of beam B 4
FIG . 15- 25

EXAMPLES XV
( 1 ) Fig. 15 - 26 shows a plan of a canopy of the building . The finishing load is
2.5 kN / m 2 (due to water - proofing etc.) and the live load is 1.5 kN / m 2. Design the
slabs and beams. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
900
350

3000

350 ;;
£350 thick wall
X
900

h* 7600 H
FIG . 15- 26
558 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 15
( 2 ) Fig. 15- 27 shows a column free area. Design the slabs and beams for a live load
of 3 kN / mm 2 . Floor finish = 1 kN / m 2. Assume that the beams at the crossing are
acting independently i . e . both the beams will have 6 m span and triangular
loading from each half span . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
350 thick wall
£
if m
11 m
I I f:
% 3m
4 I I
i I I m
&
Sf
•

W:
74 I I
1 I
I I
I I I 3m
I I
I I I
II
-

K 3m >+< 3m H
FIG. 15 - 27
( 3 ) Fig. 15- 28 shows the plan of a usual tee beam slab construction . Design the slabs
and beams by using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe
415. Assume that the continuous beam is centrally supported by simply
supported beam B3 .
350 thick wall
-1
pi

3m

&
i JL
B1 nr B2

3m 11 »® m
II 3 si

K 6m >-K 6m H
FIG . 15- 28
 hapter
FRAMED BEAMS
ri 61
16 - 1 . Structural joints: Due to the monolithic nature of various elements of
the concrete structures , bending moment develops at the joints. In analysis , we make
certain assumptions on the conservative side . However , we must check whether the
assumptions made are satisfied or not for a real structure. A true simple support or
a true fixed support may not exist ( except for some special cases ) , however , for
analysis, it has a great value .
Two types of structural joints may be visualized as follows :
( 1 ) Joints are assumed as hinged in the analysis and design . However , due to
partial fixity or monolithy some moment is induced at the joints. An R . C. C.
beam resting on brick masonry wall may induce negligible fixity whereas a
beam resting on R . C. C . beam , R . C . C. wall or R. C . C. column may induce more
fixity at the supports . These moments are usually taken care by providing
some reinforcement without design .
(2) Joints are assumed as moment resisting in the analysis and design . The members
meeting at a joint should have monolithy. The unbalanced moment existing at
the joint shall be distributed among the members meeting at a joint in the
plane of the moment in proportion to their stiffnesses. The members are accordingly
analysed and designed .
In chapter 11 , we had designed continuous beams ( secondary beams of fig. 11 - 1 )
not monolithic with supports, i . e., capable of free rotations at the supports. In fig. 11 - 19 ( b ) ,
we provided extra top bars at the end support to take into account the partial fixity
of the slab at the beam support . In both the cases, the structural joints are assumed
as type ( 1 ) above .
-
In fig. 11 1, we had also defined a few beams as the main beams which are framed
into columns. The joints of these beams with columns are type ( 2 ) joints as above . The
analysis and design of such beams are slightly different than those of the secondary
beams . We shall discuss about the design of such beams in this chapter.
-
16 - 2 Fixed , cantilever and framed beams: Depending on the joints used
and geometry of the beams , the beams which are not capable of free rotation at the
supports are classified as fixed , cantilever and framed beams. These are discussed as
follows :
( 1 ) Fixed beams: The beams which are framed into the supports possessing infinite
moment of inertia are called fixed beams . For example , the beam By of fig. 16 - 1 ( a )
is framed into a large R .C . C. wall. In the plane of the beam and at the joints
A and By if the moment distribution factors are found , they are nearly zero
( very very small ) for the beam and 1 for the R . C . C. wall. The perfect fixity
can be assumed here and the fixed end moments of
are truely realised .
1Z
—
/ 2 , etc., at the
supports

( 2 ) Cantilever beam: The cantilever beams framed into R.C. C . supports, e . g., columns,
are perfectly fixed into the supports by virtue of their geometry. They are
fixed at one end and free at the other.
The bus - stop shed of fig 16 - 1 ( b ) shows that the beams are cantilevered from
the column supports . The connection between the beam and the column is
truely fixed .
560 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 16

A/

R .C.C. R .C.C.
Wall Wall
Beam B\
Opening

\ \
( a ) Fixed beam
115 115
>+K 3000 >K- 3000 3000 >K 3000 +4K

Bi B2 B3 B4
600
- Cit
”

230 x 600
51 51II 51 51
2400 u-
X
wl
I
I
vOl I
u
CO I
-
u |I I|
DO
II
00

Ml I
II
U
ovl

DO
I
I
I I

( b) Cantilever beam: Bus-stop shed

115 115
3000 -
f+ 3000 *+"* 3000 *4 * - 3000
Bl B2 B3 B4
300
Hw^- c2t
'

"

C, |
C3 C4 f
1 230 x 600 i| - 230 x 600
Rib

<— 230Rib
x600

o <N
£ CQ CQ CQ CQ
10000

120 thick
Slab

„ c6 B5 C7 B6 Cg B7 C9 B 8 C 10 I
300:; 1 1 1
( c ) Framed beams: Single bay portal
FIG . 16 - 1
(3 ) Framed beams : The framed beams on the other hand are connected to the
supports possessing finite moment of inertia such as the beams and B 2
of fig. 16 - 1 (c) , which are framed into R.C . C. columns possessing finite moment
of inertia .
Art . 16 - 3] Framed Beams 561

In this case , 100 % fixity cannot be obtained . The moment distribution is

performed at the junction of beams and columns. The total unbalanced moment
acting at a junction is shared by columns and beams intersecting at junction
depending upon their bending stiffness. Such beams will be designed as framed
beams . The main beams of fig. 11 - 1 are the framed beams.
Close study of the above discussion indicates that the fixed beam is a special
case of framed beams where the supports possess infinite moment of inertia
whereas the cantilever beam is a special case of framed beams where the beam
has a zero stiffness.
16- 3. Analysis and design of the framed beams: The analysis of the
framed beams shall be carried out by taking the moment of inertia of the supports into
account and design may be done as usual . For example , the main beams of fig. l l - l
are framed into the columns and shall be analysed by taking into account the stiffness
of column supports also . Note that the columns are also subjected to moment .
The columns are usually subjected to biaxial moments due to the existance of two
cross beams over a support . A beam in xz plane will transfer a moment to the columns
in the same plane i . e ., about y- y axis. Similarly a beam in yz plane will transfer a
moment to the columns about x - x axis.
y
A part plan in the vicinity of
a column is shown in fig . 16 - 2 .
While analysing beams B - B
bending of column about y- y ^ axis^ QQ-
3-

will be taken into account , whereas

for analysing beams B $ - B ± , the
bending of column about x- x will R .C.C. Column
be taken into account.
The designing and detailing
of multi - span framed beams are
similar to that with continuous
beam capable of free rotation at
CO
the supports for beam spans and CQ
at the internal column supports .
Different moment may exist on
both the sides of an internal support
of the beam . The beam section y
shall be designed for maximum
value of the support moments. The Part plan in the vicinity of a column
design of the beam section at the FIG . 16 - 2
external support needs more attention . For analysis , design and detailing of framed
beams , following points shall be carefully observed .
( 1 ) The live load arrangement is modified in some cases. According to clause
22.4 . 1 ( b ) , IS : 456 ; if LL DL, there is no necessity of calculating the
^
analysis for different live load arrangements as it was done for continuous
beams capable of free rotation at supports. Only DL + LL case is sufficient for
such framed beams . This simplification permitted by the code is due to the
fact that the rotation of framed beams is restricted by the supports .
( 2 ) At the end supports , where sufficient anchorage length is not available to
anchor the top bars due to geometry , the anchorage shall be provided by
bending the bars with sufficient internal radius of bend so that the bearing
stress at the bend does not exceed the design bearing strength . Four different
arrangements of anchoring the reinforcement are indicated in fig. 16 - 3.
562 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
( 3 ) In case of fixed beam > the effective span may be taken as clear span , whereas
for isolated cantilever beam , it may be taken as the clear span plus half the
column dimension in the direction of the beam .
span
( 4 ) For deflection calculations , basic ratio for beams framed at both
d
ends may be taken as 26 .

> Ld -H >

(
\
kl
H

'V V
(a) ( b)

Ld
^ Ld > >

i r
1

Cantilever L Internal beam

u
Stub
H
L Internal beam

\
(c ) (d )

FIG . 16- 3
In fig. 16 - 3 ( a ) indicates that the bars are bent and extended in the column to
provide sufficient anchorage . In most cases, the columns are cast upto the beam
bottom . If the said arrangement is to be followed , the beam reinforcement shall be
placed in position while casting the column . Fig . 16- 3( b ) shows a simplified detail. If
the calculations do agree with this arrangement , the column may be cast without
keeping dowels for the beam .
If the beam overhangs from the external support, the detailing is as simple as that
at internal supports . This is indicated in fig . 16 - 3 ( c ) . Note that the reinforcement is
designed for the larger of the two moments produced on either side of the support.
The moments on both the sides of the support are different , because some of the
moments are distributed in columns.
The congestion of reinforcement is sometimes a problem at the end supports. If
the overhanging beam is not available , a stub beam may be introduced to facilitate
proper anchorage of beam bars as shown in fig. 16- 3 ( d ) .
Art . 16 - 5] Framed Beams 563

16- 4. Single span portal frame: Single span portal frame is a special case
of the framed beams where a single span beam is framed into the columns at both the
supports. The plan of fig. 16 - 1 ( c ) is a single span portal frame . Portal frames are single
storey structures . The span of the beams is usually large . Portal frame refers to a
complete frame consisting of a beam , two columns and their footings . The columns
may be hinged or fixed to the footings . Accordingly the portal frames may be either
hinged or fixed .
The analysis and design of portal frames for gravity loads is similar to that of
other framed beams. While designing for horizontal loads like wind and earthquake
loads, note that for the columns in the plane of the portal frame , the moments induced
in columns may be quite large because only two columns are resisting this moment .
The design of frames for horizontal loads is discussed in Vol . II of this book .
16- 5. Substitute frame: For a multi - storeyed frame , the analysis of moments
and shears due to gravity loads can be performed at a time for a whole frame by using
computers. However , this is clumsy and may involve serious mistakes if done manually.
Therefore , to analyse a particular floor manually , a substitute frame is used . In this
frame , for determining the moments and shears at any floor or roof level due to
gravity loads, the beams at that level together with columns above and below with
their far ends fixed may be considered to constitute the substitute frame . For a
multi - storeyed building shown in plan such as in fig. 11 - 1, if the storey height is 3.2 m ,
the substitute frame for beams B 7 - B $ - Bc) of intermediate floor is shown in fig. 16 - 4.
'

\ \\ \ \ \ \ \\\\\\\ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \A \ \ \ \

J
3.2 m
Design loads ( gravity loads)

B7 B8 B9
3.2 m

i /777777 /777777 /77 / 777 /777777

h* 6m 6m 6m

FIG. 16 - 4
The above discussion is made for gravity loads. For lateral loads such as wind and
earthquake loads , the whole frame may be analysed by approximate methods such as
portal method or cantilever method or any other method . Portal method and cantilever
method are discussed in volume II of this book . When the frame is unsymmetrical or
structure is very tall , more rigorous methods should be used . Although the computer
can perform this job in seconds, we shall learn it doing manually so as to understand
the behaviour of the structure clearly.
Moment of Inertia of a framed beam: If the framed beam is rectangular , its moment
of inertia is bD 3 as usual . For a flanged beam , usually the beam behaves as flanged
in 60 to 70 percent of its length , while at supports, it acts as a rectangular beam . Thus
it acts more as a flanged and less as a rectangular. The uniform moment of inertia of
such beams may be 1.5 to 2 times the moment of inertia of a rectangular beam . For
moment distribution , however , we shall assume them as rectangular in most practical
cases . This is conservative , however , this will be adopted for simplicity. Due to this,
the supporting columns will draw little large moment which will be good for overall
design of the building.
564 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
Example 16 - 1.
A four span continuous slab of 3 m span each , is supported on five beams spaced
at 3 m centres. The thickness of the slab is 120 mm and is spanning one way. Total
load on the slab ( D L + L L) is ( 6 + 2 ) kN / m 2. Determine the loads from slab supported
by each beam . These calculations will be used as data in the examples to follow.
Solution :
The slabs are considered as capable of free rotations at the supports . Therefore ,
the shear coefficients of continuous beams and slabs may be used to determine the
loads supported by beams .
Slab load = ( 6 + 2 ) kN / m 2 .
End support w = 0.4 x 3 x 6 4- 0.45 x 3 x 2 = 7.2 4- 2.7 kN / m .
Support next to the end support
w = (0.6 + 0.55 ) x 3 x 6 + ( 0.6 4- 0.6) x 3 x 2
= 20.7 + 7.2 kN / m .
At interior support w = (0.5 -
4 0.5) x 3 x 6 4- ( 0.6 4- 0.6 ) x 3 x 2
= 18 4 - 7.2 kN / m .
Example 16 - 2 .
A fixed beam B\ of fig. 16 - 1 ( a) has a clear span of 7.0 m . It is 230 mm wide and
supported properly by 230 mm thick R . C . C . wall on both the sides so as to obtain
fixity in the walls. The beam is acting as an end support to the slab of Example 16 - 1.
The masonry load on the beam in addition to the slab loads is 12 kN / m . Design the
beam . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Loading on beam : DL LL
From slab ( Example 16 - 1 ) 7.2 4- 2.7 kN / m
Wall load 12.0 4- 0 kN / m
Self weight 0.23 x 0.4 x 25 2.3 4- 0 kN / m
Total 21.5 4- 2.7 kN / m
Factored load = 1.5 ( 21.5 4- 2.7) ^ 37 kN / m .
x 72
Mu ( + ) = 37 24 = 75.54 kNm
Mu ( -) = 37 1x2 72 151.08 kNm
v , A ~ v ,B ~ 37 x 7
vu vu 129.5 kN.
2
Point of contraflexure at x metre
x '2
151.08 - 129.5 * - 37
2 =
0

x 2 - l x 4- 8.17 = 0
x = 1.48 m or 5.52 m .
Distance between points of contraflexure, /0 = 5.52 1.48 = 4.04 m .
Note that for a fixed beam , effective span is taken as the clear span .
Art . 16 - 5] Framed Beams 565

( 1 ) Flexure:
( i ) The beam acts as an ell beam for positive moment .
*0
b { = — + 6 Z) f + b „
f

= + 6 x 120 + 230 ( Y / 0 = 4040 mm )

1620 mm
«

d = 120 + 400 - 30 - 10 = 480 mm

h 1620 D{ 120
230 = ' d
7' — 480 = 0.25

^ , l i m ,T 2
u
= 0.692
/ck K d

^u ,lim ,T = 0.692 x 20 x 230 x 4802 x 10 6 = 733.4 kNm > 75.54 kNm . "

75.54 x 106
Asi ( + ) =
0.87 x 415 ( 480 - 60 )
= 498 mm 2.
Provide 2 - 16 # + 1 - 12 # = 515 mm 2 .
( ii ) For negative moment , the beam acts as a rectangular beam .
M_u_
( - ) = 151.08 x 106 = 2.85 > 2.76
bd 2 230 x 480 x 480
Doubly reinforced beam .
d’ 50 « 0.1
d 480
pc = 0.029, sc = 32 mm 2
^ . ( very small )
p = 0.978 , As = 1080
{ { mm 2
The positive moment reinforcement will provide compression reinforcement
for this section .
Provide 2 - 12 # anchor bars . At wall support , provide 3- 20 # extra .
As { (-) = 2 x 113 + 3 x 314 = 1168 mm 2.
The reinforcement should extend beyond point of contraflexure for 12 #
or deff whichever is greater.
12 # = 12 x 20 = 240 mm , d = 480 mm , i . e . , 480 mm . Extend for
1480 + 480 = 1960 mm , say 2000 mm .
( 2 ) Shear.
The ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive reaction .
Shear at d = 129.5 - 0.480 x 37 = 111.74 kN.
100 As 100 x 1168
1.058
bd 230 x 480
= 0.621 N / mm 2 .
Vuc = z c b d = 0.621 x 230 x 480 x 10 ~3 = 68.56 kN (i)
Note that negative moment reinforcement is used here because tension exists
at top upto point of contraflexure , i . e ., upto 1.48 m .
566 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 16
Minimum shear reinforcement for 230 mm wide beam using mild steel stirrups
is 6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c / c, for which
^usd , min
= 94.6
94.6 x 480 x 10-3 = 45.41 kN
7,us , m i n
r = (2)
Shear capacity of section with minimum shear reinforcement, from 1 and ( 2 )
( )
= 68.56 + 45.41 113.97 kN .
Design shear = 111.74 kN < 113.97 kN.
Provide 6 mm 0 stirrups @ 130 mm c / c throughout the beam .
( 3 ) Development length.
( i ) For negative moment reinforcement
= 47 # = 47 x 20 = 940 mm.
Provide 1000 mm anchorage length .
( ii ) For positive moment reinforcement, at point of contraflexure
Vu = 129.5 - 1.48 x 37 = 74.74 kN .
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 515 ( 480 - 60) x 10 ~6 = 78.1 kNm
actual L 0 = 1480 + 200 = 1680 mm .
LQ = 12 # or deff , whichever is greater , i.e., 480 mm .

1.3 + L0 LA
1.3 x 78.1 x 106 > 47 #
+ 480
74.74 x 103
# < 39.11 mm ( O - K. )
( 4 ) Deflection:
Basic
d
ratio = 26
100 Ast 100 x 515
= 0.066
bed
f 1620 x 480
498
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x = 233 N / mm 2
515
MF , = 2
K 230
= 0.14
h 1620
RF = 0.8 .
5 26 x 2 x 0.8
Permissible
d
ratio = = 41.6
S ratio 7000
( O . K.)
actual
d = 480 14.58
Clear distance between bars
Clear distance between bars f 25 mm
180 mm .
230 - 2 ^x 30 - 2 x 16 - 12
clear distance = 2 = 63 mm ( O. K.)
Art . 16- 5 ] Framed Beams 567

—
( 5 ) Sketch :
The sketch of the designed beam is shown in fig. 16 - 5.

r @ r*- ® r 2-12 #
h* > <- > h*— > < -
H
1000 2000 2000 1000
2- 12 # + 3- 20 # extra
+
*

230 thick 230 thick

RCC wall L2 -16 # + 1 - 12 # RCC wall
V"
h* 7000 H
( 230 mm x 520 mm )
- Stirrups

t
6 mm 0 @ 130 mm c/c throught

( a ) Elevation
- 2- 12 # + 3-20 #
1 2- 12 #

120 w
•r 120 }

400 400

<
230
—
1 2-16 # + 1 - 12 #
h*
230
2-16 # + 1 - 12 #

Section A- A Section B - B
( b) Sections

Details of B1
FIG . 16 -5
Example 16 - 3 .
A bus stop shed is shown in fig . 16 - 1 ( b ) . Design the central beam BC \ . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . The
beam is supporting the slab of Example 16 - 1.
Solution :
Loads on beam : DL LL
From slab ( Ex. 16 - 1 ) 18 4- 7.2 kN / m
Beam self ( 230 x 600)
0.23 x 0.5 x 25 2.88 4- 0 kN / m
Total 20.88 4- 7.2 kN / m .
Factored load = 1.5 ( 20.88 4- 7.2 ) = 42 kN / m .
600
Span = 2400 4- = 2700 mm = 2.7 m .
^
568 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 16

Considering mild exposure, 10 mm diameter stirrups and 20 mm diameter bars in

one layer
d = 120 + 500 - 30 - 10 = 580 mm .
The beam is designed as a rectangular beam as tension exists at top ( slab level ) .
2 72
Mu = 42 x 153.1 kNm

Vu = 42 x 2.4 = 100.8 kN ( based on clear span )

153.1 x IQ 6
1.98
bd 2 230 x 580 x 580
pt = 0.631, As{ = 842 mm 2.
Provide 3- 20 # giving lst = 942 mm 2 .
^ 842
Anchorage required = 47 x 20 x
942 =
840 mm .
The bars shall be bend to provide the proper anchorage . Provide 200 mm internal
radius of bend and arrange as shown in fig. 16- 6.
230
350 3 -20 # 75 75
330 40 h H 40
X
250
120
T \ 200 T
120
/ 250
I 620
330
50

600

(a ) End elevation ( b) End section

FIG . 16 - 6
The anchorage provided = 1180 mm ( O. K . )
From fig. 16 - 6, a — 75 mm .
Design bearing stress

/bd =

Stress in bar at face of column

1 - 5 /ck

1 + —
a
2 . .+ 1.5 x 20
2 x 20
75
= 19.56 N / mm 2 .

842
= 0.87 x 415 x 323 N / mm 2.
942 =
840 - 515
Stress at centre of bend = 323
840 = 125 N / mm 2
Fbt = 125 x 314 x lO-3 = 39.25 kN
39.25 x 103
At = 200 x 20 = 9.81 N / mm 2 < f ^ ( O . K. )
Art . 16 - 5] Framed Beams 569

The arrangement is satisfactory. Provide 2 - 12 # as anchor bars .

Shear.
Vu = 103.2 kN
100 As 100 x 942
230 x 580 =
0.706
bd
Tc = 0.546 N / mm ^.
Vuc = 0.546 x 230 x 580 x 10 ~3 = 72.84 kN.
Fus = 103.2 - 72.84 = 30.36 kN .
^dus 30.36 x
580
103 = 52.3.
Minimum shear reinforcement for 230 mm wide beam is 6 mm |
< > @ 130 mm c / c
V u s, m i n
for which
d = 94.6 > 52.3.
Provide 6 mm 0 M . S. stirrups @ 130 mm c / c throughout . The other checks
are left to the reader. The designed beam is shown in fig. 16 -7.

r 3-20 # =
3-20 #

120 r= F t-

r = 200

500
u® —
12- 12 #
( 220 x 620)

-
*- 600 — 2400 >—

- 2- 12 #
H
230

6 mm 0 @ 130 c /c

(a ) Elevation ( b) Section A - A
Details of BC 1
FIG. 16 - 7
Example 16 - 4.
Determine the loads and moments transferred to the column in Example 16 - 3.
Solution :
The axial load on column
Pu = ( 2.4 + 0.6 ) x 42 = 126 kN .
The moment acting on centre - line of the column

Mu 2
x 42 - 0.32
2
x 42 = 153.1 1.9 = 151.2 kNm
Note that this moment is acting on the column about its major axis .
In this example, exact calculation for moment is carried out . In practice , small
correction of 1.9 kNm may be omitted depending on the accuracy required for the
problem .
570 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
Example 16 -5 .
A single span , single storey , hinged portal frame of fig. 16 - 1 (c ) is supporting the
slab of example 16 - 1. The height of the floor from footing top is 4.5 m . The connection
between column and footing shall be assumed as hinged. Design the beam B5 and draw
details. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
The loading is the same as in Example 16 - 3. As size of beam is 230 x 600 rib ,
consider = 43 kN / m .
The beam is a tee beam .
/Q = 0.7 x 10000 = 7000 mm .
, 7000
= “ “+ 230 + 6 x 120
6
= 2117 mm < 3000 mm ( O. K. )
2117
K 230 = 9.2

Of 120
= 0.167.
D 720
From chart 88 of SP: 16
k ,= 2.22
2.22 x 1 x 230 x 7203
4= 12
= 1.58 x 1010 mm 4
4 / 4 x 1.58 x IQ10
i ib 10000
= 6.35 x 106 mm 3
i X
/c 230 X 6003
12
= 4.14 x 106 mm 3
720
Ic = 4500 - 2 = 4140 mm .
Column - footing connection is assumed to be a hinge .
3 I 3 x 4.14 x 109
l Ic 4140
= 3 x 106 mm 3
Distribution factors DFbeam : DFco umn ,
6.35 3
”
9.35 •
9.35 = 0.68 : 032 .

Fixed end moments = 43 x 102 = 358.33 kNm .

12
10
Free shears = 43 x
^ = 215 kN.
The moment distribution is carried out as follows. Three to four cycles are sufficient
for such a problem .
Art . 16 - 5 ] Framed Beams 571

Moment distribution:
Beam Moments:
0.68 0.68
- 358.33 + 358.33
+ 243.66 - 243.66
- 121.83 + 121.83
+ 82.84 - 82.84
- 41.42 41.42
4- 28.16 28.16
- 14.08 + 14.08
+ 9.58 9.58
- 171.42 + 171.42
Column moments:
0.32 0.32
+ 114.66 - 114.66
+ 38.99 - 38.99
+ 13.25 - 13.25
+ 4.50 4.50
+ 171.40 - 171.40
Shear correction :
215.00 215.00
0 0
215.00 215.00
Maximum positive moment at centre of span
102
= 43 x 8 171.42 = 366.08 kNm .
( 1 ) Section at centre:
The beam acts as a tee beam .
Mu = 366.08 kNm
d = 120 + 600 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 660 mm
( assume two layers of 20 mm diameter bars)
bf = 2117 mm ; Df = 120 mm ; bw = 230 mm
Of
= 9.2; d = 0.181
K
From table 6- 10
A/ u
= 0.738
/ck iw < 2
*
AfuIimj = 0.738 x 20 x 230 x 6602 x 10 6
"
= 1478.7 kNm
Mu < ^ .lim.T
u
366.08 x IQ6 1690 mm 2 .
A St
0.87 x 415 ( 660 - 60 )
=
Provide 6 - 20 # = 1884 mm 2 .
572 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
The bars will be provided in two layers . Some of the bars may be curtailed
after verifying the rules for curtailment . Some bars can be bent up also .
However , in this case , all the bars are carried straight in the support .
( 2 ) Section at support:
Mu = 171.42 kNm
171.42 x 106 \. . <
bd 2 230 x 6602
pt = 0.534
J 2.76

0.534 x 230 x 660

^ —
st 100 = 8T4 mm 2
20% steel shall be carried in the span .
= 0.2 x 811 = 162 mm 2.
Provide 2 - 12 # anchor bars. At support, provide 2 - 12 # + 2 - 20 # extra top bars.
Asl = 2 ( 113 + 314 ) = 854 mm 2.
Anchorage required = 47 x 20 = 940 mm .
The arrangement of the bars is shown in fig. 16- 8. Provide 250 mm internal
radius of the bend . The anchorage provided = 1260 mm . From the section ,
a = 52 mm .
1.5 x 20
x 20 = 16.95 N mm .
Design bearing strength = / 2
1 + 2
52
Stress at the centre of bend = 0.87 x 415 x 1 120 509 = 197 N / mm 2
-
1120
Fht = 197 x 314 x 10 -3 = 61.86 kN.
61.86 x IQ 3
At = 250 x 20 = 12.37 N / mm 2.
The arrangement is satisfactory.
The point of contraflexure at distance x where
215 * - 43
x2
171.42 = 0
2
x 2 - 10 x + 7.97 = 0
10 ± ViQQ 31 , 88 _
x
2 = 0.88 m and 9.12 m .
The reinforcement shall extend beyond the point of contraflexure for a distance
of 12 <J> or deff whichever is greater i .e ., the negative moment reinforcement
shall extend in a span for a distance from the centre of column equal to
880 + ( 12 x 20 or 680 ) mm = 1560 mm 47 # (i . e . , 940 mm ) .
From the face of the column , extend the bars for a distance of
1560 - 300 = 1260 mm ; say 1500 mm .
Provide 2 - 20 # extra upto 1500 mm from the face of the column .
( 3 ) Development length:
Development length for negative moment reinforcement is checked while
providing the reinforcements . For positive moment reinforcements , at points
of contraflexure
Art . 16 - 5 ] Framed Beams 573

Vu = 215 - 43 x 0.88 = 177.16 kN .

Ast = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2
Aful = 0.87 x 415 x 1884 ( 660 - 60 ) x 10 ‘6
= 408.1 kNm
LQ = 880 + 250 ( beyond centre of support ) = 1130 mm
12 d or deff whichever is greater i . e ., 660 mm
LQ
^
= 660 mm

1.3 *ul + LQ

408.1 x 106
1.3 x + 660 > 47 #
177.16 x 106
# < 77.7 mm (Safe )
( 4 ) Shear :
As the ends of the reinforcement are confined by compressive reaction , shear
at distance d will be considered for calculation at support.

Vu = 215 -
(0.3 + 0.660) x 43 = 173.7 kN .
At support , upto 0.88 m from the centre of support , i . e ., upto 0.58 m from the
face of the support , the tension is at top . Beyond this, the tension shifts to
bottom fibres .
At support , As = 854 mm 2
100 As 100 x 854
230 x 660 =
0.563
bd
^ = V 0.50 N / mm 2
0.50 x 230 x 660 x 10 3 75.9 kN.
Vuc = "
=
Minimum shear reinforcement for 230 mm wide beam is 6 mm d @ 130 mm
c / c for which
V us, m i n
d = 94.6

V us
, ,m i n = 94.6 x 660 x 10-3 = 62.44 kN.
Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement
= 75.9 + 62.44 = 138.34 kN
215 - 138.34
This occurs at
43
- 0.3 = 1.48 m from face of support,
i .e ., designed shear reinforcement is required upto 1.48 m .
At support . Vu = 173.5 kN
Vus = 173.5 - 75.9 = 97.6 kN
Vr us 97.6 x 103 147.8 .
d 660
Vy
Provide 8 mm # stirrups @ 230 mm c / c with ——
9
j
159.7.

1.48
No of stirrups = + 1 ^ 8 no . Then , provide 6 mm d @ 130 mm c / c.
0.23
57 4 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16

^® <D
1130 1500 2-12 # + 2-20 # extra 1500 1130
>+ -H 2- 12 # 4

fr = 200
£ r = 200 l

- 6-20 #
600 —
* <
®
9400 mm > 4
600

+ ( 230 x 720 overall ) v

K lOOOOmmc/c H

D 8# 60 8#
N 7 rest 7
S 250 130 250
( a ) Elevation
2- 12 # + 2-20 # extra 2-12 #

120 **
120 v f
600 600

20 0 pin
i jzzzfezzj 20 0 pin

6-20 # 6-20 #
4 > 4 >
230 230
( b) Section A A - (c) Section B- B
52 52
2-12 # + 2-20 # 34 H - { { | 134
400 2-12 # + 2-20 # extra
330/ 1500

400
i 600
r = 200

* 6-20 #
254^-20

25 5r=
550
20

(d ) End Elevation

20 0 pin
6- 20 #
<
1
230 '
(e ) End section
Details of B5'
FIG. 16-8
(5 ) Deflection :
Basic -d7 ratio = 26
100 As 100 x 1884
bed 2117 x 660 = 0.135
Art . 16 - 5 ] Framed Beams 575

1690
service stress = 0.58 x 415 x
1884 = 216 N / mm 2
MF \ = 2.0
230
2117 =
0.108

RF = 0.8.
5 26 x 2 x 0.8 = 41.6
d =
Permissible

actual
S 10000
15.15 ( Safe )
d 660
( 6 ) Spacing :
Clear distance between bars:
230 - 2 x 30 - 2 ( 12 + 20 )
(*) At support > — 3 = 35.33 mm .
230 - 2 x 30 - 3 x 20
( ii ) At centre » — 2 = 55 mm .
Clear distance < 180 mm ( cracking )
> 25 mm ( using 20 mm aggregate ) ( safe )
The designed beam is detailed in fig. 16 - 8.
Example 16 - 6 .
A typical floor plan of a three storeyed building is shown in fig. 16-9. The floor
height is 4.2 m . The floor is to be designed for a live load of 4 kN / m 2. The floor
finish = 1 kN / m 2 and distribution wall load = 1.5 kN / m 2. Design the main beam
using substitute frame . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Calculate the slab loads . Assume 120 mm thick slab .
( 1 ) Slab loads:
DL LL
self - weight 0.12 x 25 = 3.0 + 0 kN / m 2
floor finish = 1.0 + 0 kN / m 2
distributed partitions = 1.5 + 0 kN / m 2
live load = 0 + 4 kN / m 2
Total 5.5 + 4 kN / m 2.
Next calculate loads on floor beam FB\ .
( 2 ) Loads on floor beams:
DL LL
load from slab 2 (5.5 + 4) = 11.0 + 8 kN / m
rib self - weight 0.23 x 0.45 x 25 = 2.6 + 0 kN / m
Total 13.6 + 8 kN / m
Reaction of floor beam =|( 13.6
+ 8) = ( 40.8 + 24) kN
say ( 41 + 24) kN .
Now calculate loads on beam By - - By .
B
^
576 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 16
All columns 300 x 300
Ci Bi C2 B2 C3 B3 C4
T
i I 450 Cut out I
i
FBi I Sunk FB i
b Ib d
6m I =rt Landing
1 1 CQ
-<T
n

^ I FBi «1 1
-
$ 1, ^
FB i
CQ

c5
F
I
1
B4 __]LlT£
-I Is«
. ±i
rr - -B ~
§

«
k
fiF
d — ii --’
B6
r
d

5 DN UP I
I I I
I r^-
b 1
"

Ii8 r*',
6m CQ
I
22
^
CQ
U
- CQ |
FB \
-I
| CQ CD
UL
22 |
I
CQ

FB ,
I F I
I
_ JJ JLLL _ - hC_°_ I
I c11 JJ I C

+I FB , T ,r B ~ r ---- + 12
[
C9 • LL
- ~
B9
8 I
1I FB , I
b d
6m rn
I Fl jl 2 I £
< N

, FB,
m
so
I FB ml , E .
U
I
F
I B|0
-I
I C|4 B
I
IF
I C , J B 12
=1 c 16
C 13
K 6m 6m *+< 6m >

Main beam - 300 x 450 rib

Secondary beam - 230 x 450 rib
Columns - 300 x 300

FIG . 16-9
( 3 ) Loads on
DL LL
From slab \ (5.5 +x 4) = 5.5 + 4 kN / m
rib self - weight 0.3 0.45 x 25 = 3.4 4- 0 kN / m
8.9 + 4 kN / m Total
say ( 9 + 4 ) kN / m .
Two point loads from floor beams ( 41 4- 24) kN at third points .
( 4 ) Factored loads on each span :
UDL -> 1.5 (9 + 4) = ( 13.5 4- 6 ) kN / m

Total load on each span

—
point loads > 1.5 ( 41 + 24) = ( 61.5 4- 36 ) kN, 2 nos. at third points.
<
( 13.5 4- 6 ) 4- 2 ( 61.5 4- 36 ) = ( 136.5 4- 78) kN
Here 0.75 DL = 0.75 x 136.5 = 102.4 kN
i . e. LL < 0.75 DL.
As per clause 22.4 of IS : 456, the load arrangement may be [ DL - LL)
4 on all
spans.
 Art . 16 - 5 ] Framed Beams 577

Then UDL = 13.5 + 6 = 19.5 kN / m

and point loads = 61.5 + 36 = 97.5 kN ( two nos . at third points . )
The loading and substitute frame are shown in fig . 16 - 10 .
300
\\ \ \ \ w \ \\\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\ \ \\\\\\\

300

4.2 m
97.5 97.5 kN 97.5 97.5 kN 97.5 97.5 kN
Column

A ±
19.5 kN/m B 19.5 kN /m c 19.5 kN /m D 120

4.2 m
l
450
i /777777 /777777 /777777 /777777

-
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 300
K 6m 6m +4 6m Main beam

( a ) Frame ( b ) Assumed sections

Substitute frame for B7 - B - B

FIG . 16 - 10 ^ ^
M . I . of beam

—
Ih =
—
^
4.. -63 x 109
x 300 x 5703 = 4.63 x 109 mm 4

y 791 x 1105
U mm 3
' b
1
6000
x 300 x 3003 = 6.75 x 10 « mm 4
M . I . of column Ic =
4 6.75 x IQ8
= 1.61 x 105 3.
mmJ
4 4200
At joints A and D
Distribution factors for upper and lower columns
1.61
2 x 1.61 + 7.72 =
0.15
DF for beam = 1 - ( 2 x 0.15 ) = 0.70
At joints B and C
Distribution factors for upper and lower columns
t 1.61
2 ( 1.61 -f 7.72 ) =
0.09

DF for beam = ( 1 - 0.09 - 0.09) = 0.41 .

Free shears
^
AB = BA = BC = CB = CD = DC

= 97.5 + 21 x 6 x 19.5 = 156 kN

578 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
Fixed end moments AB = BA = BC = CB = CD = DC
19.5 x 62 + 97.5 2 x 42 + 4 x 22
12 62 62
= 58.5 + 130 = 188.5 kNm .
The moment distribution is now carried out and analysis performed .
(5 ) Moment distribution :
Beam Moment :
0.70 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.70
- 188.5 188.5 - 188.5 188.5 - 188.5 188.5
4- 132.0 0 0 0 0 - 132.0
66.0 0 0 66.0
27.0 27.0 27.0 27.0
13.5 0 13.5 13.5 0 13.5
9.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 9.5
60.5 222 - 207.5 207.5 - 222 60.5

( 6) Column moments ( upper and lower ) :

0.15 0.09 0.09 0.15
4- 28.2 - 6.0 + 6.0 - 28.2
2.0 - 1.2 4- 1.2 2.0
30.2 - 7.2 4- 7.2 - 30.2
( 7) Shear correction :
Free shear 156.0 156.0 156 156 156.0 156.0
correction - 26.9 4- 26.9 0 0 4- 26.9 - 26.9
Final shear 129.1 182.9 156 156 182.9 129.1
Point of < > < > < >
zero shear 2 m 3 m 2 m
( 8) Positive moments :

Span AB or CD Mu (+) = 129.1 x 2 - 19.5 x 22 - 60.5 = 158.7 kNm

y
Span BC Mu ( 4- ) = 156 x 3 - 19.5 x 32 - 97.5 x 1 - 207.5
2
= 75.25 kNm .
(9) Negative moments :
Support A or D 60.5 kNm
Support B or C 222 kNm
( 10 ) Flexure design :
Assume 2 layers of 20 mm diameter bars.
d = 120 + 450 - 30 - 20 - 10 = 510 mm .
The calculations are tabulated below.
Art . 16 - 5] Framed Beams 579

FLEXURE DESIGN
b = 300 mm , d = 510 mm

Location Moment Pt Pc 4 st , mm 2
i A SC m m 2
bd 2 ’
Asc , pro mm 2
kNm
^
• s t , pro

A 60.5 0.78 0.232 355

(-) 2 - 16 # = 402 mm 2
B 222 2.85 0.943 0.12 1443 184
(-) 3- 16 # + 3- 20 # 2 - 16 #
= 1545 mm 2 = 402 mm 2
P 158.7 2.03 0.654 1001
(+) 2- 16 # + 2 - 20 #
= 1030 mm 2
75.25 0.96 0.288 441
(+) 3- 16 # = 603 mm 2

The designed beam is shown in fig. 16 - 11.

( 11 ) Check for development length :
( i ) Positive moment reinforcement:
Span AB
Consider points of contraflexure at 0.15 / = 0.15 x 6 = 0.9 m
At A
Shear at point of contraflexure
Vu = 129.1 - 0.9 x . 19.5 = 111.6 kN
^4 st = 1030 mm 2 , pt = 0.673
M u\ = 2.08,
bi 2
Mul = 2.08 x 300 x 5102 x 10 ~ 6 = 162.3 kNm .
Consider L0 = 12 #

1.3 MnX + L0 LA
G
1.3 x 162.3 x 10 + 12 # > 47 #
111.6 x 103
i .e . # < 54 mm ( safe )
At B
Shear at point of contraflexure
Vu = 182.9 19.5 x 0.9 = 165.4 kN
b
1.3 x 162.3 x 10 + 12 # > 47 #
165.4 x 103
# 36.44 mm ( safe )
580 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 16
Span BC
Ast = 603 mm 2, pt = 0.39, bd 2 1.28

= 1.28 x 300 x 5102 x IQ-6 = 99.37 kNm

Fu = 156 - 0.9 x 19.5 = 138.5 kN, at point of contraflexure
-
.. 1.3 x 99.87 x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
138.5 x 103
# 26.78 mm ( safe )
( ii ) Negative moment reinforcement :
Anchorage required = 47 # = 47 x 20 = 940 mm
Reinforcement curtailed at -4r = 1500 mm
Sufficient anchorage is available .
( 12 ) Bearing stress at bend at A or D :
area required
Ld = 47 # x 47 # x 355
area provided = 402
= 41.5 # = 41.5 x 16 = 664 mm
The arrangement of bend is shown in fig . 16- 11 ( c )
4) = 16 mm
a = 300 - 60 - 32 = 208 mm

design bearing stress = -

1 5 /ok 1.5 x 20
= 26 N / mm 2
1 +
2 <f > 1 + 2 x 16
a 208
At centre of bend , the anchorage available
112 + 248 = 236 mm
2
stress in bar at centre of bend

0.87 x 415 x 355 x 664 - 236

402 664
= 205.5 N / mm 2
Fht = 205.5 x 201 x 10 ~3 = 41.3 kN
actual bearing stress, = ^rijbt _
41.3 x IQ 3
) 150 x 16
= 17.2 N / mm 2 < 26 N / mm 2 ( safe )
( 13 ) Check for shear :
Consider positive moment reinforcement and shear at d = 0.51 m .
100 100 x 1030
Span AB
300 x 510 =
0.673
bd
•
tc = 0.534 N / mm 2
Fuc = TCBD = 0.534 x 300 x 510 x 10 ~3 = 81.7 kN .
100 As 100 x 603
Span BC bd 300 x 510 =
0.39
= 0.427 N / mm 2
Fuc = x cbd = 0.427 x 300 x 510 x 10-3 = 65.3 kN .
Art . 16 - 5] Framed Beams 581

Use 8 mm # two - legged stirrups, Asv = 100 mm 2

spacing for minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y sv
0.4 b
^
0.87 x 415 x 100 _ 300
0.4 x 300
o
mm -

Spacing should not exceed

( i ) 0.75 d = 0.75 x 510 = 382 mm
( ii ) 300 mm .
Minimum shear reinforcement is 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c .
Shear resisted by minimum stirrups
0.87 /y Asv d 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 510 x 10-3
V u s, m i n 300
= 61.3 kN .
Span AB
At A shear at d = 129.1 - 0.51 x 19.5 = 119.2 kN
shear resistance of section with minimum stirrups
= 81.7 + 61.3 = 143 kN > 119.2 kN .
Minimum stirrups are sufficient .
At B shear at d = 182.9 - 0.51 x 19.5 = 173 kN
stirrups more than minimum required in
0.51 + 173 - 143 = 2.05 m
19.5
} 2 m , since point load exists.
Provide stirrups more than minimum upto 2 m .
0.87 / Asy d
sv = V u. s
X 415 X 100 x 510
= 0.87 = 201.7 mm
( 173 - 81.7 ) x 103
Provide 8 mm # @ 200 mm c / c
2000
no. 200 + 1 = 11 no.
Span BC
Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement
= 65.3 -t- 61.3 = 126.6 kN
shear at d = 156 - 0.51 x 19.5 = 146 kN
stirrups more than minimum required upto
- 126.6
0.51 + 146 19.5 1.5 m .

0 87 x 415 x 100 x 510

spacing
H 6 svv =
( 146 - 65.3 ) x 103
= 228 mm

Provide 8 mm # @ 200 mm c / c
no. = 1500 / 200 + 1 9 no .
582 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 16
The designed beam is shown in fig. 16- 11. The check for deflection and cracking
are left to the reader.

1500 1500
p^ (D
2- 16 # throughout 2- 16 # + 3-20 # + 1 - 16 #
5

I /

B7 B8
- 2-16 # + 2-20 # L 3- 16 #
K
-
V
6000
—
>

D 8# 8# 8#
N 8# @ 200 c/c 11 9 rest
S 200 200 300
(a ) Elevation
2-16 # 2-16 # + 1 -16 # + 3-20 #
1201 i 120 ^ T E^: ;
.
i
20 # pin

450 450

2- 16 # + 2- 20 # L 3- 16 #
300 -H H*— 300 — H

( b) Section 1 - 1 -
(c) Section 2 2

112
248
-
>+ <-> r 2- 16 #

i . r = 150
320

i
L
2-16 # + 2-20 #
H- 300-H

( d ) End elevation

Details of beam
FIG . 16 - 11
Ex . 16 ] Framed Beams 583

EXAMPLES XVI
Note: Use M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 unless otherwise
specified .
( 1 ) In worked Example 16 - 1 if the live load is 4 kN / m 2 , determine the loads on each
beam from the slab .
( 2 ) A fixed beam of clear span 8 m is an intermediate beam of normal tee beam slab
construction where the beams are spaced at 3.6 m centres. Design the beam if the
loading on slab is ( 6 + 4 ) kN / mm 2. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 3 ) The bus- stop shed of fig. 16 - 1 ( b ) is supporting the load from slab of Example 16 - 1
above. Design the edge beam BC 3. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 4 ) A single span single storey hinged portal frame of fig. 16 - 1 ( c ) is supporting the
live load of 4 kN / m 2 . The height of the floor from footing top is 5.7 m . The
connection between column and footing shall be assumed as hinged.
Design the beams BJQ and B \ j and draw details . The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 5 ) In Example 16 - 4 above , redesign the beams if the connection between the column
and footing is fixed .
( Hint : The distribution factors will be changed due to the fixity given ) .

Y Ci c2 C3 C4
115 == =r
O.T.S.

4000 Office Office

Y
C5 c6 c7
L
1.5 mt. Clear Height
2500 Passage Parapet 3.2 mt .
C 10 Cn
A C9

Toilet block 450

4000 Office sunk sinder filling
9 kN/m 3

C 13 C 14 ,
C 5 Ci 6
115
< 4000 >+< 2500~
4000 MH
115 115

FIG . 16 - 12
584 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 16
( 6 ) A typical floor plan of a three storeyed building is shown in fig . 16 - 9. The floor
is to be designed for a live load of 5 kN / m 2. The floor finish = 1 kN / m 2 and
distributed partition wall load = 1.5 kN / m 2. For a typical floor , Design :
( a ) the floor beams FB 1
( b ) the main beam B 7 - B $ - B j (

( c ) the main beam BIQ - BN ~ By2 -

The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( 7 ) Fig. 16 - 12 shows a typical floor plan of an office building having ground + 2
upper floors . Propose the structural layout and design and detail all slabs and
beams . Note : Beams should not be visible in passage area . At the beam support
like that connecting Q- Cg, if one - way and two - way slabs are meeting, assume
that the two - way slab is continuous over this support and determine the moment
by using coefficients. In design of one - way passage slab , 60% of this moment
may be assumed to act and reduction in positive moment of passage slab may be
permitted .
( 8 ) Fig. 16- 13 shows a structural layout of an office building having 12 offices. The
building is GF + 3 upper floors . The height of each floor is 3 m . Assume all
masonry walls 230 mm thick . Design all beams and slabs. LL = 4 kN / m 2.
Y
0.3 m ::
i i
i F T
I
Office building
I
6m LL = 4 kN / m 2 I
I I
I I I
! I
!| | l| 1| l| l|

lt
fc ====i===== ====lt ====it ==== lt ==== M ==== i
I
3m i Passage beam is not permitted I
I I

f T"
1
F
11
F' Toilet: FJl
' :
F
11
F11 }
!l
l
I block 1j ! I
6 m lI 450 sunk l
I 1
' I
230 x600 I Cut-out
0.3 m
"
V i i H -I
H — 3 m—>+<— 3 m —N-< — 3 m-
FIG . 16 - 13
H — — —
3 m H~< 3 m H*- 3 m —-
> H- 3 m —
(9) Fig. 16- 14 shows a typical floor plan of an office building ( GF + 3 upper floors ) .
Plan the stair case and design all slabs, beams , stair , etc. All walls are 230 mm
thick brick masonry. Live load shall be 3 kN / m 2.
( 10 ) Fig . 16 - 15 shows a sketch plan of a typical floor plan of an office building
( GF + 3 upper floors) . Plan the architectural details , structural layout and design
all slabs and beams.
( 11 ) Fig. 16 - 16 shows an open marriage hall ( no walls) . The area required is 30 m x
30 m size . For proper air ventilation , a central covered cut out of 20 m 2 size is
required as shown in the figure . Propose an economical structural layout and
design all slabs and beams.
Ex . 16] Framed Beams 585

Note: There is no future extension , hence number of columns should be as less as

possible optimizing the spans of slabs and beams. ( It will be interesting to see that
5 groups in the class may be given different arrangements and they may determine
the cost of the structure by using market rates. )
2000
H-

Toilet block
115

3000
f
450 Sunk

Office 3000

Floor height = 3.2 m 3000

Office
1000!
UP

4000 Office Office Office Office 3770

115
4K
115 3000 3000 3000 2230
>+ *- 4800 1200
H

FIG . 16 - 14
30 m

£
5m ©
m

20 m 2 cut out
Lift Entrance
5m
R .C.C. lift wall ( a ) Plan
R .C.C. stair
Ventilator
T -5 m
5m
T
4m

K 5m >+< 5m 5m > ( b) Section A - A

FIG. 16 - 15 FIG . 16 - 16
 hapter
COLUMNS
ir 171
1 7 - 1. I n t r o d u c t o r y: A compression member whose effective length exceeds
three times its least lateral dimension is termed as the column. If the effective length
is less than three times its lateral dimension , it is termed as the pedestal. The pedestal
may be designed as an unreinforced compression block , however , minimum reinforcement
according to the code requirement shall be provided .
The columns in a building usually carry axial compressive loads. In addition to
the axial loads, columns usually carry some moments also . A column with onJy axial _
^
load is practically impossible. The moment in column may be due to gravity loads ,
wind Toads or earthquake loads . Even the internal columns of a symmetrically framed
building carry ( may be small ) the moments due to gravity loads when different types
of live load arrangement is applied . For wind and earthquake loads all columns may
carry some moments .
The shape of a column may be square , rectangular , circular or any other shape
depending on architectural requirements . Tee shape , ell shape or swastik ( cruciform )
columns are also used to match with the architectural requirements . Some of the
popular shapes of column are shown in fig. 17- 1 .

Square Rectangular Circular

* # ,

Tee Ell Cruciform ( Swastik )

FIG . 17- 1
The columns may be classified based on different criteria as follows :
( 1 ) JSraced and Unbraced columns
( 2 ) No - sway and Sway columns
( 3 ) Tied , Spiral and Composite columns ^

( 4 ) Short and Long columns .

These are briefly discussed in the articles to follow.
" 7 - 2. B r a c e d a n d U n b r a c e d c o l u m n s: The columns in a building are
^
clarified as braced or unbraced according to the method applied to provide the lateral
stability of the building.
( 1 ) Braced column: A typical braced frame is shown in fig . 17- 2 ( a ) . In braced
frames , the lateral loads like wind , earthquake , etc . , are resisted by some
special arrangements like shear walls, bracings or special supports . In other
words , the sidesway or joint translation is not possible in such columns . Sidesway
or joint translation means that one or both the ends of a column can move
Art . 17- 2 ] Columns 587

laterally with respect to each other. The columns occurring in braced buildings are
called braced columns.
— Resistance
— —— —— —— ——
y 4 Resistance
n n n n n g Q

0 0 0 0 0 — —— —— — — ——
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

——————
Wind Wind
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 —
g 0 p g— — 0

a D
y ——————
CJ u u -x

u,
X
4
Plan Plan

/ // / /
Elevation Elevation
( a) Braced frame ( b ) Unbraced frame
Braced and unbraced frames
FIG . 17- 2
( 2 ) Unbraced columns: A typical unbraced frame is shown in fig. 17- 2 ( b ) . In unbraced
frames no special bracing systems are provided to resist horizontal forces. In other
words the sidesway or joint translation do occur in such columns. The columns
shall have to be designed to resist the lateral loads. The columns those occur
in the buildings where the resistance to lateral loads is provided by the bending
in the columns and beams in that plane are called unbraced columns.
From the above discussion it should be clear that in c e of braced buildings , the
^
total horizontal loads are taken by bracing elements like shear walls and none by the
columns. This becomes possible because tne sum of El values of bracing elements in
"
a given direction is too high , (say 95% to 98% of the total El values of bracing
elements and all the columns) , so that when distributed , the columns receive almost
nil contribution of horizontal forces . In case of unbraced buildings , there are no
bracing elements and the columns take the entire horizontal loads . Due to these loads,
the columns will sway.
The bracings may be provided in one direction or in more than one directions.
In fig. 17- 2 ( a) , horizontal forces in ^ -direction are taken by shear walls, but in y -direction
the forces are resisted by columns . Thus the building is braced in x- direction and
unbraced in y -direction .
588 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

-. -
\ j J7 3 No Sway and Sway columns: The columns in the given floor in the
given direction are classified as no - sway and sway columns depending on the amount
of the sway under the action of horizontal forces . Accordingly , the columns of the
floor having limited value of the sway are called no - sway columns . The braced columns
as discussed in the previous article are no - sway columns since by definition , they have
zero values of sway. The unbraced columns on the other hand will sway. If this sway
has a limited value , the columns will be classified as no- sway columns ; otherwise they
will be sway columns .
To test the column for being a no - sway or a sway column, (JS : 456, clause 25.2
~
defines the stability index of the column in Annex E . Accordingly the stabilTtylrrd^X
is computed from the following expression .

£= ( 17- 1 )

where £ Sum of axial loads on all columns in the storey

Pu =
Au = elastically computed first order lateral deflection
Hu = total lateral force acting within the storey , and
hs = height of the storey.
The numerator of equation ( 17- 1 ) represents the moments due to P-A efffect called
secondary moment while the denominator represents the primary moment, and Q , the
moment ratio . Note that Q = 0 for braced columns.
According to IS : 456
If £ < 0.04 No - Sway column ,
and If Q, > 0.04 . . . Sway column .
While calculating the effective length of the column , the calculation of the stability
index is necessary to determine whether it is a sway or No - Sway column . The calculation
of stability index will be treated in volume II of this book . In present volume , it will
be only stated that the column is a sway or non - sway. For No - Sway columns, the
effective length is always less than or equal to its actual unsupported length, while for
the sway columns^ iMs always greater tnan its actual unsupported length . This will be
,

discussed in detail while dealing with slender columns . Refer to art? 17- 28.
-.
17 4 Tied , Spiral and Composite columns: A column contains longitudinal and
transverse reinforcements. Longitudinal reinforcements may be reinforcing bars or sometimes
structural steel sections . Transverse reinforcements may be transverse ties or helical
reinforcements. Transverse ties are commonly used in most columns. Helical reinforcements
are sometimes used in circular columns . Fig. 17- 3 shows typical reinforcements in columns.
Concrete columns are reinforced with the longitudinal steel reinforcement to increase
the load carrying capacity of the column . Under the action of compressive load , the
column is shortened in the direction of the load . Also because of the Poisson ’s effect
the column expands laterally. This results in cracking of exterior faces of the column
and spalling of concrete . The longitudinal bars may buckle and attain a bow shape .
The bond between concrete and steel is destroyed and this leads the column to
collapse. To avoid the possibilities of failure by buckling of reinforcing bars , it is
necessary to provide effective lateral restraint .
According to the type of reinforcement and lateral restraint provided , the columns
are classified as :
( 1 ) Tied columns
( 2 ) Spiral columns
( 3 ) Composite columns .
Art . 17- 4 ] Columns 589

These are briefly discussed as follows :

( 1 ) Tied columns: Fig . 17- 3 (a) shows a typical tied column where the transverse ties
are used as lateral restraint . The function of the transverse ties are as follows :
( i ) When the load commences on the column , they support the longitudinal
bars so that they are not buckled , so that the load carrying capacity of
the column is increased . The ties thus increase the strength of the column .
Transverse ties are provided for almost all shapes of column , viz . , square ,
rectangular , circular , ell , tee , swastik , octagonal , etc .
( ii ) When horizontal forces like wind and earthquake are acting on column ,
these reinforcement also resist the shear force . In such cases they are
functioning as ties as well as stirrups . Such reinforcement is called hoop.
Hoops will be considered in volume II of this book .
( iii ) They support the longitudinal bars from being displaced during the construction
time .

Longitudinal
reinforcement

r* Transverse ties
T
1
Pitch

— Helical
reinforcement

( a ) Tied column ( b) Spiral column

Structural Structural tube

steel section Section

( c ) Composite column ( d ) Composite column

with I section with steel tube

FIG . 17- 3
( 2 ) Spiral columns: When a continuous bar or heavy wire is wrapped around the
longitudinal bars in the form of a helical spiral , the column is referred to as
a spiral column . The spiral column is shown in fig . 17- 3 ( b ) . Although , the
spirals can be used for all shapes of the columns , they are particularly used
for circular columns . The spirals exert a compressive force on the concrete
core and increase the load carrying capacity of the column . If the column is
loaded to failure , the failure starts from spalling of shell concrete .
The concrete inside the core is confined by the helical reinforcement , which
does not allow the core concrete to spall until the spiral yields . The spiral is
thus subjected to hoop tension . The failure of the column is due to bursting of the
concrete inside the core after the yielding of the spiral . The spiral is thus very
effective in providing lateral restraint and also resist some compressive load .
It increases the ductility and toughness of the column .
590 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
It can be seen from the above discussion that the spiral columns are more
effective than tied columns . However , the tied columns are generally simple ,
economical and are widely used . Spiral columns are commonly used in seismic
areas for circular sections because of their considerable ductility and toughness.
( 3 ) Composite columns: Instead of longitudinal steel bars , if the column is reinforced
with structural steel shapes , it is known as composite column . The composite
column may or may not be surrounded by the transverse ties. The composite
columns are shown in fig . 17- 3 ( c ) and fig . 17- 3 ( d ) .
A 7-5. Short and Long columns: Under the action of a compressive load, all
X
^Kinmns. The
design
have a tendency to buckle and this buckling effect shall be considered in the
column with small length , will fail primarily due to material failure ,
whereas a very long column may fail due to buckling. Practical columns , however, fail
by both , the material failure and by buckling.
Short columns are those which fail primarily due
P
to material failure . Short columns do have buckling
effect , but of a limited value .
Long ( slender ) columns are those which fail due to }M
material failure and also due to buckling . The buckling
effect may have a predominant value .
Consider a column of fig. 17- 4 which is subjected
to an axial load P and the moment M due to applied
loads. Thg moment M due to applied loads is called
primary moment. Because of the compressive load,
the column buckles . Suppose , it buckles through the
distance 5 at the centre - line. It can be seen that this
buckling induces an additional moment equal to P. 8
in the column , called secondary moment . This effect
on column is also referred to as P - delta effect . It
should be clear that for the given cross - section of
the column , if the length of the column is increased , JM
i . e ., the column becoming more slender , the secondary
moment is also increased . The cross - section of the P
column should be designed for axial load and bending
moment equal to the sum of primary and secondary (a) P - 5 effect
moment. For the short and long columns, we may Major axis
now summarize the following:
Short columns are those in which the secondary T
b
Minor axis
y
moments have limited values .
Long columns are those in which the secondary
i'
moments have considerable values .
D
According to IS : 456, a column may be considered ( b ) Major and minor axes
/ / ey
as short when both slenderness ratios ex and FIG . 17- 4
D b
are less than 12. /
For more exact calculations a column is short if the slenderness ratios -L- and -—
y
are less than 40 , where
/ ex = effective length in respect of the major axis
D = depth in respect of the major axis
A r t . 17- 6 ] Columns 591

l e y = effective length in respect of minor axis

b = width of the member
ix = radius of gyration in respect of the major axis
i y = radius of gyration in respect of the minor axis .
It shall be otherwise considered as a slender or a long column .
For a rectangular column

^
b
'x = 2 3
and ‘ 2 V3
2 V3
^x
!
ex
4
lex < 40

i .e . -4Sa2x- < 11.55 (i)

/e y 2 V3 / ey
and < 40
y J
/e y
i . e. < 11.55 (2 )
b
Referring to ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , code states that for rectangular section , the column is
short , if
/e y
4x d < 12 .
D “ b
The effective length of a column is defined as the length between the points of contraflexure
of a buckled column. We shall discuss the effective length criterion at length with
slender columns in art . 17- 26.
17 - 6. Reinforcement requirements: The reinforcement requirements are
set out in clause 26.5.3 of IS : 456. They are discussed below.
(1 ) Longitudinal reinforcement : The requirements are as follows:
(i ) The cross - sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be not fes
than 0.8 percent of the gross cross - sectional area of the column .
The minimum area of the reinforcement is specified to avoid the
sudden non - ductile failure of the column , to resist creep and shrinkage
and to provide some bending strength to the column .
( ii ) In any column that has a larger cross -sectional area than that required
to support the load , the minimum percentage of steel should be
based upon the area of concrete required to resist the direct stress and
not upon the actual area .
Because of the architectural or the other reasons, sometimes the columns
are made larger in section than that required to resist the load . In such
a case , according to this criteria , the minimum percentage of steel is
based on concrete area required to resist the direct load . A concrete
pedestal used to transfer the load from steel stanchion to the foundation
in an industrial building is a typical example for this case . In this case ,
the size of the pedestal is governed by the size of the base plate under
the steel column .
( iii ) The cross - sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement shall be not more
than 6 percent of lhe gross cross - sectional area of the column .
^
592 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17

The use of 6 percent reinforcement may involve practical difficulties in

placing and compacting of concrete , hence, lower percentage is recommended
where bars from the columns below have to be lapped with those in the
column under consideration , the percentage of steel usually should not
exceed 4 percent . For the column with more than 4 percent steel , the laps
may be staggered .
( iv ) The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall
be four in rectangular columns and six in circular columns .
(v ) The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
( vi ) A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement shall have at
least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement within the helical reinforcement.
( vii ) In a helically reinforced column , the longitudinal bars shall be in contact
with the helical reinforcement and equidistant around its inner circumference .
( viii ) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the column
shall not exceed 300 mm . This is a cracking requirement.
( ix ) In case of the pedestals in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not
taken into account in strength calculations, nominal reinforcement not
less than 0.15 percent of the cross - sectional area shall be provided .

*
I
-
* n n
OtT

H* -
>+ <-

(b )

— Transverse reinforcement

>30

>30 Diameter <J)

«
Individual groups
(c ) (d )

Arrangement of transverse reinforcement

FIG . 17-5
Art . 17- 6 ] Columns 593

( 2 ) Transverse reinforcements:
( i ) General: A reinforced concrete compression member shall have transverse
or helical reinforcement so disposed that every longitudinal bar nearest
to the compression face has effective lateral support against buckling
subject to provisions in ( b ) . The effective lateral support is given by
transverse reinforcement either in the form of circular rings capable of
taking up circumferential tension or by polygonal links ( lateral ties ) with
internal angles not exceeding 135 °. The ends of the transverse reinforcement
shall be properly anchored .
( ii ) Arrangement of transverse reinforcement :
( a ) If the longitudinal bars are not spaced more than 75 mm on either
side , transverse reinforcement need only to go round the corner and
alternate bars for the purpose of providing effective lateral supports
[fig. 17-5 ( a ) ] .
( b ) If the longitudinal bars spaced at a distance of not exceeding 48 times
the diameter of the tie are effectively tied in two directions, additional
longitudinal bars in between these bars need to be tied in one direction
by open ties [ fig. 17- 5 ( b ) ] .
( c ) Where the longitudinal reinforcing bars in a compression member are
placed in more than one row , effective lateral support to the longitudinal
bars in the inner rows may be assumed to have been provided if :
( 1 ) transverse reinforcement is provided for outer most row in accordance
with ( b ) and
( 2 ) no bar of the inner row is closer to the nearest compression face
than three times the diameter of the largest bar in the inner
row [ fig . 17- 5 ( c ) ] .
( d ) Where the longitudinal bars in a compression member are grouped
(not in contact ) and each group adequately tied with transverse reinforcement
in accordance with above requirements , the transverse reinforcement
for the compression member as a whole may be provided on the
assumption that each group is a single longitudinal bar for purpose
of determining the pitch and diameter of the transverse reinforcement
in accordance with above requirements. The diameter of such transverse
reinforcement need not, however , exceed 20 mm [ fig. 17- 5 ( d ) ] .
( iii ) Pitch and diameter of lateral tie:
( a ) Pitch: The pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be not more than
the least of the following distances:
( 1 ) The least lateral dimension of the compression member.
( 2 ) Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement
bar to be tied .
( 3 ) 300 mm .
( b ) Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or ties shall be not less
than one -fourth of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar and in
no case less than 6 mm .
( iv ) Helical reinforcement :
( a ) Pitch : Helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the
turns of the helix spaced evenly and its ends shall be anchored properly
by providing one and a half extra turns of the spiral bar. Where an
594 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
increased load on the column on the strength of the helical reinforcement
is allowed for , the pitch of helical turns shall be not more than 75
mm , nor more than one - sixth of the core diameter of the column , nor
less than 25 mm , nor less than three times the diameter of the steel
bar forming the helix .
( b ) Diameter : The diameter of the helical reinforcement shall be as per
lateral ties .
(v) Cover : The longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column shall have concrete
cover , not less than 40 mm , nor less than the diameter of such bar. This
requirement gives a fire protection of 0.5 h to 4 h ( h = hour ) and is
suitable for moderate exposure assuming a maximum of 10 mm diameter tie .
However , the cover to the ties may be governed by exposure conditions.
In the case of columns the minimum dimensions of 200 mm or under , whose
reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm , a cover of 25 mm may be used .
17- 7. Minimum eccentricity: The criteria regarding minimum eccentricity is
set out in clause 25.4 of IS : 456- 2000. Accordingly , all columns shall be designed for
minimum eccentricity equal to the unsupported length of column / 500 plus lateral
dimension / 30 , subject to a minimum of 20 mm . Where biaxial bending is considered ,
it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at a time.
The code further states in clause 39.2 that if the calculated eccentricity is larger
than the minimum , the minimum eccentricity should be ignored . Thus if the applied
moments on the column are larger than moments due to minimum eccentricity , the
column shall be designed for applied loads and moments.
17 - 8. Assumptions made for design: The following assumptions are made
for the limit state of collapse in compression .
( 1 ) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
( 2 ) The relationship between stress - strain distribution in concrete shall be assumed
to be parabolic as shown in fig . 6 - 1. The maximum compressive stress at the
extreme compression fibre is 0.446 fc .
^
( 3 ) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored .
( 4 ) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the representative
stress - strain curve for the type of steel used . Typical curves are shown in
fig. 6 - 3 and fig . 6 - 4 .
(5 ) The maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial compression is taken as
0.002 .
( 6 ) The maximum compressive strain at highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the
section shall be 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme
fibre . This assumption is discussed in detail with eccentrically loaded columns.
SHORT COLUMNS
.
17- 9 Axially loaded tied columns: A rectangular column section bearing
pure axial load , its strain diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 17- 6 .
The design stress in mild steel at strain of 0.002 is 0.87 /y, however , for HYSD
bars it is not so . The stresses corresponding to 0.002 strain in HYSD bars are as
follows :
Fe 415 0.79 fy
Fe 500 0.75 fy
Art . 17- 9 ] Columns 595

0.002 0.446 /ck

F • 1

b
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

Axially loaded column

FIG. 17- 6
The code adopts the critical value of 0.75 fy for all grades of steel for finding out
the pure axial load carrying capacity of the column . Accordingly
Puz = 0.446 fck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc.
This is approximated as
Puz = 0.45 /ck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc ( 17- 2 )
where Puz = pure ultimate axial load carrying capacity of column
fck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete
fy = characteristic strength of reinforcement
Ac = area of concrete in column section
Asc = area of reinforcement in column section .
Axially loaded practical columns are subjected to moments due to minimum eccentricity
as specified in art . 17-7. Thus all the columns, even if the design load is axial , shall
be designed for moments also.
The code simplifies the work for the columns in which minimum eccentricity
emin 0 - 05 D. Thus, when * min < 0.05 A the above equation ( 17- 2 ) is modified as
Pu = 0.4 + 0.67 fy Asc
/ck Ac ( 17- 3 )
It can be seen from equations ( 17- 2 ) and ( 17- 3), that the load carrying capacity of
the column is reduced by about 10 percent when £ min < 0.05 D. However , if * min > 0.05 A
the column shall be designed for moment also .
The above equation ( 17- 3) can be written as
P Ag P Ag
= 0.4 /ck Ag + 0.67 fy
where
^
Ag = gross area of
100
cross - section
100

p = percentage of reinforcement.
Dividing both sides by Ag
p
- * = 0.4 /ck - ioo +] ° 67
f
Ag

=
V
1

M ( - 67 f y
^'
100

0 4 /ck ) ( 17- 4 )
0.4 /ck +
° ~
596 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
17- 10. Axially loaded spiral columns: In art. 17- 4 , we have seen that if a
spiral column is loaded to failure , the failure starts from spalling of shell concrete .
The complete failure of the column is due to bursting of core concrete after the
yielding of spiral . If this is how the failure takes place , it is a ductile failure . To
ensure the ductile failure , the spiral shall be designed little stronger than shell concrete .
Let Acr be the area of core and A be the gross area of the section . Then the area
of shell concrete is ( Ag - AQX ) . The collapse load on shell concrete without any partial
safety factor is given by
Shell collapse load = 0.67 /t. ( Ag - Acv ) (i)
^
It is shown experimentally that the spiral steel is at least twice as effective in
increasing the ultimate load carrying capacity as the longitudinal reinforcement .
Let ps be the ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to the volume of core. Then
A sp
Ps = where 4 sp is the area of spiral reinforcement.
^ cr
The collapse load on spiral without any partial safety factor is given by
Spiral collapse load = 2 ps Acr /y (2)
Equating ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) and solving for ps, we have
2 Ps ACT fy = 0 - 67 /ck Mg - Acr )
A8 /ck
i. e. ps = 0.335 - 1
^ cr
It is required that the spiral strength should be little more than shell strength to
result in a more gradual or ductile failure . The code gives the following expression
for ratio ps of spiral steel .

Ps = 0.36
Ag _ jl /ck ( 17- 5)
Her fy
volume of spiral in one loop
Now Ps = volume of core for a length p
n ( £c <t> sp ) flsp

4 Dc asp ,
neglecting the value of 0 sp
Dl p

Ps =
^ flsp
»~ ( 17- 6 )
7 7 ’

where Acr = area of core =

Dc = diameter of core , out to out spirals
<t>sp = diameter of spiral wire
tfSp = area of spiral wire
5 <4
p = pitch of helix .
Art . 17- 10 ] Columns 597

Substituting equation ( 17- 5 ) in equation ( 17- 4 ) , we have

A
^ flsp > 0.36 - 1
/ck
P Dc k cr fy
A8
i .e . asp > 0.9 p Dc - 1 /fcky ( 17-7 )

When the spiral column is loaded to failure , the shell concrete fails first . The
failure of column takes place at a larger load . The excess capacity of the column after
the shell has failed is usually neglected because with the shell failure , the column fails
to comply with the serviceability requirements . Thus the collapse load on spiral
column without any partial safety factor is given by
P = 0.67 /ck Acr + fy /lsc + 2 /sp Asp
where fsp is the characteristic strength of spiral reinforcement which should not
be more than 415 N / mm 2 .
It may be observed that as the shell strength is equal to the spiral strength , the
collapse loads for a given section , with lateral ties and with helical reinforcement are
equal . However , when partial safety factors are applied , the strength of section with
helical reinforcement is more than that with lateral ties as different partial safety
factors are applied to concrete and steel .
To take into account the above fact , clause 39.4 of IS : 456 - 2000 , states, “ the
strength of compression members with helical reinforcement satisfying the requirement
of clause 39.4 . 1 [ i . e. equation ( 17-5) or equation ( 17-7 ) ] shall be taken as 1.05 times the
strength of similar member with lateral ties .
Example 17 - 1 .
A short column of size 230 mm x 350 mm is subjected to a factored load of
1500 kN . If the unsupported length of the column is 3.2 m , find out design moments
due to minimum eccentricity. Can we apply simplified formula of design in this case ?
Solution :
Minimum eccentricity about x axis ex , and that about y axis ey are calculated and
compared with respective sides D and b of the column as follows:
3200 350
* x = 500 + 30 = 6.4 + 11.66
18.06 mm < 20 mm
= 20 mm
0.05 D = 0.05 x 350 = 17.5 mm < ex
3200 230
ey .5 00 + 30 = 6.4 + 7.66
14.06 mm < 20 mm
'y = 20 mm
0.05 b = 0.05 x 230 = 11.5 mm < ey
1500 x 0.02 = 30 kNm .
^ux ^uy
Design the column for
Pu = 1500 kN
Mux = 30 kNm
MUy = 30 kNm .
598 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
As ex > 0.05 D and ey > 0.05 b, simplied formula of design cannot be applied .
Note: The dimension of column in respect of major axis in D and that in respect of minor
axis is b. However , it is usual to denote their dimension as D and its value is
substituted as in respect of the axis selected for calculation . This will be clear from
examples to follow.
Example 17- 2 .
A short column of size 300 mm x 450 mm is subjected to a factored load of
2000 kN. If the unsupported length of the column is 4.2 m , find out ( a ) The design
moments due to minimum eccentricity.
If the above column is subjected to ( b ) Mux = 100 kNm or ( c ) Muy = 30 kNm or
(d ) Mux = 30 kNm , and Muy = 30 kNm , find design loads and moments.
Solution :
4200 . 450
( a) *x = 500
- 30
= 8.4 + 15 = 23.4 mm > 20 mm
ex = 23.4 mm
4200 300
ey 500 30
= 8.4 + 10 = 18.4 mm < 20 mm
e y = 20 mm
23.4
Mux = 1000 x 2000 = 46.8 kNm
20 x
M uy 2000 = 40 kNm .
1000
( b ) When the column is subjected to Mux = 100 kNm which is more than moment
due to minimum eccentricity , the minimum eccentricity is neglected . It is
sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at
a time . Design the column for

Pu = 2000 kN and Mux = 100 kNm

( c ) When the column is subjected to Muy = 30 kNm , which is less than moment
due to minimum eccentricity , the minimum eccentricity is not neglected . It is
sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at
a time . Design the column for

Pu = 2000 kN and Muy = 40 kNm .

( d ) The column is subjected to biaxial moment . It is sufficient to ensure that
eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at a time. Design the column
for case I and case II as below :
Case I
Pu = 2000 kN
M u x = 46.8 kNm ( since applied eccentricity is less than minimum )
M u y = 30 kNm .
Case II
Pu = 2000 kN and Mux =30 kNm
Muy = 40 kNm (since the applied eccentricity is less than minimum ) .
Art . 17- 10 ] Columns 599

Example 17- 3 .
A short column 400 mm x 400 mm is reinforced with 4 no . 25 mm diameter bars.
Find the ultimate load carrying capacity of the column if the minimum eccentricity
is less than 0.05 times the lateral dimensions. The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Asc = 4 x 491 1904 mm 2
Ac = 400 x 400 - 1964 = 158036 mm 2
pu = 04 /ck Ac
+ 0 67 fy Asc
= [0.4 x 20 x 158036 + 0.67 x 415 x 1964] x 10 ~3
1264.29 + 546.09 = 1810.4 kN .
Example 17- 4 .
A short R . C . C. column is to carry a factored load of 1900 kN. If the column is
to be a square , design the column . Assume * min < 0.05 D. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and mild steel .
Solution :
0.05 D. But *min = 20 mm . Therefore the side of the column shall
Here «rmin <
20 400 mm , i . e . , 400 mm x 400 mm .
0.05 =
be minimum
As there is no restriction on size of the column , we may assume minimum percentage
of steel to have economy in section . Assume 0.8 percent steel .
Then
^ = 0.008 A g
sc

Ac = A g - ^ sc = 0.992 A g
K =
0.4 /ck Ac + 0.67 fy Asc
1900 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x 0.992 A g„ + 0.67 x 250 x 0.008 A g
= 7.936 A + 1.34 = 9.276 A g
^
Ag = 204830 mm .2

If the column is to be a square , the side of column = 453 mm .

Adopt 450 mm x 450 mm size column . Then
1900 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x ( 450 x 450 - AJ + 0.67 x 250 x Asc
= 1620000 - 8 Asc + 167.5 Asc
.e . =
i 159.5
^4 sc 280000
^ sc = 1756 mmA
Provide 6 no . 20 mm diameter bars giving Asc = 6 x 314 = 1884 mm 2 . The
section is shown in fig. 17- 7 ( a ) .
Note that the distance between the bars exceeds 300 mm on two parallel sides .
Therefore , the arrangement of reinforcement should be changed .
Provide 4 no. 20 mm diameter bars plus 4 no . 16 mm diameter bars giving
^ sc = 4 ( 314 + 201 ) = 2060 mm 2.
Lateral ties :
Use 6 mm <J) lateral ties .
 600 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Spacing should not exceed :
(i) 450 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( ii ) 16 <t> = 16 x 16 = 256 mm
( iii ) 300 mm .
i. e. 256 mm .
Provide 6 mm <J) ties about 250 mm c / c . This is shown in fig. 17-7 ( b ) .
Note that distance between corner bars in one face is equal to 450 - 80 - 20 =
350 mm . This is more than 48 < j> tr ( i . e ., 48 x 6 = 288 mm ) . Therefore two sets of
closed ties shall be used . Note that if this distance would be less than ( 48 x 6 ) mm ,
open ties for internal bars would be sufficient .

450 450
r — 6-20 # I — 4-20 -
# + 4 16 #

2
450 450
6 mm ({) @
280 mm c/c
T ( double ties )

(a) Wrong arrangement ( b ) Correct arrangement

FIG . 17-7
Example 17- 5.
A short R. C . C . column of size 450 mm x 450 mm has to carry an axial factored
load of 1500 kN . Assume emin < 0.05 D.
Design the column using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade
Fe 415.
Solution :
Ac = 450 x 450 - Asc
1500 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 ( 450 x 450 - ^ sc ) + 0.67 x 415 x Asc
120 x 103 = 286.05 Asc
Asc = - 420 mm 2 .
Negative value indicates that there is no need of providing reinforcement. However,
minimum reinforcement should be provided . Here it is based on concrete area required
for direct load .
K 450 >
Area of concrete required for direct load
8- 16 #
1500 x 103 187500 mm 2.
0.4 x 20 =
450
Minimum steel required
0.8 x
100
187500 = 1500 mm 2. i
6 mm <)) @ 250 mm c/c
Provide 8 - 16 # = 8 x 201 = 1608 mm 2. ( two sets )
Use 6 mm b lateral ties . FIG . 17- 8

iX
Art . 17- 10 ] Columns 601

Spacing should be lesser of

( i ) 450 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( ii ) 16 x 16 = 256 mm ( 16 times 0 of main bars)
( iii ) 300 mm .
i . e. 256 mm .
Use 6 mm 0 @ 250 mm c / c . Also , as the distance between corner bars exceeds 48
0 tr, closed double ties are used .
The designed section is shown in fig . 17- 8 .
Example 17- 6 .
A column with size 400 mm x 500 mm carries a factored axial load of 3000 kN .
The column is short and having a minimum eccentricity emin < 0.05 D. Design the
column . The materials are M 30 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Longitudinal steel :
Ac = 400 x 500 - AS :
(

Pu = 0.4 /ck Ac + 0.67 fy Asc

3000 x 103 = 0.4 x 30 ( 400 x 500) - Asc + 0.67 x 415 x
= 2400 x 103 + 266.05 Asc
^ sc

Asc = 2255 mm 2.
Provide 8 no . 20 mm diameter bars with 24 sc = 8 x 314 = 2512 mm 2.
Lateral ties :
M- 400
0> r = 4 .
20
4 = 5 mm A
V 8-20 #
i6 mm
Use 6 mm 0 M . S. ties. 500

Spacing should not exceed

(i) 400 mm ( minimum column dimension )
6 mm 0 @ 300 mm c/c
( ii ) 16 x 20 = 320 mm ( two sets )
( 16 times 0 of main bars) FIG . 17- 9
( iii ) 300 mm .
i .e . 300 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 ties about 300 mm c / c. The designed section is shown in fig. 17- 9.
Note that the distance between corner bars on both the faces is more than 48 0 tr .
On shorter face , the distance = 400 - 80 - 20 = 300 mm 48 x 6. Therefore two
sets of closed ties shall be used .
Example 17- 7.
Design a circular short column to carry an axial working load of 1200 kN . Assume
'min < 0 05 D
Use ( a ) lateral ties and
(b) helical reinforcement .
602 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
For the lateral reinforcement mild steel may be used .
Solution :
Factored load = 1.5 x 1200 = 1800 kN .
( a ) Lateral ties:
Pu = 0.4 /ck Ac + 0.67 fy Asc .
Assume minimum steel = 0.8 percent .
Then Asc = 0.008 A g
Ac = 0.992 Ag .
Substituting, we have
1800 x 103 = 0.4 x 20 x 0.992 A g„ + 0.67 x 415 x 0.008 A g
= 7.936 Ag + 2.224 A g 10.16 A g
Ag = 177165 mm 2.
If D is the diameter of the column

7 D2 = 177165
4
i .e . D = 475 mm .
Use 475 mm diameter column .
Asc = 0.008 x 177165 = 1417 mm 2 .
Minimum 6 bars shall be used .
Provide 8 no . 16 mm diameter bars giving

^ sc = 8 x 201 = 1608 mm 2 .
Use 6 mm (j) lateral ties. Spacing shall be lesser of
(i) 475 mm ( minimum lateral dimension )
( ii ) 16 x 16 = 256 mm ( 16 times <J> of main bar )
( iii ) 300 mm .
i . e. 256 mm .
( ) lateral ties @ 250 mm c / c .
Use 6 mm |
( b ) Helical reinforcement :
The column with helical reinforcement can support 1.05 times the load of a
similar member with lateral ties . Therefore
Pu = 1.05 [ 0.4 fck sc]
1800 x 103 =
Ac +
1.05 [0.4 x 20 x 0.992
0.67 fy ^
Ac + 0.67 x 415 x 0.008 Ag ) f

= 10.668 A g
Ag = 168729 mm 2 .
If D is the diameter of the column

7 I> 2 = 168729
4
D = 463 mm .
Art . 17- 11 ] Columns 603

Provide 450 mm diameter column .

Then Ag = T x 4502 = 159043 mm 2 .
4
1800 x 103 = 1.05 [ 0.4 x 20 x ( 159043 - AJ 6- 20 #
+ 0.67 x 415 Asc ]
= 1335962 - 8.4 Asc + 278.05 Asc
269.65
^ sc = 464038
^4 SC = 1720 mm 2 .
Provide 6 no . 20 mm diameter bars giving
Asc = 1884 mm 2. 6- 20 #
Assume 8 mm <J> M . S. bars for helix at 40 mm
clear cover. 35

Dc = 450 - 40 - 40 = 370 mm
flsp = 50 mm 2.
Ag /ck
- 8 mm d @
Minimum ps = 0.36 1
) fy 35 mm c/c
4502 - 1 20
= 0.36 * 250
3702 FIG . 17- 10
= 0.0138.
4 flsp
Now Ps =
P »c
4 x
50
0.0138 = p x 370
p = 39.17 mm (i)
As per code requirements the pitch p
< 75 mm
< Dc
370
6 =
61.67 mm
6
> 25 mm , i .e ., 61.67 mm (2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , provide 8 mm d helix at 35 mm pitch . Refer fig . 17- 10.

17- 11. Short eccentrically loaded columns — uniaxial bending: In

general , all the practical columns are eccentrically loaded .
These can be visulized by either of the following ways:
( 1 ) The load Pu on column is at an eccentricity e from the centre - line of column ,
then column is subjected to an axial load Pn plus the bending moment equal
to Pu . e.
( 2 ) The load is axial but a column has a moment either due to gravity loads or
any other loads . It can be said in this case that column is subjected to an axial
load Pu and bending moment Mu or the column is eccentrically loaded with

=
Mu
a load Pu at an eccentricity e
604 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
The bending in column can be either uniaxial bending or biaxial bending. In this
section , uniaxial bending is considered .
Uniaxial bending:
Depending on relative values of Pu and A/u , the following two cases occur for
design :
( 1 ) Compression over the whole section where the neutral axis is outside the
section . This is called compression controls region . This region is further
sub - divided in two regions :
( a ) when eccentricity e < £ min
( b ) when eccentricity e > £ min
( 2 ) Compression on one side in the concrete and steel , and tension in the steel
on the other side where the neutral axis lies inside the section . This is
called tension controls region .
For the column section subjected to axial load and bending, the assumption ( 6 ) as
given in art . 17- 8 will be now studied in detail .
“ The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in
concrete subjected to axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on
the section shall be 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed fibre ” .
A symmetrically reinforced column of size b x D subjected to a factored load Pu
and a factored moment Mu is shown in fig. 17- 11 ( a ) .
The strain diagrams when the neutral axis lies outside the section , i . e ., no tension
on the section and when the neutral axis lies inside the section , i . e., tension exists on
the section are shown in fig . 17- 11 ( b ) and fig. 17- 11 ( c ) .
.
( 1 ) N A. lies outside the section: The code assumes a strain diagram in this case and
is now studied in detail .
In fig. 17- 11 ( b ) , ee ' represents the strain distribution line when there is a pure
compressive load on the section ( i . e ., 0.002 strain throughout the section ) , and
ac represents the strain distribution line for a limiting case ( i .e ., 0.0035 strain
at extremely compressed edge , uniformly varying to zero at the other edge ) .
These two lines are intersecting at F. According to the assumption of the code ,
the point /MS assumed to be a fulcrum and the strain distribution line for any case
when there is no tension on the section is assumed to pass through this point .
From A e' F a and A e F C
ae e' F 0.0015 3
Ce eF 0.002 4
but e' F + F e = D
e' F = f
3
*
The fulcrum F lies at j D from the highly compressed edge .
For the given case, if Pu and Mu are acting on the section such that the neutral
axis is lying outside the section , let b d be the strain distribution line passing through F.
The strain in extreme compression fibre
= 0.0035 - a b
. . a b_ 3 D/ 7 3
= 0.0035 - 0.75 C d *
Cd 4 D/ 7 = 4
= 0.0035 - 0.75 ( strain in least compressed fibre ) .
 «•

Art . 17- 12 ] Columns 605

This is the assumption of the code .
( 2 ) N .A . lies inside the section: The maximum strain in highly compressed fibre is
assumed as 0.0035. The strain distribution line for such a case and that for the
limiting case are shown in fig . 17- 11 ( c) .
< D-
d'
> —
*4 *
-

(a ) Section
H — D — H

0.0035 a
N. 0.75 £ min
I b
0.002
£ max
F min
^ <
c
/
i

A.
( b) N . A .lies outside the section
0.0035
a

C c'
d I A.
xu H
(c ) N . A.lies in side the section
Strain diagrams for combined axial load and uniaxial bending
FIG. 17- 11
17-12. Modes of failure in combined axial load and uniaxial bending:
Modes of failure of an eccentrically loaded column depend on the amount of eccentricity

of the load , i . e., the relative magnitudes of Pu and Mu since e = . If the eccentricity
is relatively small , all the column concrete and reinforcements are in compression .
The compression behaviours will be predominent at the failure ; concequently , the
failure of the column will be compression failure.
On the other hand , if the eccentricity of the load is relatively large , a part of the
section will be in tension and flexural behaviours will be predominent at the failure .
Such a failure is termed as tensile failure.
Here , the reinforcement on tension side have already yielded and the strain in
steel is much more than its yield strain . At a particular intermediate eccentricity , it
happens that both the compressive and tensile behaviours are simultaneously predominent
at the failure .
606 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
D

( a ) Section

e=0 0.002

8 = 0.002

( b)
v
AU — OO

Pure axial load

e ~ e min 0.0035

K xu >
(c ) Practical axial loaded column ( with minimum eccentricity )

e min < e < e D 0.0035

( d ) Practical eccentrically loaded column

e = eD 0.0035

xu = D
M- XU
(e ) Eccentrically loaded column ( limiting case for no tension in section )

0.0035

e D < e < ebaI

£ st
D > xu > est< ey
D > xu > x ubai
xu H
( f ) Eccentrically loaded column (N.A. lies inside the section )
Strain diagrams of a Column Section Subjected to Various Eccentricities
FIG . 17- 12
Art. 17- 12 ] Columns 607

Such a failure is termed as balanced failure. Here the maximum strain in concrete ,
£c = 0.0035 as per our assumption and the yield strain in tension steel ,
0.87 /
£ st Ey ~ + 0.002, both occur simultaneously.
A
Define : xu = the depth of neutral axis
* min = minimum eccentricity as defined by the code
eQ = eccentricity of the load when xu = D . ( This gives a limiting
condition when no tension exists on the section )
e = balanced eccentricity associated with balanced failure of the section .
^
The relation between depth of neutral axis D H
and eccentricity is inverse . When e = 0, i . e ., 1
Mu = 0, xu = °o since there is no variation
of stresses on the section . As eccentricity
increases, the depth of neutral axis decreases
leading to various types of failures . b

(1) Compression failure: In this case , the

neutral axis lies outside the section
and also for a few values of xu , it
lies inside the section till the balanced ( a ) Section
failure occurs . Strain diagrams
for different cases are shown in
fig . 17- 12 . 0.0035
Fig. 17- 12 ( a ) shows the section of a
column for which various strain diagrams
are drawn for compression failure . 8y
Fig . 17- 12 ( b ) represents a theoretical
case of purely axially loaded column e = ebal
loaded with Puz and with eccentricity e D < c bal < oo

—
e 0, and xu = °o. Fig. 17- 12 (c) represents
a practical axially loaded column with
( b) Balanced section
e ^ m i n Here xu has a finite
*
0.0035
value . Fig . 17- 12 ( d ) shows a general
case of eccentrically loaded column
with N . A . lying outside the section to xu
and having eccentricity e as * min < A
e < * £) . As a limiting case when there to
exist no tension in the section , we emin < e < ebal
have xu = D and ? = as shown in
fig. 17- 12 (e ) . ^ ( c ) Tensile failure

In all these cases , the failure is due

to compression in concrete and the
N . A . lies outside the section . Note >* K
to
that with increasing eccentricity , the A xu = x u. mm
depth of N . A . reduces. With further A
increase of eccentricity, the N . A . enters to e= 00

the section as indicated in fig. 17- 12 ( f ) . Pu = 0

Here xu < D but xu > * u , bal » (d ) Doubly reinforced section
i . e ., D > xu > * u , bal * Tension
reinforcement have small strain est < ey. FIG . 17- 13
608 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
( 2 ) Balanced failure: With further increase of eccentricity the depth of N . A .
further decreases. The tensile strain in tension steel also increases . When
this strain reaches its yield value ey , the balanced failure occurs .
At this eccentricity , tension steel and concrete in extreme compression
fibre , both reach their limiting values simultaneously.
This is called balanced failure and corresponding e and xu are respectively
known as * bai and x u b .
^
Note that < * bal < Refer to fig. 17- 13 ( b ) . As per our design values
of stresses, we have for balanced failure
0.87 /y
ey = + 0.002.
Es
(3 ) Tensile failure: With further increase of eccentricity , the failure is initiated by
yielding of tensile steel . Such failures are termed as tensile failure. Here * ba] < e < °°.
As the steel is ductile material , it will continue to increase the strain with
increase of eccentricity. The second layer of the steel also may yield , if provided .
Refer to fig . 17- 13 ( c ) .
When e = °o and Pu = 0 , the section behaves as a doubly reinforced beam as
shown in fig. 17- 13 ( d ) . Here , xu * u , miir
In all these cases of tensile failure , the actual failure occurs due to excessive
compressive strain in extreme compression fibre because the steel is a ductile
material and will sustain larger strains ey as defined above but the concrete
cannot take larger value of strain .
17- 13 . Types of problems: Two problems may occur :
( 1 ) To analyse the section to see whether it can carry the given load and moment .
( 2 ) To design the section for given load and moment .
In both the cases, finding out the solution of the problem is very difficult because
the position of neutral axis depends on relative magnitudes of loads and moments. The
problem can be solved easily by constructing the interaction diagrams . The problem
can be handled as follows :
( 1 ) For the given location of neutral axis , find out the strains and stresses in both
the materials viz . , steel and concrete .
( 2 ) Find out the internal forces from these strains .
( 3) Evaluate the resultant forces and moments, i . e ., £ 7 = 0 and EM = 0.
The construction of design charts , i . e . , interaction diagrams is explained in the
articles to follow.
17- 14 .
The interaction diagram: If a given column is subjected to a load
Pu , less than Puz ( i . e ., limiting axial load capacity ) , it can resist a determinable
moment Mu in addition to Pu . For different values of Pu , the same section can resist
different values of Mu . If different combinations of Pu and Mu for each failure mode
of a given column section are determined and plotted , the resulting curve is known
as interaction diagram. The interaction diagram is useful either for designing the section 4
or for checking the section . A typical interaction diagram for a given section is
plotted in fig. 17- 14 . Note that any combination of Pu and Mu that falls inside the
curve , represents the safe design , whereas any combination of Pu and Mu that falls
outside the curve , represents a failure .
Art . 17- 15 ] Columns 609

If the column section is subjected to p

axial load only , the failure occurs at A
4
in the diagram and the load is Puz . The
strain diagram corresponding to this is puz A
as shown in fig. 17- 12 ( b ) . If the column D
is loaded for a load Pu ( Pu < Puz ) , it can Minimum /
resist some moment . Point C at the bottom eccentricity
of the curve represents the bending strength region
of the member where no axial load is /
/ E
present and the member behaves like a / /
doubly reinforced beam . Refer to fig. 17- 13 (d ) / Compression
for corresponding strain diagram . o
c / controls region
Between points A and C, the member fails 0)
/
due to the combination of Pu and Mu . */ / Balanced condition
The failure may be either tensile failure / B
/
or compressive failure. At point B, the / /
compression failure and tension failure / /
occur simultaneously and is known as I / / Tension >
controls /
balanced failure. The strain diagram for region Jr
this condition is shown in fig . 17- 13 ( b ) . O e = oo Mu
If any point on the curve for a particular Mo
combination of Pu and Mu is selected Typical interaction curve
and if a radial line is drawn through the FIG . 17- 14
origin , it will represent a constant eccentricity
of the load i .e . constant ratio of moment
to axial load .
From point A to B, as the load decreases , for the given section , the moment
resisting capacity of the section increases and the failure is a compression failure
i . e ., failure of concrete in compression . At point Z), the section has a capacity to resist
minimum eccentricity which indicates a practical axially loaded column . The strain
diagram for which is shown in fig. 17- 12 ( c ) . In region PB, the compression controls.
Here , the neutral axis may lie outside the section or inside the section . Point E
represents the boundry condition where xu
= D and e = eD . Thus, in portion DE, the
N . A . lies outside the section , whereas in portion EB ( and also portion BC ) , the N . A .
lies inside the section . The strain diagram for position E is shown in fig . 17- 12 ( e ) . For
portion DE, the strain diagram is as per fig. 17- 12 ( d ) , whereas for portion EB, the
strain diagram is as per fig . 17- 12 ( f ) .
The portion of the curve from B to C is opposite to portion A to C. Here as the
load is reduced , the moment capacity is also reduced . This is because of the tensile
failure of the section . Any reduction of the load in this zone reduces the compressive
stresses in compression zone and thus increases the tensile stresses in tension zone and
hence the moment capacity of the section is reduced . In this region , e < e < °o , and
corresponding strain diagram is as shown in fig. 17- 9 ( h ) . ^
At point C the axial load is zero and the column behaves as doubly reinforced
beam . The zone BC thus represents a tensile failure .
.
17-15 Stress block parameters when N.A lies outside the section: .
A symmetrically reinforced column section , the strain diagram and the stress diagram
when N . A . lies outside the section are shown in fig . 17- 15 .
Let xu = kD = depth of neutral axis
g = difference between the stress at highly compressed edge and
the stress at least compressed edge .
610 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
/ 0
d d
- H— H-

K D
( a ) Section

N. 0.002
I
I
h- -
I
A.
K -y D *H- — y D- H

( b ) Strain diagram

g
I
I — -T - F-
Parabola
£ jT Straight line
10.446 /ck
/
•C.G.
A ~ C l 4k D
k ./ x
K H
•

C2 D
x >+<
3 D -H
1
— x u = kD H
(c ) Stress diagram
Stress block when the N . A . lies outside the section
FIG . 17- 15
Considering the geometrical properties of parabola , in our case , the equation of
parabola is
y = k x 2. 0

At x = kD - y = 0 - 446 /ck .
Substituting, we get
0.446 /ck = k' (w - f f
0 - 446 /ck
k' =

The equation of parabola is

kD

0.446 /ck
-
^7

y = 2.
*
kD - 7
4 Z>
At x — > y = g-
Art . 17- 15 ] Columns 61 1

Substituting, we get
2
4D -|2
7 4
g = 0.446 /ck = 0.446 /ck 17 k - 3. '

kD -
Area of stress block
4D
= 0.446 /ck D - 1j X g X
7

= 0.446 /ck D - £ g D

- 0446 0 [ - £ (TF-
2
3
2
- Q /ck ^
4
where C, = 0.446 1 - A
21 7A - 3
( 17- 8 )

To find c . g. of the stress block , taking moments about highly compressed edge
3 / 4 Z)
(f ) -
4 x C2 D
i = 0.446 fA D

- 0.446 /j f
^ gD +
4 7

c2 =
0.446 /lU
f
Cl /
-
=1

Thus for different values of k

0 223 /ek -
C1 /ck
i e.,
>
^ *u ,
t

area of stress block A = C\ fck D,

( 17- 9 )

and
distance of its centroid from highly compressed edge G) D can be found out by using
equations ( 17-8) and ( 17- 9 ). For k = 1 to 4 and for different interval, these are calculated
and tabulated in the table // of SP: 16 . Some of the values are reproduced in table 17- 1 .
Note that for constructing the interaction diagrams, it will be generally adequate to
consider values of k only upto 1.2 .
TABLE 17-1
STRESS BLOACK PARAMETERS WHEN THE
NEUTRAL AXIS LIES OUTSIDE THE SECTION

*u Area of stress block Distance of centroid from highly

k = D A = Cl /ck D compressed edge —C 2 D
1.00 0.361 /ck D 0.416 D
1.05 0.374 /ck D 0.432 D
1.10 0.384 /ck D 0.443 D
1.20 0.399 /ck D 0.458 D
612 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
17- 16 . Construction of interaction diagrams: The interaction diagrams

are constructed for

.b D
p
versus
Mu for different values of
p
= where p
/ck h D2 /ck /ck
is the percentage reinforcement . The following two cases are considered :
( a ) Pure axial load
( b ) Axial load with uniaxial moment .
Each of the cases will be now considered .
17- 17. Pure axial load: For the pure axial load , the points on y axis of the
chart are obtained as follows:

Pu = 0.446 /ck Ac + fsc Asc

= 0 4 4 6 fcY b D ~ fee
^ sc + /sc ^ sc -
The term fcc ^4 SC represents the deduction for concrete replaced by reinforcement
bars. This is a small term and can be neglected . However , SP: l 6 considers its value
for M 20 mix in calculations for all concrete grades. If the accurate value of fcc is to
be used , it will necessiate the preparation of separate charts for each grade of concrete.
The term fsc is the stress in steel bars for a strain of 0.002 which is equal to 0.87 /y
for mild steel , 0.79 /y for Fe 415 grade steel and 0.75 /y for Fe 500 grade steel .
Now Pu = 0 - 446 /ck b D + Asc ( ftc - /cc) .
p b D
Substituting
^ sc = 100
and fee = 0 446 fek
p b D
Pu = 0.446 fc ^ b D +
100
(/ck - 0 - 446 /ck)
Diving both the sides by fc b D
^
= P ( fsc ( 17- 10 )
/ck b D
0.446 +
100 /ck
~ 0.446 /ck )
.
17- 18 Axial load with uniaxial moment: When the column is subjected to
an axial load and uniaxial moment , the following procedure is applied .
( 1 ) Assume different values of N . A .
( 2 ) Draw strain diagram and stress diagram .
( 3 ) Calculate stresses in reinforcement from strains .
( 4 ) Equate SF = 0 and LA/ = 0 .
To find out stresses in HYSD reinforcement , the stress - strain relationship for
HYSD bars is tabulated in table 17- 2.
The following two cases occur in design :
( 1 ) Neutral axis lies outside the section .
( 2 ) Neutral axis lies inside the section .
Each of these cases are now considered .
Art . 17- 19 ] Columns 613

TABLE 17- 2
STRESS -STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR HYSD BARS
Strain level Strain Stress , N / mm 2
_Fe_£15
UptO 0.8 a/ E a
0.8 /yd 0.00144 288.7
0.85 fyA 0.00163 306.7
0.90 fyd 0.00192 324.8
0.95 0.00241 342.8
0.975 /yd 0.00276 351.8
1 0 fyd
* 0.00380 360.9
_Fe_500_ _
UptO 0.8 fyd a/ E a
fyd
0.8 0.00174 347.8
0.85 fyd 0.00195 369.6
0.90 fyd 0.00226 391.3
0.95 fyd 0.00277 413.0
0.975 /yd 0.00312 423.9
1.0 /yd 0.00417 434.8

17- 19. Neutral axis ( N.A.) lies outside the section: The section , strain
diagram , stress diagram for concrete and stress diagram for steel are shown in fig. 17- 16
when neutral axis lies outside the section .
The sectional properties are marked in the figure as per our assumptions . Now
apply the equations of equilibrium .
17= 0
= Cc + xcsi
where Cc = compression provided by concrete
Csi = compression provided by itl row of reinforcement .
)

« pi bd
Then pu = C\ /ck b D + 5 100
(Ai - fa ) (1)

where Ci = coefficient for the area of stress block

Asi where As i s the area of reinforcement in zth row
Pi TTT
bD ‘
/si = stress in Ith row of reinforcement , compression being positive
and tension being negative
fcx = stress in concrete at the level of Ith row of reinforcement
n no . of rows of reinforcement .
Dividing expression ( 1 ) by fc b D , we get
^
P» n pi
= Cl 4- (
100 /ck /si
- /ci) (2)
/ck b D =1
614 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

N. l <t
d' - y* + yi d'

I
— M- -
+*

5 4 3 2 1
i
H* D -H
A -r Xu >
(a ) Section

he-
3 D -H
7

0.002
( b ) Strain diagram

Cc - C j . /ck • D

^\
\
+ >
C2 D 0.446 /ck

Parabola
— 1
( c ) Stress diagram - concrete ^- Straight line

fa
5 4 3 2 1

i Csi
(d ) Stress diagram steel -
N . A . lies outside the section
FIG . 17- 16
Now apply the second condition of equilibrium , viz., Y M . = 0. Taking moments of
forces about the centroid of the section , we get
p bD
Mu = C ,/ b D (f -c D ) +
n
z ‘100 (/si - fa ) yi 0)
’
ck •
i=1
where C 2 D = Distance of centroid of concrete stress block , measured from
the highly compressed edge
y i = distance from the centroid of the section to the ith row of
reinforcement which shall be taken positive towards highly
compressed edge and negative towards least compressed edge .
Dividing expression ( 3) by fc b D 2, we get
Mu = C, (0.5
^
- C2 ) + I
n
( fa Pi _ . / hV.
f ) ( 4)
/ck b D2 i = 1 100 /ck
Art . 17- 20 ] Columns 615

We have now the following expressions for preparing the charts .

/ck
b D = C, +
.
•
i
n

=1
Pi
100 /ck
( fsi - fed ( 17- 11 a )

n Pi
/ck >> D 2
= C ] (0.5 — C ) +
^ X
i=l 100 /ck
ifsi Jci.))
- /
D
( 17- lib )

Equations 17- 11 ( a) and 17- 11 ( b ) are used for preparing the charts when neutral axis
lies outside the section .
.
17 - 20 Neutral axis ( N. A . ) lies inside the section: The section , the
stress diagram for concrete and the stress diagram for steel when the neutral axis lies
inside the section are shown in fig. 17- 17. The stress block parameters as used in beams
can be used here .
Apply the conditions of equilibrium .
I V = 0
n px b D
Pu = Cc + Z Csi =
0.36 /ck b k D + 1
i =l 100
(/si fed (1) -
depth of neutral axis
where k =
D
Note that there is no limitation given on depth of neutral axis, so, unlike the beams,
the limiting value of k is not specified . Also note that here we take xu = kD and not kd.

N.
I

b
1
5 4 3 2 1

A.
xu = kD
H+ D
( a ) Section
Cc = 0.36 /Ck bx u

-
* - 0.416 xu
Parabola
L
0.446 /ck
Straight line
lx
1 Au
K

( b) Stress diagram -concrete

/ci
5 4 3 2

I Csi
( c ) Stress diagram steel -
N . A . lies inside the section
FIG . 17- 17
616 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17

Dividing the expression ( 1 ) by /ck b Z), we get

( - /ci ) Pi ( 2)
b D = *ioo /ck /si
0.36 +
/ck i=l
Now apply the second condition of equilibrium , viz ., 1LM = 0 . Taking moments of
forces about the centroid of the section , we get
/ n n p\ b D
- 0.416 k \ +
,
Mu = 0.36 /ck b k D Dj z 100
(/si - /ci) ?i • ( 3)

Dividing expression ( 3) by b Z) 2 , we get

Mu
/ck b D 2
= 0.36 k = [0.5 - 0.416 A] +
i
I
=l
Pi
100 /cU
f ))
(/si - Jci *£, ( 4)

We have now the following equations for preparing the charts .

,
P Pi (/si - ( 17- 12 a )
/ck ^ D =
0.36 k +
: =1 100 /ck /ci)
Mu /
/ck *
= 0.36 k (0.5 - 0.416 k ) +
i
ioo /ck /si
i
£= l
( - /ci ) ( 17- 12 b )
£
Equations ( 17- 12 a ) and ( 17- 12 b ) are used to find out the points on interaction
diagram when neutral axis lies inside the section .
.
17- 21 Charts for compression with bending: When the axial load on
the column is compressive , the interaction diagram for compression with bending can
be prepared by using the equations ( 17- H ) and ( 17- 12 ) .
SP : 16 has prepared the charts for compression with bending for following cases:
Rectangular section :
Reinforcement on two sides
Reinforcement on four sides , equally distributed .
Circular section :
Reinforcement , not less than 6 in number , equally distributed .
d'
The charts are prepared for three grades of steel and four values of j) for each
case . The value of /ci is taken for that of M 20 grade mix for all charts . In fact , this
value may also be neglected .
Two such charts are shown in fig. 17- 18 and fig . 17- 19 . For more details, SP : 16 may
be consulted . These charts are :

( 1 ) Fe 415 grade steel ,

^ = 0.1 ,
reinforcement distributed equally on two sides , rectangular section , fig . 17- 18.

( 2 ) Fe 415 grade steel,

^ = 0.1,
reinforcement distributed equally on all four sides , rectangular section , fig. 17- 19.
In the above charts , few dotted lines are shown which indicate the stress in the
steel reinforcement nearest to the tension face of the column .
The line /st = 0 indicates that the stress in these bars is zero , which means that
the neutral axis is passing through these bars .
A r t . 17- 21 ] Columns 617

The line fsi = fyj indicates that the stress in these bars is the design yield stress .
For the points lying above the line fs { = 0, all the bars in column are in compression .
For the points lying between lines /st = 0 and /st = /ycj ( i . e . , points P to B of
fig . 17- 14 ) , all the bars lying nearer to the tension face are in tension.

a
X>

of

2
Mu / /ckbD
Compression with bending- Rectangular section
- Reinforcement distributed equally on two sides
FIG . 17- 18
For the points lying below the line ft = fy , the bars on the outermost row are
^
yielded while that for inner rows the stress may reach to design yield stress successively.
This is the case where tension with bending starts, corresponding to points B to C
in fig . 17- 14 .
618 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Now below the line /st = /y ( j, tension controls region starts upto the point C where
the compressive load is zero .

1.4
—— I
— >- fy — 415 N / mm 2
d / D = 0.10

As = pbD/ 100

d
1.1 Axis of bending

1.0

/yd

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

2
Mu / /ckbD
Compression with bending- Rectangular section
Reinforcement distributed equally on four sides
FIG . 17- 19
17- 22. Tension with bending: In the typical interaction curve of fig. 17- 14, it
can be seen that throughout the curve , viz . , from point A to C, the axial load is
compressive on the column . Situations may occur where the eccentric load is tensile and we
may extend the interaction curve of fig. 17- 14 in the negative direction of Pu as shown
Art . 17- 22 ] Columns 619

in fig. 17- 20 . The points on the extended M

curve can be found out by using equation
( 17- 12 ) assuming very low values of k . The
curve extends upto point E where the moment
is zero and the section is in pure tension .
/
For the pure tension case , we have /
p b D E
O
/
Pu = ( 0.87 fy ) In /
100 -r

p -.
<U
v
O
/
/
E
* ( 0.87 fy ) . . ( 17- 13 ) o /
/ck b D 100 /ck U
/ B
Equations ( 17- 12 ) and ( 17- 13 ) are used /
to find out the points on interaction diagram /
L^ C
for tension with bending by assuming very
Mu
low values of k .
c
Two such charts from SP: 16 ( point C to o
y.
E ) are reproduced in fig. 17- 21 and fig. 17- 22 . C
o E
The
of

or four

Tension with bending-Rectangular section

Reinforcement distributed equally on two sides
FIG . 17- 21
620 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
It may particularly be noted that for the case of tension with bending, it is
economical to distribute the reinforcement unequally viz . , larger reinforcement area
on tension side . For a particular case , this may be tried .

Tension with bending-Rectangular section

Reinforcement distributed equally on four sides
FIG. 17- 22
Example 17- 8 .

Draw axial force - moment interaction curve for a rectangular column with Jr—
- = 0.2.
/ck
The bars are equally distributed on two opposite faces about the axis of bending. The
j/

steel grade is Fe 415. Assume = 0.1.

Solution :
In this example the chart is prepared in the same manner as prepared by SP: 16.
Referring to the equations ( 17- 10) , ( 17- 11 ) and ( 17- 12 ) , it can be seen that depending
on different grades of concrete , different charts can be prepared .
However , the values of 0.446 fc and /ci in these equations , viz. ( fsc - 0.446 fc
^
and ifsi - /ci) are very small when compared with fsc and /si.
Thus it is of limited use to prepare the charts for different grades of concrete .
SP: 16 assumes the value of M 20 grade concrete for all grades of concrete for the
values of 0.446 fc and /ci.
^
Art . 17- 22 ] Columns 621

The same is followed in this example also , so that the chart can be based on
p
different values of instead of p only.
/ck
Case I . Pure axial load :
p
= 0.446 + 100 ( - 0 4 4 6 /ck ) . -
/ck b D /c k /sc
For a strain of 0.002, f s c = 327.7 N / mm 2 ( refer to table 17- 3) . Also for 0.446 /ck
use the value of M 20 grade concrete . Thus , 0.446 /ck = 0.446 x 20 = 8.92 N / mm 2 .

Pu 0.2 (
327.7 - 8.92 ) = 1.084 .
/ck b D =
0.446 +
100
This gives the first point in the chart when moment is absent.
Case II . Compression with bending: N . A . lies outside the section :

Assume
*u 1.2 .
D
The section , strain diagram and the stress diagram are shown in fig. 17- 23. The
3
strain diagram is drawn according to our assumptions , viz . , at y D from
extreme compression fibre, the strain is 0.002. The other values are calculated
by similar triangles . The stresses in steel bars are found out from these strains
by using table 17- 3 and are shown is fig. 17- 23 ( d ) .
Let us now find out the stress in concrete at the level of reinforcement .
At 0.1 D from extreme compression fibre , the stress is
0.446 /ck = 0.446 x 20 = 8.92 N / mm 2.
3
The vertex lies at - D = 0.428 D from extreme compression fibre. At 0.9 D
from extreme compression fibre (level of reinforcement ) i . e ., at x = ( 0.9 - -
0.428) D = - 0.472 D from the vertex , the stress in concrete will be ( 8.92 - y)
0 - 446 /ck 2 0.446 x 20’ x \2
where y = 2 * =
3 D \ ( 1.2 - 0.428 ) 2 D
kB -
14.97
7

= 14.97 (
_ 0.472 ) 2 = 3.34 N / mm 2.
Stress at 0.9 D in concrete = 8.92 - 3.34 = 5.58 N / mm 2.
* Note that the stress diagram for M20 grade concrete mix is considered here .
From table 17- 2 , C\ = 0.399 and C2 = 0.458.

c,
2 Pi
Now
bD =
+ s /si ( - fa )
/ck = 100 /cki l
0.1 (
= 0.399 + 352.6 8.92 ) + 0.1 ( 155.6 - - 5.58)
100 100
= 0.399 + 0.344 + 0.150 = 0.893

Mu = Ci ( 0.5 - c2) +
2
sl Pi yi
(/si - fa )
/ck >> i = 100 /ck D
622 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

i . e. = 0.399 (0.5 - 0.458) + 0.1 x 0.4 ( 352.6 - 8.92 )

/ck h D 2 100
0.1
+ (- 0.4 ) ( 155.6 - 5.58)
100
= 0.0168 + 0.1375 - 0.0600 = 0.0943.

For different values of on the interaction curve can be found out

D ’ points
in a similar manner.
0.2 D
H— +« D-
0.1 D 0.1 D
H h* -
4*

( a ) Section

y -^
°
L-

0.002
r 0.0031

L 0.0007782
L - 0.0005188 - 0.00285
( b) Strain diagram

8.92 N / ram 2
3.341 L 5.58 .
N / mm‘ Vertex
( c ) Stress diagram - concrete

155.6 N / mrrC 352.6 N /mm 2

0.1 D
>
0.1 D
-
+«

h<- D >
( d ) Stress diagram -steel

FIG . 17- 23
C a s e III . N e u t r a l a x i s l i e s i n s i d e the s e c t i o n : c o m p r e s s i o n w i t h bending :
The following conditions with respect to the dotted lines in the interaction
curves are considered
( 1 ) /st = 0 , i .e . , N . A . passes through the reinforcement in tension zone
„
( 2 ) / = 0.2 /yd = 0.2 x 0.87 fy = 0.174 fy
Art . 17- 22 ] Columns 623

( 3) At = 0.8 /yd = 0.8 X 0.87 fy = 0.696 fy

( 4 ) At = /yd = 0.87 fy
(5 ) Steel beam , i . e . , only moment exists , and axial force is zero .
Each of the above case is now considered .
(i) At = o
The section , strain diagram and stress diagram for concrete are shown
in fig . 17- 24 .

0.446 /ck
K
0.0035
b 8.92 N/ mm 2
0. ID A

0.0031

0. ID iL
T
( b ) Strain diagram
%

(c ) Stress diagram
( a ) Section

FIG . 17- 24
Est = 0
0.8 x
Esc = 0.9
0.0035 = 0.0031

Ac = 354.9 N / mm 2
0.446 /ck = 0.446 x 20 = 8.92 N / mm 2.
2 Pi
S (/si - fed
b D =
0.36 k +
/ck i = l 100 /ck
0.1 (
= 0.36 x 0.9 + 354.9 - 8.42 ) + 0
100
= 0.324 + 0.346 = 0.67
2 Pi yi
= 0.36 k ( 0.5 - 0.446 k ) + I (/si - /ci )
/ck 100 /ck Z)
* i=l
0.1 (0.4 ) ( 354.9
= 0.36 x 0.9 ( 0.5 -
0.446 x 0.9 ) +
100
- 8.92 )
= 0.0407 + 0.1383 = 0.179 .
(2) At = 0.2 /yd
At = - 2 ° x 0 87 fy
= 0.2 x 0.87 x 415 = 72.21 N / mm 2

tensile strain es, =

72.21
2 x 10 -5
= 0.000361.
The section , strain diagram and stress diagram for concrete are shown
in fig. 17- 25.
624 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Considering similar triangles of strain diagram
k D 0.9 D - k D
0.0035 0.000361
k = 0.816
0.716 x
E sc 0.0035 = 0.003071
0.816
0.003071 - 0.00276
/sc = 351.8 + 0.0038 - 0.00276 (360.9 - 351.8)

= 351.8 + 2.72 = 354.52 N / mm 2.

0.0035
h* H 8.92 N / mm 2

0.003071 354.52 N/ mm 2

72.21 N / mm 2
- 0.000361

(a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 25
Pi 2
0.36 k + Z ifsi - fed
/ck b D = i=1 100 fck
0.1 0.1 (
= 0.36 x 0.816 + 100 (354.52 - 8.92 ) + 100 - 72.21 )
= 0.294 + 0.346 - 0.072 = 0.568
Mu = 0.36 k ( 0.5 - 0.416 k ) +
2
S
Pi yi
( fsi ~ f a)
/ck b D '2 i = 1 100 /ck D
= 0.36 x 0.816 (0.5 - 0.416 x 0.816) + 0.1 x (354.52 - 8.92 )
100
x 0.4 + 0.1 (- 0.4 ) (- 72.21)
100
= 0.0472 + 0.138 + 0.0289 = 0.214 .
(3) /st = 0.8 /yd
/st = 0.8 x 0.87 /y
= 0.8 x 0.87 x 415 = 288.8 N / mm 2
288.8
est =
2 x 105
= 0.00144 .
The section , strain diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 17- 26.
Considering similar triangles of strain diagram
k D 0.9 D - k D
0.0035 0.00144
k = 0.643 I
0.543 x
Esc = 0.0035 = 0.00296
0.643
Art . 17- 22 ] Columns 625

0.00296 - 0.00276 (
/sc = 351.8 +
0.0038 - 0.00276
360.8 - 351.8)

= 351.8 + 1.73 = 353.53 N / mm 2

= 0.36 x 0.643 + 0.1 (353.53 - 8.92 ) + 0 . 1 ( - 288.8 )

/ck l> D 100 100
= 0.231 + 0.345 - 0.289 = 0.287
Mu = 0.36 x 0.643 (0.5 - 0.416 x 0.643) + 0.1 x ( 353.53 - 8.92) (0.4)
/ck D2 100
* +
0.1 (
- 288.8) (- 0.4 )
100
= 0.0538 + 0.1378 + 0.1155 = 0.3071.
0.0035
b N 8.92 N/mm 2
0.1D
> i

kD
I= 0.00296 353.53 N / mm 2

0.643D
D
i
288.8 N / mm 2
r
'
0.1D 0.00144

( a) Section ( b) Strain diagram (c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 26
( 4) /st = /yd ( balanced failure )
Here /st = 0.87 /y = 0.87 x 415 = 361 N / mm 2
361 0.0038.
* st = 2 x 105 + 0.002 =
The section , strain diagram and stress diagram are shown in fig. 17- 27.

b H - 0.0035H
r« 8.92 N/mm 2
0.1D
T
0.431 D
V
7
0.00268 349.75 N / mm 2

0.1D
361.0 N / mm 2
0.0038

(a ) Section (b) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 27
Considering similar triangles of strain diagram
k D 0.9 D - kD
0.0035 0.0038
k = 0.431
626 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
0.331 x
esc = 0.431
0.0035 = 0.00268
0.00268 - 0.00241
/,c = 342.8 + 0.00276 - 0.00241 ( 351.8 - 342.8)

= 349.75 N / mm 2
0 . 1 ( 361)
= 0.36 x 0.431 + 0.1 ( 349.75 - 8.92 ) + -
/ck b D 100 100
= 0.155 + 0.341 - 0.361 = 0.135
Mu = 0.36 x 0.431 (0.5 - 0.416 x 0.431) + 0.1 (349.75 - 8.92) (0.4)
/ck b D2 100
0.1 (
+
100
- 361) (- 0.4 )
= 0.049 + 0.136 + 0.144 = 0.329.
(5 ) Steel beam
Pu = 0, N . A . passes through steel on compression side.
Mu 0.1 x
0.87 x 415 x 0.4 + 0.1 x 0.87 x 415 x 0.4
100
/ck b
^
= 0.1444 + 0.1444 = . 0.289.
100

The resulting interaction diagram for cases I, II and III is shown in fig. 17- 18.
Case IV . Tension with bending: N . A . lies inside the section :
The points on the curve may be obtained by using low values of k.
( 1 ) First point, Pu = 0

= 0.289 as per steel beam case .

/ck b £2
( 2 ) Pure axial tension , i . e . , Mu = 0

(0.87 fy )
/ck b D
100 /ck
0.1 (
0.87 x 415) = - 0.361.
100
( 3 ) Intermediate values may be found out by using low values of k. Assume k 0.15.
The section , strain diagram and the stress diagram are shown in fig. 17- 28.
—
K b > 0.0035 8.92 N/ mm 2
0.1D
.
>>
0.15 D
i z 0.001166
233.0 N / mm
2

361.0 N/ mm 2
0.1D 0.021

(a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 28
Art . 17- 23 ] Columns 627

k = 0.15
esc = 0.001166
/sc = 0.001166 x 2 x 105 = 233 N / mm 2
»•

fc k b D

Mu
=
=
=
0.36 X 0.15 +

0.054 + 0.224

0.36 x 0.15 (0.5

^
- 0.361
( 233

- 0.416
= -
- 8.92 ) + 0.1 (- 361 )
0.083
100

x 0.15) + 0.1 ( 233 - 8.92 ) (0.4 ) +

fck b D2 100
0.1 ( 361 ) ( 0.4)
100
- -
= = 0.2576.
0.0236 + 0.0896 + 0.1444
The resulting interaction curve is shown in fig . 17- 29 .
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
Mu
- 0.1 - - 4 b D2
- 0.2 - -
- 0.3 - - 4
4=
0.2
- 0.4 - -
- 0.5 - -
- 0.6 - -
- 0.7 - -
- 0.8 - -
- 0.9 - -
- 1.0 - - Pu
4b D
Tension with bending
FIG . 17- 29
17- 23. Use of interaction diagram: An R . C.C . column of size b x D is
subjected to an axial factor load of Pu and a factored moment Mu . The steps to use
the interaction diagrams from SP : l 6 are as follows:
d' .
( 1 ) Select the diameter of the bars to be used and calculate SP: 16 contains
df
interaction diagrams for 0.05 , 0.1, 0.15 and 0.20 . Select the nearest
=
d'
higher value for referring to the diagram . For example , if = 0.12 , select
d ' d'
-
p = 0.15. Alternatively, we may find reinforcement for = 0.10 and that
d* d'
for = 0.15, using two different charts and interpolate for = 0.12 .
•
It may be noted that for d > 0.2 , SP: 16 does not contain the interaction
diagrams. In such cases , the designer should perform the fundamental calculations
as shown in example 17- 9 or he may use his judgement . For thin walled
sections like walls , there is a necessity of drawing the interaction charts in
SP: 16.
628 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
( 2 ) Select the arrangement of reinforcement , viz . , reinforcement for two opposite
faces or reinforcement equally distributed on all four faces . Note that if any
other arrangement is desired , the problem shall be solved from fundamental
considerations.
( 3 ) For selected grade of steel , the arrangement of reinforcement and for different
d' , the
values of interaction diagrams are drawn in SP : 16. Refer to the respective
diagram .

( 4 ) Determine K and
Mn ( with usual notation ) . By visual inspection
/ck b D /ck i> »2
and also using scale and pencil , determine the value of
P
from the interaction
/ck
p bD
chart. Subsequently , determine p and =
100 '
The following solved examples explain the complete procedure .
Example 17- 9 .
A short column of size 300 mm x 600 mm is subjected to an axial factored load
of 960 kN and factored moment about major axis of 300 kNm . Determine the reinforcement
in the column if the moment due to minimum eccentricity is less than the
applied moment . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
Using 25 mm diameter bars with 40 mm clear cover
d ' = 40 -f 12.5
= 52.5 mm
52J
D = 600 =
0.08, say 0.1

P .b D 960 x 103
20 x 300 x 600 = 0.267
/ck
Mu 300 x 106
= 0.139.
/ck b D 2 20 x 300 x 6002
From fig. 17- 18 ( or chart 32 of SP: 16)
P
/ck = 0.075

p = 0.075 x 20 = 1.5
1.5 x
= 300 x 600 = 2700 mm 2 .
100
Provide 8- 22 mm # = 3041 mm 2 .
As the distance between two opposite corner bars is more than 300 mm , provide
2- 12 mm # at centre of long sides of the column .
22
Ties: Minimum diameter
4 = = 5.5 mm .
Use 6 mm diameter M .S. ties.
Art . 17- 23] Columns 629

Spacing should not exceed

( i ) 300 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( ii ) 16 x 22 = 352 mm ( 16 times 4> of main bars)
( iii ) 300 mm 600 H
The distance between the bars ~
g
n V 8-22 # + 2- 12 #
on long face is

^
( 600 - 40 - 22 )
= 269 mm which is less than 48 300
< > tr ( = 48 x 6 = 288 mm ) , but
|
greater than 75 mm , therefore , v
-
« 6 mm <j) @
(two sets )
300 mm c/c

provide open tie .

Provide 6 mm 0 M .S. ties @ FIG . 17- 30
300 mm c / c ( two sets) .
The designed section is shown in fig . 17- 30.
Example 17- 10 .
Design the column of example 17- 10 if the reinforcement is to be provided equally
on all four sides .
Solution :
d'
= 0.1. Refer to chart 44 of SP: 16 ( or fig . 17- 19 ) . For
Pu
b D =
Here 0.267
/ck
and
Mu
b D2
= 0.139, We get -J fcp-k = 0.095.
/ck
p = 0.095 x 20 = 1.9
1.9
= 100 x 300 x 600 = 3420 mm 2.
Provide 8 - 25 # = 8 x 491 = 3928 mm 2.
Ties:
25 H* 600 H
Minimum diameter = —4
V 8- 25 #
= 6.25 mm
i6 mm 300
8 mm # @ 300 mm c/c
Use 8 mm # ties. ( two sets)
i
Spacing should not exceed
( 1 ) b = 300 mm FIG . 17- 31
( 2 ) 16 x 25 = 400 mm
( 3 ) 300 mm .
Provide 8 mm # @ 300 mm c / c , two sets of closed ties as required by
following calculation .
Checking for internal bars:
Distance between corner bars
short face : 300 - 40 - 40 - 25 = 195 mm .
long face : 600 - 40 - 40 - 25 = 495 mm .
630 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
Distance between bars
195
short face:
2 = 97.5 mm
495
long face: — = 247.5 mm .
48 0 tr = ^ 48 x 8
= 384 mm .
Internal bars of short face are spaced at 97.5 mm which is more than 75 mm but
corner bars have distance less than 48 <t> t r Open tie is sufficient here . On long face
the distance between corner bars is more than 48 0 tr . This requires closed tie. Therefore
provide closed tie as shown in fig. 17- 31. The angle of closed tie = 180 - 2 tan -1 0.5
= 126.9° which is less than 135°. The section is shown in fig. 17- 31.
Example 17- 11 .
A short column of size 400 mm x 400 mm is subjected to an axial factored load
of 2000 kN and factored moment about one of the axis of 150 kNm . Determine the
reinforcement in the column if the moment due to minimum eccentricity is less than
the applied moment . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
h* 400
Solution : - -
4 32 # + 4 28 #
The section is a square . Also, the axis of
the moment is not specified . Therefore we n
shall use the reinforcement distributed on 144
all four sides . 400
Assume 32 mm diameter bars . 144
d' — 40 + 16 = 56 mm d

d' 56
0.14.
I
D 400 = 8 mm 0 @ 380 c/c
j f ( three sets - 1 closed + 2 open ties )
Use the chart with —D = 0.15. FIG . 17- 32

Pn 2000 x 103
= 0.625
/ck b D 20 x 400 x 400
150 x 106
b D2 20 x 400 x 4002
= 0.117.
/ck
From chart 45, SP : 16
P
= 0.166
/ ck
p = 0.166 x 20 = 3.32
3.32 x 400 x 400
= = 5312 mm 2.
100
Provide 4 - 32 # + 4- 28 # = 5680 mm 2 .
32 8 mm .
0 tr 4 =
Use 8 mm 0 M .S. ties .
Art . 17- 24 ] Columns 631

Spacing shall not exceed

( i ) 400 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( ii ) 16 x 32 = 512 mm ( 16 times 0 of main bars)
( iii ) 300 mm .
Use 300 mm spacing of ties .
Spacing of main bars = 144 mm . This is greater than 75 mm , however corner bars
are spaced at 400 - 2 x 40 - 32 = 288 mm , which is less than 48 <{> tr (= 48 x 8 =
384 mm ) . Therefore internal bars may be tied by open ties .
Provide three sets of ties ( one closed + two open ) as shown in fig. 17- 32 .
Example 17- 12 .
A suspender is subjected to a factored load of 160 kN at an eccentricity of
150 mm . The size of the suspender may be taken as 300 mm x 300 mm . Design the
reinforcement using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Pu = - 160 kN ( ' . ' tension )
Mu = 160 x 0.15 = 24 kNm
Pu - 160 X 103 = - 0.089
/ck b D 20 x 300 x 300
24 x 106
= 0.045
/ck b D2 20 x 300 x 3002
d' 50 0.167, say 0.2
D 300 =
Using chart 81 of SP: 16 with equally distributed reinforcement on all faces, we get
P = 0.062
/ck
p = 0.062 x 20 = 1.24
1.24
and = 100 x 300 x 300 = 1116 mm 2.
Provide 4 - 20 # = 1256 mm 2 .
Ties :
, 20 >-
<t> tr = - j = 5 mm T 6 mm -
Provide 6 mm 0 M . S. ties.
Spacing should not exceed
( i ) 300 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( ii ) 16 x 20 = 320 mm ( 16 times 0 of main bars )
( iii ) 300 mm .
Provide 6 mm 0 M S. ties @ 300 mm c / c.
17- 24. Unsymmetrically reinforced columns with uniaxial eccentricity:
In many columns, the bending moment is very large and axial load be comparatively
small . Also these columns do not undergo moment reversal such as column of
fig. 16 - 1 ( b ) . These columns have either positive or negative eccentricity and will
632 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
not undergo reversal of moment, i .e . , the tension and compression faces will not
interchange. Design of such columns will be economical when reinforced unsymmetrically.
A crane column of an industrial building is another important example that falls
in this category. In such columns , the N . A . lies inside the section due to large
eccentricity. It will be economical to provide larger area of steel on tension side
than that of compression side .

Pux—
e-§+ d 1
e=
Mu
d , Pu
A sc
D
2
e+ §-d 2
D

D
2 A St
d2

h* b H

Unsymmetrically reinforced column

FIG . 17- 33
Figure 17- 33 shows a section with unsymmetrical reinforcement. The load eccentricity

e=
Mu . It should be noted that the compression side and tension side of the section
Pu
are pre - determined here . Also , as the reinforcement on compression and tension side
are different, care must be taken to see that the reinforcement cage is properly placed
on site .
Define :
dx = effective cover of compression reinforcement
</2 = effective cover of tension reinforcement

^4sc = area of compression reinforcement

^ st = area of tension reinforcement.
Then

distance of load from compression reinforcement e -

D
= y + d 1»

distance of load from tension reinforcement

These columns are usually designed by following methods :
( 1 ) General method using successive trials.
= e + 7

^ - <f 2 .

( 2 ) Approximate method .
Art . 17- 24 ] Columns 633

(1) General method:

(i ) Assume a trial depth of neutral axis. The first trial depth may be that of
balanced neutral axis or a nearer value .
( ii ) Determine strains in compression and tension steel and hence, the stresses
in these steel.
( iii ) Determine forces in concrete in compression ; in compression steel in
terms of Asc, and in tensile steel in terms of Ast .
( iv ) The condition ZAf = 0 about tensile reinforcement gives value of Asc .
(v ) The condition LV = 0 gives the value of Ast .
( vi ) The procedure shall be repeated for one smaller and one larger value of
the neutral axis. This will give an idea for successive trial , whether to
increase or decrease the value of N . A .
( vii ) Perform a few successive trials to get minimum steel area. Adopt the
economical solution .
( viii ) The stresses /sc and /st in step 2 may be determined from art . 6 -7.
The strain - stress relation for Fe 415 grade steel is reproduced below.
For Fe 415 grade steel :
Strain Stress , N / mm 2
0.00144 288.7
0.00163 306.7
0.00192 324.8
0.00241 342.8
0.00276 351.8
0.00380 360.9
and more

For mild steel , upto a strain value 0.00109 , the stress /st = est x E =
2 x 105 est N / mm 2. For larger strain , /st = 0.87 /y = 0.87 x 250 = 217.5 N / mm 2.
( 2 ) Approximate method:
‘
, ID a \ ,
When eccentricity is larger than I 2 2 I where
"
s an effective cover of tension
*
reinforcement [ refer to fig . 17- 34 ] , than this method can be applied as follows:
I D a, \
( i) Increase the moment by Pu 1 2 2 I giving total moment M' u = Mu +

Pu ( -4
!
( ii ) Design the section as doubly reinforced beam and determine 4 sc and
i Asi .
( iii ) Reduce Ast by
Pu the axial compressive load applied to tension
0.87 /y ’
steel .
( iv )
If the section is singly reinforced , provide some compression steel to
support ties .
Example 17- 13 explains the design by both these methods and also compares the
results with that of symmetrical reinforcement .
634 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Example 17- 13 .
Design the longitudinal reinforcement of a column 300 mm x 600 mm size ,
supporting Pu = 600 kN and a moment Mu = 360 kNm about its major axis. The
materials are M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415. Consider
the following cases:
( 1 ) Unsymmetrical reinforcement - general method
( 2 ) Unsymmetrical reinforcement - approximate method
( 3 ) Symmetrical reinforcement on two opposite faces .
Solution :
Pu = 600 kN
Mu = 360 kNm
b = 300 mm , D = 600 mm
Assume d! = 50 mm , = 50 mm
d = 600 - 50 = 550 mm .
The section is now designed for all the three cases as follows :
( 1 ) General method: Unsymmetrical reinforcement : For the first trial , assume xu nearer
to * u , bal-
Here x u , bal = 0.48 d
= 0.48 x 550 = 264 mm .
Trial 1 :
Assume xu = 260 mm for the first trial . The section and its strain diagram
are shown in fig. 17- 34.

Pu
300
e = 600
0.0035
50 | 50 50 C2
109.2
Ase *
Esc = 0.002827 Cl

600 500

290
I
A St >'
T
50 50 T>
4 300 — Est = 0.0039
(a ) Section ( b) Strain diagram ( c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 34
210
£ sc = 260 x 0.0035 = 0.002827
290
est = 0.0035 x 260 = 0.0039 .
Art . 17- 24 ] Columns 635

Now , we have
For esc = 0.002827, /sc = 352.4 N / mm 2
est = 0.0039, /st = 360.9 N / mm 2.
Taking moments about centroid of tensile reinforcement
Pu ( 600 - 300 + 550) = /sc Asc x 500 + 0.36 /ck b xu ( d 0.42 xu ) -
600 x 103 x 850 = 352.4 x Asc x 500
+ 0.36 x 25 x 300 x 260 (550 - 0.42 x 260 )
510 x 106 = 176200 Asc + 702 x 103 x 440.8
2
^4 SC = 1138 mm .
ZV = 0
Pu = C, + C2 - T = 0.36 /ck b xu + Asc /sc - /st Ast
600 x 103 = 702 x 103 + 1138 x 352.4 - 360.9 x /Jst
Ast = 1394 mm 2.
Total As = Asc + Asi = 1138 + 1394 = 2532 mm 2 (1)
Trial 2 :
Consider xu = 250 mm for the second trial . The section and its strain
diagram are shown in fig. 17- 35 .

I
Pu
300
e = 600 0.446 /ck
h*

T 50 50 50
0.0035
A
105 50 _
1
C2
Asc
Esc = 0.0028 f Cl

600 i I
300

t ASt
T
50
A
K 300 H
50
tl 8 sl = 0.0042
( a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram (c ) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 35
200 x
esc 250
0.0035 = 0.0028

/sc = 352.1 N / mm 2
300
est = 250 x 0.0035 = 0.0042

/st = 360.9 N / mm 2.
Taking moments about centroid of tensile reinforcement
636 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

Pu x 850 = /sc Asc x 500 + 0.36 /ck b xu (d - 0.42 xu )

600 x 103 x 850 = 352.1 x Asc x 500 + 0.36 x 25 x 300 x 250 ( 250 - 105 )
510 x 106 = 176.05 x 103 Asc + 675 x 103 x 445
A sc = 1191 mm 2
IV = 0
Pu + c2 - r
- Ci
600 x 103 = 675 x 103 + 1191 x 352.1 - 360.9
^lst
2
^4 st = 1370 mm
'

Total As = Asc + Ast = 1191 + 1370 = 2561 mm 2 (2)

Trial 3 :
Consider xu = 270 mm for third trial . The section and its strain and stress
diagrams are shown in fig . 17- 36.

Pu
300
e = 600
0.0035
C2
50
Asc
50
] 50 113.4 50

270 Ci
esc = 0.002852
600

*- T
L est = 0.00362
(a) Section (b) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

FIG . 17- 36
220 x
esc = 270
0.0035 = 0.002852

/sc = 352.6 N / mm 2
280 x
Est = 270
0.0035 = 0.00363

/st = 359.4 N / mm 2.
Taking moments about centroid of tensile reinforcement
Pu x 850 = /sc Asc x 500 + 0.36 /ck b xu ( d - 0.42 xj
600 x 103 x 850 = 352.6 Asc x 500 + 0.36 x 25 x 300 x 270 (550 - 113.4)
510 x 106 = 176.3 x 103 Asc + 729 x 103 x 436.6
A 5C = 1087 mm 2
Art. 17- 24 ] Columns 637

IF = 0
P\x —
C\ + C2 - T
600 x 103 = 729 x 103 + 352.6 x 1087 - 359.4 Asi
Ast = 1425 mm 2
Total As = 1087 4- 1425 = 2512 mm 2 ( 3) .
Now compare results ( 1 , 2 and ( 3) . If we reduce N . A ., we get larger area
) ( )
of As, if we increase N . A ., we get lesser area of As . The next subsequent
trials should be therefore based on higher values of xu . Following results
are obtained with higher values of xu .
*u ^ SC St
^s
280 1037 1461 2498 (4 )
290 990 1499 2489 (5 )
With increase of xu , the difference in As becomes smaller. We may adopt
the solution as giving minimum steel .
Adopt *u = 290 mm
A sc = 990 mm 2
Ast = 1499 mm 2
As = 2489 mm 2 (a) .

Increase moment by Pu (f - .f
( 2 ) Approximate method : Unsymmetrical reinforcement :

'() and design the section in flexure.

)
M' u = Mu + Pu
= 360 + 600 (300
-
*- 50) x 10 " 3
= 510 kNm .
b = 300 mm , d = 550 mm.
Mu 510 x 106
300 x 550 x 550 =
5.62
bd 2
d2 50
0.9, say 0.1.
d 550 =
From table 51, SP: 16

p\ = 1.862 A' st = -
1.862 x
100
300 x 550 = 3072 mm 2

pc = 0.706 =» Asc = 0.706

100
x 300 x 550 = 1165 mm 2

Reduce tension steel by *

0.87 /y
600 x 103
- 0.87 1410 mm 2.
Then Ast = 3072
x 415 =
Finally A sc = 1165 mm 2
A st = 1410 mm 2
and As = 1165 + 1410 = 2575 mm 2 ( b)
638 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
( 3 ) Symmetrical reinforcement on two opposite faces :
Pu 600 x 103
= 0.133
/ck D 25 x 300 x 600
*
360 x 106
= 0.133
/ck b D 2 25 x 300 x 6002
d'
D = 0.1

From chart 32 SP: 16 , P = 0.063

/ ck
p = 0.063 x 25 = 1.575
1.575 x
= 300 x 600 = 2835 mm 2.
100
2835
Here, we have -^ sc ^st 2 = 1418 mm 2.
Finally we have
A sc = 1418 mm 2
A st= 1418 mm 2
As = 2835 mm 2 (c) .
( 4 ) Comments:
Solution ( a ) and ( b ) are very nearer. Thus approximate method may be adopted
for unsymmetrical reinforcement when e > — -
- di< Solution ( c ) is applied in
usual cases gives the tension and compression reinforcement, both same .
When it is possible to adopt unsymmetrical reinforcement , particularly when
reversal of moment is not possible , it may be adopted for the reasons of economy.
.
17- 25 Short eccentrically loaded columns: Biaxial bending: A column
section subjected to biaxial bending, the strain diagram and the stress diagram for the
assumed position of neutral axis are shown in fig. 17-37.
The notations are as follows :
Pu = applied eccentric load at an eccentricity ex from x axis and ey from
y axis
e = net eccentricity of load from neutral axis
Cc = resultant compressive force in concrete
Cs = resulting compressive force in steel
T = resulting tensile force in steel
a = distance of Cc from neutral axis
b = distance of Cs from neutral axis .
To find out the position of neutral axis , successive trials are necessary. At equilibrium ,
all the forces, viz ., Pu , Cc , Cs and T lie in one plane . The following equations should
be satisfied .
( 1) £ F = 0
Pu = Cc + Cs - T
Art . 17- 25] Columns 639

( 2) lAf = 0
Pu . e = Cc a + Cs b - I\
where the moment is taken about the neutral axis .
The solution of these equations for different positions of neutral axis to find
out the correct neutral axis involves much algebra and a simplified method should
be applied .

y ey
I
b-- y/
r / Pu
—
ex
X
X X

<°0%

(a ) Section %s ?

( b) Strain diagram
c
°s
«?

6
% c
%
( c ) Stress diagram
and internal forces

Short column with biaxial moment

FIG . 17-37
IS : 456 gives a simplified approach based on the concept of failure surface where
the load - moment interaction diagram is assumed to be extended in three dimensions.
Just as we prepared the interaction curve for bending about one axis ( say x or y) ,
we can prepare these curves for any other axis. A curved plane passing through all
such interaction curves is called the failure surface. Fig. 17- 38 shows a typical failure
surface .
If a failure surface is cut at a constant value of Pu , the line obtained of failure
surface is called the load contour. The plane at a constant value of Pu and the load
contour are shown in fig. 17- 38. Any point lying on the plane at constant Pu represents
a safe design .
640 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Axial load

Puz
Curve APB
Straight line if an = 1
Ellipse if an = 2
P

May M y^ V

A Mr
/ Mux
^P4 B

Moment @ y axis Moment @ x axis

Interaction diagram - Biaxial moment

FIG . 17- 38
The general equation of the load contour may be expressed as
ian
n
’

Muy an
^ ux
+ = 1.0
M ux1 ^u y l
where Mux , Muy = moments about x and y axis due to design loads

^ ux » Muy\ = maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial

load of
Pu , bending about x and y axis respectively
an = a value related to -5— and may be taken from
uz
table 17- 3 specified by IS : 456 - 2000
Puz = capacity of cross - section under pure axial load
= 0.45 /ck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc .
TABLE 17- 3
VALUES OF an

«n Equation
^uz
0 to 0.2 1.0 an = 1.0
0.4 1.33 1 ( 1Pu
= 0.6 + 0.67
0.6 1.67 ^uz
0.8 or more 2.0 a„ = 2.0
It may be noted that the load contour is a straight line for an = 1 and an ellipse <
for an = 2 .
Art . 17- 25] Columns 641

According to IS : 456 , the given cross- section is safe if it satisfies the following
equation :
"
an
M ux ^ +
M ux
< 1.0 ( 17- 14 )
^ uxl ^u y l
To design the column section subjected to biaxial moment , several trials are
necessary. First assume the steel and then check the section .
It should be noted that for the column section subjected to biaxial moment, it will
be economical to place the reinforcement uniformly around the perimeters .
To design the section , the steel area should be assumed . To get the first trial
reinforcement area, the following method may be applied and then suitable modifications
may be done for the second trial .
Square column: If the square column is subjected to Pu , M ux and MUy , find out the
steel area assuming the uniaxial bending about x axis using the values P' u = Pu and
M ' ux = AfUx + uy The steel thus obtained , shall be distributed uniformly around the
column . ^
Rectangular column: If the rectangular column is subjected to Pu , Mux and A/ uy , find
out the steel area assuming the uniaxial bending about y axis ( minor axis) using the
( Mux 4- Muy ) when Afuy
b
values P' u = = M ux or M ' uy ( ux )
-I- MUy when
Pu and Af ' uy
Afuy > Mux .
jy
The steel thus obtained shall be distributed around the
^
column .
Example 17- 14 .
Design a square column of size 500 mm x 500 mm carrying an axial factored load
of 2000 kN and factored moments Mux = 120 kNm and Afuy = 160 kNm . Assume that
the moments due to minimum eccentricities are less than the applied moments . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution:
Assume an axial load P' u of 2000 kN and a uniaxial moment M' ux = 120 + 160
= 280 kNm .
P'u
1
2000 x 103
20 x 500 x 500 = 0.4
/ck b D
280 x 106
= 0.112
/ck O2 20 500 x 5002
‘ d' =
x
40 + 10 = 50 mm
d’ 50
500 =
0.1 .
D
From chart 32 of SP: 16 ,
P
/ ck =
0.078

p = 0.078 x 20 = 1.56
1.56 x
= 500 x 500 = 3900 mm 2.
100
Provide 8 - 25 mm # = 3928 mm 2 , equally distributed on all faces .
642 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

3928 x 100
P = 500 x 500 1.571

P
1.571
0.079 .
/ck20 =
The assumed section is now checked .
p Pu
0.4 , the reinforcement being equally distributed ,
b D =
= 0.079 and
For
/ck /ck
the moment capacities from chart 44 of SP: 16 are:

M M X\ ^ uy 1 = 0.1
O2 /tk » B2
/ck
‘^ uxl = ^/ jyl = 0.1 x 20 x 500 x 5002 x 10 6
"

= 250 kNm .
Puz = + 0.75 /y sc
0.45 /ck ^
i4c = - 3928 = 246072 mm 2
500 x 500
puz = 0.45 x 20 x 246072 x 10 ~3 + 0.75 x 415 x 3928 x 10 "3

= 2214.65 + 1222.59 = 3437 kN .

2000
3437 =
0.582
^ uz
an = 1.639
1.639
Check : 120 1.639 + 160
250 250
= 0.300 + 0.481 = 0.781 < 1.
The design may be adopted or a next trial with 4 - 25 mm # 4- 4 - 22 mm #
reinforcement may be carried out .
Design of ties:
0 25
6.25 mm .
=
^
Use 8 mm #
tr

ties.
4 4

The spacing should not exceed

( 1 ) 500 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( 2 ) 16 x 25 = 400 mm ( 16 times <J) of main bars )
( 3 ) 300 mm .
Use 300 mm spacing.
We have
16 <t> tr = 16 x 8 = 128 mm .
Distance between bars
1
- >
=
Distance between corner bars
=
^ (500

500 - 2 x 50 = 400 mm
50) = 225 mm

>
75 mm

16 btr .
Art . 17- 25] Columns 643

Use two sets of closed ties .

The section is shown in fig. 17- 39.
h* 500 >
- 8-25 #
T
8 mm # @ 300 mm c/c
( two sets )
500

FIG . 17- 39
Example 17- 15 .
A short column of 300 mm x 500 mm size is subjected to an axial factored load
of 2000 kN and factored moments Mux = 80 kNm and Afuy = 60 kNm . Determine the
reinforcement in the column if the moment due to minimum eccentricity is less than
the applied moments. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
4- 500
Solution :
8- 28 #
As a first trial , assume J
P ' u = 2000 kN
300 (
M ' uy 80 + 60)
500 300
8 mm # @ 300 c/c
= 84 kNm . ( t w o sets )
Then
P'U
X
2000 x 103
Y

/ck b D 20 x 300 x 500

FIG. 17- 40
= 0.67
M 'u 84 x 106
20 x 500 x 3002
= 0.093
/ck b D 2
d'
50
use 0.2.
300 =
0.167
D
From chart 34 , SP : 16
P = 0.158 ; p = 3.16
/ck
3.16 x
A ,= 100
300 x 500 = 4740 mm 2 .
Try 8- 28 mm # , = 8 x 616 = 4928 mm 2, equally distributed on all faces.
^ sc

p = 3.285, P 0.164.
/ck =
644 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
The assumed section is now checked .
d' 50 p
500 = = 0.164, b D =
About x 0.1 ; 0.67.
d /ck /ck
From chart 44 of SP : 16
MMXI = 0.12
/ck b D2
0.12 X 20 x 300 5002 x 10 6
Mixl = X "
= 180 kNm .
d' 50
About y use 0.2
300 =
0.167
d
p
/ck = =
0.164, 0.67.
/ck b D
From chart 46 , SP: 16

^u y l = 0.95
/ck b D2
Miyl = 0.095 x 20 x 500 x 3002 x 10 ~6 = 85.5 kNm .
Pure axial load capacity
Puz = 0.45 /ck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc
Ac = 300 x 500 - 4928 = 145072 mm 2
Puz = 0.45 x 20 x 145072 x 10 3 + 0.75 x 415 x 4928 x 10~3
"

= 1305.6 + 1533.8 = 2839 kN.

2000
PU. Z 2839 = 0.704

an = 1.83 from table 17- 4 .

80 nl . 83 + 60 nl .83 = 0.227 + 0.523

Check :
180 L 85.5 J = 0.75 < 1.

The section is thus checked .

Design of ties:
0 28
0 tr 7 mm .
4 4
Use 8 mm # ties .
The spacing should not exceed
( 1 ) 300 mm ( minimum column dimension )
( 2 ) 16 x 28 = 448 mm ( 16 times <J> of main bars )
( 3) 300 mm .
Use 300 mm spacing
Distance between bars on long face
1 (
— ^ 500 - 54 ) = 223 mm > 75 mm
Distance between corner bars on long face
= 500 - 2 x 54 = 392 > 16 <Dtr [= 16 x 8 = 128]
Art . 17- 26 ] Columns 645

Use two sets of closed ties as shown in fig. 17- 41.

2 tan- 1
150
The angle of closed tie = 180 - 250
180 - 61.9 = ( 118.1 ) ° < 135° ( OK.)
The section is shown in fig . 17- 40 .
-
v j ; « v ' .
SLENDER COLUMNS
1 7 - 2 6 . S l e n d e r c o l u m n s: Up till now we discussed about the short columns.
Now we shall discuss and design the slender columns. Slender columns have more
buckling effect which depends on their geometry , lateral bracing system and the
degree of restraint at the ends. The effect of slenderness was examined in art . 17- 5 and
is to induce a secondary moment equal to P . 5. The computation of 5 depends on
various factors such as unsupported length , effective length , radius of gyration and
code requirements.
These are discussed as follows:
( 1 ) Unsupported length: The unsupported length of a column shall be taken as the
clear distance between slabs, beams or other members that provide lateral
support to the column . If the haunches in the beams at the columns, or capital / drop
panel in flat slab construction are present , the unsupported length shall be
measured from the bottom of the haunch or capital / drop . The unsupported
length is discussed in clause 25.1.3 of IS : 456 . For detailed discussion the
complete clause may be consulted .
( 2 ) Effective length: The effective length of the column is the distance between the
points of inflection ( or points of zero moment ) and may be obtained as

= l
4f x l
*ef
where lef = effective length of column
/ = unsupported length of column
4 f- = effective length factor.
- j
The effective length of column in x direction and that in y direction may be
different depending on positions of end restraints. Here we define :
lex = effective length in respect of the major axis
I ey = effective length in respect of the minor axis .
(3 ) Radius of gyration: The radius of gyration , i ( may be ix or iy) of the member

shall be found out as i =

a
in the direction being considered . For a circular
column , the radius of gyration is 0.25 times its diameter and 0.289 times the
dimension of a rectangular column in the direction being considered . For a
rectangular column , the code permits a value equal to 0.3 b or 0.3 D instead
of 0.289 b or 0.289 D.
l
( 4 ) Slenderness ratio ( S .R . ) : The ratio -y is defined as a slenderness ratio of the
column in respect of the direction being considered .
646 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

Thus S. R . about x direction = —4lxx

/ey
S. R. about y direction = -r —
ly
( 5 ) Short and long columns: The column is termed as short , if both the slenderness

ratios
/ex
—*x
'
and
X
as long column .
/ey
——
are less than or equal to 40. Otherwise , it will be termed
Iy

For circular column

4f 40 i. e.
lef
< 10.
0.25 D D
For rectangular column

4f < 40
0.3 D
i . e.
ef <
D
12 . ^
For other shapes of column , computations may be carried out.
( 6 ) Slenderness limits for columns: The unsupported length between end restraints
shall not exceed 60 times the least lateral dimension of a column.
If in any given plane , one end of a column is unrestrained , its unsupported
2
length /, shall not exceed 100 b
D
where b = width of the cross - section
D = depth of the cross-section measured in the plane under consideration.
17- 27. Effective length calculations: The effective length of a column
depends on whether the frame is sway or no -sway and on the bending stiffnesses of
the girders meeting at the column . If the girder is very stiff , it will not bend significantly
under the actions of loads , and will provide fixity to the column .
If the girder is flexible , it will bend easily and will not provide lateral restraint.
Thus the connection is a hinged connection . The practical column connections of a
rigid frame lie between these two extremities . IS : 456 gives two methods to find out
the effective length of the column . These are described below.
Method 7 :
For the normal usage the end conditions for the column may be idealized
depending on the practical experience and the effective length may be found
out by the use of table 28 of IS : 456 . Some of these values are reproduced in
table 17- 4 .
It may be noted that for the no - sway columns, the effective length factor is
never greater than 1.0 whereas that for the sway columns, is always greater
than 1.0. For sway columns, the minimum recommended value of effective
length factor is 1.2 .
To determine whether a column is a no - sway or a sway , stability index Q,
as explained in art . 17- 3 should be calculated by using equation ( 17- 1 ) . If
( f < 0.04, the column is a no - sway column , otherwise it will be considered as
a sway column .
Art . 17- 27 ] Columns 647

TABLE 17- 4
EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Degree of end restraint Theoretical Recommended
of compression member value of effective value of effective
No . length length
(i) (2 ) ( 3)
( 1 ) Effectively held in position and restrained 0.5 / 0.65 /
against rotation at both ends
(2) Effectively held in position at both ends , 0.7 L 0.80 /
restrained against rotation at one end
( 3) Effectively held in position at both ends , 1.0 / 1.0 /
but not restrained against rotation
(4) Effectively held in position and restrained 1.0 / 1.2 /
against rotation at one end , and at the other
end restrained against rotation but not held
in position
Note : l is the unsupported length of compression member. For more details refer to
IS : 456 .
/
o
Hinged 1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
Pl
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed
\ 01 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
sX
IZ
02 —
<u
U)
E
X
Effective length ratios for a column in a frame with no - sway
( Columns with Q < 0.04 )
FIG . 17- 41
648 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Method 2 :
The effective length may be found out by using the chart of fig. 26, IS : 456
( for frames with no - sway ) and the chart of fig. 27 , IS : 456 ( frame without
restraint against sway ) . These charts are reproduced in fig. 17- 41 and fig . 17- 42.
While using these charts, (3 j and P 2 are equal to

1 Kc +I Kb
where X Kc =
sum of flexural stiffnesses of columns meeting at a joint
( upper and lower column )
X = sum of flexural stiffnesses of beams meeting at a joint.
The stiffness of the beam may be modified as

Kh = 0.5 y for braced and no -sway frames

K
= 1.5 y for unbraced and sway frames.
The above
^
modification
is not given in IS : 456 , however , the same is included in
SP: 24 , the explanatory hand book on IS : 456 - 1978 and will be considered in the
absence of a new hand book on IS : 456 - 2000 .

Hinged 1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

Pi 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed

•^ c
X
Effective length ratios for a column in a frame without restraint against sway
( Columns with 0 > 0.04 )
FIG . 17- 42
Art . 17- 28 ] Columns 649

17- 28. Lengths of column: In connection with various lengths of column to

be used in calculations, refer to fig. 17- 43. The figure shows an intermediate floor of
a multistoreyed building.
Bending of column about x - x axis is ( i + 1 ) th floor r Slab
considered . The beams producing moments
about y - y axis are not shown for clarity . Beam
t
Various lengths are obtained as follows :
( 1 ) Floor height ( H ) is defined as the
length from top of i th floor to the
t
top of ( i + 1 ) th floor.
L H
( 2 ) Length of column ( L ) is defined as /
the distance between centre of beam
at i th floor to the centre of beam
'

at ( i + l ) th floor. This is the length

of column which shall be used for ( i ) th floor
moment distribution. From the figure,
it can be seen that

L = H
If the size of beams at both the levels
-
D] + D 2
2
i
(a ) Elevation
Bending about x - x axis
( b) Plan

are the same , FIG . 17- 43

i . e .,
then
—
D2 D
L = H - D.
<
—
(3 ) Unsupported length of column ( / ) is defined as the distance from the top of
i th floor to the beam bottom at ( i + 1 ) th floor. This is the length of the
column which is used for effective length calculations .
( 4) Effective length of column ( /ef ) : It is the distance between the points of zero
moment ( contraflexure ) along the column height . It is given by

le( l
'ef =
l l
X

where
lef = effective length factor obtained by method 1 or 2 as discussed
/
in art. 17- 26 .
Example 17- 17.
A fixed base portal of 12 m span as shown in fig. 17- 44 has five bays of 4 m . The
end bays are braced with shear walls. The height of column from top of the footing
to the top of the slab is 5.5 m .
The slab is one - way having 120 mm thickness. The main beams have the dimensions
230 mm x 870 mm overall whereas the longitudinal beams have the dimensions
230 mm x 420 mm . The column section is 230 mm x 600 mm . Determine the
effective lengths for one of the internal column section and specify whether the
column is short or slender with respect to the major and minor axis.
Solution :
( 1 ) About x axis ( major axis )
The frame is unbraced .
Pi = 0, being fixed at footing .
650 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
For the beam ( 230 mm x 870 mm )
/b = JL
12
M) 3 .
Note that considering the beam as rectangular is conservative .
Beam stiffness

Kb = 1.5 4 unbraced )
/
1 x
/ = 230 x 8703 = 1.262 x lO * 0 mm 4
12
/ = 12000 mm
1.5 x 1.262 x 1010
*b = 12000 = 1577500 mm 3
Column stiffness
1 x 230 x 6003
12
Kc = = 817374 mm 3
5500 - 870
2
Z Kc 817374
P2 = 2
Kc + 1 Kh 817374 + 1577500 = 0.34 .
From fig. 17- 42
4f = 1.13 < 1.2.
/
Use minimum recommended value , i . e ., 1.2.
/ ex = 1.2 (5500 - 870) = 5556
le x 5556
D 600 = 9.26 < 12 Short .

300 150 mm thick

R .C.C. walls Cj ( 230 x 600) r Shear wall
-f
120 mm
thick slab

8000
/
7
/
7
/
7
z 7
/
7
p- 230 x 600
rib 230 x 400

300 :: I —r 1 I rib

115 -HH— 4000 »-H— 4000 — 4000 — -H— 4000

> *+* 4000 — HH- H 5
Plan
FIG . 17- 44
( 2 ) About y axis ( minor axis )
The column is braced .
P l = 0, being fixed .
Art . 17- 28 ] Columns 651

Beam stiffness
I ( V braced )
Kb = 0.5
/
1
/ = 1 2 x 230 x 4203 ( V rectangular )
1.42 x 109 mm 4
x 109
Kb = 0.5 x 1.42 177500 mm 3
4000
Column stiffness
X 600 X 2303
= 12 = 115000 mm 3
(
5500 420
2
115000
P2 = 115000 + 177500 x 2 =
0.245
From fig. 17- 41
4f = 0.54
/
/ ey = 0.54 ( 5500 - 420) = 2743 mm
4r2743
11.93 < 12 short.
b 230
The column is short.
Example 17- 18 .
A part typical floor plan of a seven storeyed building is shown in fig. 17- 45. The
building is unbraced and is known to have the stability index £ > 0.04 . All floors are
typical and have 4 m height . Determine effective lengths for column C\ of an intermediate
storey in respect of major axis and minor axis .
^
115 *

3000 230 x 300 Rib Cj (230 x 500) |

11 = = = = = = =#=
= # =230= x=500= =Rib= # 230 x 500 Rib ' '
||
3000 11 230 x 300 Rib II II
4t = = == == Jt === === J t
I 'M Ar \
6000 -
H4 6000

(a) Part plan ( b ) Column

Part plan at typical floor level

FIG . 17- 45
Solution :
About x axis:
The column is unbraced . Also , Pj and P2 are the same .
652 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 17
Beam stiffness

Kb = 1.5 x 4 ( V unbraced )
/
1.5 x X
12
x 230 x 6203
6000 = 1141988 mm 3.

Column stiffness

4 X
12
x 230 x 5003
Kc = = 598958 mm 3.
4000
The column stiffness is the same for upper floor column , column in storey under
consideration and lower storey column .
At top and bottom joint because of symmetry
I Kc 2 x 598958
Pi — 0 2 -
1 Kc +1 Kh 2 (598958 + 1141988 ) = 0.344 .

Note that if the symmetry at the top and bottom joint of a column under consideration
does not exist , Pj and P 2 would be different .
From fig. 17- 42
lef
l
1.13 < 1.2 Consider 1.2

lex = 1.2 x unsupported length

= 1.2 ( 4000 - 620) = 4056 mm
4x 4056
= 8.11 < 12.
D 500
The column is short about x direction .
About y axis:
The column is unbraced . Also , pj and P2 are the same.

4 X
12
x 230 x 4203
* b = 1.5 x = 710010 mm 3
/ 3000
X x 500 x 2303
= 4l 12
4000 = 126740 mm 3

2 x 126740
Pi ~ 02 — 2 (126740 + 710010 ) = 0.151
From fig . 17- 42

*ef/ 1.08 < 1.2 Consider 1.2

/ey 1.2 x ( 4000 - 420) = 4296
/e y
4296
18.68 > 12.
b 230
The column is long about y direction.
Art . 17- 29 ] Columns 653

.
17- 29 Design of slender columns: As explained earlier in art. 17- 5, the
slender columns are subjected to some additional moment due to P .5 effect . Thus the
slender column should be designed for the moment equal to the sum of primary
moments due to applied loads plus the secondary moments due to P . 8 effect . The
secondary moment depends on 5 which may be different for different end conditions.
Pu
Me
Me
^ 1
Unconservative
diagram
*4 K

\ \ u_ Conservative
diagram
\
/ >
5 ru i
/

True curvature
diagram

Me
4Pu Me
(a ) Deflected shape ( b ) Curvature diagram (c ) Moment diagram

Additional moments: Slender column

FIG . 17- 46
Consider a column of fig. 17- 46 with hinged ends under the effect of an axial load
Pu and moment Me ( same at top and bottom ) due to design loads . The column bends
in a single curvature . For the given case, the maximum deflection of column is 5 at
the centre of the length of the column . The deflection of the column may be assumed
as triangular ( unconservative ) or rectangular ( conservative ) as shown in fig . 17- 46 ( b ) .
If the total deflection at the centre is found out by integrating the curvature diagram ,
/2 2
we get 5 = 12 for the triangular distribution and 5 =
ru 8
for the rectangular
^ ru
distribution where —ru
is the maximum curvature of the deflection diagram . It is

reasonable to average these two values and 8 may be taken as

/2 ( l
5“
' • * To
The ultimate average curvature can be found out as
'»
1 ec + es
ru D
where ec and £ s are the ultimate strains at balanced conditions in concrete and
steel which are 0.0035 and 0.002 for concrete and steel , respectively , as per our
assumptions.
1 0.0035 + 0.002
Thus
ru D
1
182 D '
654 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
The secondary moment or additional moment for balanced conditions is then
given by
Ma = Pu . 6
/2
= 10 ( l 82 £> )
l \2
1820 D
IS : 456 approximates this expression as

A =
Pul \2D
* a
2000 D) ’

The effective length of column may be different for both the x and y axis. Accordingly
the equations may be written as
\2
Pu D
= 2000 lex
^ax D
b /ey 2
M ay ( 17- 14 )
2000 b
The additional moments of Equation ( 17- 14) are found out by considering balanced
conditions . As the load increases from zero , the stress in steel changes from tension
to compression . Beyond the balanced point , as the load increases from Pu to P uz , the
1 1
curvature decreases to zero , when the strain distribution is constant at
ru 182 D
Pu = Puz . Due to this fact, the additional moment may be modified as the curvature
is modified .
The code permits the adjustment factor k as
P uz -< 1
Pu
k= P - ( 17- 15 a )
\iz
^ bal
where Puz = capacity under pure axial load
= 0.45 /ck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc
Pbal = ax * al loa ^ where the compressive strain in concrete is 0.0035
and the tensile strain in steel is 0.002.
Referring to fig. 17- 14 , the value of k is unity at point B where Pu = P al and
varies linearly to a value at D where the column supports a moment due to minimum ^
eccentricity. The value of k cannot be known in advance because it depends on the
properties of the column section viz., steel area , size , concrete grade , steel grade ,
arrangement of reinforcement and cover to the reinforcement .
The value of P may be determined from following equations:
For
^
rectangular sections

Pb = k\ + k2 .
/ck ^ /ck b D ( 17- 15 b )

For circular sections

^= k \ + kn2 .•
7
/ ck H
“
/ck ( 17- 15 c )
Art . 17- 29 ] Columns 655

The values of k\ and k 2 are tabulated in table 17-5 from SP : 16 and are derived
on the usual assumptions . For typical calculations refer to Example 17- 19 .
TABLE 17-5
SLENDER COMPRESSION MEMBERS - VALUES OF Pb
pb
Rectangular sections :
/ck
b D = kx + k2 - -j—
p

Circular sections
Pb D2 = kl + k 2. -A
/ck / ck
Values of k 1

Section
d'
D
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Rectangular 0.219 0.207 0.196 0.184
Circular 0.172 0.160 0.149 0.138
Values of k 2
d'
D
Section
z
N / mm 2 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

Rectangular ; equal 250 - 0.045 - 0.045 - 0.045 - 0.045

reinforcement on two 415 0.096 0.082 0.046 - 0.022
opposite sides 500 0.213 0.173 0.104 - 0.001
Rectangular ; equal 250 0.215 0.146 0.061 - 0.011
reinforcement on 415 0.424 0.328 0.203 0.028
four sides 500 0.545 0.425 0.256 0.040
250 0.193 0.148 0.077 - 0.020
Circular 415 0.410 0.323 0.201 0.036
500 0.543 0.443 0.291 0.056
To find out the total design moments on the column section , the additional moments
shall be combined with initial or primary moments due to design loads . This is
explained as follows :
(1) Braced columns: Referring to fig. 17- 47 ( a) and fig. 17- 47 ( b ) , the total moment
Mt at the centre of the column is given by
Mt = M{ + Afadd
0.4 Mu 2
The initial moment Mx for a column where no transverse loads occur in its
height is given by
M { = 0.4 Aful + 0.6 Mu 2
i 0.4 Mu2
^ moment due to minimum ccentricity
656 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
where Mui = smaller end moment Mu2
( assumed negative if the
column bends in double
curvature . Refer to
fig. 17- 47 ( b )
Mu 2 = larger end moment
( always positive ) .
( 2 ) Unbraced columns: Here the total design
moment is given by

^add
Mil +

^2 t = MM 2 +
^add
The unbraced columns of a given normal
building in a given direction , in a given
storey subject to lateral load are so constrained
to deflect equally. This constraint is provided
M add Mi Mj M add
by the slab diaphragm which usually acts
as a rigid plate or rigid diaphragm due to K Mt t
very large stiffness in horizontal direction .
Therefore, the slenderness ratio of such columns (a ) Single curvature ( b ) Double curvature
may be taken as average value for all the Additional moments : Braced columns
columns in a given direction . FIG. 17- 47
Example 17- 19 .
Determine the adjustment factor k for a rectangular column of size 230 mm x
' p
500 mm having cover ratio d = 0.1 and reinforcement ratio = 0.2 . The
/ck
column is subjected to a factored load of 1200 kN . The reinforcement is equal on
opposite faces. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
Solution :
Referring to fig. 17- 48 ( b )
0.0035 7
0.9 D - xu 0.002 = 4
*u = 0.5727 D.
Strain in compression steel
E c = 0.002889 from similar triangles
360.9 - 351.8 (
/sc = 351.8 + 0.002889 - 0.00276) , referring to table 17- 2
0.0038 - 0.00276
= 351.8 + 1.13 = 352.93 N / mm 2 .
Strain at tension steel
est = 0.002
342.8 - 324.8
/st = 324.8 +
0.00241 - 0.00192
( 0.002 - 0.00192 ) , referring to table 17- 2

= 324.8 + 2.94 = 327.74 N / mm 2. %

 Art . 17- 29 ] Columns 657

h* b 0.0035
0.1 D
A

xu= 0.5727 D 0.002889

0.1 D 0.002
(a ) Section ( b ) Strain diagram

FIG . 17- 48
From Equation ( 17- 11 ) , we have

/ck b D
.
p pb
U b n = 0.36 k +
1
Z
=1
pi
(
100 /cU /si
~ fa )

/ck b D = 0.36 x 0.5727 + P

200 /ck
(352.93 - 0.446 x 20) +
200 /ck ^ (- 327.74)

P
= 0.206 + 0.081
/ck
p
= kt + k 2 —
z
/ck
as per table 17-5.

Pb = (0.206 + 0.081 X 0.2) x 20 x 230 x 500 x lO 3

*

= 511 kN
0.2 x 20 x
230 x 500 = 4600 mm 2
^ sc = 100
Puz = 0.45 /ck. Ac + 0.75 /y sc
^
= [0.45 x 20 x ( 230 x 500 - 4600) + 0.75 x 415 x 4600] x 10-3
= 993.6 + 1431.75 = 2425.35 kN .
Adjustment factor
Puz - Pu 2425 - 1200
k = < 1 = 2425 - 511 = 0.64 .
Puz - Pb
Should the applied factored load be less then say 400 kN ; the adjustment factor
from the formula will be more than unity. In such a case k should be taken as unity.
Example 17- 20.
A typical floor level column of an unbraced frame of size 230 mm x 300 mm is
subjected to the loads and moments as shown in fig . 17- 49 which are obtained from
elastic analysis. The column is bent in double curvature and is slender about its major
axis ( x axis ) having slenderness ratio - =
14.4 . The unsupported length of the column
is 4 m . Assume that the moment due to minimum eccentricity is less than applied
moment about x axis . Also minimum eccentricity about y axis may be neglected .
Design the column for uniaxial bending. The materials are M 20 grade concrete and
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
I
658 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

337 kN 117 kN
20.8 kNm , 21 kNm , , 20 kNm

230
h -
6-25 #

300 - -8# @ 230 c/c

' 20.3 kNm 20.6 kNm 20 kNm

344 kN 117 kN
( a ) Dead loads ( b ) Live loads (c) Wind loads (d ) Column section

Loads and moments on column

FIG . 17- 49
Solution:
The loads and moments on the column shall be calculated for two cases at bottom .
1. Dead load + Live load
2. Dead load + Live load + Wind load .
/0 x
The column is slender with 14.4 .
D
Minimum eccentricities :
4000 300
^ x , min 500
+
30 = 8 + 10 = 18 mm < 20 mm

'x , min = 20 mm -
Also , ey min ^ neglected .
Analysis and design :
Assuming adjustment factor = 0.8 for the first trial , the calculations are tabulated
in table 17- 6
Provide 6 - 25 mm # = 6 x 491 = 2946 mm 2.
x 20 ( 230 x 300 - 2946 ) + 0.75 x 415 x 2946] x 10 3
Pu = [0.45
?
'

= 594.5 + 916.9 = 1511.4 kN .

P
Pb = x
r
~
J ck
/ck b D.

d'
For
D = 0.175 , from table 17- 6

kx = 0.190 k 2 = 0.012
p 100 x 2946
= 0.213.
/ck 230 x 300 x 20
Then Pb = [0.190 + 0.012 x 0.213] x 20 x 230 x 300 x 10 ~3 = 265.73 kN .
Art . 17- 29 ] Columns 659

TABLE 17- 6
Description Case 1 Case 2
(a) Analysis
Pu , kN 1.5 (344 + 117 ) = 692 1.2 ( 344 + 117 ) = 553
Afux, kNm
applied moment 1.5 ( 20.3 4- 20.6 ) = 62 1.2 ( 20.3 + 20.6 + 20 ) = 73
*x, min 20 mm 20 mm
20 20
^u x . min 1000
x 692 = 13.84 < Afux 1000
x 553 = 11.06 < M ux
neglected neglected
additional moment
\2

^ax =
Pu D
2000
'ex
D
692 x 0.3
2000
( 14.4 ) 2 = 21.5 kNm
553 x 0.3
2000
( 14.4 ) 2 = 17.2
adjustment factor 0.8 0.8
.. Mux
*
for design , kNm 62 + 0.8 x 21.5 = 79.2 73 + 0.8 x 17.2 = 86.8
( b) Design
Pu 692 x 103
= 0.5 553 x 103
= 0.4
/ck b D 20 x 230 x 300 230 x 300
MMX 79.2 x 106 86.8 x 106
2 25 x 230 x 3002
= 0.19 25 x 230 x 3002
= 0.21
/ck *°
d' 52.5
D 300 = 0.175 « 0.2 0.2
Refer SP. 16 Chart 34 Chart 34
P 0.19 0.21
/ck
P 0.19 x 20 = 3.8 0.21 x 20 = 4.2
3.8 x 230 x 300 4.2 x 230 x 300
= 2622 mm ^ = 2898 mm 2
^ sc 100 100
( c) Check for adjustment factor
Puz - P u 1511.4 - 692 1511.4 - 553
k =
P uz - Pb 11511.4 - 265.73 = 0.658
1 151 1.4 - 265.73
= 0.769
assumed 0.8 0.8
O. K . O. K .
Ties :
25
= 6.25
^
Provide 8 mm
min 4
# HYSD ties.
Spacing should not exceed
( 1 ) 230 mm ( minimum lateral dimension )
( 2 ) 16 x 25 = 400 mm ( 16 times |
< > of main bars )
( 3 ) 300 mm
Provide 8 mm # ties @ 230 mm c / c.
The designed section is shown in fig. 17- 49 ( d ) .
660 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17

Example 17- 21 .
A typical floor level column of a braced frame , of size 230 mm x 450 mm is
subjected to the factored loads and moments as follows:
Pu = 1000 kN
M ux = 80 kNm at top and 60 kNm at bottom
MUy = 40 kNm at top and 30 kNm at bottom .
The column is bent in double curvature and is slender about both the axis. The
slenderness ratios
4—x
*x
and ——
/ey
*y
are respectively 13.2 and 15.6. The unsupported

length of column in both the directions is 5 m . Assume that the moments due to
minimum eccentricities about both the axes are less than applied moments. Design the
column . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
Assume adjustment factor k = 0.8 for the first trial .
Additional moments

M ax = 2000
i
lex f 1000 X 0.45 (
13.2 ) 2 = 39.2 kNm
D 2000
/e y \ 2
1000 x 0.23 (
M ay 15.6 ) 2 = 28 kNm .
2000 b 2000
About x - x
Pu = 1000 kN
Mux = + k . Max
A/ j = 0.6 Mu 2 + 0.4 Muj
= 0.6 x 80 - 0.4 x 60
= 48 - 24 = 24 kNm
i 0.4 x 80 = 32 kNm
M, = 32 kNm .
Note that A/u [ is considered negative as the column bends in double curvature.
Mux = 32 + 0.8 x 39.2 = 63.36 kNm .
i 80 kNm

About y - y
Mux — 80 kNm

Pu = 1000 kN
Muy = Mj + k x M ay
= 0.6 x 40 - 0.4 x 30
= 24 -
12 = 12 kNm
0.4 x 40 = 16 kNm
M :1 = 16 kNm
Art . 17- 29 ] Columns 661

M uy16 + 0.8 x 28 = 38.4 kNm

40 kNm
uy = 40 kNm
Finally design the column for
Pu = 1000 kN , Mux = 80 kNm , and Afuy = 40 kNm .
For the first trial , assume uniaxial bending about y axis for the following values .
P\ = 1000 kN
230 ( 80
M' + 40) = 61.33 kNm
450
d' _
50 _ _
D = 230 =
0.21 say 0.2

P'u
1
1000 x 103
x 230 x 450 =
0.48
/ck l> D 20
AT.uy
61.33 x IQ6
= = 0.129
/ck b D 2 20 x 450 x 2302
P = 0.162 from chart 46 , SP: 16
/ck
p = 3.24
and mm 2 .
As = 3353
Assumptions made above for k = 0.8 and for converting biaxial moment into
uniaxial moment to find out first trial steel are usually conservative .
Let us try 4- 25 # + 4 - 20 # = 3220 mm 2 .
Now check the assumed section as follows :
puz = [0.45 x 20 ( 230 x 450 - 3220) + 0.75 x 415 x 3220] x 10-3
= 902.5 + 102.2 1904.7 kN

+ k2
P
= k\
/ck /ck
Pb (
b D

P 100 X 3220
0.155.
230 x 450 x 20 =
/ck
d’
For
D =
0 2 ; k 1 = 0.184 and = 0.022 from table 17- 6.
“

ph = [ 0.184 - 0.022 x 0.155 ] x 20 x 230 x 450 x 10 ~3

= 373.8 kN
1904.7 - 1000
k = 0.59 .
1904.7 - 373.8 =
Design for
Pu = 1000 kN
Mux = 36 + 0.59 x 39.2 = 59.12 kNm < 80, i .e ., 80 kNm
Muy = 16 + 0.59 x 28 = 32.52 kNm < 40, i.e ., 40 kNm
p Pu
For
/ck = 0.162 and b D =
0.48, the reinforcement being equally distributed ,
/ck
the moment capacities can be found out as follows:
662 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
About x - x About y - y
d' _50 0.15 .
d' 50 « 0.2 .
450 =
0.11 «
D D 230
From chart 45, SP: 16 From chart 46, SP : 16
M ux1
= 0.145 ^u y l = 0.13
/ck b D 2
Muxl = 0.145 x 20 x 230
/ck b
^
Muy\ = 0.13 x 20 x 450 x 2302
x 4502 x 10-6 x 10-6
= 135.06 kNm . = 61.89 kNm .
K 450 >
Check : 4 -25 #
+ 4-20 #
1000
^uz 1904
230
= 0.525
an from table 17- 4 = 1.542 . A
1.542 1.542
Then 80 +
40 < 1 8# @ 230 mm c/c
135.06 61.89 ( three sets - 1 closed + 2 open ties)
i . e. 0.446 + 0.510 < 1 FIG . 17- 50
0.956 < 1 ( O . K. )
Provide 4 - 25 # + 4 - 20 # equally distributed.
Ties:
8 mm # HYSD ties @ 230 mm c / c as per Example 17- 20 .
The designed section is shown in fig. 17- 50.

17- 30. Design and detailing of a practical column: In previous articles,

we have designed the section of a column subjected to various loads and moments. In
addition , the practical columns are also subjected to horizontal shears due to geometry
of the building and due to horizontal loads. These moments and shears are reversible
in nature . The practical columns are designed for a number of different load combinations.
Volume II of this book discusses this topic in more detail.
As regard to detailing of reinforcement, the following points shall be noted for
longitudinal and transverse reinforcements .
( 1 ) The axial loads on the column ( excluding its self - weight ) along the floor
height remain reasonably constant in normal cases. If the column is purely
axially loaded ( which is not the case of a practical column ) , the stresses in
longitudinal bars along the floor height remain almost constant. The lap splice
for longitudinal bars may be provided anywhere along the floor height .
( 2 ) Most practical columns bend in double curvature. The maximum moments occur
at beam column joints and the point of contraflexure lies within middle third
of the floor height. The stresses in longitudinal bars are maximum near beam
column joints . Under some load cases, the contribution of flexural stresses is
much more than axial compressive stresses. Thus reinforcements on one of the
face are subjected to tensile stresses. Since forces are reversible , in some other
load case the reinforcement of opposite face are subjected to flexural tension .
Ex . 17 ] Columns 663

Considering these facts , IS : 13920- 1993 ( Code of practice of Ductile detailing

of reinforced concrete structures subjected to seismic forces) recommends that
lap splice shall be provided only in central half of the member length and it
should be proportioned as a tension splice. It is also recommended to limit the
spacing of transverse reinforcement to 150 mm over the splice length . Not
more than 50% of the longitudinal bars shall be lapped at a given section .
( 3 ) The transverse reinforcements of a practical columns are also designed for
shear due to wind and earthquake forces . This may necessiate to change the
spacing of transverse reinforcement from that derived by empirical rules.
( 4 ) Near beam - column junction , additional confining transverse reinforcement is
necessary.
Considering the above points , the spacing of transverse reinforcement of a
selected diameter may change along the column height . In general , there may
be three types of spacing of transverse reinforcement.
( i ) Near the beam - column joint with very close spacing, say 100 mm .
( ii ) At laps , close spacing, say 150 mm .
( iii ) Other portions, normal spacing say 200 mm .
Fig. 24- 2 shows the details of a practical column which shall be referred . ( Refer
to chapter 24 for more details .)

EXAMPLES XVII
( 1 ) A short braced column of size 300 mm x 450 mm is subjected to a factored load
of 2500 kN. The unsupported length of the column is 3.6 m . Find out the design
moments due to minimum eccentricity. Can we apply simplified formula of design
in this case ? [ Ans. Mex = 55.5 kNm , Mey = 50 kNm , No . ]
( 2 ) A short braced column of size 450 mm x 450 mm is subjected to a factored axial
load of 3200 kN . Design the column if the minimum eccentricity is less than
0.05 D. Use mild steel reinforcement and concrete of grade not richer than M 25.
[ Ans. M 25, 16 - 25 b ( main ) , 8 b @ 380 c / c ( ties) ]
( 3 ) A short braced column of size 250 mm x 250 mm is subjected to a factored load
of 300 kN . If the unsupported length of the column is 4.0 m , find out the design
moments due to minimum eccentricity. If the above column is subjected to
( i ) M U X = 25 kNm or
( ii ) MUy = 25 kNm , find design loads and moments.
[ Ans. Mvx = MQy = 7.3 kNm ;
Pu = 300 kN ; Afux = Muy = 25 kNm in both cases.]
( 4 ) A short braced column of size 230 mm x 300 mm is reinforced with 6 no .
16 mm diameter bars. Determine the safe factored load on column . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Neglect moment due to
minimum eccentricity and use simplified formula . [ Ans . 744.4 kN . ]
( 5 ) Design a short circular column to carry a load of 1200 kN . The materials are
M 20 grade concrete and mild steel reinforcement . Minimum eccentricity is less
than 0.05 D. [ Ans. 400 mm diameter , 6 - 16 b ( main ) ,
6 mm b @ 250 mm c / c ( ties ) .]
( 6 ) A short braced column of size 230 mm x 600 mm is subjected to an axial
factored load of 800 kN and factored moment about major axis of 200 kNm .
664 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 17
Determine the reinforcement in the column if the moment due to minimum
eccentricity is less than the applied moment . The materials are M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
[ Ans. 4 - 20 # + 2 - 16 # on two opposite short faces
+ 2 - 12 # at centre on long faces ]
( 7 ) Design a short braced column 400 mm x 400 mm carrying a characteristic dead
load of 600 kN and characteristic live load of 450 kN . It is also subjected to
characteristic moments Mx = ( 40 + 30) kNm and My = ( 60 + 30 ) kNm . Use
HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 and concrete not richer than M 25.
[ Ans. M 20, 8- 25 # ]
( 8 ) Design a short column of size 300 mm x 600 mm subjected to a factored load
of 2500 kN , Mux = 300 kNm and M* Uy = 30 kNm . The unsupported length of the
column is 2.6 m . The materials are M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
( Note : Find out moments due to minimum eccentricity and then design loads
and moments ) . [ Ans. Pu = 2500 kN , M ux = 300 kNm , Muy = 50 kNm ;
Reinforcement : 12- 28 # ( main ) , 8 # @ 300 c / c ( three sets of closed ties ) .]
( 9 ) Find out the effective lengths of column Cj in both the directions and design the
column as follows: ( Refer to fig. 17- 44). The structure is designed for GF + three
upper floors. Use HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 and M 20 grade concrete .
( a ) Ground floor column ( no ground or plinth beams ) height from top of the
footing to the top of the G . F. slab 4.6 m . Loads on column ,
Pu = 2000 kN, Afux = 90 kNm , and Afuy = 30 kNm . ( Check for emin before
design . )
( b ) Intermediate floor column : Height of the floor 6.6 m , Pu = 1000 kN , Mux = 90 kNm ,
MUy = 30 kNm .
( 10 ) Data same as Example ( 9 ) . Refer to fig. 17- 51.
115 120 thick Slab
r 230 x 500
1 =ir — IT- - -
— TfII —
3000
<> II it “7
II II II
-
n *23Ox 300i_nbn _230 x_ 500
fr ^
cif
3000
i
T
T
li
II
li
\ jj 230 x

^
500 rib
II
TT
7

4000 — - — 4000 — - -
f« -H « 4000 4000 4000
FIG. 17-51
 jhapter DESIG N OF FOUN DATIO NS:
L18 _£
FUND AMEN TALS

18-1. Introductor y: The loads from the supporting members of the structure
like columns , walls , etc . , known as superstructu re should be safely transmitted to the
soils . The permissible pressure on soil is much less than that on the concrete column
or a wall . Therefore it becomes necessary to spread the load over a sufficiently larger
area . To transmit the load from masonry wall for example , the area is increased
slowly by providing a number of masonry steps so that the load dispersion lines
remain within the steps as shown in fig . l 8 - l ( a ) .

Brick masonry R .C.C. column

Super structure Super structure

Sub structure Sub structure

D
f

Footing
Load dispersion Footing
line ( at 60° )

(a) Masonry foundation ( b ) R .C.C. column - foundation

R .C.C. column

Dt

Footing Footing

TD
X
150
levelling course t M 10 levelling course
H H LxB > H-
150 150
( c ) Practical masonry foundation ( d ) Practical R .C.C. foundation

FIG . 18 - 1
 666 Reinforc ed Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 18
For the concrete column of fig. 18- 1 ( b ) , the loaded area is suddenly increased
providin g an interfaci ng element known as footing between the column and by
the soil .
It is possible to increase the area suddenly like this because the
bearing strength of
concrete is sufficien tly larger .
The substruc ture which is provided to transmit the loads from the
superstru cture
to the soil is known as the foundation. From the available
ground line ( i .e., ground
level for normal structure s or basemen t level for structure s with basemen
t , river bed
line for piers of bridges, etc., are the available ground lines for the
structure ) , the
upper part of the structure is called superstru cture , whereas the lower part
is called
the substruc ture. Many a times this demarca tion is at the plinth level
as it is easier
for the billing purpose .
The term foundatio n for fig. 18 - 1 ( a ) consists of excavatio n of ground ,
the
of steps viz., 450 mm wide and 700 mm wide steps and the Plain Cement provision
( P. C. C.) 1000 mm wide as an interfaci ng element between wall Concrete
and soil . Similarl y for
fig . 18 - 1 ( b) , foundati on means the excavatio n of the ground and
provision of an
R . C .C. interfaci ng element between column and soil known as footing .
In general a spread construc ted in brick work, stone masonry or concrete
the base of a wall or column for the purpose of distribut ing the load under
over a larger
area is known as footing. Similarl y, that part of the structure which
is in direct contact
with the soil and transmits loads to it is known as foundatio .
n
Usually lean concrete ( M 5, M 7.5 or M 10 , P. C . C . , plain cement concrete )
provided below the footing and above the soil to give more protectio is
n to reinforce ment
a i» d to properly level the ground . The
depth of foundatio n Z) , is defined as the
vertical distance between the bottom of the foundatio n and the f
ground line. Refer to
fig . 18 - 1 ( c ) and fig . 18 - 1 ( d ) .
18- 2 . Classifi cation of foundat ions: The foundati ons are classified
as:
( 1 ) Flexible and rigid
( 2 ) Shallow and deep.
(1) Flexible and rigid foundat ions: This classifica tion is based
on the rigidity of
the footings. Flexible footing is free to bend and follow the theoretic al
settlemen t
profile such as a rubber pad . Soil bearing pressure on such footings
is always
uniform . The rigid footing on the other hand does not bend and settles
'

such as an R.C.C. footing. In this book , we shall consider

uniform ly
only rigid footings .
(2 ) Shallow and deep foundat ions: This classific ation
is based on the ratio of
depth of foundati on Z)f to the width of foundati on B . In fig. 18 - 1 ( a) or . 18 -
let the plan dimensio ns of the footing be B x L and let the
fig 1 ( b) ,
footing be placed
at depth Z)f.
The foundatio n is classified as

shallow if —B=- 2

and as deep if —DB—f > 2.

x
In most practical cases for shallow foundati ons, usually Di = 0.25 to 1.0 whereas
for deep foundati ons this ratio is usually 5 to 20.
Spread or isolated footings, combined footings, mat footing, raft , etc., are
of shallow foundati ons, whereas piles, the example s
piers, wells, etc., are the example of s deep foundatio ns.
Art . 18 - 3] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 667
1 8 - 3. T y p e s o f f o o t i n g s: Some of the common footings usual in general
building construction are as follows :
( 1 ) Continuous wall footing ( 5 ) Strip footing
( 2 ) Isolated footing ( 6 ) Raft foundation
( 3 ) Combined footing ( 7 ) Pile foundation .
( 4 ) Strap footing r

Footings ( 1 ) to ( 6 ) are shallow whereas the piles are the deep foundations. Each
of the above footings will be now discussed in brief. These footings will be designed
in the chapters to follow.
(1) Continuous wall footing: A footing that supports a continuous long masonry or
r.c. c . wall is known as continuous footing. In this case, the width of the footing
is very small than the length of footing. Refer to fig. 18 - 2 ( a ) .

v
Masonry / R .C.C. wall
Masonry R .C.C. wall
b

P.C.C.
L. ®
/ H K b H H- b
Plan Section A- A Section A- A
( a ) Continuous wall footings

X V

b r
®
K H
Plan Section B - B Section B-B Section B-B
Pad footing Sloped footing Stepped footing

r i
© ©
I Isolated beam
and slab footing
Beam

bi- b H
Plan section C-C
( b) Column footings
Isolated footings
FIG. 18 - 2
668 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18
(2 ) Isolated footing: An individual footing under a single column is known as an
isolated footing. It is the most commonly used footing. Where good soil and
sufficient area is available , these footings are economical. These may be pad ,
slopped , stepped or with isolated beam and slab type footings . Refer to fig. 18- 2 ( b ) .
(3 ) Combined footing: A footing that supports a group of columns is known as
combined footing. Where the distance between two columns is small and if the
isolated footings for these columns coincide, a combined footing is used. The
footings of the columns are combined such that the centre of gravity of column
loads and that of the combined footing coincide . This may result in a rectangular
or trapezoidal shape of the footing . This footing can also be used for the
column on the property line where it is combined with the footing of the
internal column . Fig. 18 - 3 shows some combined footings.

b L-

<- > K /
Plan Section A - A

fi ©t _ ©
J
i
h* / H h* *
Plan Section B-B

V
•

Z
zZ ©
b ©z -J
zz
zz
V
l >
K >
Section C-C
Plan

Z
-© zzZ
bl zz
i z
zA
< >
- / H
Plan Section D- D
Combined footings
FIG. 18-3
Art . 18 - 3] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 669

Note that the footing on the property line is combined with that of the internal
column footing because at the property line the footing area such that the c.g.
of footing coinciding with the c .g. of the column load is not available .
(4) Strap footing: If a combined footing
is required due to site conditions, but the
distance between the columns is large , a strap footing is used for economy.
Refer to fig. 18 - 4 ( a ) .
H- a -H H- b
N\

* >l
%
%
% I T
a —>H
zzZ
1 ®
H- l H
Iv > 4 l H
Plan Section A - A
(a ) Strap footing

b
F 1
1® K >
®
Plan Section B - B
( b) Strip footing

Columns
*
-
4 Beams
n- -w -*= -~ n Slabs
b it n 11 Tr
©
F
y
= =u ©

h* / >
Plan Section C-C
( c ) Raft foundation

4 Column

®
( ) ( )

©
c Pile cap

F 4 Piles >

< ) ( i Hard soil

Shoe

Plan Section D-D

( d ) Pile foundation

Various foundations
FIG. 18- 4
670 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18
(5 ) Strip footing: If a number of footings in a line are to be combined , a strip
footing is used. Differential settlement can be minimized by using such footings.
Refer to fig. 18 - 4 ( b ) .
( 6 ) Raft foundation: A single slab or a slab beam footing that covers the entire
startum beneath the entire area of the super -structure is known as a mat or raft
footing. When safe bearing capacity of soil is low and columns carry heavy
loads , then footings of a group of columns or all the columns in a structure
are combined to form a raft foundation . Differential settlement in the structure
can be greatly minimized by this kind of footing . This is frequently used for
multi - storeyed buildings on poor soils or soils having a higher water table .
Refer to fig. 18 - 2 ( c ) .
( 7 ) Pile foundation: If good soil is available at a higher depth ( more than 3 m )
below the ground level , pile foundations are economical . Piles transfer the
loads from columns to the hard soil by end bearing and to the surrounding soil
by friction . Refer to fig. 18 - 4 ( d ) .
Piles can also be used to support uplitting forces which can be derived by
downward soil frictions similar to that of holding down bolts in steel base
plate footing under a steel column subjected to large moment . Footing
under crane columns in industrial buildings and particularly the footing
under transmission line towers are subjected to large uplifting forces due to
wire-cut condition . The piled raft foundation consisting of a raft or a pad
connected to piles shall give economical and reliable solution for these
cases .
The choice of the footing to be used depends on many factors such as type of soil
and area of land available , permissible settlement in soil , etc ., In most cases, the
choice is made from the past experience , however , sometimes, a comparative study of
selected types of footings is necessary. All above types of footings are treated in
chapters to follow.
-
18 4. R . C. C. footings: Reinforced concrete is an admirably suitable material
for footings and is extensively used for footings of building columns, towers , briges,
etc . It is also the most suitable material for foundations of steel columns.
Footings are used to transfer the loads and moments from the columns to the soil .
It is necessary to ensure that while performing this job , neither soil should fail nor
the footing should fail. They should remain compatible with each other observing a
suitable factor of safety. Design of foundation thus covers two aspects, viz., soil design
and structural design.
The soil design includes :
( 1 ) determination of depth of foundation Z)f , which depends on some practical
criteria and the soil strata ;
( 2 ) determination of allowable bearing pressure of soil at the level Z>f which
depends on the properties of the soil at and below that level ;
( 3 ) determination of plan dimensions of the footing which depends on geometry
of the structure, the loads on the column and allowable bearing pressure of
soil ;
( 4 ) determination of upward soil pressure on the footing .
The structural design on the other hand includes the design of footing, i.e ., concrete
and reinforcements . In this chapter we shall mainly refer to soil design of shallow
foundations and a few fundamentals of structural design .
Art . 18 - 5] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 671

18 -5 . Aspects of soil design: We shall now discuss the various aspects of

soil design . They are :
( 1 ) Depth of foundation
( 2 ) Modes of soil failure
( 3 ) Safe bearing capacity of soil
( 4 ) Safe bearing pressure on soil
(5) Allowable bearing pressure on soil
( 6 ) Plan dimensions
( 7 ) Upward soil pressure .
These are discussed as follows . Careful study will enable the reader to write computer
programmes.
(1) Depth of foundation: In addition to the vertical loads, footings have to resist
moments and horizontal forces also . They should be checked for sliding and
overturning. Also, the settlements occurring under the footings shall not be
excessive .
This requires that the footings should be placed at a sufficient depth from the
ground so as to get good hard soil . The minimum depth of foundation should
be such that
( i ) The foundation is not affected by the upper surface of the earth which may
be affected by erosion , roots of plants, frost, etc. Usually this requires a
minimum depth of 0.9 m .
( ii ) A good hard soil is available below the footing to resist the pressures from
" the footing. Designer should know the allowable bearing pressure on soil
at a given foundation depth .
A few practical requirements also may have to be considered while deciding
the depth of foundation such as the existing foundation level of nearby building,
the possible influence of future expansion , etc . Depth of foundation also depends
on the height of the building. If the height of the building is more , the
horizontal forces acting on the building such as wind forces are large . To resist
these forces at the foundation level , a large passive pressure of soil might be
required . Although the resistance to horizontal load at foundation level depends
on many factors, as a thumb rule , minimum depth of foundation may be
selected as 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the height of the building.
( 2 ) Modes of soil failure: Failure of the foundations may take one of the following
two forms :
( i ) Catastrophic collapse of the soil underneath the foundation , if the shear
strength is inadequate to support the applied load . The term bearing capacity
of the soil is associated with shear failure of the soil. Failures of this type
are not very common , but, where they do occur, they may lead to large
movements and distortion of the superimposed structures and they may
take place very rapidly.
( ii ) Excessive settlement of the structure, partly due to distortion of the soil mass
as a result of the applied shear stresses, and in part to consolidation of the
soil as a result of the increased normal stresses . The term safe bearing
pressure on the soil is associated with settlement failure of the soil .
Resistance to shear failure and that to the settlement depends on size and
shape of the foundation , and on its depth below the surface, in addition to the
properties of soil .
672 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 18
(3 ) Safe bearing capacity ( S .B . C.) of soil : Fig. 18 -5 shows the pressure diagrams
under the rigid footing on sandy and clayey soils when shear failure occurs. The sand
at the edge of the footing does not have a good lateral support and tends to move
from underneath the footing. Thus the load is less carried at the edge and more
at the centre . If the depth of the footing is well below the ground , the sandy
soil provides a fairly uniform support as it is restrained from lateral movement .
The clayey soil behaves just opposite to this . At the edge of the footing, the
clayey soil has the cohesion with the surrounding soil and thus larger load is
carried at the edge than at the centre.
Fig . 18 -5 ( c ) shows the design assumption of uniform pressure with suitable
factor of safety. This assumption is made to simplify the calculations and
usually results in conservative design . However , for some typical soils , the
actual bearing pressure shall be found out.
The above assumption of uniform pressure is based on the condition that the
load on the footing is axial . Should an eccentric load be applied on the
footing, the pressure under the footing will no longer remain uniform and will
vary uniformly ( refer to art . 18 -7 ) .

(a ) Sandy soil ( b ) Clayey soil - (c) Assumed condition

(Variable pressure) (Variable pressure ) ( Uniform pressure )
Soil bearing pressures
FIG. 18 -5
The following definitions are associated with shear failure of soil .
( i ) Bearing capacity ( q ): The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to
as its bearing capacity. The term bearing capacity is defined after attaching
certain qualifying prefixes .
( ii ) Ultimate bearing capacity ( qf ) : The ultimate bearing capacity defined as
the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at
which the soil fails in shear.
( iii ) Net ultimate bearing capacity [ qn{ ) : It is the minimum net pressure intensity
causing shear failure of soil . The ultimate bearing capacity q and the net
ultimate capacity are evidently connected by following relation ^
9{ = ?nf + Y Dr ie - > = 9 f ~ Y Df
Vnf
( iv ) Safe bearing capacity ( qns ) : The safe bearing capacity abbreviated as S.B.C.
is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety F
? nf
?n s p
A value of 3 is usually adopted for F.
Art . 18-5] Design of Foundations: Fundamentals 673

( 4 ) Safe bearing pressure ( S .B.P.) on soil: The term safe bearing pressure on soil
is associated with settlement failure of the foundation . It is defined as follows:
Safe bearing pressure = qnp v
It is the net pressure, which the soil can carry without exceeding the allowable
settlement. The maximum allowable settlement generally varies from 25 mm to 50 mm .
The total settlement, S, under the foundation consists of :
( i ) Immediate elastic settlement due to elastic compression of the soil
underneath usually called the distortion or contact settlement, Sj.
( ii ) Consolidation settlement Sc that is due to the compression of the compressible
soil layers underneath and which is derived from the consolidation theory , Sc .
( iii ) Settlement due to secondary consolidation of clay , Ss .
The total settlement S = S^ + Ss .
+ Sc
The secondary consolidation of the clay is not significant for inorganic clays
and silty soils.
Then , if S perm is the permissible settlement, we have , for cohesive soils
S = + Sc < sperm ’

For cohesionless soils, the settlement takes place quickly after the application
of the load , hence only Sx is significant. In this case , we have
S S { < S perm -
=
For detailed discussion , refer to standard text books on soil mechanics.
(5) Allowable bearing pressure (A .B.P. ) on soil: It is defined as follows :
The allowable bearing pressure on soil ( yna ) abbreviated as A. B . P. of soil is
that pressure on the soil which can be applied on soil without causing excessive
settlement and depends on shear strength of soil. Various soil preperties have
to be studied for determination of allowable bearing pressure on soil .
Thus, A. B. P. = Minimum of S. B . C. and S. B. P.
If the available soil at the level of footing is good, the designer may assume
the allowable bearing pressure by his judgement based on his past experience.
However , for reasonable estimate of allowable bearing pressure of soil , and
when the soil conditions are not good , proper investigations is desired . For
medium and high rise buildings, such investigations are required by the bye -
laws also. This requires the help of a geotechnical engineer. The A . B. P. will be
then found out by soil testing. The reader may refer to the books on Soil
Mechanics for detailed study.
( 6 ) Plan dimensions: Usually the foundations are square or rectangular in plan .
Sometimes circular and trapezoidal shapes are also used . Here we shall discuss
a rectangular ( or square) shape and consider a single column and its footing.
It is assumed that the c.g. ( centre of gravity ) of column loads and that of footing
are coinciding.
The allowable bearing pressure on soil is specified in terms of elastic
( unfactored ) loads . If the limit state method is followed for the design of
the whole building, then also the foundation loads should be considered as
unfactored or characteristic loads only.
Consider an axially loaded column and its footing. The total load acting at the
level of foundation ( base of the footing) consists of :
674 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18
(i) the axial loads from the column
( ii ) the self - weight of the footing
Before the design of the footing is carried out , the self - weight cannot be
accurately determined . Usually 8% to 10% of the column load is assumed for
its self weight , which shall be verified after the design is completed .
For example , if a column is loaded with an axial load of 1000 kN , we have
Load on column . . . . 1000 kN
Footing load ( @ 10%) 100 kN
Total load on soil . . . 1100 kN
If A . B. P. of soil is known , the area of soil resisting this load ( i . e ., base area
of footing) can be determined as
Load on soil
Base area of footing = A . B . P of soil
If A . B . P. of soil is 200 kN / m 2 for above example , then
1000
Footing area required = 200 = 5.5 m 2.
Now according to the condition of the problem , the base dimensions may be
found . The expected cases may be as follows:
~
(i ) If the footing is to be square, the side of the footing by geometry is -J A .
For the above example 2.35 m x 2.35 m = 5.52 m 2 size may be provided .
( ii ) If the footing for a long wall is considered , the length of the footing is
the length of wall . The width of the footing can be determined from the
area required .
( iii ) If the footing is to be rectangle , there can be many alternatives possible
geometrically. 1 m x 5.5 m , 1.5 m x 3.75 m , 2 m x 2.75 m , etc., may
satisfy the geometrical requirements. In such cases , it is necessary to
select the dimensions skillfully so that the final design results economical .
In general , for axially loaded columns , the footings will be economical if
square footings are provided for square column and rectangular footings are
provided for rectangular columns .
However , in normal cases the square footings are preferred for both the square
and rectangular columns to provide an ease of construction . A rectangular
footing may be required for the following reasons:
( i ) The column is subjected to a large moment about one of the axis.
( ii ) There may be restriction on one of the side of footing due to geometry
of the foundation lay - out of the building.
( iii ) The column is rectangular with large difference in its cross - sectional
dimensions . The rectangular footing may be provided for economy.
Condition ( i ) is discussed with eccentrically loaded footings .
For condition (ii ) , if one of the side is known , the other can be determined by
geometry. The plan dimensions are governed by geometry rather than economy.
For condition ( iii ) , it is usually assumed that the projections of the footing
from the face of the column in all four directions are equal. Note that with this
condition , a square footing is provided for a square column and a rectangular
footing for a rectangular column .
Art. 18-5] Design of Foundations: Fundamentals 675
Let b c>
the cross- section dimensions of column
the footing projections in all directions
b, l the footing plan dimensions.
Then ( bc + 2 x ) ( lc + 2 x ) = required area of footing.
The solution of above equation gives the projection x from
which footing
dimensions are determined . The footing dimensions obtained in all
cases discussed
above and also for the cases as discussed later on , shall be
rounded up on
higher side.
( 7 ) Upward soil pressure: After the plan dimensions are determin
ed , the
pressure is found out. Naturally this shall be less than the A . B. P. upward soil
of soil . As
a routine design procedure, this check shall be included in calculati
on . In footings
subjected to eccentric loads, we shall observe that this check is
quite necessary.
For the footing of the above example for the column of size 400
mm x 400 mm
loaded with 1000 kN load, if the size of footing is decided as
2.35 m x 2.35 m ,
the upward soil pressure is = 1100
2.35 x 2.35 = 199.18 kN / m 2 < 200 kN / m 2.
4
1000 kN 1000 kN 1000 kN
i i i
r 18.11 kN/m 2

, , lOOkN

199.18 kN/ m 2 “ 199.18 kN/ m 2

1100 kN 181.07 kN/m 2
(a) (b) (c ) Net upward soil pressure
Load acting on footing
FIG . 18- 6
Fig. 18 - 6 ( a ) shows loads acting on footing. This consists
of :
(i ) Column load 1000 kN j,.
( ii ) Footing self - weight 100 kN J,.
( iii )Upward soil pressure = 199.18 kN / m 2, the total reaction being
1100 kN
Load (i ) is concentrated ( distributed in very small area
of 400 mm x 400 mm )
whereas loads (ii ) and (iii ) are uniformly distributed over the area
2.35 rn x 2.35 m . ,

It should be clear from the diagram that the footing will

be
inverted balanced cantilever from the column and subjecte designed as an
indicated in fig. 18 - 6 ( b ) , which consists of : d to the loads as
( i ) Upward soil pressure 199.18 kN / m 2 ( total 1100
kN ).
( ii ) Downward self weight and earth weight of 18.11
kN / m 2 ( total 100 kN).
( iii ) Column load of 1000 kN J,.
676 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 18
While determining the shears and moments in the footing, the net effect of forces
will be taken . Hence the net pressure diagram may be drawn as shown in fig. 18 - 6 (c) .
1
It is now realized that the net pressure on footing for the structural design is given
column load
by net upward soil pressure =
area of footing
Example 18 - 1 . /

An R . C.C. wall of length 3 m is subjected to a load of 230 kN / m . Determine the

width of the footing and net upward soil pressure on footing . The A . B . P. on soil
is 200 kN / m 2 at 1.6 m depth .
Solution :
Per metre length of wall
load on wall = 230 kN
Self - weight @ 10 % = 23 kN
Total load on soil = 253 kN
Area of footing required = 253 = 1.265 m 2
200
width of footing = 1.265
1.265 m .
1.0
Provide 1.3 m wide footing.
253
Upward soil pressure =
1.3 x 1.0 =
194.61 kN / m 2 < 200 kN / m 2.

Net upward pressure = 230

176.92 kN / m 2.
1.3 x 1.0 =
Example 18 - 2 .
A rectangular column of size 230 mm x 600 mm is loaded with 760 kN characteristic
load . Determine the dimensions of the footing for the following cases:
( a ) if the footing is square
( b ) if the footing is rectangular
( c ) if the footing dimension parallel to the shorter side of column is restricted to
1.8 m
( d ) if the footing dimension parallel to the longer side of column is restricted to
2.0 m .
The A . B . P. on soil at 1.5 m depth is 170 kN / m 2 .
Solution :
Column load = 760 kN
Footing load @ 10% = 76 kN
Total load on soil = 836 kN
836
Area required = 4.92 m 2 .
170 =
( a ) Footing is square :
b = V492 = 2.217 m .
Provide 2.25 m x 2.25 m s i z e .
( b ) Footing is rectangular :
Let x be the projection of footing from the face of the column .
( 0.6 + 2 x ) x (0.23 + 2 x ) = 4.92.
Art . 18 - 6] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 677

Simplification gives
x 2 + 0.415 x - 1.196 = 0
from which x = 0.905 m .
The footing size (0.6 + 2 x 0.905 ) x ( 0.23 4- 2 x 0.905 ) i . e . 2.41 m x 2.04 m .
Rounding up the values , provide 2.45 m x 2.05 m size .
( c ) Footing dimension parallel to the shorter side of column is restricted to 1.8 m :
4.92
A = 4.92 m 2 , B = 1.80 m , L = 1.80 = 2.73 m .
Provide 2.75 m x 1.80 m size.
( d ) Footing dimension parallel to the longer side of column is restricted to 2.0 m:
4.92 2.46 m .
A = 4.92 m 2, L = 2.00 m , B =
2 =
Provide 2.0 m x 2.5 m size .
The design of footing may result uneconomical, however , due to site conditions ,
there is no alternative .
Column size 230 mm x 600 mm

2.25 m

2.25 m
(a )

*
i
1.8 m

h* 2.75 m
4- 2.0 m
(c) (d)
Alternative plan dimensions for column footing
FIG . 18-7
The designed sizes of footings are shown in fig. 18 -7.
18- 6. General soil design considerations: While designing the footing
for soil design , the following shall be considered .
(1) Uniform settlement : The settlement of footings shall be as nearly uniform as
possible and upward soil pressure under the footing shall not exceed the
allowable bearing pressure of soil .
To minimize the differential settlement, the footings are proportioned to get
equal soil pressure under each column . This is done by providing footing area
very near to that required on the basis of A . B. P. of soil . If under one column ,
the exact required area of footing is provided and for another column in the
same structure , an area much larger than that required is provided , the soil
pressures under both the columns are different which may lead to differential
settlement. This is usually avoided .
678 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18
( 2) Uniform pressure: For axially loaded footings, the c. .
g of footing shall coincide
with that of the column loads to obtain uniform soil pressure
under the footing.
For eccentrically loaded footings also , if the eccentri
city is not reversible (e.g.,
footing for bus stop shed column ) , the c . g. of footing and that of
column loads
may coincide . However , for most practical columns , the eccentric
reversible due to the change in directons of wind and ities are
also the pattern live load conditions on the floors. In
earthqu ake forces and
such cases, this may not
apply and the soil pressure under the footing will be uniform
ly varying.
(3) Non -uniform pressure: If the footing is subject
ed to uniaxial or biaxial moments,
it will be subjected to non - uniform , i .e., uniform
ly varying pressure . Variety of
solutions may be obtained for soil design .
18-7. Footing for eccentrically loaded column
s: A column may transfer
to the footing an axial load P and bending moment
M. Alternatively, the footing is
subjected to an eccentric load P with an eccentricity e
= . In such cases, there can
be two alternatives. Refer to fig. 18-8.
v V -
p p

H
/ l
>+* H
2 2

P •
rmin
*
p
rmax max

( a)

P P
e
H >
'
1M

H /
2 -
44 /
2

P P min
Pmax
(C) (d)
Footings for eccentrically loaded columns
FIG. 18-8
Art . 18 - 7 ] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 679

(1) Concentric footing: The footing is designed for an axial load and moment . In
such a case , the soil pressure distribution under the footing will be varying.
This is illustrated in fig. 18 -8 ( a ) and fig . 18 - 8 ( b ) . The maximum and minimum
pressures under the footing are given by
P + M
P max A z
Pmin
P M _ ‘
A Z
•-
where A is the area and Z is the respective section modulus of the footing area .
Note that p max should not exceed A . B . P. on soil.
/
If e < g , the whole footing is subjected to pressures as shown in
fig . 18 - 8 ( a ) .
/
However , if e > g , as shown in fig. 18 - 8 ( b ) , a part of the footing loses its
contact with the soil .
Such a condition should not usually be allowed and footing shall be redesigned
by increasing its dimensions . However , in some cases , the length of loss of
contact less than 10% of the footing length for uni - axial bending and 20% of
the footing length for biaxial bending may be allowed with discretion to the
engineer - in - charge . The load shall be then distributed on the area which is in
contact with the soil .
( 2 ) Eccentric footing: The footing is made eccentric from the column at an eccentricity
M
P ‘
In such a case , the soil pressure distribution under the footing will be uniform .
This is shown in fig. 18 -8 ( c ) .
Note that such eccentricity in footing will be provided only if there is no possibility
of reversal of moment . For building, such footing cannot be used because of the
possibility of reversal of moment . [ If the direction of moment in fig. 18 -8 ( b )
is reversed , /> max becomes pmin and /> min becomes pmSLX . This is the reversal of
moment.] The reversal of moment may be created by changing the position of
live loads and due to reversal of wind and earthquake forces.
With no absolute possibility of reversal of moment, eccentric footing may be
provided. Note that the footing is cantilevered more on one of the sides which
may induce uneconomy. If the moment on such a column is very large , the
increasing cantilever will increase the cost . A footing such as shown in fig. 18 -8 ( d )
may be used economically by suitable trial and errors and permitting unequal
soil pressures . For all cases , pmax < A . B . P. of soil and /> min > 0 .
Soil design: Soil design for case ( 2 ) above shall be specially treated with trials
and errors. A generalized procedure of soil design for case ( 1 ) is narrated below :
( i ) Determine the plan dimensions assuming that there is only axial load .
Consider equal projections of footing from the column .
( ii ) If the footing is subjected to uniaxial moment, the dimension of footing
in respect of that moment shall be progressively increased such that in
the final upward pressure diagram /? max < A. B. P. of soil and pmin > 0. The
other dimension of the footing is kept constant. In most usual cases, the
ratio of longer side to shorter side of the footing is not allowed to
exceed 2. With every trial of increasing the dimensions, this ratio shall
680 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18
be checked and if it exceeds 2 , the other dimensions should also be
increased .
( iii ) If the footing is subjected to biaxial moment, first determine the dimensions
for axial load only as per ( i ) above . Now increase L and B in equal
increments and satisfy the design requirements .
Example 18 - 3 .
Determine the dimensions of the footing for a column subjected to characteristic
load of 700 kN and moment about major axis Mx = 150 kNm . The size of the column
is 230 mm x 600 mm . A . B . R on soil is 200 kN / m 2.
~ r

Solution :
Load on column = 700 kN
Footing self - weight = 75 kN
Total load on soil = 775 kN
Area required for axial load = 775 = 3.875 m 2.
200
If * is the projection of footing
( 0.23 + 2 x ) ( 0.6 + 2 x ) = 3.875.
On solving, we get x = 0.78 m .
Size of footing = 1.79 m x 2.16 m .
Let the width of the footing be kept as 1.8 m . Now the length will be successively
increased to keep /> max well below A. B. R
Try 1.8 m x 2.4 m size
A = 1.8 x 2.4 = 4.32 m 2
1

P
Z =
775
A = 4.32 =
^_ x 1.8 x 2.42 = 1.728 m 3

179.4 kN / m 2
M 150
86.8 kN / m 2
Z 1.728 =
P M 266.2 kN / m 2
Z =
+
A
P M 92.6 kN / m 2.
A Z =
Successive trials are tabulated below :
P M
Trial B L A Z P max P min L
A Z
B Remarks
no . m m m2 m3 kN / m 2 kN / m 2 kN / m 2 kN / m 2
1 1.8 2.4 4.32 1.728 179.4 86.8 266.2 92.6 1.33 / max_ >_200
2 1.8 2.6 4.68 2.028 165.6 73.9 239.5 91.7 1.44 _/W >_ 200
3 1.8 2.8 5.04 2.352 153.8 63.8 217.6 90.0 1.56
4 1.8 3.0 5.4 2.7 143.5 55.5 199.0 88.0 1.66 /’max < 200
Pmin > 0
Adopt 1.8 m x 3.0 m size.
Art. 18- 8] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 681
18- 8. General structural design considerations: While designing the
R . C.C. footings , following points of structural design shall be carefully observed .
( 1 ) In sloped or stepped footings, the effective cross-section in compression shall
be limited by the area above the neutral plane, and the angle of slope or depth
and location of steps shall be such that the design requirements are satisfied
at every section. Sloped and stepped footings that are designed as a unit shall
be constructed to ensure action as a unit.
( 2 ) In reinforced concrete and plain concrete footings, the thickness at the edge
shall not be less than 150 mm for footings on soils, nor less than 300 mm
above the tops of piles for footings on piles.
( 3 ) Clear cover to main reinforcement of the footing bars may be provided as 50 mm
for normal soils. Larger cover is required to allow for small irregularities in
the surface of the excavation and for potential contamination of the bottom
layer of concrete with soil . Larger cover may be adopted for aggressive soils.
For the above reasons, usually a lean concrete is laid first on the soil before the
reinforcement is placed . Refer to fig. 18 - 9.

*
Not more than 50% bars
be lapped at one section

Ground beam
- /Am\
T
Back filling by good
yellow soil or sand
Dowels
Df
75 75
+ Structural concrete

D '
( (M20 minimum )
d &

150 4
— 11J Lean concrete (M10)
/ 1 = D + 450 mm
>4
150
—1500 orx
(
L B —
1500) 150
< Lrf

FIG . 18 -9
 682 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 18
This is done
( i ) to prevent direct contact of footing with soil
( ii ) to prevent the bottom becoming uneven after rain - storms
( iii ) to provide a level surface for placing the reinforcement .
The lean concrete is usually projected beyond the footing by increasing the excavation
area. This projection varies from 0 mm to 150 mm . This is particularly useful for
the
sloped footing to have a space for formwork for casting of reduced depth at the end
of the slope. Also the gap created between side earthwork and footing allow to
provide
yellow earth backfilling or sand so as to prevent contact of soil with the footing. The
thickness of lean concrete shall not be less than 100 mm nor its projection
beyond the
footing. The grade of lean concrete may be M 7.5 or M 10. The excavated space is
usually filled up with yellow earth , sand or mixture of earth and sand.
18-9. Concrete pedestal: A plain concrete pedestal or a reinforced concrete
pedestal is sometimes used under the column . Provision of such pedestals is indicated
in fig. 18 - 10.
\ \

Column Column
Pedestal
f
Plain concrete footing a - Footing

/ NCC

(a ) ( b)
FIG. 18- 10
WV plain concrete pedestal is used as a plain concrete footing when the column
load
is small. The grade of concrete shall not be less than M 20. Refer to
fig. 18- 10 (a ) . Such
pedestals are not used for building columns. However for steel columns of temporary
structures, open web steel columns used on railway line, etc., plain concrete
pedestals
may be used.
A reinforced concrete pedestal is sometimes used at the base of the
building
and other columns as an extension of the column and with the same reinforcemen
t
of column and cast in the same grade as that of the column. The minimum
of such pedestals will be determined by the same rules as for the
height
plain concrete
pedestals. Refer to fig. 18 - 10 ( b) . This pedestal has the following advantages:
( 1 ) It reduces the effective cantilevers of the footing and leads to an economical
design of footing.
( 2 ) It reduces the bearing pressure on the footing, and also under its
own base
because of the larger cross - sectional area than that of the column .
According to clause 34.1.3, IS : 456 ; in the case of plain concrete pedestals, the
angle a between the plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and
corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and the horizontal plane
[fig. 18- 10 ( a ) and also fig. 18- 10 ( b ) ] shall be governed by the expression
100 ?
/ck*
tan a 0.9 + 1
where q0 = calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of the pedestal
in N / mm 2 (service loads)
/ck = characteristic strength of concrete ( pedestal ) at 28 days in N / mm 2.
 Art . 18 - 10 ] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 683
18 - 10 .
Transfer of load at the base of column: The compre
in concrete at the base of a column or pedestal shall be considered as ssive stress
being
by bearing at the top of the surrounding pedestal or footing . The bearing transferred
the loaded area shall not exceed design bearing strength in direct pressure on
compression multiplied
by a value equal to but not greater than 2

where A i = supporting area for bearing of footing, which in slopped or

stepped
footing is taken as the area of the lower base of the largest frustum
of a pyramid or cone contained wholly within the footing and
having for its upper base , the area actually loaded and having side
slope of one vertical to two horizontal ; and
A 2 = loaded area at the column base .
In limit state method of design, the design bearing strength on full
area of concrete
shall be taken as 0.45 fc .
Let Sides of column
^
bc , lc
Sides of pedestal bp , /p
Sides of footing bf, If
Depth of footing D.
( 1 ) When a column rests directl y on footing [fig . 18 - 11 (a) ]
A i = bf, If or ( bc + 4 D ) ( lc + 4 D ) whichever is less , and
A2 b c lc .
( 2 ) When a pedesta l is used
A\ = bp lp> and A2 = bc lc .
In fig . 18 - 11 ( b ) , a check of bearing stress at the base of pedesta
l is also required .

bc be

bP

+ 4D H
D
1°
bf -H bf
(a ) ( b)

Transfer of load at the base of column

FIG . 18 - 11
The bearing stress on the base of column or pedestal should
not exceed the
permissible bearing stress as calculated above . This prevent the
along the plane of contact between the column and the s crushin g of concrete
top surface of the footing.
684 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 18
Although the bearing pressure under the column is not to exceed 0.45 /ck , the

bearing pressure on the footing is permitted as high as 0.45 fc The factor

^ •

greater than 1 and less than 2, takes into account the increase in bearing capacity
produced by the lateral confinement of the concrete under the loaded area by the
surrounding concrete .
The loads and moments from the columns must be transferred safely to the footings.
Compressive forces can be transmitted by bearing while tensile forces shall be transmitted
by developed reinforcement called dowels. The dowels can also be used to carry some
compressive force which is in excess to that carried by bearing. The reinforcements
connecting the column and the footing are called dowels. Refer to fig. 18 -9. Dowel bars
shall have length in footing equal to its development length in footing concrete . By
geometry, it may be taken as footing depth + 450 mm as shown in fig. 18- 9. In column,
the dowels shall be lapped with column bars in central half length of the column .
Theoretically speaking, when actual bearing stress is less than the permissible
bearing stress , no dowels are required . According to code , however , some minimum
dowels of at least 0.15% of the cross - sectional area of the supported column or pedestal
shall be provided . For calculation of development length of reinforcement, stress in
the bar may be assumed as 0.87 fy as per column bar requirements . According to
IS : 13920 , code of practice for ductile detailing for earthquake resistant structures, the
lap length of column bars shall be development length of bars in tension . For axially
loaded columns in compresion, this seems odd but most practical columns are subjected
to bending moment. Hence we shall consider tension laps in general. Table 18 - 1 shows
development lengths of different types of bars .
TABLE 18 - 1
DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS OF COLUMN BARS

M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35

250 45 <() 39 <(> 36 <J) 32 b

415 47 b 41 ()> 38 <t> 33 $
500 57 d 49 |<> 45 |
<) 40 b
Even if the bearing stress at the base of the column is less than the permissible
value, the column reinforcement is usually extended in the footing. The footing is cast
earlier than the column . It is inconvenient to hold the long column bars till the footing
is cast. Therefore the short dowels are used to transfer the load from the column to
footing and are lapped with column bars in middle half length of the column .
Example 18 -4.
An open web steel column consisting of four angles ISA 75 x 75 x 6 symmetrically
placed to form a square column of size 600 mm x 600 mm . The size of the base plate
is 750 mm x 750 mm x 16 mm thick . The column carries an axial load of 160 kN.
Design a plain concrete pedestal footing for the column if A. B. P. on soil at ground
level is taken as 100 kN / m 2. Use M 20 grade concrete .
Solution :
Open web structures are frequently used to carry light loads like service lines. You
may observe them along the railways . Sometimes they are used to carry moderate
loads of industrial structures . The load on the column is very small but distributed
on larger area .
Art. 18- 10] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 685

750 500

> r

« 500 >
<- 750 >
Section A-A

R
< ISA 75 x 75 x 6

>
r
®
< 12 0 bar

i
450 i
h* > <- 450 -H

T
300
/
/
/
/
4«
/
/ Soil treated with lime
500
. ( if required ) < Sand filling ( if required )
a .
i t / *

150-> <-
•:
: -
i r
•

1650 x 1650
*
* *

>4
i 150 to 200

<- 150
Plain concrete footing for lightly loaded column
FIG. 18- 12
By virtue of the geometry of the column , large size base plate is provided which
demands for larger size concrete column below the base plate .
Usually the steel columns are not allowed to enter the ground as they would rust
due to ground actions. For heavily loaded industrial steel column, an R . C.C. column
is provided from plinth level to the footing top .
However , in this example, as the load on the column is very small , a plain
concrete pedestal would be economical. Also note that it is not hard and fast to obtain
a very good soil strata for placing the footing. Instead, the soil may be treated with
lime and sand filling may be applied below the footing and also around the footing
if desired , as shown in fig. 18 - 12. Thus the depth of foundation may be 500 mm to
1000 mm or more if desired .
686 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch. 18
The plan area (soil design ) of the footing may be determined as follows:
Column load = 160 kN
Footing load @ 50% = 80 kN
Total load an soil 240 kN
Area required 240 = 2.4 m 2.
100
Provide 1.65 m x 1.65 m size footing.
Area provided = 2.72 m 2.
Projection beyond
the base plate ~
_
1.65 - 0.75
= 0.45 m.
2
The depth of footing ( structural design ) is given by
100 ?
/ck^
tan a
^ 0.9 +1

240 x 103
9o =
1650 x 1650 =
0.088 N / mm 2 .
100 x 0.088
tan a
^
0.9
V
20
+1
i 1.08.
From fig. 18- 12 tan a = H i 1.08
450
i .e. H i 1.08 x 450 = 486 mm .
Provide 800 mm deep pedestal, 300 mm above the ground level and 500 mm
below the ground . This may be treated as a minimum size of pedestal. In reality, the
depth of pedestal may be governed by the site levelling, more plinth height , etc.
Dfepth of 500 mm used below the ground may also be treated as minimum so that
footing can receive the passive pressure of soil when needed.
If the depth of pedestal required is large, steps may be provided .
Actual weight of pedestal = 1.65 x 1.65 x 0.8 x 24 = 52.3 kN.
Example 18 -5 .
An R. C.C. column of size 350 mm x 350 mm is reinforced with 8- 25 # bars of
grade Fe 415. The concrete grade is M 20. It is loaded with an axial , unfactored
( characteristic) load of 650 kN. A constant thickness pad footing is to be used on soil
with A.B.P. on 200 kN / m 2. Discuss and check for transfer of load from column to the
square footing if the grade of footing concrete is M 20 and depth of footing 500 mm .
Solution:
Column load = 650 kN
Footing load @ 10% = 65 kN
Total 715 kN
715
Area of footing required =
200 =
3.575 m 2.
Use 1.9 m x 1.9 m = 3.61 m 2 size footing. Thickness of footing is given as 500 mm .
Pu = 1.5 x 650 = 975 kN.
IQ 3
Actual bearing pressure = 975 x 7.96 N / mm 2.
350 x 350 =
Art. 18 - 10 ] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 687

At the base of the column, design bearing pressure

= 0.45 /ck = 0.45 x 20 = 9 N / mm 2 (Safe )
At the top of the footing = 1.9 x 1.9 = 3.61 m 2
or Aj = (0.35 + 4 x 0.5) ( 0.35 + 4 x 0.5 )
= 5.52 m 2, whichever is smaller.
Ai = 3.61 m 2.
A2 = 0.35 x 0.35 = 0.1225 m2

= 5.42 > 2 i . e. , 2

Design bearing pressure = x 0.45 /ck

= 2 x 0.45 x 20 = 18 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
The bearing pressure is within the limits under the base of the column and at the
top of the footing . Thus, the load can safely be transmitted without using dowel bars
i . e . , the column bars can theoretically start from the top of the footing. However ,
according to the code, minimum dowels of 0.5% column area and minimum four bars
should be provided .
0.5
Minimum dowel area = x 350 x 350
100
= 612.5 mm 2 .
Use 4 - 16 # = 804 mm 2.
VThus 4 - 16 # bars may be used as the dowel bars.
Practically, if the dowel bars required are lesser than that of the column bars, it
is a usual practice to use the same dowel bars as the column bars .
In this example 8- 25 # bars may be used as dowel bars. To calculate the length
of dowel bars in footing we may use the development length of 16 mm diameter bars .
Dowel length in footing: The column bars shall be extended in footing for 950 mm .
The column bars may be lapped in central half length of the column .
In footing Ld = 47 # = 47 x 16 = 752 mm ,
using stress equal to 0.87 fy in tension
by geometry lx = D + 450 = 500 -I- 450
= 950 mm ( Governs )
Example 18 - 6 .
An R. C . C. column of size 350 mm x 350 mm is reinforced with 8- 25 # bars of
grade Fe 415. The concrete grade is M 30. It is loaded with an axial, unfactored load
of 1800 kN. A pad footing of 700 mm thickness is used on the soil of A . B . P. 200 kN / m 2 .
Discuss and check for transfer of load from column to the square footing if the
grade of footing concrete is M 20.
Solution :
Column load = 1800 kN
Footing load @ 10% = 180 kN
Total 1980 kN
688 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 18

1980
Footing area required = 200 = 9.9 m 2.
Provide 3.15 m x 3.15 m size footing.
At the base of the column , design bearing pressure
= 0.45 /ck = 0.45 x 30 = 13.5 N / mm 2 ( Governs)
Pu = 1.5 x 1800 = 2700 kN.
x 103
Actual bearing pressure = 2700
350 x 350
= 22.04 N / mm 2 ( Unsafe)

Dowels are required .

-3
Design force on dowels = ( 22.04 - 13.5) x 350 x 350 x 10 = 1046 kN ... ( 1)
At the top of the footing Ax = 3.15 x 3.15 = 9.92 m 2
Ax = ( 0.35 + 4 x 0.7) (0.35 + 4 x 0.7) = 9.91 m .
2
or
i .e. A\ 8.41 m 2.
=
A2 = 0.35 x 0.35 = 0.1225 m 2.

= 8.28 > 2, .
/ Use = 2.
0.1225
Design bearing pressure = 2 x 0.45 x 20 = 18 N / mm .
2

Actual bearing pressure = 22.04 N / mm 2 ( Unsafe)

Therefore, dowels are required .
Force in dowel = ( 22.04 - 18) x 350 x 350 x 10~3 = 495 kN (2 )
Design force in dowels from ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) = 1046 kN .
x 103
Dowel area required = 1046
0.75 x 415
= 3361 mm 2.
0.5 x
Minimum dowel bars = 100 300 x 300 = 450 mm 2.
Use 8- 25 # dowel bars = 3928 mm 2 .
For simplicity, dowel bars equal to that of column bars are provided .
Length of dowels in footing concrete of M 20 grade = 47 # ( compression stress
of 0.87 /y) = 47 x 25 = 1175 mm.
Minimum length of dowel in footing by geometry = 700 + 450 = 1150 mm .
Provide dowel length of ( 700 + 500) = 1200 mm in footing. Column bars may be
lapped in central half height of ground flopr.
m •g:

( 1 ) An R. C. C. wall of length 6 m is subjected to a load of 200 kN / m . Determine the

width of the footing and net upward soil pressure on footing. The A. B. P. on soil
is 180 kN / m 2 at 1.2 m depth . [ Ans. 1.25 m , 160 kN / m 2 ]
( 2 ) A rectangular column of size 300 mm x 600 mm is loaded with 1200 kN
characteristic load . The A . B. P. on soil is 180 kN / m 2 at 1.35 m depth . Determine
the dimensions of the footing for the following cases:
(a ) if the footing is square
( b) if the footing is rectangle
Ex. 18] Design of Foundations : Fundamentals 689

( c ) if the footing dimension parallel to longer side of the column is fixed as 3.5 m
( d ) if the footing dimension parallel to the shorter side of the column is restricted
to 2.6 m . [ Ans. ( a) 2.75 m x 2.75 m , ( b) 2.9 m x 2.6 m
( c) 3.5 m x 2.1 m ( d ) 2.85 m x 2.6 m . ]
( 3 ) Determine the dimensions of the footing for a column subjected to characteristic
load of 1000 kN and moment about major axis of Mx = 180 kNm . The size of
the column is 300 mm x 750 mm . A . B . P. on soil is 200 kN / m 2 .
[ Ans. 2.15 m x 3.35 m .]
( 4 ) Design a plain concrete pedestal of grade M 20 for an R . C . C. column of size
600 mm x 600 mm carrying an axial load of 360 kN . The A . B . P. of soil is
160 kN / m 2. Assume footing self - weight to be 40% of the column load .
[ Ans. 1800 mm x 1800 mm x 735 mm ( minimum depth ) .]
( 5 ) An R.C.C. column of size 350 mm x 350 mm is loaded by an axial characteristic
load . It is required to provide a pad footing on soil having A. B. P. of 250 kN / m 2 .
Discuss the transfer of column load on footing of M 20 grade concrete for the
following cases:
( a ) P = 1000 kN ( unfactored ) , column concrete M 20 grade
( b) P = 1600 kN ( unfactored ) , column concrete M 25 grade.
Ans. ( a) (b)
Size of footing 2.1 x 2.1 x 0.6 m 2.7 x 2.7 x 0.7 m
Design bearing pressure
at base of column 9 N / mm 2 11.25 N / mm 2
at top of footing 18 N / mm 2 13.50 N / mm 2
Actual bearing pressure 9.8 N / mm 2 19.60 N / mm 2
Force in dowels P' u 397 kN 1022 kN
Dowel area 1276 mm 2 3283 mm 2
Dowel bars 8- 16 # 8 - 25 #
Dowel length in footing 47 x 16 = 752 mm 41 x 25 = 1025 mm
or D + 450 which - or D + 450 which -
ever is greater ever is greater
 hapter
ISOLAT ED FOOTIN GS
L19J
-
1 9 1 . I n t r o d u c t o r y: Isolated footings are most commonly used footings for
R. C. C. columns because of the simplicity and economy. For any column footing, if
provision of isolated footing is not possible due to geometry or any other reason , only
then other types of footings may be thought. The simplest isolated footing is a footing
for continuous wall where the footing bends in one direction only. Wall footings are
usually provided with constant thickness . The isolated footing for the column may be
a pad footing ( constant thickness ) or a sloped footing. It may be axially loaded or
eccentrically loaded . Sometimes a pedestal is used to achieve economical design. The
procedures of design for all kinds of footings are similar and explained in detail for
the isolated footings .
In this chapter we shall discuss isolated footings for walls and columns subjected
to various types of loads .
1 9 - 2 . Wall f o o t i n g s: Footings for wall may be of two types as shown below:
( 1 ) Footing for masonry wall where the wall is separate from footing.
( 2 ) Footing for an R. C . C . wall where the wall is cast integrally with the footing.
The above two cases are shown in fig. 19- 1.
The width of the footing can be found out as the load per unit length on soil
divided by A . B. P. on soil where the load on soil consists of the load from wall plus
'

the self - weight of the footing. The self - weight of the footing may be assumed as some
percentage of the load from wall ( 8 per cent to 10 per cent ) . The net upward soil
pressure on the footing will be the load on wall divided by the area of footing as the
self - weight of footing is directly supported on soil which does not contribute to shear
and moment . The footing is designed as cantilever slab loaded with soil pressure .
Theoretically , the maximum moment in footing occurs at the centre of the wall.
For the design , however, because of the rigidity (full or partial ) of the wall with the
footing, the critical sections for bending moment are as under :
( 1 ) Half - way between the centre - line and the edge of the wall for footings under
masonry walls. Refer to section - x \ of fig. 19- 1 ( b) .
( 2 ) At the face of the R . C. C . wall for the footings under R . C. C . wall. Refer to
section - x of fig. 19 - 1 ( c ) .
^
If the footing for a masonry or an R . C. C . wall is loaded to failure in shear, it can
be seen that the failure does not take place on the vertical plane at the face of the
wall . Instead , the failure takes place at an angle of 45 ° with the wall as shown in
fig. 19- 1 ( b ) or fig. 19 - 1 (c) .
If the footing is sufficiently thick so that the -load dispersal lines cover the whole
width of the footing ( projection of footing beyond the wall is less than depth d of
footing assuming that the dispersal lines are at 45° with the edge of the wall ) , the
reinforcement in footing need not be provided . For the same reason , plane cement
concrete ( RC. C .) is used for the footings under masonry walls.
The concrete under the wall is confined by compressive reaction and has a capacity
to throw the crack at a distance d . Therefore , the critical section for shear shall be
located at a distance d from the face of the support . Refer to sections yx - of
fig. 19- 1 ( b) and fig. 19 - 1 (c) . It is a general practice to make the footing sufficiently
thick so that shear reinforcement is not required .
Art . 19 - 2 ] Isolated Footings 691
EQ p , q EQ
X1

i xl

I I

p® i i — Masonry wall
< < R .C.C. wall

b
u i

i
i

J T
D 4s5]
i i
D
i ± I' w ]
>1
L@ Xl ' ' <t ' xi
h* -H h* b K b H
( a ) Plan ( b) Section A- A (c) Section A - A
FIG . 19 1 -
The footing under an R .C . C . wall may be designed as a cantilever beam of 1 m
width . According to clause 34.1. 2 of IS : 456 , the thickness at the edge of footing shall
not be less than 150 mm for footing on soils nor less than 300 mm above tops of piles
for footing on piles.
The minimum reinforcement in the footing for walls [ L » B ) shall be as per
slabs, i.e., 0.15 % of gross c .s. area for mild steel and 0.12% of gross c.s . area for HYSD bars .
The development length shall be measured from the face of the wall to the end
of the cantilever ( i . e . , projection beyond the wall ) minus the clear end cover of
reinforcement which may be taken as 50 mm . If the development length is not satisfied ,
the diameter of the bars may be reduced or end hooks or bends may be provided .
The clear concrete cover to the main reinforcement shall be minimum 50 mm as
the footing is in touch with the soil. The deflection is unimportant and may not be
checked.
Example 19 - 1 .
Design the footing for an R . C . C. wall 200 mm thick and carrying a total working
load of 400 kN / m . The A . B . P. on soil is 200 kN / m 2. The materials are M 20 grade
concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
( a ) Size of footing : Consider 1 m length of footing. Assuming 10 per cent weight
of footing the width required will be
x 1.1
b = 400 = 2.2 m.
200
( b) Moment steel :
Net upward soil pressure = 400
2.2 x 1 =
181.82 kN / m 2 .
Factored upward soil pressure per metre length
= 1.5 x 181.82 x 1.0 = 272.72 kN / m .
692 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 19
The critical section for moment is at the face of the wall. The cantilever is
2.2 - 0.2
2 = 1.0 m .
272.72 x l 2
Mu = 2
136.36 kNm

d = 136.36 x 106 = 222 mm .

2.76 x 1000
Try an overall depth of 550 mm . Larger depth is provided to eliminate
trials in check for shear . » •

d = 550 - 50 - 8 ( assume 16 # bar ) = 492 mm

Mu136.36 x 106
1000 x 492 x 492 =
0.563
bd 2
= 0.162
pt
0.162 x
AS t 1000 x 492 = 797 mm 2 .
100
Provide 12 mm # @ 140 mm c / c = 807 mm 2.
Steel required for 0.12 x
secondary reinforcement 100 I — 1000 x 550 = 660 mm 2 / m .
Provide 12 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 664 mm 2 / m .
200
h* >
A-

R.C.C. wall
*

12 mm # @ 140 mm c/c
i —
12 mm # @ 170 mm c/c

/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
550 492 / \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ m
A JL±

K 508 492 > 12 mm # @ 170 mm c/c

h* 1000 I 1000 >
200
H- 2200
FIG . 19 - 2
Check for shear:
The shear is checked at a distance d. from the face of the wall.
Vu = 272.72 x 0.508 = 138.54 kN
x 103
= 138.54
1000 x 492 =
0.282 N / mm 2.
Art . 19 - 3] Isolated Footings 693

100 As 100 x 807

1000 x 492 =
0.164
bd
TC = 0.302 N / mm 2 > TV ( O . K. )
Check for development length :
Ld = 47 # = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Anchorage available = 1000 - 50 = 950 mm .
Check for deflection and cracking:
Deflection is not important and may not be checked .
Spacing of bars
Main - 140 mm < 3 d ( or 300 mm )
Secondary - 170 mm <
5 d ( or 450 mm ) .
The designed section is shown in fig . 19 - 2 .
-
19 3. Axially loaded pad footing : An axially loaded pad footing is shown
in fig. 19 - 3. The footings are designed as inverted cantilevers from column loaded
with net upward soil pressure . The design procedure is explained below :
(1) Proportioning the size: Assume the weight of the footing as 10% of the axial
load on column . If column load is Wy the load on soil is 1.1 W.
load on soil
Area of footing =
allowable bearing pressure on soil ’

From this area, fix the size of the footing. The footing may be square or
rectangular. If the column is square, usually the square footing is adopted .
If the column is rectangular , a square footing or a rectangular footing can
be adopted . When a rectangular footing is adopted , select the size of the
* footing such that the effective cantilevers on all four sides are equal. This
will give the same bending moment per metre in x and y directions leading
to an economical solution . This is explained in art. 18 - 5. Check the transfer
of load at the base of column ( assuming depth of footing) in accordance
with art. 18 - 10 .
(2) Bending moment: This is determined in accordance with clause 34.2.3 of IS : 456
as follows :
The greatest bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated concrete
footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall, shall be the moment computed
by passing through a vertical section which extends completely across the
footing at sections located as follows :
( i ) At the face of the column , pedestal or wall , for footings supporting a
concrete column , pedestal or wall.
( ii ) Half - way between the centre line and the edge of the wall , for footings
under masonry walls .
( iii ) Half - way between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the
gusseted base, for footings under gusseted bases .
The critical sections of footing that is supporting column or pedestal for
moment are shown in fig. 19- 3 ( a ) .
(3 ) Nominal reinforcement : Nominal reinforcement equal to 0.15% of gross cross-
section area for mild steel and 0.12% of gross cross- section area for HYSD
694 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19
bars shall be considered as minimum reinforcement. The spacing of these
reinforcements shall not exceed 3 d or 300 mm whichever is smaller for main
bars and 5 d or 450 mm whichever is smaller for secondary bars .
«
( 4 ) Shear: Two checks for shear force are required .
( i ) One - way shear : The sum of the vertical forces due to soil pressure on
footing outside the critical section is called one - way shear. The critical
section for one - way shear shall be assumed a vertical section located from
the face of the column , pedestal or wall at a distance equal to the effective
depth of footing in case of footings on soils, and a distance equal to half
the effective depth of footing for footings on piles. For isolated footing
on soils, this is shown in fig. 19 - 3 ( b ) . The design shear strength for
one - way shear depends on the percentage of reinforcement provided as
per beams and slabs. If the thickness of footing is less than 300 mm ,
design shear strength may be increased as per slab design for shear. It is
normal practice is to make the base sufficiently deep so that the shear
reinforcement is not required .
(« i) Two - way shear : The sum of vertical loads outside the appropriate perimeter
as defined by IS : 456 is known as two- way shear. The critical section for
shear in this case is at a distance
^
from the periphery of the column
or pedestal where d is the effective depth of footing. In case of sloped
footing d may be taken as the effective depth at the face of the column
or the pedestal . This is shown in fig. 19 - 3 ( c) .
x xl

*
y
—

(a ) Critical sections
for moment
y

yi

xi
( b ) Critical sections
for one- way shear
y
i
i - d -i
2 -T- i
I
m
>4
1
i
I
«-

(c ) Critical sections
for two- way shear
d.
2

FIG . 19 - 3
ks Tc
The design shear strength in this case shall be taken equal to
where ks = Pc )
(0.5
but 4-
not greater than 1, Pc being the ratio of
short side to long side of the column or pedestal
Tc = 0.25 /ck in limit state method of design .
^
The depth of footing is chosen such that shear reinforcement is not required .
Thus shear check may govern the depth of footing.
(5 ) Development length: The critical section for checking the development length
in footing shall be assumed at the same planes as those described for bending
moment [ fig. 19 - 3 ( a ) ] and also at all other vertical planes where abrupt
changes of section occur. If the reinforcement is curtailed , the anchorage
requirements shall be checked in accordance with the curtailment rules as
applicable to the beams .
( 6 ) Deflection: This is not important in footing and may not be checked .
Art . 19 - 3] Isolated Footings 695
( 7 ) Cover: Clear cover to main reinforcement of the footing bars may be provided
as 50 mm for normal soils . Larger cover is provided in footing to allow for
small irregularities in the surface of the excavation and for potential contamination
of the bottom layer of concrete with soil . For aggressive soils, still larger
cover may be provided .
(8) Reinforcement requirements: The following are the general reinforcement requirements
for footings :
Bending moment : The total tensile reinforcement shall be distributed across the
corresponding resisting section as given below.
( i ) In one - way reinforced footing and two - way reinforced square footing the
reinforcement should be distributed uniformly across the full width of the
footing.
( ii ) In two - way reinforced rectangular footing, the reinforcement in the long
direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width of footing.
For reinforcement in the short direction , a central band equal to the width
of footing shall be marked along the length of footing and portion of the
reinforcement determined in accordance with the equation given below
should be uniformly distributed across the central band :
reinforcement in central band width 2
total reinforcement in short direction P+1
where (3 is the ratio of the long side to the short side of the footing. The
remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer
portions of the footing . This is illustrated in fig . 19 - 4 ( b ) .

Space equally total

Space all ~ steel x 2
bars equally ( P + 1)
b

d di
1
-H
d Space remainder equally
>di ^ Ld
l l
( a ) Section ( b ) Plan
FIG . 19 - 4
Shear force : One - way shear check is made at distance d from the face of the
column. From this point, the bar must extend upto a minimum distance of d \ y
where d \ is the effective depth of footing at a critical section for checking
one - way shear. This is required as the design shear strength is based on percentage
reinforcement at a section continuing at least for a distance d \ . This is shown
in fig . 19 - 4 ( a ) .
Development length : From the point of maximum bending moment, the bar must
extend in both directions for a length equal to its development length . Critical
development length is as shown in fig. 19 - 4 ( a ) . This check will control the
diameter of the bar. Usually mild steel reinforcement is provided with U bend
696 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 19
anchorage while HYSD reinforcement is provided without end anchorage. However,
for small size footings , calculations may require larger development length.
Consequently , HYSD bars also may have to be provided with ell or U bend .
( 9 ) Weight of the footing: After completing the design , self - weight of
footing is
found which shall be comparable with that of the assumed one .
Example 19 - 2.
An R . C . C . column of size 350 mm x 350 mm reinforced with 8 no . 16 mm
diameter bars carries a characteristic load of 800 kN . The allowable bearing pressure
on soil is 200 kN / m 2 . Design an isolated square pad footing. The materials
are
grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 for both , the column
and the footing.
Solution :
( a ) Size of footing:
Load on column = 800 kN
Assume dead load of footing
( 10 % of column load ) 80 kN

Total load on soil 880 kN

Area of footing required = 880 = 4.4 m 2.
200
Adopt 2.1 m x 2.1 m footing. Area A = 4.41 m 2.
( b ) Net upward pressure:
1.5 x
Net factored upward pressure = 2.1 x 800
2.1 =
272.1 kN / m 2.
Note that the weight of footing does not induce any shear or moment as the
footing dead load is in opposite direction to the soil pressure . Thus in calculating
the net upward pressure , only column load is considered .
( c ) Moment steel:
Net cantilever [fig. 19 -5 ( a ) ] = 2100 - 350 = 875 mm
2
Mix 0.8752
x 272.1 x 2.1 = 218.74 kNm .
^uy 2
Balanced depth required = 218.74 x 106 = 194.3 mm.
2100 x 2.76
It will be realized after solving some problems on pad footing without pedestal
that the depth is usually governed by check of two - way shear. To reduce the
depth , higher grade concrete may be used in footing.
Try an overall depth of 480 mm . Assuming 12 mm diameter bars
dx = 480 - 50 - 6 = 424 mm
dy = 424 - 12 = 412 mm (second layer ) .
Mu 218.74 x 106
bd 2 2100 x 412 x 412 = 0.614
/> , = 0.177
0.177 x
^ St “
100
2100 x 412 = 1531 mm 2.
Art . 19 - 3] Isolated Footings 697

0.12
Minimum steel = 100 x 2100 x 500 = 1260 mm 2.
Provide 14 no. 12 mm diameter bars = 1582 mm 2 on both the directions.
( d ) Development length :
Development length = 47 # = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Available anchorage referring to fig. 19 -5 ( d )
= 875 - 50 ( cover )
= 825 mm > 564 ( O . K. )
350 412 463
H— 875 -H- f* 875 —H h* *+«
y
.
i

T
875 i

x X

2100 350

875

i
y
K 2100 -H
(a) Moment (b) One- way shear

350
209 209

T I
i
1 209T
768 I I 350
I
1 L. j 2091

480

H— 768 —H HH 825 —H
50
(c) Two-way shear (d ) Development length

FIG. 19 - 5
-
(e) One way shear :
Shear at 412 mm from face of the column [fig. 19-5 ( b ) ]
= 0.463 x 2.1 x 272.1 = 264.56 kN
264.56 x 103
*v = 2100 x 412 = 0.306 N / mm 2 ( O. K.)
698 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch. 19
-
The bars extend 463 30 (side cover ) = 413 mm , i.e., more than d, beyond the
critical section . Therefore , the steel is effective in increasing the shear stress.
100 As 100 x 1582
bd 2100 x 412 = 0.183
xc = 0.306 N /mm 2.
( f ) Two - way shear :
Refer to fig . 19 - 5 ( c ) .

This is checked at d from the face of the column .

—
Here dx = 424 mm , dy = 412 mm
davg = d = 0.5 ( 424 + 412) = 418 mm .
Vu = ( 2.12 - 0.7682 ) x 272.1 = 1040 kN
d = 418 mm
b = 4 x 768
= 3072 mm [ fig. 19 - 5 ( c ) ]
1040 x IQ 3
= 3072 x 412 = 0.821 N / mm 2 .
Design shear strength = ks T c
where .
* = ( 0 - 5 + Pc )
short side of column
and Pc = long side of column
1
1
1
ks = (0.5 + 1 ) = 1.5
ks > i
^ .
ks = 1
=
Tc 0.25 yj fck
= 0.25 >/20 — 1.12 N / mm 2.
ks xc = 1 x 1.12 = 1.12 N / mm 2
% < * s ( O . K. )
(g) Spacing of bars:
Spacing of bars =
2100 - 100 - 12 152.92 mm
13
< 3 x 432 (= 1296 mm ) or 300 mm ( O. K. )
(h ) Transfer of load from column to footing:
At the base of the column
allowable bearing force = 0.45 x 20 x 350 x 350 x 10-3
= 1102.5 kN < 1200 kN.
Dowels are required .
Force in dowel bars = 1200 - 1102.5 = 97.5 kN (i)
 Art . 19 - 4 ] Isolated Footings 699
At the top of footing :
A\ = 2.1 x 2.1 = 4.41 m 2
or Ax = ( 0.35 + 4 x 0.48) ( 0.35 + 4 x 0.48)
= 5.15 m 2, whichever is small i . e . , 4.41 m 2.
A2 = 0.35 x 0.35 = 0.1225 m 2 .
% = , therefore use 2 .

Allowable bearing force

6
^2
= 2 x (0.45 x 20) x 350 x 350 x 10 -3
= 2205 kN (Safe )
From ( 1 ) , dowel area = 97.5 x 103 313 mm 2.
0.75 x 415 =
Minimum dowel area = 0.5 x 350 x 350 = 612.5 mm 2 .
100
Use 8- 16 # column bars as dowel bars.
Dowel length in footing = D + 450 = 950 mm . Extend column bars for
950 mm in footing.
( i ) Weight of base:
Weight = 2.1 2 x 0.48 x 25 = 52.92 kN < 80 kN . . . ( O . K.)
( j ) Sketch:
Designed footing is shown in fig . 19 - 6 .

14-12 # -V

Dowels
- 8-16 #
14- 12 #
2100
r 1
® ®
480

2100 K 2100 H
( a ) Plan ( b) Section A - A
FIG . 19 - 6
19- 4. Axially loaded sloped footing: The design method for axially loaded
sloped footing is similar to pad footing. However , for sloped footing where B. M . is
maximum, width of the resisting section is minimum. An axially loaded sloped footing
is shown in fig. 19 - 7.
I
The moment shall be calculated at the face of the column . When footing is
cast , a straight width of 75 mm on all four sides of the column is made to
facilitate the seating of formwork for the column . In pad footing full width of
the footing is available for resisting bending moment , whereas , in sloped footing,
the resisting width may be taken as width of column + extra width cast for
column formwork seating [ 150 mm as shown in fig. 19 -7 ( a ) ] .
700 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19
When shear is checked , the depth at the critical section shall be found out as the
depth in sloped footing is varying. The width of footing resisting shear at a distance
from the face of the column may be taken as width of column -I- 2 ( or the actual
width of footing whichever is less) as shown in fig. 19-7 ( b). The nominal shear stress
Tv at critical section shall be modified as per equation ( 7- 4 ) , since the footing is
sloped . Also note that effective shear will be reduced here because the bending moment
increases numerically in the direction of increase of d.
\

b+ 150

b <N
75 mm * 4> < 75 mm \
\ / <I +

M , 'I
3
O
o
/ \ o
/
--
^ 5
•
o
IN

h*-> £
X1 X1
(a) Section ( b ) Plan
Sloped footing
FIG . 19 -7
In sloped footing a pedestal is sometimes used to have economy in footing design .
The pedestal has the following advantages:
« ( 1 ) It reduces effective cantilever of footing and thus reduces the bending moment
and shear.
( 2 ) It gives larger width to resist the bending moment.
( 3) It gives larger perimeter while checking two - way shear.
( 4 ) It reduces the bearing pressure on footing.
Pedestal is cast after casting the footing. Usually the concrete mix used in footing
is M 20 grade . However , the column may have a higher grade of concrete . The
concrete mix of pedestal shall be that used in column. To facilitate casting of the
pedestal , 75 mm straight length at top of footing is cast. While using the pedestal,
width resisting bending moment may be taken as width of pedestal + 150 mm .
Example 19 -3 .
Design a sloped footing for the column of Example 19 - 2.
Solution:
( a ) Size of the footing :
2.1 m x 2.1 m is adopted from Example 19 - 2.
( b ) Moment steel :
Mu x = Muu > yy = 218.74 kNm from Example 19- 2 .
The resisting section has a width
= 350 mm + 150 mm = 500 mm as discussed in art. 19- 4.

4
Depth required = 218.74 x 106 = 398 mm .
Try an overall depth = 600 mm .
500 x 2.76
Art . 19 - 4] Isolated Footings 701

dx = 600 - 50 - 6 = 544 mm
dy = 544 - 12 = 532 mm (second layer )
Mu 218.74 x 106
1.55
bd 2 500 x 532 x 532
pt = 0.477
A St 0.477 x
500 x 532 = 1269 mm 2 (governs )
100
Assume depth at edge of footing = 230 mm .
Average depth = 230 + 600 = 415 mm
2
Minimum steel = 0.12 x 2100 x 415 = 1046 mm 2.
100
Provide 12 nos. 12 mm diameter bars
Ast = 1356 mm 2 > 1269 mm 2 ( O. K.)
Development length = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Available anchorage = 875 - 50 ( cover )
= 825 mm > 564 mm ( O . K. )
875 350 875 532 343
H H—H H H-H H 606 888 606
y
*1 -
H H < +++ H

i
i
J 269;;
2100 888 350
269 ;
"

i i
y 350
H- 2100 H >4- 1 f - H
269 269
Plan Plan Plan
350
1—h*
* \

75 75
>4 H-
370
230 :: 165
"

165
421
Section Section Section
(a) Moment -
(b) One way shear (c) Two- way shear
FIG . 19-8
-
( c ) One way shear :
Shear force at 532 mm from face of the column [fig. 19 -8 ( b ) ]
z/u = 0.343 x 2.1 x 272.1 = 196 kN
b = 350 + 2 x 532 = 1414 mm
d = 165 + 343 x 370 = 310 mm .
875
702 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 19

Mu at the section = 0.3432

2
x 272.1 x 2.1 = 33.61 kNm

Mu tan P
= , where tan P = 370 = 0.423
bd 875
33.61 x
196 - 0.423 X 103
0.31
TV = = 0.343 N / mm 2 .
1414 x 310
The bars extend 343 - 30 (side cover ) = 313 mm, i.e., more than d (= 310 mm ) beyond
the critical section . Therefore , the steel is effective in increasing the shear
stress. When larger side cover is required , the bars may have ell bend at the end .
100 As 100 x 1269
1414 x 310 =
0.29
bd
xc = 0.379 N / mm 2.
( d ) Two - way shear :
^ ( O. K.)

Average depth
^ avg ~ 0.5 (544 + 532 ) = 538 mm .
d avg
Two- way shear is checked at - — —
538
= 269 mm from face of the column.
Referring to fig. 19- 8 ( c )
shear force = ( 2.12 - 0.8882) x 272.1 = 985.4 kN
b = 4 x 888 = 3552 mm
d = 165 + 606 x 370 = 421 mm .
875
985.4 x IQ 3
Actual shear stress = 3552 x 421 = 0.659 N / mm 2 .
From Example 19 - 2 , design shear strength
k s Tc = 0.968 N / mm 2 > TV ( O. K. )
( e ) Spacing of bars:
Spacing of bars = 2100 - 100 - 12 < 1
11
= 180.7 mm < 3 x 165 (= 495 ) or 300 mm . . . . ( O. K . )
( f ) Transfer of load from column to footing :
At the base of the column
allowable bearing force = 1102.5 kN < 1200 kN
and , force in dowel bars = 97.5 kN , from Example 19 - 2 (i)
At the top of footing
= 2.1 x 2.1 = 4.41 m 2
or Ax = (0.35 + 4 x 0.6) (0.35 + 4 x 0.6) = 7.56 m 2,
i .e . , 4.41 m 2
A 2 = 0.35 x 0.35 = 0.1225 m 2

= 6
^ 2, adopt 2.
Art . 19 - 4] Isolated Footings 703

Allowable bearing force = 2 ( 0.45 x 20 ) x 350 x 350 x 10-3

= 2205 kN .. . (Safe )
Dowel area from ( 1) 97.5 x 103 313 mm 2.
= 0.75 x 415 =
0.5 x 350 x 350
Minimum dowel area = = 612.5 mm 2 .
100
Use 8- 16 # column bars as dowel bars = 1608 mm 2.
Dowel length in footing D + 450 = 1150 mm . Extend column bars for
1150 mm in footing.
( g ) Weight of footing:
Volume of sloped footing shall be taken as :
Volume of lower prism 4- volume of upper frustum which shall be taken as

£ Ml + A2 + 4
^ m)

where Ai = area of top of frustum

A2 = area of bottom of frustum
m area at mid - height of frustum
= h height of frustum .
In this case , V = 2.1 X 2.1 X 0.23 + pp (0.352 + 2.12 + 4 x 1.2252)
= 1.01 + 0.65 = 1.66 m 3.
Weight of footing = 25 x 1.66 = 41.5 kN < 80 kN ( O . K. )
( h ) Sketch:
m
The designed footing is shown in fig. 19 -9.
350
75 -H -H-H-H 75
ioo ::
\ /
\ 8- 16 #
\ /
\
\ / <- <
12- 12 #
2100

/ \
"

/
/
/ A
t\ 12-12 #
600
w
i
230
ioo ;:
2100 H-H-
150 ;; ^ M 7.5 lean concrete
ZHJ
100 100 >+-K 2100 >4-K
100 100
(a ) Plan ( b) Section
FIG. 19 - 9
( i ) Supplementary details :
Under the R .C. C. footing usually a lean concrete is laid first and then the
footing is cast. This is done to prevent direct contact of footing with soil and
to act as levelling course . The lean concrete is projected beyond the footing
 Reinforce d Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19
704
useful
and this projectio n varies from 0 mm to 150 mm. This is particula rly
for formwor k for the depth at end of
for the sloped footing to have a space
concrete shall not be less than the
the slope . The thickness of such lean
a lean
projectio n beyond the footing. For the footing designed in this problem
concrete of grade M 7.5 is used and shown in fig . 19 - 9 .

Example 19 - 4 .
load from
In Ex . 19 - 3, a concrete pedestal is now used to transfer the
column to foundatio n . Design the footing .
Solution :
( a ) Size of the base :
2.1 m x 2.1 m is adopted from Example 19-3.
( b ) Size of pedestal:
A pedestal of 650 mm x 650 mm is used .
Now for a pedestal referring to fig. 18 - 10 ( b )
800 x IQ 3 2
7 o = 650 x 650 = 1.89 N / mm
100 x 1.89
+ 1
tan a£ 0.9
<
20
which gives tan a £ 2.91
<

Projecti on of pedestal = 150 mm .

Depth of pedestal = 0.15 x 2.91 = 0.44 m .
Use 600 mm deep pedestal .
(c ) Moment steel:
2100 - 650
* Cantileve r = 2
= 725 mm .

M .y
0.7252 x 2.1 x 272.1 150.17 kNm .
MUiX = “ 2
The resisting section has a width
= 650 + 150 = 800 mm .
150.17 x 106 = 261 mm .
Depth required = 2.76 x 800
Try an overall depth = 460 mm .
dx = 460 - 50 - 6 = 404 mm
dy = 404 - 12 = 392 mm (second layer)
)
avg = 0 5 ( 404 + 392 =
398 mm .
^ *

use d = 392 mm for moment calculati on .

Mn 150.17 x 106 1.22
hi 2 800 x 392 x 392
pt = 0.366
Area of steel required Ast = 100 x 800 x 392 = 1148 mm .
0.366 2

Assume the depth at the edge of the footing = 230 mm.

450 4- 230
Average overall depth = 2 = 340 mm
Art . 19- 4] Isolated Footings 705

Minimum steel = 0.12 x 2100 x 340 = 857 mm 2 .

100
Provide 12 no . 12 mm diameter bars
= 1356 mm 2 > 1148 m m 2
development length = 47 x 12 = 564 mm
available anchorage = 725 - 50 = 675 mm > 470 mm ( O. K.)
( d ) One - way shear :
Referring to fig. 19 - 10 ( b ) . K

725 650 725 392 333 526 1048 526

H—»+<
y
H —
— -c
\
" \
\
\
/
526 \
\
V
I
2100 1048
I
i
I
i
'r i i
i \
\ 526 : : /
> A \

y 650
2100 > 199 199
Plan Plan Plan

150
H- -

75
600 ; ;
270 "

230 "

270 230 ”

230 - - 162 - 162 -

Section Section Section
(a ) Moment ( b ) One- way shear ( c ) Two- way shear
FIG . 19 - 10
Shear at 392 mm from face of the pedestal
Vu = 0.333 x 2.1 x 272.1 190.28 kN
b = 650 + 2 x 392 = 1434 mm
d = 165 + 333 x 230 = 270.6 mm
725
0.3332 x
Mu at the section = 2
272.1 x 2.1 = 31.68 kNm
K tan P 230
= bd
, where tan P= 725 = 0.317

190.28 - 31.68
0.27
x 0.317 x 103
1434 x 270 = 0.395 N / mm 2.
The bars extend 333 - 50 (side cover) = 283 mm , i. e., more than d (= 270.6 mm )
beyond the critical section . Therefore, the steel is effective in increasing the
shear stress.
706 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19
100 As 100 x 1356
1434 x 270 =
0.349
bd
*0 = 0.408 N / mm 2 .
% < ( O . K.)
( e ) Two - way shear :
d avg
398
This is checked at = 199 mm from the face of the pedestal.
2
Referring to fig. 19 - 10 ( c )
shear force ( 2.12 - 1.0482) x 272.1 = 901 kN
b = 4 x 1048 = 4192 mm
d = 165 + 526 x 320 = 397 mm .
725
Actual shear stress T v = 901 x 103 0.541 N / mm 2.
4192 x 397 =
Design shear strength from example 19 - 2 = 0.968 N / mm 2 ( O. K. )
( f ) Spacing of bars:
Spacing of bars =
2100 - 100 - 12 180.7 mm
11
< 3 x 162 ( = 486 mm ) or 300 mm ( O . K. )
( g ) Transfer of load from pedestal to footing:
At the base of pedestal allowable bearing force
= 0.45 x 20 x 650 x 650 x 10 ~3 = 3802 kN . . . . (Safe )
At the top of footing allowable bearing force
= 2 x 0.45 x 20 x 650 x 650 x 10-3 = 7605 kN . . ( Safe )
0.5 x
Minimum dowel bars = 650 x 650 = 2112 mm 2.
* 100
Use 8- 20 # bars.
Length of dowel in footing 700 + 450 = 1150 mm .
Use 1150 mm dowel length in footing .
The dowels are extended in column and lapped with 8- 16 # column bars in
middle half length of the column .
( h ) Weight :
0
Weight of upper prism = ; jP
(0.652 + 2.12 + 4 x 1.3752) x 25 = 11.88 kN .
Weight of lower prism = 2.1 x 2.1 x 0.23 x 25 = 25.36 kN.
Additional weight of pedestal
= ( 0.652 - 0.352 ) x 0.6 x 25 = 4.5 kN .
Total weight = 11.88 + 25.36 + 4.5 = 41.74 kN < 80 kN (O. K. )
Example 19 - 5.
Design a rectangular isolated sloped footing for a column of size 250 mm x 750 mm
carrying an axial characteristic load of 2000 kN and reinforced with 10 no. 25 mm
diameter bars in M 30 grade concrete . The allowable bearing pressure on soil is
220 kN / m 2 at 2.0 m depth . The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
Art. 19 - 4] Isolated Footings 707
Solution :
( a) Size of footing:
Column load = 2000 kN
Assume footing load = 200 kN
Load on soil 2200 kN
Area of footing required = 2200 = 10 m 2.
220
As the footing is rectangular , size of footing may be selected such that the
effective cantilevers on both sides are equal .
If b is width of footing
b ( b + 0.5 ) = 10
i . e. b 2 + 0.5 b = 10
which on solving gives b = 2.92 m .
Provide 2.95 m x 3.45 m footing
A = 10.17 m 2 ( O . K. )
( b ) Moment steel :
Pu = 1.5 x 2000 = 3000 kN .
Net upward pressure = 3000
2.95 x 3.45 = 294.8 kN / m .
2

Net cantilever on xx or yy = 1.35 m .

MU , X 1.35 2 x 2.95 x
294.8 = 792.48 kNm .
2
The resisting section has a width = 250 + 150 = 400 mm.
Balanced depth required = I 792.48 x 106
2.76 x 400 = 847.2 mm .
1.35 2 x 3.45 x
Mu > y 294.8 = 926.8 kNm .
2
The resisting section has a width = 750 + 150 = 900 mm .
Balanced depth required = 926.8 x 106
2.76 x 900 = 610.8 mm .
Try an overall depth = 950 mm .
Assuming 12 mm diameter bars .
950 - 50 - 6 = 894 mm
dx =
dy = 894 12 = 882 mm
g = 0.5 ( 894 + 882 ) = 888 mm .
Adopt a depth of 230 mm at the edge of footing.
dxi = 230 - 50 - 6 = 174 mm
dyi = 174 - 12 = 162 mm .

For M u x Mu 792.48 x 106

bd 2 400 x 8942
2.48 =
pt = 0.831
0.831 x
^
• st ~
100
400 x 894 = 2972 mm 2.
708 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19

Minimum steel = 100 x m 230 + 950

2
x 2950 = 2089 mm 2.

Provide 27 no. 12 mm # , dst = 27 x 113 = 3051 mm 2 .

2950 - 100 - 12 123.4 mm
Spacing of bars = 23
< 3 x 174 (= 522 mm ) or 300 mm (O . K. )

For M uy
Mu 926.8 x 106 1.32
bd 2 900 x 8822
pt — 0.399 0.399

100
A St x 900 x 882 — 3167 mm 2 .

Minimum steel =
2 x y 230 + 950 X 3450 = 2443 mm 2 .
100 2
750
75 MH—H-H- 75

894
i 120 [
'

950 417.2 697.5

< —
894 456
<
230 168 = = 62
^< - 3450
<- - 3450 - > Section
* Section
X1

1350
T \
\
\
\
\ /
/
/ • 906
\ /

2950 y \ y 444
250 i 1138 250
/ \
>
’ 444
/ \
1350 /
/
\i
/ 906
i /

xi
<r
1350
—H-*
750 1350
-H
4-
444 750 444
>+ <- - H >
906 1638 906
Plan
Plan
(a ) Moment and one- way shear ( b) Two- way shear

FIG . 19 - 11
The reinforcements parallel to longer direction (for Afu x) >
are spaced equally.
For reinforcement parallel to shorter direction
3.45
P = 2.95 1.169
2 2
= 0.922.
P+1 2.169
Art. 19 - 4] Isolated Footings 709

Reinforcement in central band of 2.95 m width

= 0.922 x 3167 = 2920 mm 2.
Remaining steel 3167 - 2920 = 247 mm 2 shall be distributed in end band of
total 3.45 - 2.95 = 0.5 m width .
If exact calculations are followed , a designer can provide the steel according
to above calculations. This is significant only if the longer side is much longer
than the shorter side giving reasonable end band reinforcement . In this problem
the spacing of bars for central band is found out and the same spacing is
adopted in end bands also .
For a central band , steel required per metre
3167
= 1074 mm 2
2.95
i. e ., 12 mm # about 105 mm c / c .
For total length of footing, no. of 12 mm diameter bars required
3450
105 =
32.85
Provide 33 no. 12 mm # equally spaced bars. ylst = 3729 mm 2.

Spacing of bars = 3450 100 - 12

-
104.3 mm
32
< 3 x 162 (= 486 mm ) or 300 mm ( O. K.)
( c ) Development length:
HYSD bars are usually provided without end anchorage .
Development length = 47 x 12 = 564 mm.
Anchorage available = 1350 - 50 ( cover ) = 1300 mm ( O. K. )
( d ) One - way shear :
^
About x At d = 894 mm from face of column
Vu = 0.456 x 2.95 x 294.8 = 396.6 kN.
b = 250 + 2 x 894 = 2038 mm
d = 174 + 456 x 720 = 417.2 mm
1350
i*
Mu at the section
L
= —
0.4562
— x 2.95 x 294.8 = 90.42 kNm

Vu - Mu
- tan P
720
= bd
where tan P = 1350 = 0.533
90.42 x 103
396.6 -
0.4172
= 2038 x 417.2 = 0.212 N / mm 2 .
The bars extend 456 - 30 (side cover ) = 426 mm , i.e ., more than d (= 417.2 mm )
beyond the critical section . Therefore, the steel is effective in increasing the
shear stress. Ell bend may be provided when more side cover is required.
100 100 x 3051
2038 x 417.2 =
0.359
bd
—
xc 0.412 N / mm 2
(O. K.)
"tv
^
tc
710 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19

About y At d = 882 mm from face of column

Vu = 0.468 x 3.45 x 294.8 = 476 kN
b 750 + 2 x 882 = 2514 mm
=
468 x 720
d = 162 +
1350 = 411.6 mm
Mu at the section = 0.4682
2
x 3.45 x 294.8 = 111.38 kNm

=
Mu tan P
, where tan P=
720
1350
_
= 0.533
bd
476 - 111.38 x 0.533 x 103
0.4116
= 0.321 N / mm 2 .
2514 x 411.6
100 As 100 x 3729
bd 2514 x 411.6
= 0.36
= 0.413 N / mm 2
( O . K .)
( e ) Two - way shear :
d = d avg = 888 mm .

Two - way shear is checked at a distance

properties of section at
Vu =
d

(3.45 x 2.95 -
^ from the face of column . The

are shown in fig. 19 - 11 ( b ) .

1.138 x 1.638) x 294.8
= 2450.8 kN
*
b = 2 ( 1138 + 1638) = 5552 mm
906
d = 162 + 720 x 1350 = 645.2 mm .
x 103
Actual shear stress = 2450.8
5552 x 645.2
= 0.684 N / mm 2.

Design shear strength = ks xc

where ks = ( 0.5 + pc )
short side of column
and Pc = long side of column
and also
Tc = 0.25 yj fck
250
Pc = 750 = 0.33
ks = 0.5 + 0.33 = 0.83 < 1

TC = 0.25 V20 = 1.118 N / mm .

2
2
Design shear strength = £s Tc = 0 83 x 1.118 = 0.928 N / mm
*

< s Tc ( O. K.)
*
( f ) Spacing of bars :
This is incorporated in calculations of moment steel .
Art . 19- 4 ] Isolated Footings 711

2501 |f t3 10-25 #
—
H 750 —H
jV

<
•
10-25 # Dowels

T 100
750

Kicker
.. ~

27- 12 #
950
33- 12 #
230 o
rMJL®i
150 150 •• •• 4 •

— M10 lean concrete

*
3450 >
150 150
(a) Elevation

* r
150 1
\ /
\
\ /
\ 27-12 # parallel to
\ /
\ longer side ( lower level )
/
\
\ /
\ /
2950 i
i
i
i
/ \
/ \ <-
/ 33- 12 # parallel to
\
/ \ shorter side ( upper level )
/ \
/ \
\
/ \
'' \
150 L J
H- H 3450 >
150 150
( b) Plan
FIG . 19- 12
( g) Transfer of load from column to footing:
At the base of the column
column load Pu = 1.5 x 2000 = 3000 kN
712 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 19
allowable bearing force = 0.45 x 30 x 250 x 750 x 10-3
= 2531 kN < 3000 kN
force in dowel bars = 3000 - 2531 = 469 kN (i)
At the top of the footing allowable bearing force
= 2 x 0.45 x 20 x 250 x 750 x 10~3
= 3375 kN > 3000 kN
Dowel bars not required (2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2)
dowel area = 469 x 103 = 1507 mm 2
0.75 x 415
0.5
minimum dowel area = 100 x 250 x 750 = 938 mm 2.
Use 10 - 25 # bars, i . e ., same as the column bars. A = 4910 mm 2.
Length in footing = D + 450 = 1100 + 450 = 1550 mm .
The dowels are extended in column and lapped with 10 - 20 # column bars in
middle half of the column .
( h ) Weight of footing :
0.77
Weight of upper prism = ( 0.4 x 0.9 + 2.95 x 3.45 + 4 x 1.675 x 2.175) x 25
= 80.56 kN .
Weight of lower prism = 2.95 x 3.45 x 0.23 x 25 = 58.52 kN .
Total weight = 80.56 + 58.52 = 139.08 kN .
Assumed weight = 200 kN ( O. K. )
( i ) Sketch:
The designed footing is shown in fig. 19- 12. Note that 10 - 25 # column bars are
used as dowel bars. As a general practice, if required dowel area is less than
area of column bars, then dowels provided are the same as the column bars.

*19- 5. Eccentrically loaded footings: The soil design of eccentrically loaded

footings is explained in art. 18 -7. Now , we shall design eccentrically loaded footings.
The footing may be subjected to uniaxial moment or biaxial moment. Each of these
are described below.
(1) Uniaxial Moment: A footing when subjected to Mx as shown in fig. 19 - 13 ( a ) ,
all points of a given strip are subjected to equal pressure when design is
carried out at section 1 - 1 and can be designed by considering trapezoidal
pressure diagram as indicated . For design at section 2 - 2 every point of a given
strip are subjected to variable pressure but the average pressure is P/ A and can
be designed using the value ( just like footing without moment ) .
( 2 ) Biaxial Moment : For design about section 1 - 1 in fig. 19 - 13 ( b ) , it can be seen
that the points as a given strip are subjected to variable pressure , but the
average pressure on the same strip is similar to the footing, subjected to Mx
only. For the similar reasons, while designing section 2 - 2, the average pressure
on loaded strip is like a footing subjected to My . We may state the following
for footing subjected to biaxial bending.
A footing subjected to biaxial moment is designed as subjected to uniaxial
moment Mx while designing about x- axis, and My while designing about y- axis.
If a footing is a strip footing containing 4 - 5 columns, than the loads and
Art. 19- 4] Isolated Footings 711

\t
250
^ H- 750 -H
C 3 3f — 10-25 #

<
- —- 10-25 # Dowels

750
T 100

Kicker ’

27- 12 #
950
33- 12 #
230 o
150 150 I? 1
•• 4 •
-
T
•

M10 lean concrete

*4 < 3450 *4 <
150 150
( a) Elevation

150 r i
\
\
\
\
- 7
/

27-12 # parallel to
\ /
\ longer side ( lower level )
/
\ /
\ /

2950
\ i
/
i
i i
/ \
/ \ <- 33-12 # parallel to
/ \
/ \ shorter side ( upper level )
/ \
/ s
/ \
/ \
/ \
150 L J

*H H-
150 — 3450 >4
150
«

( b) Plan
FIG . 19 - 12
( g ) Transfer of load from column to footing :
At the base of the column
column load Pu = 1.5 x 2000 = 3000 kN
 Isolated Footings 713
Art. 19 - 6]
moment summations about c.g. of footing shall be carried out and treated in
the same way as above . A footing of multi - storeyed building column is subjected
to biaxial moment and is designed in art. 19-8.
Mx Mx
P My
A + Z
® ®

My
© © ©

® ® _P _ My
Plan A Z
Plan

_ Mx 7
_ P Mx P Mx _P P
+
Mx
A Z + A Z A Z
A Z

Upward pressure diagram Upward pressure diagram

(a) Footing subjected to uniaxial moment ( b ) Footing subjected to biaxial moment
Design pressure diagrams
FIG . 19 - 13
19- 6. Fixing up footing dimensions: This is also called soil design . Here, we
shall discuss a few tips for fixing the dimensions to get economical design of footings.
( 1 ) Square columns shall have square footings. Rectangular columns shall have
rectangular footings so that the footing prejections on all sides are the same.
( 2 ) When the footing is subjected to a uniaxial moment , determine the basic
dimensions by considering only axial load as in ( 1 ). Then increase the dimension
perpendicula r to the moment axis ( length ) in increaments such that
P +. M
A Z < A . B. P.

P
and
A i
If moment is large and if you get L / B
o
2 , stop the procedure at
L / B = 2 and then increase both the dimensions equally and check the
above condition .
( 3) When the footing is subjected to biaxial moment, determine the basic dimensions
by considering only axial load as in ( 1) . Then increase both the dimensions in
equal increaments such that pressure intensities at all four corners are less
than A B F and greater than zero . This gives
P Mx My
A
+ +
zy < A . B. P.

and
p _ £x My
> 0.
A Z, Zy
714 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19
Example 19 - 6 .
A 230 mm x 600 mm R . C. C. column carries a service load of 600 kN and a
service moment of 100 kNm about its major axis . Design an isolated rectangular
footing with following data :
Column : Size : 230 mm x 600 mm
main bars : 8 - 2 5 mm #
ties : 8 mm # @ 100 mm c/ c
concrete : M 25 grade
reinforcement : HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415
Footing : concrete : M 20 grade
reinforcement : HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415
A . B . P. : 200 kN / m 2 at 1.6 m depth .
Solution :
( a ) Size of footing:
Column load = 600 kN
Self - weight of footing = 60 kN
Total 660 kN
660
3.3 m 2.
=
200 =
Area required for axial load only
«>
If x is the projection of footing from column face
( 0.23 + 2 x ) ( 0.6 + 2 x ) = 3.3.
The solution of the equation gives
= 0.71 m .
x
Width of footing = 0.23 + 2 x 0.71 1.7 m .
Adopt 1.7 m width . For deciding length of footing, trial and error method should
be employed as explained in Example 18 -3. The calculations are as follows:
P = 660 kN Mx = 100 kNm .
P M
Trial L x B A Z
A z P max P min
m2 m3 kN / m 2 kN / m 2 kN / m 2 kN / m 2
1 2.5 m x 1.7 m 4.25 1.77 155.3 56.5 211.8 98.8
2 2.6 m x 1.7 m 4.42 1.915 149.3 52.2 201.5 97.1
3 2.7 m x 1.7 m 4.59 2.065 143.8 48.4 192.2 95.4
Adopt 2.7 m x 1.7 m size , p max < S.B.C., pmin > 0 .
( b ) Net upward pressures:
Net upward pressures for footing design
600 100
+ 2.065
P = 4.59 ^ = 130.7 ± 48.4

/W = 179.1 kN / m 2
pmin = 82.3 kN / m 2.
Art . 19 - 6] Isolated Footings 715

Net upward pressures acting on footing are shown in fig. 19 - 14.

X *2 X1

T
735 Q B
t 7E
”

219 i
1700 230 y y 688 230
l
i l 2 9 B
735 P
> H- 600-H H- V
i 229 229
x
x2 xl H — 1058 H
> f*- 818
232
h*
464 586
H— 1050 H<
600
H-* 1050 —H
h* 2700
( a ) Moment and one- way shear ( b) Two- way shear

(N fN
CN
00 £ E
sO o Z vO zM
'O M VO
Os oo O Os O
»o
Os
r- -
Os
r

X2
X1

(c) Net upward pressure distribution

FIG . 19 - 14
( c ) Moment calculations:
1 x 141.45 x
Mx = 1.05 x 1 x 1.05 + 1 x 179.1
2 3 2
x 1.05 x 2 x 1.05 x 1.7
3
= 44.2 + 111.9 = 156.1 kNm
Mux = 1.5 x 156.1 = 234.15 kNm
My = ° - 7352
2
x 2.7 x 82.3 + 179.1
2 = 95.32 kNm
M ..
uy„ = 1.5 x 95.32 = 142.98 kNm .
( d ) Moment steel:
Balanced depth required for flexure

d =
I 156.1 x 106
2.76 x 1700
182.4 mm .
716 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19
Try an overall depth of 520 mm . Larger depth is required for shear requireme nt.
dx = 520 - 50 - 6 = 464 mm
dy = 464 - 12 = 452 mm .
d ave = 0.5 ( 464 + 452 ) = 458 mm .
Steel parallel to longer direction:
Mu 234.15 x 106
1700 x 464 x 464 =
0.64
bd 2
pt = 0.184 r

0.184
^ st “

100
'
x 1700 x 464 = 1451 mm 2.

Minimum steel = 0.12 x 520 x 1700 = 1061 mm 2.

100
Provide 14 no. 12 mm # giving Ast = 1582 mm 2.
Steel parallel to shorter direction:
Mu 142.98 x 106
bd 2 2700 x 452 x 452 = 0.259
= 0.085
pt
0.085
^ —
st
100
x 2700 x 452 = 1037 mm 2.

Minimum steel = 0.12 x 520 x 2700 = 1685 mm 2.

100
longer side of footing 2.7
P = shorter side of footing 1.7
1.59
2 2
1.59 + 1 =
0.772.
P+1
Reinforce ment in central band of 1.7 m width
= 0.772 x 1037 = 801 mm 2.
Spacing of 12 mm # bars
1700 x area of one bar 1700 x 113
area required 801= 239.8 mm .
No . of bars with this spacing
2700
11.25
239.8
Provide 15 - 12 # giving ^4st = 1695 mm 2 to satisfy minimum steel
requireme nt,
( e ) One - way shear:
-
About X \ x\ V = 0.586 x 158.1 + 179.1 x 1.7 = 167.96 kN
2
Vu = 1.5 x 167.96 = 251.9 kN
x 103
= 251.9
1700 x 464 =
0.319 N / mm 2.
100 At 100 x 1582
bd 1700 x 464 = 0.2
About y \ - y \
xc = 0.32 N / mm 2 (Safe )

The cantilever is smaller, therefore one - way shear stresses are within the limits.
 Isolated Footings 717
Art . 19 - 6 ]
( f ) Two - way shear :
Average depth = 458 mm .
two- way shear
The soil pressure distribution below the footing is varying, hence , the
stress on perimeter lines AB, BQ QP and PA at distance
- from column face ,
two - way shear force
as shown in fig. 19 - 15 ( b ) will be different. The maximum
will be along line AB. Two - way shear, therefore, may be checked along line AB.
short side of column 1.7
2.7 =
0.63
Pc = long side of column
ks = (0.5 + Pc) = 0.5 + 0.63 = 1.37
> 1.0
£s = 10
= 0.25 V2U = 1.12 N / mm 2 .
Design shear strength = As T C = 1.0 x 1.12 = 1.12 N / mm .
2

Two- way shear along line AB

-( 2 2 )
0.688 + 1.7 149.66 + 179.1 x 0.821 = 161.14 kN

Vu = 1.5 x 161.14 = 241.7 kN

241.7 x 103 = 0.767 N / mm 2
= 688 x 458
1.12 N / mm 2 (Safe )
<
( g ) Transfer of load from column to footing :
Design bearing pressure at the base of column
(1)
= 0.45 x 25 = 11.25 N / mm 2
At the top of footing
A2 = 0.23 x 0.6 = 0.138 m 2
Ai — smaller of
( i ) 1.7 x 2.7 = 4.59 m 2
(ii ) (0.23 + 4 x 0.458) x (0.6 + 4 x 0.458) = 5.01 m2
At = 4.59 m 2

= 6.03 > 2

= 2.
= 18 N / mm 2 ( 2)
Design bearing pressure = 2 x 0.45 x 20
Design bearing pressure from ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
= 11.25 N / mm 2.
Actual maximum bearing pressure
600 x 103 + 6 x 100 x 106 = 17.4 N / mm 2.
1.5
230 x 600 230 x 6002
718 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch. 19

Force in dowel bars 11.25) x 230 x 600 x 10

= ( 17.4 -
3 = 848.7 kN.
x IQ 3
= 848.7
0.75 x 415
= 2726 mm 2.
Use 8- 25 # dowel bars as same as the column bars.
As = 3928 mm 2.
Anchoring of dowel bar in footing :
D + 450 = 520 + 450 = 970 mm . Consider 1000 mm .
Provide 1000 mm long dowel bars in footing, extend in column and use as
.
column bars. These bars can be lapped in central half length of the column
H- 600-H
230 r
~' ~
C 3

< Dowel bars

8-25 #
Ties 8 mm # @ 100 mm c/c

M 25

930 14- 12 mm # parallel to

1600 longer side
15 -12 mm # parallel to
520 shorter side
" 150
't
*** Vk 1 - / •
M 10

* 150
2700 x 1700 H H
150
—
FIG . 19 - 15
( h ) Weight:
W = 1.7 x 2.7 x 0.52 x 25 = 59.67 kN < 60 kN .
Note that the dimensions of footing are larger in this case due to moment . In
some cases, it may be necessary to assume more than 10 per cent self weight
of the footing when the footing is subjected to moment .
( i ) Sketch :
The sketch of the designed footing is shown in fig. 19- 15. Below the footing, a 100 mm
thick levelling course of M 10 grade is . provided .
19- 7. Isolated slab and beam type footing: When the bending moments
acting on column are very large , such as footing of a crane column in industrial
building, this type of footing becomes economical . Consider Example 19 - 6 whose
footing plan may be modified as shown in fig. 19- 16.
A beam and slab are provided under the column to act as foundation. The footing
slab shall be designed as balanced cantilever from the beam and the beam will be
designed as balanced cantilever from the column . The width of the beam shall be
50 mm to 75 mm more than that of the column to accommodate for column bars.
 718 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch. 19
Force in dowel bars =
( 17.4 - 11.25) x 230 x 600 x 10-3 = 848.7 kN.
848.7 x IQ 3
=
0.75 x 415 = 2726 mm .
2

Use 8- 25 # dowel bars as same as the column bars.

As = 3928 mm 2.
Anchoring of dowel bar in footing:
D + 450 = 520 + 450 = 970 mm . Consider 1000 mm .
Provide 1000 mm long dowel bars in footing, extend in column and use
as
column bars. These bars can be lapped in central half length of the column
.
H- 600-H
230 r c i

Dowel bars
8-25 #
Ties 8 mm # @ 100 mm c/c

M 25

930
14- 12 mm # parallel to
1600
longer side
15- 12 mm # parallel to

-
520
150
/jr
< f \T shorter side
M10
* »+ - H 2700 x 1700 >
150 150
FIG . 19- 15
( h ) Weight :
W = 1.7 x 2.7 x 0.52 x 25 = 59.67 kN < 60 kN .
Note that the dimensions of footing are larger in this case due
to moment. In
some cases, it may be necessary to assume more than 10
per cent self weight
of the footing when the footing is subjected to moment .
( i ) Sketch:
The sketch of the designed footing is shown in fig. 19- 15. Below the footing,
a 100 mm
thick levelling course of M 10 grade is provided .
19 - 7 . Isolated slab and beam type footing : When the
bending moments
acting on column are very large , such as footing of a crane column
in industrial
building, this type of footing becomes economical. Consider Example
19- 6 whose
footing plan may be modified as shown in fig. 19- 16 .
A beam and slab are provided under the column to act as foundation
slab shall be designed as balanced cantilever from the beam and
. The footing
the beam will be
designed as balanced cantilever from the column . The width of the beam
50 mm to 75 mm more than that of the column to accommo shall be
date for column bars.
Art . 19 -7 ] Isolated Footings 719

D C
T
700

i
1700 300
1
700
i
A B
H— 1050 *+<- 1050 >
600
h* 2700 H
(a ) Slab and beam type footing

<N
00
CN
£
Z
't

-
ON
r

( b) Net upward pressure distribution

FIG . 19 - 16
It can be observed that along the width of the footing, the pressures are constant
whereas along the length , the upward pressures are varying. There may be a reversal of
moment where pmdLX will become /? min and vice versa (for example , if the moment is due
to wind or earthquake loads ). In such a case, the slab will be designed for maximum upward
pressure whereas the varying pressures may be considered for beam design . While
providing the reinforcement in beam , reversal of moment shall be taken into account.
In structural design , note that the two - way action of the footing is distributed as
one - way bending of slab and one - way bending of the beam . Thus, check for two - way
shear is not applicable here . Also , the foundation is treated separately as slab and
beam , thus reinforcement provisions like minimum reinforcement , spacing, etc., will
be respectively as per slabs and beams.
Example 19 - 7.
Design an isolated slab - beam type foundation for the data of Example 19 - 6.
Solution :
Provide 300 mm wide beam as shown in fig. 19- 16. The slab will be designed for
net upward pressure of 179.1 kN / m 2.
Design of slab:
Consider 1 m length of the slab . The cantilever = 0.7 m .

= 0.72
M
2
x 179.1 = 43.88 kNm .

Mu = 1.5 x 43.88 = 65.82 kNm .

720 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19

65.82 x 106
d = 1000 x 2.76
154.4 mm .

Consider D — 400 mm .
Larger depth will be needed for shear deesign .
d = 400 - 50 - 6 = 344 mm
Mu 65.82 x IQ 6
1000 x 344 x 344 =
0.556
bd 2
pt = 0.16
Ast = 550 mm 2.
Provide 12 mm # @ 200 mm c / c = 565 mm 2 .
Shear at d = (0.7 - 0.344 ) x 179.1 = 63.76 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 63.76 = 95.64 kN.
95.64 x 103
= 1000 x 344 =
0.278 N / mm 2 .
pt = 0.16
Tc = 0.288 N / mm 2
( O . K.)
^ *c
Distribution steel @ 0.12 % gross area
0.12 x
= 1000 x 400 = 480 mm 2 / m .
100
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 490 mm 2 / m .
Development length of main bar = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Available anchorage = 700 - 50 = 650 mm .
Maximum spacing for main bars = 3 x 344 = 1032 mm or 300 mm . Also for
secondary bars it is 450 mm . The spacings provided are within limits .
Design of beam:
Referring to fig. 19 - 14, load on beam
= 179.1 x 1.7 kN / m to 82.3 x 1.7 kN / m
= 304.5 kN / m to 140 kN / m , varying.
Load at the face of column on pmdLX side
= 141.45 x 1.7 = 240.5 kN / m .
Design the beam as cantilever from column for varying load of 240.5 kN / m
at face of the column to 304.5 kN / m at the tip of the cantilever. Loadings for
flexure and shear design are shown in fig. 19 - 17.
V{ 0.5 x 240.5 x 1.05 = 126.26 kN
=
V2 0.5 x 304.5 x 1.05 = 159.86 kN
=
M 126.26 x 0.35 + 159.86 x 0.7
=
= 44.19 + 111.91 = 156.1 kNm
The slab exists on tension side of the beam . Therefore design the beam as
rectangular beam .
Art . 19 -7] Isolated Footings 721

126.26 159.86 kN
/ /
/ /

/
/ V , /
/
/
/ /
/ /
240.5 kN/m / 240.5 kN/m X 282.56 kN/m
7.
/
304.5 kN/m /
/
304.5 kN / m
/
V2 /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
K
350
H 700 > < 690 — 3 6 0-H
4 1050 > H- 1050 H
(a ) Flexure ( b) Shear
FIG. 19 - 17
Mu = 1.5 x 156.1 = 234.15 kNm .
234.15 x 106
d = 2.76 x 300
= 532 mm .
Provide D = 750 mm .
d = 750 - 50 - 10 = 690 mm
Mu 234.15 x IQ 6 1.64
bd 2 300 x 690 x 690
/> t = 0.509
Ast = 1054 mm 2 .
Provide 6 - 16 # = 1206 mm 2 placed in two layers .
100 x 1206
P t = 300 x 690 = 0.58
TC = 0.505 N / mm 2.
Shear at distance d = 690 mm from face of the column .
Referring to fig. 19 - 15 ( b )
= 0.5 ( 282.56 + 304.5) x 0.36
= 105.67 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 105.67 =
158.5 kNm .
Fuc = xc bd = 0.505 x 300 x - 690 x 10-3
= 104.5 kN
Fus = = 54 kN 158.5 - 104.5
VUS 54 x 103
d 690 = 78.3.
VUS
Provide 8 mm # two -legged stirrups @ 250 mm c / c throughout with 87.5.
d =
Development length = 47 x 16 = 752 mm .
Available anchorage = 1050 - 50 = 1000 mm ( O . K.)
722 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19
The designed footing slab and beam are shown in fig. 19 - 18 . Provide 2 - 16 #
anchor bars.
> '
B
150 r i

700
T <- < 12 mm # @ 200 mm c/c

1700 300
i
1
“

10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c
150
i J
B 400 mm thick base slab
150 mm thick levelling course
> <- 2700 >4 <
150 150
(a ) Plan

< 230 x 600 column

300
— 2-16 # 2-16 #

T
750
350 , , 350 '

400
£ 6-16 # 400

^
150 - 1« . . 4

LM10
150. LI L M10
*4 2700 >4 < H H 1700 —
H K
150 150 150
L
6-16 #
150

D
N 8 # @ 250 c/c throughout
> —
10 # @ 160 c/c
S
— 12 # @ 200 c/c
( b) Section A - A (c) Section B-B
FIG . 19 - 18
19- 8. Resistance to horizontal loads: The columns are also subjected to
horizontal loads due to wind , earthquake or force induced due to geometry. Columns
transmit these forces at the top of the footing. These forces are resisted by
( 1 ) the friction between soil and the footing if the soil is cohesionless such as sand
( 2 ) the adhesion between soil and the footing if the soil is cohesive such as clay
( 3 ) the passive pressure provided by the soil to the footing
( 4 ) a slab tie (ground slab) may be provided at the top of the footing connecting
many footings .
Referring to fig. 19- 19, the formulae for determining resistance to horizontal loads
are given below. Note that the resistance of soil from ground level to depth Hi is not
taken into account. It is assumed that this soil may be excavated in future .
Art. 19 - 8] Isolated Footings 723

P
Resistance from this soil is
Hi neglected as this may be excavated
H

th * w R2
h -
i i 3
l h
2 - R4

4R - R 3= 1A R kpYh
2c
H
Yh
h* L H
(a) Base ( b) Cohesionless soil (c) Cohesive soil
FIG . 19- 19
(a) Cohesionh* s soil:
1 + sin <j>
*P =
1 - sin <j) '

Passive pressure at depth h = £ p y h.

= 1 A:p y A 2 x width of the footing a)
Total load on soil ^
= P + W ( self - weight of footing)
If p is the coefficient of friction between the footing and the ground , the
frictional resistance
3 = P (P + W)
* (2)
The value of p is generally assumed as tan | < >.
Finally we have R = Ri + R 2
1 y h2 x B
= 2 kp
R2 = n (P + WO
1 + sin |
(>

1 - sin (()
p = tan d.
( b ) Cohesive soil:
For cohesive soil, \< > = 0.
Therefore coefficient of passive earth pressure = 1.0.
Let c = cohesion at zero normal pressure
P = adhesion between footing and soil.
Then total resistance to horizontal load is given by refering to fig. 19- 19.
R = R2 b - 4 b R$
R 2 = 2 c Bh
"

^ “

Ri = \y L B.
h2 x B
R3 = P
724 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19

The factor of safety against sliding is given by

R
F. S. = -77 , which should not be less than 1.60.
H
The loads acting on the soil are given by
Vertical load = P + W
Horizontal load = H
Moment = M + Hh.
Out of these , the horizontal load is resisted as explained above . For remaining two
forces and moment , the footing should be designed as an eccentrically loaded footing
as explained in art . 19 - 5.
19 - 9. Footing for multi- storeyed building columns: The buildings are
designed for three conditions : DL 4- LL, DL 4- LL 4- WL and DL 4- LL 4- EL. The
structure should be safe for all three cases separately. Also, the wind and earthquake
can load the building in X and Y directions. Thus there are totally five primary cases
for which the structure is designed . These are ( i ) DL 4- LL ( ii ) DL 4- LL 4- WL (*),
( iii ) DL 4- LL 4- WL (y) , (iv ) DL + LL + EL (*) and (v ) DL 4- LL 4- EL (y) . In fact , the
total number of cases for which a given column and its footing shall be designed are many.
The columns and foundations are designed for these five cases. For any case , in general,
the loads consist of axial load , horizontal load and moment about ( x) and (y) directions,
since DL 4- LL moments exist about both the directions. These loads which act at the
top of the footing should be transferred at the base of the foe .ng as shown in fig . 19- 20 .
The horizontal load acting at soil - structure interaction shall be balanced by friction
and cohesion at the base and also by passive pressure of s o i if required . If this is also
insufficient , a key may be provided to increase the passive pressure. Thus the practical
footing is subjected to axial load and biaxial moment.

*
Mx Mx
X ex X ex

4r V

My
D is assumed for D is assumed for
the first trial the first trial
P4-W
Hx W ( self ) M y 4- Hx D
D D
I H x -1
( a) ( b)

Design forces and moments

FIG . 19 - 20
We shall now design a practical footing subjected to axial load and biaxial moment.
Various design load cases for the given footing will however be not considered here.
These are discussed in volume II of this book . Presently we shall design the footing
for critical load case given as data.
 Isolated Footings 723
Art. 19 - 8]

p
Resistance from this soil is
Hi neglected as this may be excavated
H

th w R2
h ^

1 i h
3
--
1
2 - - —
R4

—R ^— -
R (1 R kpYh H-» H
2c Yh
h* L H

(a) Base ( b ) Cohesionless soil (c) Cohesive soil

FIG . 19- 19
(a) Cohesionh* s soil:
1 + sin (()
*P = 1 - sin |< > ’

Passive pressure at depth h = A:p y h.

1 x width of the footing (1)
= 2 Y
Total load on soil = P + W ( self - weight of footing)
If p is the coefficient of friction between the footing and the ground , the
frictional resistance
3 = H IP + w )
(2)
*
The value of p is generally assumed as tan | < >.
Finally we have R = R\ +
1
*i = 2 *P Y A2 x B
R2 = n (P + W)
1 + sin |< >
1 - sin <(>
p = tan <t> .
( b) Cohesive soil:
0. Therefore coefficient of passive earth pressure = 1.0 .
For cohesive soil, (J) =
Let cohesion at zero normal pressure
c =
adhesion between footing and soil .
P =
Then total resistance to horizontal load is given by refering to fig. 19 - 19.
R = i
R 2 = 2 c Bh
Ri = \p Ly B. h2 x B
R3 =
724 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 19

The factor of safety against sliding is given by

F. S. = -77 , which should not be less than 1.60.
The loads acting on the soil are given by
Vertical load = P + W
Horizontal load = H
Moment = M 4- Hh .
Out of these, the horizontal load is resisted as explained above . For remaining two
forces and moment, the footing should be designed as an eccentrically loaded footing
as explained in art. 19-5.
19 - 9. Footing for multi- storeyed building columns: The buildings are
designed for three conditions: DL 4- LL, DL + LL 4- WL and DL 4 LL 4 EL
- - . The
structure should be safe for all three cases separately . Also, the wind and earthquake
can load the building in X and Y directions. Thus there are totally five primary
cases
for which the structure is designed . These are ( i ) DL 4- LL ( ii ) DL 4- LL 4 - WL ( *) ,
(iii ) DL + LL + WL ( y), (iv) DL 4- LL 4- EL ( x ) and (v ) DL + LL + EL (y) . In fact , the
total number of cases for which a given column and its footing shall be designed are many.
The columns and foundations are designed for these five cases. For any case , in general
,
of axial load , horizontal load and moment about ( x) and ( y ) directions ,
the loads consist
which act at the
since DL 4- LL moments exist about both the directions. These loads
. 19- 20.
top of the footing should be transferred at the base of the foe .ng as shown in fig
The horizontal load acting at soil- structure interaction shall be balanced by friction
and cohesion at the base and also by passive pressure of soi if required . If this is also
insufficient, a key may be provided to increase the passive pressure. Thus the practical
footing is subjected to axial load and biaxial moment.

Mx Mx
X ex X e*

My
D is assumed for D is assumed for
the first trial the first trial
P+ W
Hx M y+ H x D
W (self )
D D
Hx -1
(a) (b)

Design forces and moments

FIG . 19 - 20
We shall now design a practical footing subjected to axial load and biaxial moment.
Various design load cases for the given footing will however be not considered here
.
These are discussed in volume II of this book . Presently we shall design the footing
for critical load case given as data.
Art . 19- 9] Isolated Footings 725
Example 19 - 8 .
A 300 mm x 600 mm R.C. C. column carries a service load of 800 kN and service
moments Mx = 80 kNm about its major axis and My = 50 kNm about its minor axis.
It also carries a horizontal thrust of 60 kN along longer side of the column . The
column is reinforced with 8 no . 28 mm diameter HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 ,
in concrete of grade M 30. Design an isolated rectangular pad footing. The materials
for footing shall be M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcemen t of grade Fe 415.
The soil strara from 1.6 m to 5.6 m depth is hard yellow silty clay of high plasticity
having cohesion c = 70 kPa, b = 0°, y = 16 kN / m 3, adhesion p = 80 kPa and ABP
= 200 kPa at 2.4 m depth . r
Solution :
(a ) Loads on footing: Assume overall depth of footing = 600 mm . Also consider
self - weight of footing to be 12 % of axial load on column .
self - weight of footing = 0.12 x 800 = 96 kN.
The loads applied on footing are shown in fig. 19 - 21.
At the base of the footing
P = 800 + 96 = 896 kN . Hy = 60 kN
Mx = 80 + 60 x 0.6 = 116 kNm My = 50 kNm .
x 80 kNm

x
50 kNm
B

i i
r 50 kNm

116 kNm

*
800 kN

60 kN
96 kN 896 kN
600 mm
± i 60 kN is 116 kNm
(a ) ( b)
FIG . 19 - 21
( b ) Size of footing : Rectangular footing is adopted with equal projections from
column in both the directions. First calculate the size of footing required for
axial load only. Since the difference in column dimensions is (0.6 - 0.3)
= 0.3 m ,
the difference in footing dimensions will also be 0.3 m .
Area of footing 896
required for axial load ] — 200 = 4.48 m .
2

If B = 2 m, L = 2.3 m and A = 4.6 m 2.

This size is considered for first trial. Then the footing dimensions are calculated
by successive trials to see that p max < ABP and pmin > 0 .
726 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 19
Successive trials are tabulated as shown below :

Trial B L A zx - 1 BL2
Zy
1 LB 2 P Mx My P max P min
g 6 A Zx zy Remark
no . m m m2 m3 m3 kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
1 2.0 2.3 4.6 1.76 1.53 194.8 65.9 32.7 293.4 96.2 / max > 200
’
2 2.2 2.5 5.5 2.29 2.02 162.9 50.7 24.8 238.4 87.4 / max > 200
3 2.4 2.7 6.48 2.92 2.59 138.3 39.7 19.3 197.3 79.3 / max < 200
’
’
P Mx My
Here P max + +
A zy
P My
and P min ~
A Zx zy
Adopt 2.4 m wide x 2.7 m long footing
( c ) Net upward pressures:
P 800
A 6.48 = 123.5 kN / m 2

Mx = My
39.7 kN / m 2 and = 19.3 kN / m 2 .
Zx zy
The average pressures are as follows :
For Mx Pm* x = 123.5 + 39.7 = 163.2 kN / m 2
Pmin = 123.5 - 39.7 = 83.8 kN / m 2.
For My Anax = 123.5 + . 19.3 = 142.8 kN / m 2.
pmin = 123.5 - 19.3 = 104.2 kN / m 2.
The net upward pressure diagrams are shown in fig. 19- 22.
( & ) Design for flexure :
(i ) For Mx :
Refrains to fig. 19 - 22 ( b )
1
Mx = i: x 132.3 x 1.05 x
L2
1 05
+ -3 i2 x 163.2 x 1.05 x 2 x 1.05
3
x 2.4

= ( 24.31 + 59.99 ) x 2.4 = 202.3 kNm

Mux = 1.5 x 202.3 = 303.5 kNm .
Depth required for balanced section
303.5 x 106
d = 2.76 x 2400
= 214 mm
(i i ) For My\
Referring to fig. 19 - 22 ( c )
My = 7T
1 x -
125.9 x 1.05 x 1 05 + x 142.8 x 1.05 x £2 x 1.05
\ x 2.7

=
^ 3 2
( 23.13 + 52.48) x 2.7 = 204.2 kNm
3

M„uy„ = 1.5 x 204.2 = 306.3 kNm .

Art . 19 - 9] Isolated Footings 727
Depth required for balanced section
306.3 x 106
d =
2.76 x 2400 =
202.8 mm .
The depth of footing is usually governed by shear , rather than flexure .
Try 550 mm overall depth and 12 mm diameter bars.
Then dx = 550 - 50 - 6 = 494 mm
and dy = 494 - 12 = 482 mm.
Tv
142.8 kN/m 2
4

1050

2400 300 125.9 kN/m 21

P
1050

i 4
104.2 kN / m 2

— 1050
H >+<
600 -
>+ <- 1050 H

K 2700 H
(a ) (c)

tN
S‘
§ e (N

00 § s
cn
oo
CN
- 2N
cn (

0>

(b)
FIG. 19 - 22
( iii ) Reinforcement paralllel to longer side :
M UX 303.5 x 106
2400 x 494 x 494 =
0.518
bd 2
pt = 0.149

^ —
0.149 x
st 2400 x 494 = 1767 mm 2.
100
Minimum steel = 0.12 x 2400 x 550 = 1584 mm 2.
100
Use 16- 12 mm # , st = 16 x 113 = 1808 mm 2.
^
728 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19
( iv ) Reinforcement parallel to shorter side.
M uy
306.3 x 106
bd 2 2700 x 482 x 482 = 0.488

P t = 0.14
0.14 x _
2700 x 482 = 1822 mm 2 .
^
100 St

Minimum steel = 0.12 x 2700 x 550 = 1782 mm 2.

100
Use 17- 12 mm # , Ast = 17 x 113 = 1921 mm 2.
Since the difference between adjacent sides of footing is small, the reinforcement
in both the directions will be uniformly spaced .
( e ) Resistance to horizontal load :

R = 2 cBh + £1 y A2 B
+ (3 LB
2
= 2 x 70 x 2.4 x 0.55 + 12 x 16 x 0.552 x 2.5
+ 80 x 2.7 x 2.4
= 184.8 + 6.05 + 518.4 = 709.25 kN .
H = 60 kN .
Factor of safety 709.25
against slidingJ
~ 11.82 (O. K.)
60
( f ) One - way shear : This is checked at d from column face. Section xyxt located at
dx = 494 mm and section y\- y\ located at dy = 482 mm from column faces with
upward pressures are shown in fig. 19 - 23.

Section *r *l V = ±1 ( 146.9 + 163.2 ) x 0.556 x 2.4 = 206.9 kN

* Vu = 1.5 x 206.9 = 310.4 kN
310.4 x 103
Tv = Id 2400 x 494 = 0.262 N / mm 2

100 As 100 x 1808

bd 2400 x 494 = 0.152

TV = 0.28 N / mm 2
Tv
' < Tc ( safe )
Section y\ - y
\ V= i2 ( 133.7 + 148.8) X 0.568 x 2.7 = 212 kN

Vu = 1.5 x 212 = 318 kN

318 x 103 0.148 N / mm 2
Tv bd 2700 x 482 =
100 As 100 x 1921
bd 2700 x 482 = 0.148

xY = 0.28 N / mm 2
*v < TC ( safe )
Art . 19 - 9 ] Isolated Footings 729
xi 142.8 kN /m 2

y . *1
568

482
±
*
133.7 kN/m 2

2400

X 1 104.2 kN/m 2
h* >+< >
494 556
< - 2700 H
( a) (c )
CN
E
z CN
s CN
E
oo
cn
OO
3
ON 3
so CN
b
cb
VO

( b)

FIG. 19- 23
( g ) Two - way shear : This is checked at ~ from column face .
Average depth =
1
( 494 + 482 ) = 488 mm . Two - way shear is critical along face AB .
2 Refer
to fig. 19- 24.
ON >
^ ^ y

V = i ( 139.5 + 163.2) x 1 (0.788 + 2.4) x 0.806 j

= 194.4 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 194.4= 291.6 kN
291.6 x IQ 3
TV = 788 x
492 =
0.752 N / mm 2
0.3
3 c = 0.6 = 0.5
ks = (0.5 + Pc) = (0.5 + 0.5 ) = 1.0
>1.0
i .e. ks = 1.0
ks Tc = 1.0 x 0.25 /20 = 1.12 N / mm 2
Tv < *c ( safe )
 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 19

244 I d1 al
300 788 I I
244 I C1 bll
1088

<- > K
244 600 244
H— 806 — 1088 H-< 806 H — —
2700 H

rsi

C4
£
M
6 <N
00 § £
m
oo in
Os
2
(N

so

FIG . 19- 24
( h ) Transfer of load from column to footing:
Design bearing pressure at the base of column
*
= 0.45 /ck = 0.45 x 30 = 13.5 N / mm 2 (1)
At the top of the footing
A2 = 0.3 x 0.6 = 0.18 m 2
Ai = smaller of ( i ) 2.4 x 2.7 = 6.48 m 2
( ii ) ( 0.3 + 4 x 0.488) x (0.6 + 4 x 0.488) = 5.75 m 2.
i .e . Ai = 5.75 m 2

v 5.75
0.18 = 5.65 > 2

= 2

Design bearing pressure at top of footing (fck = 20 N / mm 2)

= 2 x 0.45 x 20 = 18 N / mm 2 ( 2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , safe design bearing pressure = 13.5 N / mm 2.
Maximum bearing pressure at aj ( fig. 19 - 24 )
a- =
, , [800 x + 6 80 106 +. 6 50 106
, X IQ 3x x x
pt * 1 '

L 300 x 600
300 6002
x 600 3002
x
= 1.5 ( 4.44 + 4.44 + 5.55) = 21.65 N / mm 2 .
 Isolated Footings 731
Art . 19 - 9]
This is greater than 13.5 N / mm 2 , Dowels are required .
2
Note that the average bearing pressure is just 1.5 x 4.44 = 6.66 N / mm due
to axial load since the moment component of pressure is additive on one side
and substrative on the other side . Considering moments to be reversible , all
. , subjected to maximum pressure of
corners , viz , ax cx and dx may be
21.65 N / mm 2 .
Force in dowel bars on very much conservative side , may be calculated as
P = ( 21.65 - 13.5) x 300 x 600 x 10 ~ 3 = 1467 kN.

H— 600 —>
*
300 * <— 8-28 #
J

I
H
Column bars may be
lapped in this region
2 8 mm # ties @ 150 mm c/c

H 8 mm # ties @ 75 mm c/c
4

150
?
600
G.B.

i H = Clear height of ground

floor column = 3600 mm

2300 r — 17-12 #
( parallel to short)

r 16-12 #
-
( parallel to long)

i
550
'•
300

\ f

r?\
100 LZ
M10 P.C.C.
H- 2700 x 2400 > <-
150 150
< 3000 x 2700 excavation >

FIG . 19 - 25
732 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 19

Dowel area required

1467 x 103
= 0.75 x 415 = 4713 mm 2.
Column bars Asc = 8 x 616 = 4928 mm 2.
All column bars are used as dowels. Dowel length in footing
(i ) = 33 # = 33 x 28 = 924 mm using stress equal to 0.75 Jy
( ii ) by geometry = D + 450 = 550 + 450 = 1000 mm .
Use 1000 mm length of dowels in footing. Extend the bars in column . The column
bars will be lapped with these bars in central half length of the column .
( i ) Weight of footing :
Actual weight W = 2.4 x 2.7 x 0.55 x 25 = 89.1 kN .
Assume weight = 96 kN ( O. K.)
( j ) Sketch : The designed footing is detailed in fig. 19 - 25 . Note that ties of the
column bars shall extend in footing for atleast 300 mm . It is assumed that the
ground beam is placed at 150 mm below ground level . The column bars will be
lapped in central half length of ground floor column as shown in the same drawing.
( k ) Column ties: As required by IS : 13920, the code of practice for ductile detailings,
all structures lying in earthquake zones III, IV and V have to follow ductile
detailing. The column ties and lapping of column bars shown in fig. 19 - 25
follow these details . You will learn more about this in vol. II of this book.

EXAMPLE 12r% :

( 1 ) Design the footing for an R . C . C. wall 150 mm thick and carrying a total working
load of 360 kN / m . The A. B. P. on soil is 160 kN / m 2 at 1.7 m depth . The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( 2 ) An R . C . C. column of size 300 mm x 300 mm carries a characteristic load of
660 kN. The allowable bearing pressure on soil is 180 kN / m 2. Design an isolated
pad footing. The materials are grade M 20 concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415 for both , the column and the footing.
( 3 ) Design an isolated sloped footing for data given in Example ( 2 )
( a ) without pedestal ; ( b ) using pedestal .
( 4 ) An R . C.C. column of size 230 mm x 530 mm carries a characteristic load of
1200 kN . The column is reinforced with 8- 20 # bars in M 25 grade concrete.
The allowable bearing pressure on soil is 200 kN / m 2 . Design an isolated
rectangular footing.
( a ) Pad footing; ( b ) Sloped footing.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and - HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 5 ) A 250 mm x 750 mm column carries a service load of 1200 kN and a moment
of 120 kNm about major axis . The column is reinforced with 10- 25 # bars in M 30
grade concrete. The allowable bearing pressure on soil is 180 kN / m 2 at 1.6 m
depth . Design an isolated rectangular footing .
( a ) Pad footing; ( b ) Sloped footing.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
( 6 ) The column of Example (5) is also subjected to a horizontal load of 160 kN at
the base and a moment of 80 kNm about minor axis . If the soil supporting the
footing is cohesionless sand with § = 34.5° and y = 15 kN / m 3, discuss how will
you resist the horizontal load . Also design the footing using M 20 grade concrete
and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
 hapter
COMBINED FOOTINGS
L2(U
.
20 - 1 Combined footings: Combined footing includes two, three or more
columns in strip or in raft if necessary. In most general cases , we prefer to provide
isolated footings as discussed in Chapter 19 for simplicity and economy. However,
combined footings are needed for the following reasons:
( 1 ) The distance between two columns is small , the allowable bearing pressure on
soil is lower and their isolated footings coincide with each other.
( 2 ) When a column is placed at the property line. If an isolated footing is tried ,
the c .g. of column load does not coincide with that of its footing. The eccentricity
is so large that it produces negative pressure on the footing. Thus it is necessary
to combine its footing with that of another suitable internal column .
( 3 ) One of the dimensions of the footing is restricted to some lower value so that
the footings of the columns coincide with each other.
As far as possible , the rectangular shape of the footing is preferred , however, the
values of the column loads may necessitate the trapezoidal shape if uniform upward pressure
is desired . Refer to fig. 19 -7 of the earlier chapter. In most cases, the dimensions of the
footing are adjusted to see that the c .g. of loads coincide with the c. g. of the footing so
that the upward soil pressure is uniform . However , if the geometry of the building does
not permit this , the footing may be designed for non - uniform upward pressures. If the columns
are subjected to moments, then also the upward soil pressure may be non - uniform ( varying) .
Combined footings may be designed as:
( a ) Constant thickness pad footing
( b ) Slab and beam type foundation .
The first type gives a smaller overall depth whereas the second type induces a
large overall depth of beam . Usually the slab and beam type combined footings are
economical and are frequently used . In case where large overall depth is not available ,
pad footing will be provided . For example , let a building contain a semi - basement
whose level is 300 mm above the footing having largest depth . Note that the bottom
levels of all the footings are kept constant . Let the overall depth of such a footing be
600 mm . Let a few columns require a combined footing.
If a slab - beam type footing is provided , the overall depth is 1200 mm . It can be
seen that the beam of this footing is projected in the basement. If we want to avoid
this , we shall have to increase the depth of foundation of all footings by 600 mm which
is uneconomical . Thus we may adopt a constant thickness combined footing which
may require 600 mm overall depth . Note that if there were no semi - basement, we
could easily provide slab - beam type combined footing.
When slab - beam type footing is adopted , we define the behaviour of footings -
usually bending-in particular direction , viz., slab bending about the beam and beam
bending in the plane of columns . There is nothing like a two - way shear or punching
shear in such footings.
The very important thing to be noted in the design of a foundation beam , which may
be continuous for 5-6 or more spans, that it is a determinate structure. The reactions
( Pand M ) at the columns are pre - determined being the loads and moments on the columns.
This is the major difference between a continuous beam at slab level and a continuous beam
at the foundation level . A small change in dimension drastically changes the moments in
the beam . For a strip footing beam , you may get continuously hogging moment ( tension top )
734 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20

throughout the length of the beam , i . e., at mid - span and at columns also, indicating
no sagging moment throughout the length except for short cantilevers at the ends .
The self - weight of the combined footing may be more than that of isolated footing.
It may be 10 per cent to 15 per cent of the column loads. Lower the allowable bearing
pressure on soil , larger will be the self - weight of footing . First we shall consider a
combined footing for two columns . These two columns may be interior columns, or one
or both may be exterior columns on boundary line . The loading on columns may be equal
or unequal . Next we shall consider srap , strip and raft foundations, in the articles to follow.
Load on Ci = ?\
Load on C 2 = P2

T
B
C , C. G .
X
C2

P i < P2
l / *4-4 b H
h*
H-
L
2 -
>4 4
L
2
H
-H
( a)

1 C. G . C2
X
Pi < P2

/ b H
a
h*
L
2 -
*4 4
L
2
>

h* H
( b)

B1
Cl C.G .
X
T
B2
P l > P2
i
H )<
a
/ -
f4
b
>

h*
K
x -
44 L -7 >

H
(c )
Combined footings for two axially loaded columns
FIG . 20 - 1
20- 2. Combined footing for two axially loaded columns: Let Px and
be the axial load on columns and C2. Let the centre to centre distance between
columns be /. Consider the self - weight of the footing be 10 to 15% of the column
loads. Lower values of self - weight may be adopted for higher values of allowable
bearing pressure ( ABP) on soil and vice - versa. For example , 10% self- weight is assumed
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 735

for A . B . P. = 250 kPa and 15% self - weight is assumed for A . B . P. = 100 kPa. Let Ps be
the self - weight of the footing.
P1 + P2 + PS
Then area required =
A . B . P.
Referring to fig. 20- 1, provide projections a and b respectively for columns C\ and Ci <

such that c .g. of column loads and that of footing coincide . Length L of the footing
is thus determined . Then determine the width of the footing B using required area and
length of the footing.
Selection of projections a and b require more attention . Site conditions may restrict
these values . For example, if Q is a boundary column , projection a is just half column
width in that direction . If heavier column is a boundary column , trapezoid footing
may be required . Sometimes width B of the footing may be restricted . In such a case
increase of dimensions a and b may be necessary.
In all cases of fig. 20- 1 , the c .g. of column loads are matched with that of footing.
Due to this , the upward pressure diagram will be uniform as shown in fig. 20- 2. However ,
when it is not possible to adjust this , the footing will be subjected to eccentric loads.
The pressure diagram will be non - uniform in this case as shown in fig. 20 - 3.
P1 + P2
Pi I P2
I
Y

• X

L L
<
2 *4 *- - 2

Uniform upward pressure

FIG . 20- 2

.
p
p +p
1 2
I P2

Y
H -X >

K
L
2
H* - L
2
>

L L
K -=- + X
2 2
-X H

p min
r

P max

Non - uniform upward pressure

FIG. 20- 3
736 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20

A Typical constant thickness pad type footing for two axially loaded columns is
shown in fig . 20 - 4 . The footing is subjected to longitudinal as well as transverse
bending moments and shears. Thus the footing shall be designed for longitudinal and
transverse bending both . The effect of transverse bending is predominant in the vicinity
of column load where the footing bends like a saucer. This effect may be considered
for a length of footing equal to width B in the vicinity of columns as indicated in
fig. 20 - 4 ( b ) .

Pl P2

*
Ci c2

K
a -
>+ * /
b
h* >
(a ) Elevation

r* B N h*

CD C/3
-
Hi
5
C/5
i
2 rn <
n> C .G . |
Q. CL
C/5

era
O X
pa ST I
3 3
D
3
. I
<JQ I
( b) Plan

(c) Longitudinal bending

( d ) S.F.diagram

/V

(e) B .M .diagram

Analysis of a typical combined footing for two axially loaded columns

FIG. 20- 4
 Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 737

The reinforcement parallel to length depend on variation of moment along length

f
of footing. At any section the reinforcement is uniformly spaced . This may be top and
bottom reinforcement as shown in fig. 20 - 5 . The reinforcement designed for transverse
bending may be provided equally spaced for a length B under the columns where
transverse bending is predominant . In the internal portion minimum reinforcement
may be used . Refer to fig . 20 - 5 .

L
( a ) Combined footing

H- H
( b) Top plan reinforcement

B H h* B

H- L
( c ) Bottom plan reinforcement
Reinforcement in combined footing
FIG . 20 - 5
The loads on the columns consist of dead and live loads . When the footings are
combined , sometimes it is necessary to see that the soil pressures are not exceeded due
to moment induced when live load on one of the column is absent . For a combined
footing of two columns C\ and C2 , the following conditions shall be checked .
( 1 ) Cj —> DL + LL and C2 —> DL + LL
( 2 ) C, -> DL and C2 —^ DL f- LL
< “

( 3 ) Cj —> DL + LL and C2 —> DL

The dimensions of the footing are adjusted for the first case and the soil pressures
are checked for the other case .
738 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Example 20 - 1 .
Determine the plan dimensions of a combined footing for two axially loaded
columns with following data if
( a ) Width is not restricted
( b ) Width is restricted to 2.3 m .
Columns Ci C2
Type Interior Interior
Size 400 mm x 400 mm 400 mm x 400 mm
P 1000 kN 1000 kN
Spacing 3 m c / c from Q to C2
ABP 150 kN / m 2 at 1.6 m depth
Solution : \O o o 4 o
^
OQ T
Consider self - weight of footing be 15% of axial loads.
- i r / - J u a o ~)
4
3d o
•Z O O V
Load on soil = 2 x 1.15 x 1000 = 2300 kN . 23 d o ivy
2300
Area required = 15.33 m 2. 506
150 =
By symmetry , c . g. of column loads lie mid - way between the columns ,
( a ) Width is not restricted :
Consider 1 m projection on both columns lengthwise.
Then 6 = 34 1 4 1 = 5 m.
foe* • L >b
Width of footing = = 3.07 m . . b *
u
Provide L x B = 5.0 m x 3.1 m size. Refer to fig. 20- 6 ( a ) .
2000
Net upward pressure = 5 x 3.1 = 129 kN / m 2 .

3.1 m 2.3 m

I
K
1m
-
M4 3m >4*
1m
H —
H- 1.85 m H~<- 3m »4 - 1.85 m -H
5m > h* 6.7 m H

(a ) ( b)
FIG. 20- 6
( b ) Width is restricted to 2.5 m
Here B = 2.3 m and A = 15.33 m 2
L = 15.33 = 6.67 m
V ,o - 2.3
w
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 739

1
Projections from columns =- ( 6.67 - 3.0 ) = 1.835 m.

Provide 1.85 m projections.

L = 3 + 2 x 1.85 = 6.7 m .
Thus L x B = 6.7 m x 2.3 m is provided . Refer to fig. 20 - 6 ( b ) .
2000
Net upward pressure =
6.7 x 2.3
= 129.8 kN / m 2.
Example 20 - 2.
Determine the plan dimensions of a combined footing for two axially loaded
columns with following data if
( a ) width is not restricted
( b ) width is restricted to 2.3 m .
Columns Cl c2
\0 Q O
TyPe Interior Interior
\ZO 0
Size 400 mm x 400 mm 400 mm x 400 mm
p 1000 kN 1200 kN
oC
Spacing 3 m c / c from C\ to Ci<
\ r /
ABP 150 kN / m 2 at 1.6 m depth
Solution : 33 o
Consider self - weight of footing be 15% of axial loads .
Load on soil = 1.15 ( 1000 + 1200) = 2530 kN .
2530
< r3 a ~

Area required = = 16.87 m 2.

150
If x is the distance of c .g. of column loads from it is determined from
( j200 x 3 = ( 1000 + 1200) <2 oo
0 d 0
x 1.64 m . \ n° 6
Now adjust the dimensions of foundation such that the c . g . of column loads and
that of the footing coincide.
( a ) Width is not restricted:
Consider 1 m projection from Q .
&
Therefore , half length of footing = 1.6 + 1.0 = 2.64 m . a - lFT-l—3
Then projection from Ci< = 2.64 - L 3 1.28 m .
L = 2 x 2.64 = 5.28 m .
y. •

B = 16.87 = 3.195, say 3.2 m .

5.28
X t
Provide L x B = 5.28 m x 3.2 m . Refer to fig. 20-7 ( a ) . t
Net upward pressure = 2200
5.28 x 3.2
= 130.2 kN / m 2 .
740 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 20

( b ) Width is restricted to 2.3 m

Here A = 16.87 m 2 , B = 2.3 m
16.87
L = = 7.34 m .
2.3
Half length = ^ = 3.67 m .
Projection from Cj = 3.67 1.64 = 2.03 m .
Projection from C2 = 3.67 - 1.36 = 2.31 m .
Thus L x B = 7.34 m x 2.3 m . Refer to fig . 20 -7 ( b ) .
2200
130.3 kN / m 2 .
7.34 x 2.3 =
Net upward pressure =

C , C. G . C2 Ci C.G . C2
£
X
* CN

Hr H > h* H-« H
lm 1.64 m 1.36 m 1.28 m 2.03 m 1.64 m 1.36 m 2.31 m
5.28 m H h* 7.34 m
(a ) (b )
FIG . 20 -7
Example 20 - 3 .
Determine the plan dimensions of combined footing for data of example 20 - 2 , if
( a) Cj is a boundary column
( b ) C2 is a boundary column .
Solution :
Area required = 16.87 m 2 from example 20 - 2 .
( a) Cj is a boundary column : Since the column with lower load is on boundary ,
rectangular footing can be adopted . Determine longitudinal dimension by
matching c . g. of column loads and that of footing . Refer to fig . 20 - 8 ( a) .
Projection from C2 = 0.2 4- 1.64 - 1.36 = 0.48 m .
Length L = 2 (0.2 + 1.64 ) = 3.68 m .

Width B
16.87
= 3.68 = 4.58 m .
Provide L x B = 3.68 m x 4.58 m as shown in fig . 20 - 8 ( a) .

Net upward pressure = 2200 130.5 kN / m 2 .

3.68 x 4.58 =
( b ) C2 is a boundary column: Since heavier column is on boundary , we may adopt
trapezoidal footing , so that the c . g . of footing and that of columns will coincide .
Refer to fig . 20 - 8 ( b ) .
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 741

Boundary line — >

T
«— Boundary line

c2 e
i
JJ
Cl C.G. Ci C.G.
4.58 m
/ X -
r
CO
ON

vO

/ 1.64 H- 1.36 -»4 < C9 -<- 1.64

t H 1.36 -H *\
0.2 0.48 0.2 0.2

L*
3.68 m h* 3.4 m >
1
N
(a ) ( b)

We have from required

is
'6
a + £ xf 3.4 16.87
2
=
i .e. a + b = 9.92 m ( 1)
Consider smaller side as reference line and match the c.g. of column loads and
that of footing. For convenience , devide the trapezoid into two triangles .
C v / Axxx + A2 X 2 = ( Ax + A2 ) x
Then C
1 x a x 3.4 x 3.4 + 1 x £ x 3.4 x . 2 + 1.64 )
2 3 2
i .e . a + 2 b = 16.11 ( 2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 )
a = 3.73 m and b = 6.19 m
1 16.87 m 2 .
=
Net upward pressure =
Area
2200
16.87
^ (3.73 + 6.19) x 3.4

= 130.4 kN / m 2.
=

Example & 0 - 4. %
Design a combined rectangular footing for two columns Cj and Ci< spaced at 3.0 m
apart carrying the following service loads:
Column Ci C2
Size 300 mm x 300 mm 300 mm x 300 mm
Concrete M 20 M 20
Main steel 4 - 20 # 8 - 20 # Ci
( Fe 415)
DL 480 kN 610 kN
Ca
LL 170 kN 190 kN

: 6V J
ci.
742 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
The width of the base shall not exceed 2.0 m . The allowable bearing pressure on
soil is 175 kN / m 2. Footing materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415.
S o l u t i o n:
( a ) Soil design :
Total service load on fPoting
L- V L LL
= ( 480 + 170 ) + ( 610 + 190 )
= 650 + 800 =* 1450 / kN
Footing self - weight @ 12 % ^ 175 kN
Total 1625 kN

Area of footing required = 1625 = 9.28 m 2.

1 75
Width of the footing = 2 m .
Q 9«
Length of the footing = - = 4.64 m .
Considering the columns carrying total loads , the c .g. of column loads from
Cj , referring to fig. 20 - 9 ( a ) is
800 x 3 1.66 m .
vO x
1450 V
Cj = 650 kN C 2 = 800 kN

i i ^0
H-
x = 1.66 m
3m

H
f

^ cs.
—
\ A .&
\
* >

850 i i Column
Cl
2000 300

i
850
&

* i
670
l i
300
h+ H h* >4 < H
1.66 m 1.34 m 850 850
< *4« 3m >4<
0.89 m 1.21 m
K
(a ) Pad
-5 Lm H
type footing ( b) Proposed section

FIG . 20- 9
Extend the base 0.89 m beyond Q and 1.21 m beyond C2 as shown in fig. 20-9 ( a ) .
The footing is so adjusted that when total loads are acting on the columns, the
c .g. of column loads and that of the footing coincide . Larger length is provided
to keep the soil pressures within limits when moment is induced in footing due
to absence of live load on either of the footings .
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 743

For the footing / = 0.89 + 3.0 +JL2 L

2 x 5.1 = 10.2 m 2
-
A =
1
z= s x 2 x

Uniform pressure due to footing self - weight

175 7Vo>-
17.2 kN / m 2 .
10.2 =
650 kN Pi A VL
,
Cas* 7: Cl
C2 = 800 kN
Footing = 175 kN
Total 1625 kN
The c. g. of loads and that of footing are matched for this case .

Upward soil pressure = :

,
2 ,
159.3 kN / m 2 irr
10.2 =
„
^
(Vtss^
' vt dw.
^
Net upward pressure = 159.3 - 17.2 = 142.1 kN / m 2 , uniform .
/* u , up = 1.5 x 142.1 kN / m 2 = 213.15 kN / m 2.
Case 2 : 480 kN
C2 = 800 kN
loC - "

Footing = 175 kN (?l -v Lt)

CO-
Total load 1455 kN C\
Moment about centre - line of the footing &

GrvKcVot ^ O' **=CW '

e i
** ’ = - 480 X 1.66
1455 275.2
800 x 1.34 = 275.2 kNm P -
(X *< ' P = 10.2 ± ,8.67 142.65 ± 31.75

P max 142.65 + 31.75 = 174.4 kN / m 2 < 175 kN / m 2

^

P min 142.65 - 31.75 = 110.9 kN / m 2 > 0.

Net upward pressures:
P max = 174.4 - 17.2 ( footing self ) = 157.2 kN / m 2
P u , max = 1.5 x 157.2 = (235 /B kN / m 2 ! at B
pmi „= 110.9 - 17.2 = 93.7 kN / m 2
P u , min jT
1.5 x 93.7 = 4055 l kN / m 2 at A
Case 3: Ci 650 kN Dl -a u
C2 = 610 kN
Footing = 175 kN
Total load 1435 kN
Moment about centre - line of the footing
= 650 x 1.66 - 610 x 1.34 = 261.6 kNmQ .
1435 261.6
P = 10.2 ± 8.67 140.7 ± 30.2
P max 140.7 + 30.2 = 170.9 kN / m 2 < 175 kN / m 2
pmin = 140.7 - 30.2 = 110.5 kN / m 2 > 0.
 744 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Net upward pressures :
P max = 170.9 17.2 = 153.7 kN / m 2
P u , max = 1.5 x 153.7 = 1230.5 kN / m 2 ft at A
P min 110.5 17.2 =
93.3 kN/m2
P u,min 1.5 x 93.3 = (139.95J kN / m 2 at B
( b ) Analysis for actions in longitudinal direction :
The shears and moments are calculated below for case I. For case II and case III ,
only diagrams are given . Refer to fig. 20 - 10 ( a ) and fig . 20 - 10 ( b ) .
Ci C2

+ 7°
6 ?°
' A B
(fu. ^

C Q G R D
P*
F
> r* x i r
~
*- 1TT \< 975 kN

2700
1200 kN

* -
+*
740 300 300 1060
C\o \
^- K 5100
Longitudinal section
T f —* ir
=>
• %O O y C \ 426.3 kN / m throughout ( 213.15 kN/ m 2 )
' \2 O # K

Loading -m. 6 +
X
315.45 kN
. 3 619.5 kN (
^ 6.3

C E
A B G D F
.
N
451.9 kN
3 iT. I^ S 531.6 kN
2 m r n . r ~4 ( UH -3 y

CiH 3 / 0 4 »i
0 3)

3U — 116.7 84.3 kNm

V
Shear

214.2
y 239.5 kNm
oj

^
)

Q R
101
> * >
380
-
4*
170
Moment
Case I
FIG . 20 - 10 ( a )
Case I: Factured load on
Cj = 650 x 1.5 = 975 kN
C2 = 800 x 1.5 = 1200 kN .
Net upward load = 213.15 x 2 = 426.3 kN / m .
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 745

Cj C2
\ S
A B
720 kN
1 C Q G R D
1200 kN
F

H* -H- 2700 «- H
740 300 300 1060
h* 5100 >
Longitudinal section
45.3 kN /m
281.1 kN / m ( 226.5 kN / m
2
( 140.55 kN / m )
471.6 kN/ m
2
H (235.8 kN/m )
Loading 500
593.2 kN
218.2 kN
G

407.4 kN 478.9 kN
Shear
256.5
79.5 51 kNm 239.7

H— 1180 — H
Moment
h* 1850 H

Case II
Ci C2

A B
\ C

975 kN
Q G R D
tLi
915 kN
F

Longitudinal section

461.1 kN / m 279.9 kN / m
2
2 ( 139.95 kN /m )
( 230.55 kN /m )
Loading
332 kN 501.45 kN
G

514.2 kN 316.65 kN
Shear
123 95.7 kNm 136.5 164.25 kNm

H — 1260 — H
Moment
H- 1660

Case III
FIG . 20 - 10 ( b )
746 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Shears :

^u AB = 0 =
, FuFE
FUBA = 0 - 74 X 426.3 = 315.45 kN
FU CD = 1 04 x 426 3 - 975 = 531.60 kN "

Pu . DC = 3.74 x 426.3 - 975 = 619.35 kN

FUIEF = - 1 06 x 426.3 = - 451.9 kN .
S. F. = 0 at x from C

x
531.6 1.247 m
426.3
i . e ., at G where AG = 0.74 + 0.3 4- 1.247 = 2.287 m.
Moments :
0.742 x = 116.7 kNm ( tension bottom )
^B= u,
2
426.3

1.042 x 426.3 - 975 x 0.15 = 84.3 kNm

*
A u .C =
2
„ 2.2872
= — 2 — X 426.3 - 975 x 1.247

= - 101 kNm ( tension top )

1.06 2 X 426.3
^ u,E = 2 = 239.5 kNm

1 • 36 2 x 426.3
^M u . D -~ — — 2
1200 x 0.15 = 214.2 kNm .
Points of contraflexure :
x2
From A : 426.3
Y = 975 ( x - 0.89 )
x2 - 4.57 x + 4.07 = 0
4.57 ± 2.15
x 1.21 m or 3.36 m .
2
Q at 1.21 m from Ay i .e ., at 1.21 - 0.74 - 0.3 = 0.17 m from C.
R at 3.36 m from A, i .e ., at 2.7 4- 0.3 + 0.74 - 3.36 = 0.38 m from D.
( c ) Analysis for actions in transverse direction :
The net upward pressure diagram is uniform in case 1, however , it is uniformly
varying in case III . The transverse direction shall be designed for maximum
actions as far as possible . Case II at location F gives maximum pressure .
It is reasonable to assume a small length of footing ( say ) of 0.5 m and determine
an average pressure for which the reinforcement could be designed . Referring
to fig. 20 - 10 ( b ) case II , the net upward pressures are :
at F 235.8 kN / m 2
at 0.5 m from F 226.5 kN / m 2
235.8 + 226.5
average pressure =
2 = 231.15 kN / m 2 .
The transverse direction may be now designed for a uniform pressure of
231.15 kN / m 2 .
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 747

The clear cantilever of footing in transverse direction

1
= i ( 2.0 0.3) = 0.85 m . -
Per metre length of footing
,K, = 0.852
( d ) Longitudinal reinforcement :
2
~
— X 231.15 = 83.5 kNm . O
Maximum moments are :
At E, case 2 , Mu = 256.5 kNm ( tension bottom )
At G, case 3, Mu = 227.5 kNm ( tension top ) .
Try D = 700 mm . Larger depth is required for shear.
dx = 700 - 50 - 8 = 642 mm ( assume 16 0 bar )
dy = 642 - 16 = 626 mm . , f
Bottom steel :
y
-
Mu 256.5 x 106 rC -K
2000 x 626 x 626 =
0.327 A
bd 2
pt = 0.093
0.093 x 2000 x 642
100^ St “
= 1194 mm 2 .
0.12 x 2000 x 700
Minimum steel =
100 = 1680 mm 2.
Provide 15- 12 # (= 1695 mm 2) in /IQ^ and FR portions where Q, and R are
the points of contraflexure . The reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point of contraflexure for 12 diameter or detf whichever is greater , i . e ., 610 mm .
Also , the reinforcement shall extend for Lj from the point of maximum
moment ,
where Z d = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
>

Length of bars ( case 1 ) are :

From A 1210 + 642 = 1852 mm
or . 740 + 564 = 1304 mm use 2000 mm .
From F 1740 + 642 = 2382 mm
or 1060 + 564 = 1624 mm use 2500 mm .
Extend 7- 12 # in the span .
Top steel :
Mu = 227.5 kNm < 256 kNm .
Provide minimum steel . Provide 15 - 12 # in portion BE. ylst = 1695 mm 2.
In AB and EF portion , continue 7- 12 # .
( e ) Transverse reinforcement :
Mu = 83.5 kNm per metre length of footing.
83.5 x 106
bd 2 1000 x 590 x 590 = 0.24 too small

pt = 0.067 « minimum
0.12 x 1000 x 700
As t
^
•
. min
100 = 840 mm 2/ m .
Provide 12 mm # @ 130 mm c / c = 869 mm 2 / m at top and bottom .
748 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
( f ) One - way shear :
Maximum shear Vu DC = 619.35 kN (case 1 ) .
Shear at d = 0.61 m , Fu = 619.35 - 0.642 x 426.3 = 345.67 kN
x 103
Ty = 345.67
2000 x 642 =
0.269 N / mm 2
100 x 1695
A = 2000 x 642 = 0.132
Tc = 0.28 N / mm 2 .
Tv < T c (O. K.)
( g ) Two - way shear :
Column C2, case 1.
Average depth = 0.5 ( 642 + 626 ) = 634 mm .
d
At
2 from face of the column , the length of square
= 300 + 2 x 317 = 934 mm .
Perimeter = 4 x 934 = 3736 mm
Vu = 1200 - 0.934 x 0.934 x 213.15 = 1014 kN
1014 x IQ 3
TV = 3736 x 634 = 0.428 N / mm 2.
For a square column
VT
ks TC = 1 x 0.25
TV < Me
^
k = 0.25 V20 = 1.12 N / mm 2
( O . K.)
( h ) Development length :
Point of contraflexure at 0.38 m from Z), case 1.
V = 619.35 - 0.38 x 426.75 = 457.19 kN
Ast = 1695 mm 2
100 x 1695
fit = 2000 x 642 = 0.132
M u1
bd 2
= 0.463
Mul = 0.463 x 2000 x 6422 x 10 ~6 = 381.6 kNm .
Let L 0 = 12 # = 12 x 12 = 144 mm
Mu1
1.3 + Z0 > Zd

1.3 x 381.6 x 106 + 144 > 47 #

457.19 x 103
# < 26.15 mm ( O . K .)
( i ) Weight :
Self - weight of footing
= 2.0 x 5.1 x 0.70 x 25
= 178.5 kN 170 kN ( O. K. )
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 749

Tci 12 mm # @ 130 mm c/c

C2
7-12 #
15-12 # r- 7-12 #

f I w
'S'
£
700
Jfc. A
150 1
"r
<

7-12 #
15 12 # - 12 mm # @ 130 mm c/c 1 :3:6 C. C.
15-12 #

K 2000 mm > <- 2500 mm H

-
> f H- —
150 740 300
> 2700
300
4- > H*
1060 150
(a ) Section X - X
H- 740 -H
— 7-12 # — -
15 12 #
h*~ 1060 —H

2000

L
12 mm # @ 130 mm c/c
( b) Top Plan
—- 7 12 #

— 15-12 # - -
( 7 12 # — 15-12 #

2000

L
12 mm # @ 130 mm c/c
(c) Bottom Plan
FIG . 20 - 11
( j ) Sketch:
_
The designed footing is shown in fig. 20- 11.
Example 20 - 5 .
—g y
Design a slab - beam type combined footing for the data of Example 20 - 4.
Solution :
A longitudinal beam is proposed to support the columns. This beam is supported
by the footing slab which in turn is supported by the ground . The slab will be
designed as cantilever from beam while the beam is designed as supported by columns
whose reactions are equal to the loads . Width of the beam shall be slightly more than
750 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
that of the column width to accommodate the beam reinforcements properly. Let the
width of the beam be 400 mm .
\jQ ° /

800 u
400
J 400
600 - -
800
i

890
3000 >+ «-1210H 800 800
H- 5100 H— 2000 H

( a ) Beam-slab type footing (b) Proposed section

FIG . 20- 12
The analysis is adopted from Example 20- 4 . A few corrections will be made as per
our requirements . The proposed slab - beam type footing is shown in fig. 20- 12 .
( a ) Design of slab:
Upward pressure [ average from (c ) of Example 20- 4 ]
= 231.15 kN / m 2.
Clear cantilever = 800 mm . Per metre length of footing
A b

Try
" u = 0 28 2
D = 400 mm
,
X

d = 400 - 50 - 10 = 340 mm .
231.15 = 74 kNm .
_v >
°
\0°

Fu at d = 1
( X 46 x 231.15 = 106.4 kN .

Mn 74 x 106
= 0.64
bd 2 1000 x 340 x 340
pt = 0.184
A st = 626 mm 2.

A s t , m i. n = 0.12
100
x 1000 x 400 = 480 mm 2 .
Provide 12 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 665 mm 2.
100 665 x
Pt = 1000 x 340 = 0.196
xc = 0.317 N / mm 2.
x 103
= 106.4
1000 x 340 =
0.312 N / mm 2 < TC ( OK.)
L & = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Anchorage available = 800 - 50 = 750 mm ( O. K. )
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c distribution steel
As = 490 mm 2 .
Spacing of main bars is less than 3 d and that of distribution bars is less than 5 d.
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 751

( b ) Alternative design of slab : The slab may be provided as a sloped such as a sloped
footing. Try 540 mm depth at face of the column and 200 mm at the edge .
D = 540 mm
d = 540 - 50 - 6 = 484 mm .
Mu 74 x 106 too less
1000 x 484 x 484 =
0.316
bd 2
pt = 0.0895
pt = 0.12 ( overall depth ) , minimum steel is given by
0.12 540 + 200
= 100 X 1000 X 2 = 444 mm / )
Provide 10 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 461 mm 2.
At 484 mm from beam face, the shear
Fu =- 0.316 x 231.15 = 73 kN
oo -
J5\ o + 2316
/
/
d = 200 ' + 340 x - 50 - 6 = 278.3 mm
800
73 x 103
= 1000 x 278.3 =
0.262 N / mm 2. *
100 As o
100 x 461 >W ~ >
1000 x 278.3 =
0.166
bd 2
= 0.293 N / mm 2 .
*v < ( O . K .)
Note that while providing sloped slab, quantities of concrete and steel , both
are reduced .
Provide 10 mm # @ 170 mm c / c distribution steel being minimum steel .
( c ) Design of longitudinal beam :
%

( 1 ) Bottom reinforcement :
At E Mu = 256.5 kNm [case II, fig. 20 - 10 ( b ) ]
b = 400 mm b
, 256.5 x IQ 6
req= V/ 400 x 2.76 =
482 mm .
Try D = 600 mm V <SL
d = 600 - - 10 = 540 mm
50
256.5 x 106
= 2.2
bd 2 400 x 540 x 540 T
= pt 0.717
Ast = 1549 mm 2.
Provide 5 - 20# = 1570 mm 2 . The reinforcement shall continue for deff
= 540 mm beyond points of contraflexure . Also , they should extend for
Ld = 47 x 20 = 940 mm beyond the points of maximum moment .

or ^
Length from F 61850 + 540 = 2390 mm
1060 + 9,40 = 2000 mm
Use 2500 mm .
752 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Extend 2 - 20 # in the span to carry stirrups.
At B Mu = 123 kNm [case III, fig. 2010 ( b ) ] t
123 x 106 1.05
bd 2 400 x 540 x 540
pt = 0.311
A st = 672 mm 2.
Provide 3- 20 # = 942 mm 2
Length from A 1260 -l- 540 = 1810 mm
or 740 + 940 = 1680 mm
Use = 2000 mm .
( 2 ) Top reinforcement :
The beam acts as an isolated tee beam for this case . However , as the
applied moment is less than the moment of resistance of a rectangular
beam , the beam will be designed as a rectangular beam for simplicity.
Afu = 227.5 kNm . [ case III, fig. 2010 ( b ) ]
227.5 x IQ 6 1.95
bd 2 400 x 540 x 540
/>, = 0.621
.<4 st = 1348 mm 2.
Provide 5 - 20 # , ,dst = 1570 mm 2 . Extend 2 - 20 # beyond the columns to
carry stirrups.
( d ) Design for shear:
( 1 ) Shear capacity with minimum shear reinforcement :
We shall first determine the shear capacity of a section with minimum
shear reinforcement. For 400 mm wide beam , using 8 mm # two - legged
stirrups , the spacing is given by
0.87 / Asv 0.87 x 415 x 100
5V = = 225 mm .
0.4 b 0.4 x 400
Use 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 225 mm c / c as minimum shear
reinforcement . o hi hy
VJ 'JJU , - 6
V us , m i n
d = 163.3 £ y s -
V us , m i n = 163.3 x 540 x lO-3 = 88.18 kN (1)
( i ) Shear in EF portion ( tension bottom )
As = 1570 mm 2
100 ls
/ 100 X 1570
400 x 540 =
0.73
bd
=
Tc 0.554 N / mm 2
Vuc = 0.554 x 400 x 540 x 10~3 = 119.65 kN (2)
Shear capacity with minimum shear reinforcement
= 88.18 + 119.65 = 207.83 kN (3)
 Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 753

( ii ) Shear in BA portion ( tension bottom )

As = 942 mm 2
9
100 As 100 x 942
400 x 540 =
0.436
bd
TC = 0.461 N / mm 2
Vuc = 0.461 x 400 x 540 x 10 ~3 = 99.58 kN (4)
Shear capacity with minimum shear reinforcement
=
88.18 + 99.58 = 187.76 kN (5)
( iii ) Shear in CD portion ( tension top )
Ast = 1570 mm 2
shear capacity = 207.83 kN as per ( 1 )
( 2 ) Design of shear reinforcement :
BA Shear at distance d = 332 - 0.54 x 426.3
( Case 3) = 101.8 kN < 187.76 kN .
Provide 8 mm # @ 225 mm c / c .
EF Shear at distance d = 479.55 - 0.54 x 426.3
( Case 2 ) = 249.35 kN > 207.83 kN .
Shear reinforcement more than minimum is required .
Vus = 249.35 - 119.65 = 129.7 kN
129.7 x 103 240.2.
d 540 =
rV
Provide 8 mm # two -legged stirrups @ 150 mm c / c = 242.0 throughout
EF portion .
CD Shear at distance d = 531.6 - 0.54 x 426.3
( Case 1 ) = 301.13 kN > 207.83 kN
Vus = 301.13 - 119.65 = 181.48 kN
VUS 181.48 x 103 = 336.1.
d 540 ~
VUS
Provide 8 mm # four -legged stirrups @ 200 mm c/ c
d = 363 . This

531.6 - 207.83
is required upto
426.3 = 0.76 m, where 207.83 kN is a capacity
of section with minimum shear reinforcement. Then after minimum shear
reinforcement will be used .
No. of stirrups = 0.76 + 1 « 5.
0.20
DC Shear at distance d = 619.35 - 0.54 x 426.3
= 389.15 kN > 207.83 kN
Fus = 389.15 - 119.65 = 269.5 kN '
Vus 269.5 x 103 = 499.
d 540
754 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
C| C2
\

A B C Q G R D E F

H >4 < 2700 > H

740 300 300 740
«- 5100 mm >
( a ) Longitudinal section
i
150
T
800

i
C ! ( 300 x 300)
- — 12 mm # @ 1 7 0 mm c/c
C 2 (300 x 300)

2000 400
f
800
r 10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c

150
: -H H 890-+ H-
150
~
- 3000 - +«- 1210 —H150H
5100 mm H
( b ) Plan (alternative I )
Ci C2
4

2 - 20 # —, 5-20 # r- 2-20 #
x
600
150 [ * i
1 :3:6 C.C.
3-20 # 2 -20 # L 5-20 #
H 2000 > H 2400

8# D 8# 8# 8# D 8#
all N 5 (4 legg.) rest 8 (4 legg.) N all
225 S 200 225 140 S 150
(c ) Section A A -
- 5-20 #
200
5-20 #
r 10
12 # @ 170 c/c
# @ 160 c/c 60
r
: 10 # @ 170 c/c both ways
F
400
i k i § i
54
°I 200
* - 3-20 #
—
* 1 :3:6 C.C. 3-20 #
1 :3:6 C.C.
H H >4 <- >4 < H—K >4 >
150 800 400 800 150 150 800 400 800 150
Alternative I Alternative II
( d ) Section B- B
FIG. 20 - 13
Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 755

Provide 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups @ 140 mm c / c

(V \
4 518.6 .
a =
2 X 259.3 =
619.35 - 207.83
This is required upto
426.3 = 0.97 m from D .
0.97
No . of stirrups = + 1 8.
0.14
In the remaining portion , provide 8 mm # two legged stirrups @ 225 mm c / c .
( e ) Check for development length : Development length for bottom reinforcement is
checked alongwith design for flexure . For top reinforcement, at points of contraflexure
Q and R, the shear at R is greater. Therefore , check for development length
at point R ( at 0.4 m from D, case 1 ) .

Vu = 619.35 - 0.4 x 426.3 = 448.8 kN

AHt = 1570 mm 2 ( very near to required area )
Mul = 227.5 kNm .
Available LQ = 400 + 300 = 700 mm ( reinforcement upto outer face of
the column )
LQ f 12 # ( 192 mm ) or deff (540 mm ) whichever is greater
'

LQ = 540 mm .

1.3 " ul
+ LQ >

1.3 x 227.5 x 106 + 540 > 47 #

448.8 x 103
# < 25.51 mm (O. K . )
( f ) Clear distance between bars :
4 - 20 # are provided in one layer . The clear distance between bars
400 - 50 x 2 - 4 x 20
3 = 73 mm
< 180 mm
> 25 mm (O . K. )
( g ) Deflection :
Deflection need not be checked .
( h ) Detailing :
The designed slab - beam type footing is detailed in fig . 20 - 13 .
Example 20 - 6 .
Two columns Cj and C 2 are the boundary columns of a small building of size
4 m x 12 m in city area . Size of the columns is 230 mm x 400 mm spaced at 4.0 m
out to out ( i . e . , 3.77 m c / c ) . Columns Cj and C 2 carry 600 kN characteristic loads
each . Design a slab and beam type combined footing for columns Q and C A . B . P.
on soil is 200 kN / m 2 . The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement
of grade Fe 415 .
756 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I ( Ch . 20

Solution :
Total load 2 x 600 = 1200 kN
Self - weight of footing @ 12 % = 144 kN
Total 1344 kN
1344
Area required = 200 = 6.72 m 2 .
Length = 4 m .
6.72 1.68 m .
Width =
4 =
Provide \.7 m x 4 m size , footing .
1200
Net upward pressure = = 176.47 kN / m 2
1.7 x 4
pu = 1.5 x 176.47 = 264.7 kN / m 2 .
Load on beam 1200 300 kN / m
= 4 =
= 300 x 1.5 = 450 kN / m .
1.7 - 0.5
Consider 500 mm wide beam . Projection of slab on both sides = ^ “ 0.6 m,
2
( a ) Design of slab :
0.62
x 264.7 = 47.65 kNm / nj length .
2

Try
d =
4
47.65 x 106 = 131.39 mm .
1000 x 2.76
D = 350 mm ; d =* 350 - 50 - 8 = 292 mm .
47.65 x IQ 6 0.558
bd 2 1000 x 292 x 292 =
p t = 0.161
0.161 x 1000 x 292
^ st ~ 100 = 470 mm 2 .
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 490 mm 2 ,
( b ) Distribution steel :
0.12 x 1000 x
350 = 420 mm 2 .
100
Provide 10 mm # @ 180 mm c / c = 436 mm 2.
Shear at d = 0.308 x 264.7 = 81.53 kN
x 103
= 81.53
1000 x 292
= 0.28 N / mm 2
100 100 x 490
1000 x 292 =
0.168
bd
T c = 0.294 N / mm 2
( O. K . )
Tv ^ Tc
Id = 47 x 10 x 470 = 451 mm
490
anchorage available = 600 - 50 = 550 mm (O . K. )
 Art . 20 - 2 ] Combined Footings 757

Note that instead of a constant depth, the slab could have varying depth as per
Example 20- 5. Design a sloped slab and compare economy.

600

500

600
I
K 4000
(a ) Plan
Pu = 900 kN Pu = 900 kN
< 3.77 m >

11
* * * * * 1
* 1
*
450 kN/m

(b) Beam
796.5
51.75 848.25

382.5 51.75
848.25
382.5 kN
796.5
K H
0.92 m
(c ) S.F.diagram

(-)
796.5 kNm
V
V (d ) B .M.diagram f

FIG . 20- 14
( c ) Analysis as beam : Beam loading is shown in fig . 20- 14 ( b ) .
Shear at face of column
Vu «= 900 - 0.23 X 450 796.5 kN.
Maximum moment at centre
-
Mu = 900 x
1696.5
^
- 900 =
The shear and bending moment diagrams are shown in fig. 20- 14 .
( d ) Design of beam :
*
796.5 kN .
f
*

Mu = 796.5 kNm ( tension top ).

Consider beam width = 500 mm .
758 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
The section for flexure acts as an isolated tee beam . The depth required in
foundation beams for shear is usually more than what is required for flexure .
Therefore to get a quick idea of a trial depth , the section may be treated as
a rectangular beam .

p® 10 # @ 160 mm c/c
T
150 1
i A

600

1700 500

150 ;;
600 ©
r * • i
©

( a ) Plan
— 10 # @ 180 mm c/c

V
r- 6-25 #

1000
T 650
' -
Ir

350 i
150 I
-
4- 16 #
— M 10
8 mm # 2 legged @ 180 mm c/c
throughout

( b ) Section A- A
500
h* H
6-25 #
650
T 4- 16 #
350 * ± TT
150
: M 10 t
* >-H—H-* H-K
150 600 500 600 150
(c) Section B- B

FIG . 20 - 15
796.5 x 10 (i 759.7 mm .
d =
500 x 2.76 =
Try D = 1000 mm .
d = 1000 - 50 - 20 - 10 ( assuming 20 mm # bars in
two layers ) = 920 mm .
Mu 799.5 x 10 (i
= 1.89
id 2 500 x 920 x 920
pt = 0.599
Art . 20 - 3] Combined Footings 759

0.599 x 500 x 920

^ st
100
“ = 2755 mm 2.
Provide 6 - 25 # = 2946 mm 2 top bars. Provide 4 - 16 # bottom bars to anchor
stirrups .
Vu at d = 796.5 - 0.92 x 450 = 382.5 kN .
100 As 100 x 2946
500 x 920 =
0.64
bd
xc = 0.525 N / mm 2
7UC = 0.525 x 500 x 920 x 10 ~3 = 241.5 kN
Fus = 382.5 - 241.5 = 141 kN
VU S
141 X 103 153.2.
d 920
8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 200 mm c / c gives
Vr u s
181.5 (1)
d
Minimum shear reinforcement
0.87 /y Asv 0.87 x 415 x 100
iv = 180.5 mm . . . ( 2 )
0.4 b 0.4 x 500
Provide 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 180 mm c / c throughout .
Check for development length

1.3 " ul
+ Lo > Ld
1.3 x 796.5
x 106 + 12 # > 47 #
796.5 x 103
# < 37.14 mm ( O . K .)
Designed beam and slab type footing is shown in fig. 20- 15.
20- 3. Strap footings: From example 20 - 6, it can be observed that if the given
columns are situated at larger distance, the design of beam will be uneconomical . In
such cases , to get some economy , the area of footing is concentrated near the columns
and the area in central portion is ommitted as shown in fig. 20- 16 . Also refer to fig. 18 - 4 ( a ) .
The areas under columns are so adjusted that the c.g. of loads and c .g. of the strap
footing are the same . This can give many alternatives. These two footings are connected
by a beam known as a strap beam. By doing so , the loads on the beam are concentrated
nearer to the column support and the moment at the centre of the beam is reduced .
Note that the economy is obtained for beam design , however , the slab design becomes
slightly costly. We are usually concerned with overall economy. Therefore , two or
three different adjustments may be tried and costing may be compared for each alternative .
Example 20 - 7.
Two columns C\ and C2 are the boundary columns of a building of size 6 m x
16 m in city area . Size of the columns is 230 mm x 500 mm spaced at 6 m out to
out ( i .e ., 5.77 m c / c) . Column Q and C2 carry 500 kN and 600 kN characteristic loads
<

respectively. Design a strap footing for columns C\ and C2. A . B . P. on soil is 200 kN / m 2.
The materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
760 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Solution :
= 500 + 600 = 1100
Total load
Footing self @ 12 % = 132
Total 1232
Area required = 1232 = 6.16 m 2 .
200
Let width of footing be ‘ V metres. Let and x 2 be the lengths of footings at Cj
and C2 respectively. Refer to fig. 20 - 16 .
<

b (* i + x 2 ) = 6.16
6.16 - bx 2 6.16
*i = b b - *2 (i)
Now determine c.g. of loads from left edge.
600 x 5.77
x + 0.115 = 3.26 m .
1100
Adjust the footing so that c. g. of loads and c .g. of footing coincide.
X
bx 1 x *1 + bx 2 6 - f1 = M* i + *2) *
T
i i x j 2 + 6 b x2 - |
b x 22 = 6.16 x 3.26 = 20.08.
Substitute for xj from ( 1 ) and multiply both the sides by 2.
\2
b
b
" x2 + 12 b x 2 - b x 22 = 40.16.
Simplifying
37.95
b
- 12.32 x 2 + b x 22 + 12 b x 2 - b x 22 = 40.16
12 x2 ( b - 1.03) = 40.16 b - 37.95
b
x2 =
3.35 b 3.16 - ( 2)
b ( b - 1.03 )
Try different values of b and using equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) determine and x 2 .
Tabulate as follows .
b *2 *1 Remark
1.1 6.82 - 1.22 Inadmissible
1.2 4.22 0.92
1.3 3.40 1.33
1.4 2.95 1.45
1.5 2.65 1.46
1.6 2.41 1.44
1.7 2.23 1.40
1.8 2.07 1.35
1.9 1.94 1.30
2.0 1.82 1.26 Selected
2.2 1.64 1.16
2.5 1.42 1.04
Art . 20 - 3] Combined Footings 761

Many alternatives are possible . Keeping in view, the restriction of width, if any ,
the most economical alternative may be used .
Presently , let us solve the problem by choosing b = 2.0 m , = 1.26 m and
x2 = 1.82 m . The plan of the footing is shown in fig. 20- 16.

b =2m CjI C2

h* H <- H
Xj = 1.26 m x 2 = 1.82 m
h* 6m H

Plan
750 kN 900 kN

A B

fTTTTT 535.7 kN/m

n ^ a

1.26 m H — Beam
<- 1.82 m

838.4
61.6
776.8
626 8/ 75 75 61.6
688.4 ^ —
H 1.565 -H

S. F.diagram

433.5
647.27 652.52
B. M.diagram

FIG . 20- 16
1.5 x 1100
/> u , up
6.16 = 267.86 kN / m 2.
Load on beam , neglecting the weight of the beam in slabless portion
x
1.5 1100
wu = ( 1.26 1.82 ) = 535.7 kN / m ( slab portion ) .
+
762 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
( 1 ) Design of slab:
Let the width of the beam = 600 mm
2 - 0.6
Clear cantilever =
2 = 0.7 m .
0.72 x 267.86
MU = 2
= 65.63 kNm .
65.63 x 106 154.2 mm .
d = 1000 x 2.76
Try D = 400 mm ( higher depth for shear )
d = 400 - 50 - 8 = 342 mm
Mu 65.63 x 106
= 0.56
bd 2 1000 x 342 x 342
pt = 0.161
551 mm 2 .
/ist =

Provide 10 mm # @ 140 mm c / c - 560 mm 2.

( 2 ) Distribution steel:
0.12 x 1000 x 400
As =
100 = 480 mm 2 .
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 490 mm 2.
Shear at d = 0.358 x 267.86 = 95.9 kN
95.9 x IQ 3
= 1000 x 342 =
0.28
100 As 100 x 560
1000 x 342 =
0.163
bd
Tc —
0.29 N / mm 2.
< ( O . K.)
*v Tc
L& = 47 x 10 = 470 mm .
Available anchorage = 700 - 50 = 650 mm ( O . K. )
( 3 ) Design of beam:
Mu = 652.52 kNm ( tension top )
652.52 x 106
d = 2.76 x 600 = 627.72 mm .
Try D = 1000 mm
d = 1000 - 50 - 20 - 10 ( using 20 # bars in two layers )
= 920 mm
652.52 x 106
1.29
bd 2 600 x 920 x 920
pt = 0.389
Ast = 2147 mm 2.
Provide 7- 20 # = 2199 mm 2 at top . Also provide 4 - 16 # at bottom to carry
stirrups .
Art . 20 - 3] Combined Footings 763

150 ::
t>
10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c
i 700

2000
r I li 600

® —
1 10 mm # @ 140 mm c/c l — ® 700
I I
1501
— 1260
H« > <- 1820 H
150 150
h* 6000 H

Plan

— central
4- 12 # side face in
portion
300
> H -H-

1000
T fr
~n
il 600

l T T ; : 4oo
150
T
4-16 # r M10
150

8 mm # 2 legged stirrups @ 150 mm c/c throughout

-
( b ) Section A A

600 600
H-
>
7-20 # p— 7-20 #
650 ,, 4- 16 # 4- 12 #
( side face )
350
150 '

150

>4 4-
- MIO
L

H - >
—
--
>f
4 4
4- 16 #
H H-
-
—
M 10
4

150 700 600 700 150 150 600 150

(c ) Section B- B ( d ) Section C-C

FIG . 20 - 17
( 4 ) Check for shear :
100 As 100 x 2199
600 x 920 =
0.398
hi
Tc = 0.431
Vuc = 0.431 x 600 x 920 x 10 “ 3
= 237.9 kN.
764 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Minimum shear reinforcement using 8 # two - legged stirrups ( -<4 SV = 100 iiim 2 )

0.87 x 415 x 100

sv 0.4 x 600
150 mm .
V us , m i n
d = 240
Vv us , min = 240 x 920 x lO-3 = 220.8 kN .
Shear capacity of a section with minimum shear reinforcement = 237.9 4 220.8 -
= 458.7 kN .
Pu. AB (shear at d ) = 626.8 - 0.92 x 535.7 = 134 kN < 458.7 kN.
Provide minimum shear reinforcement .
ru,BA ( shear at d ) = 776.8 - 0.92 x 535.7 = 284 kN .
Provide minimum shear reinforcement .
Provide 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 150 mm c / c throughout the beam .
( 5 ) Development length :
LQ = 8 # ( ell hook provided )
x 106
1.3 x 652.52 + 8 # > 47 #
838.4 x 103
# < 25.94 ( O . K. )
In central portion , the size of web exceeds 750 mm (due to the absence of slab) .
Provide 4 - 12 # side face reinforcement in central portion . Extend in slab portion for
300 mm .
The designed strap footing is shown in fig. 20 - 17.
20 - 4 . Strip footings: When more than two footings for columns situated on a
line are combined , we obtain a strip footing . Refer to fig . 18 - 4 ( b ) . We shall design a
slab - beam type strip footing . Note that the continuous beam in this case is a determinate
beam as the support reactions are nothing but the column loads .
Example 20 - 8 .
Design a slab - beam type strip footing for columns Cj , C2, C3 and C4 spaced at
4 m c / c and C\ - - C3 - C4 . The characteristic column loads are 800 kN , 1200 kN ,
900 kN and 800 kN respectively . Width of the footing is restricted to 2 m which
necessiates the combined footing . Column sizes are 300 mm x 300 mm each . The
materials are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 . The
allowable bearing pressure on soil is 150 kN / m 2 .
Solution :
Total column load = 800 4- 1200 4- 900 4- 800
= 3700 kN
Footing self @ 12% = 444 kN
Total 4144 kN
4144 27.62 m 2 .
Area required= 150 =
Let width of footing = 2 m
1length 27.62
—-
= 2
13.81 m
c . g . of loads from centre of Cj
1200 x 4 4- 900 x 8 4- 800 x 12
x
3700
= 5.84 m . i . e . , 6.16 m from C4.
 \

Art . 20 - 4 ] Combined Footings 765

Extend the footing beyond centre of C4 = 0.84 m .

Projection beyond centre of C\ = 6.16 + 0.84 - 5.84 = 1.16 m .
Length of footing = 1.16 + 5.84 + 6.16 + 0.84 = 14 m .
800 kN 1200 kN 900 kN 800 kN

C , , C2 i
C3 , C4

h* 4m -H -* 4m h# 4m H

H* x = 5.84 m >4 * - 6.16 m H H

1.16 m 0.84 m
h* 14 m H

( a ) Fixing length of footing

T 800 i i i i

2000 400 . ...

i 800 i i i

h* 4000 4000 4000 H !

1160 840
(b ) Proposed footing

FIG . 20 - 18
Refer to fig. 20- 18. Provide 400 mm wide beam. The net upward pressures are :
3700
P up = 2 x 1 4 = 132.14 kN / m 2
p U , up = 1.5 x 132.14 = 198.2 kN / m 2 on slab
and Vup = 2 x 198.2 = 396.4 kN / m on beam .
( 1 ) Design of slab:
“
Consider 1 m length of slab .
0.82
= 2
x 198.2 = 63.42 kNm

d req 63.42 x 106 151.6 mm .

V 2.76 x 1000
Try D = 370 mm ( larger depth for shear )
d = 370 - 50 - 10 = 310 mm
Mn 63.42 x IQ 6
1000 x 310 x 310 =
0.66
bd 2
pt = 0.191 ^4 st = 592 mm 2.
Provide 12 mm # @ 180 mm c / c = 628 mm 2.
Shear at d = 310 mm
Vu = 0.49 x 198.2 = 97.12 kN
766 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20

97.12 x 103
1000 x 310Tv = 0.31 N / mm 2
=
100 As 100 x 628
1000 x 310 =
0.202
bd
T C = 0.32 N / mm 2 T V < xc ( O . K. )
Development length
Ld = 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
Anchorage available = 800 - 50 = 750 mm ( O . K. )
0.12 x 1000 x 370
Distribution steel =
100 = 444 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 461 mm 2.
1200 kN 1800 kN 1350 kN 1200 kN

K L M
1.16 4m 4m 4m 0.84
A B C D E F G H I J
396.4 kN / m
( a ) Loading

846 868
786.5 808.5
460 572.5
400.5 A
1.87 m 2.41 m
<- < H

A B C K D L F M H
332 ^272.5
680.5
740 718
954

( b ) S. F.diagram
477.2
354.8
266.7 338.5 139.9
202.2 160.1 K D E L F G M 14.25
ABC 15.7 80.8 H I
*4 44.8
f- K 0.57
0.4 424.4 0.167
260.4
660
300 300 300 300

1010
H-H 3700 - H K — 3700 -H-K 3700 H- H H
(c ) B . M.diagram
FIG . 20- 19
( 2 ) Design of beam :
( a ) Analysis : Beam loading, S. F. diagram and B . M. diagram based on factored
loads are shown in fig. 20 - 19.
( b ) Design for flexure :
Maximum moment = 954 kNm
Art . 20 - 4 ] Combined Footings 767

954 x 106 929.6 mm .

d req
2.76 x 400 =
Try D = 1200 mm .
d = 1200 - 50 - 20 - 10 = 1120 mm .
0.205 x 400 x 1120
Minimum reinforcement
100 = = 918 mm 2.
Calculations of design for flexure are tabulated in table 20 - 1, b = 400 mm ,
d = 1120 mm . Also provide 4- 12 # side face reinforcement as the depth
of web of beam is more than 750 mm .
TABLE 20 1 -
Location Mn A/ u Pi A .
t
Reinforcement
kNm bd 2 mm 2 Bars mm 2
Bottom reinforcement :
ABC + 202.2 0.403 0.115 515 4 - 20 # ( 1256 mm 2)
DE + 354.8 0.707 0.205 918 4 - 20 #
FG Min 4 - 20 #
_
IJ + 94.4 0.188 Min 4 - 20 #
Top reinforcement :
CD - 424.4 0.846 0.250 1120 4 - 20 # ( 1256 mm 2)
EF - 660 1.315 0.397 1779 6 - 20 # ( 1884 mm 2)
GH - 808 1.615 0.498 2231 8 - 20 # ( 2512 mm 2 )
( c ) Design for shear :
Maximum shear = 894.5 kN
894.5 x 103
= 400 x 1120 = 2 N / mm 2 < 2.8 N / mm 2 .

TABLE 20 - 2
V.us
K 100 As Tc bd V us
d
Stirrups
Location
kN bd N / mm 2 kN kN N / mm two - legged
BA Minimum 8 # 225 c / c
CD 236.5 0.28 0.374 167.5 69 61.6 8 # 225 c / c
( 4 - 20 # )
DC 342.5 0.28 0.374 167.5 175 156.3 8 # 225 c / c
EF 450.5 0.42 0.441 197.6 252.9 225.8 8 # 150 c / c
( 6 - 20 # )
(V
US

d = 242

FE 128.5 0.42 0.441 197.6 Min 8 # 225 c / c

GH 214.5 0.56 0.499 223.5 Min 8 # 225 c / c
( 8 - 20 # )
HG 364.5 0.56 0.499 223.5 141 125.9 8 # 225 c / c
IJ Minimum 8 # 225 c / c
768 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 20

150 :: 150 ::
2000 800 ’ '
I I
400 I I“
800 :: F I
Jj
I *
150 "
150:: (A) Ur ®
150
—150*+H1160 +* 4000 -
>+ « 4000 4000 H HH
840
150
fK 14000 HK
150
( a) Plan

4- 20 #
XC 2
6-20 #
XC 3
8- 20 #
\
C4

1200
£ £
150 ::

4-20 # throughout L© M 10
4- 12 # (side face )

D D 8# 8# D D
8# 8#
N 8# @ 225 c/c N 10 restN 8# @ 225 c/c N
225 225
S S 150 225 S S
(b) Section A -A
400 400
K H H- H
8-20 #
T
830
»
«
* 6-20 #

«— 4- 12 #
« * 4- 12 #

370
*-
inffiiliiUMfllif
ff <
jat ] mpp ’•‘s 1

TL * *
i i
L 4-20 # LMIO 4-20 # LMIO
H —H
150
2000 H H- —
150
H-K
150
2000 —
H K
150
(c ) Section B - B (d ) Section C-C
FIG . 20 - 20
Shear resisted by minimum shear reinforcement using 8 mm # two- legged stirrups
with Asv = 100 mm 2
0.87 /y A % v 0.87 x 415 x 100
rv = 0.4 b 0.4 x 400 = 225 mm
0.87 x 415 x 100 x 1120 x
V• us , m i n 10-3 = 179.7 kN.
225
Shear at distance d from face of support
= Vu at face - 1.12 x 396.4 = Vu at face - 444 kN.
V us , m i n = 179.7 kN.
 *

Art. 20 - 5 ] Combined Footings 769

The shear design calculations are tabulated in table 20 - 2 .

Stirrups more than minimum required in EF portion . Distance from face
of support
894.5 - 197.6 - 179.7 1.30 m .
396.4
No . of stirrups = 1.30 + 1 10 no.
0.15
( d ) Development length :
At point of contraflexure from C2 in span EF
Vu = 954 - 0.57 x 396.4 = 728 kN.
Mul = 660 kNm ( unless critical conditions arise, Afuj may
be taken as Mu )
L0 —
8 # ( Let )

1.3 x 660
x 106
+ 8 # > 47 #
728 x 103
# < 30.2 mm . . ( O . K.)
The designed foundation is detailed in fig. 20 - 20 .
20*5. Raft foundation: Raft foundations are used for combining the footings
of a group of columns or all the columns of a building when columns carry heavy
loads on weak soils. Refer to fig. 18 - 4 ( c) . Also , when the isolated footings occupy more
than 75% of the plan area , raft foundations are used . Centres of gravity of column
loads and the footing are matched to obtain uniform upward soil pressure . If this is
not possible , non - uniform pressures should be taken into account in design.
The exact manual analysis of raft foundation is not possible because the beams run
in both the directions and the share of the loads by these beams cannot be easily
calculated . In raft foundation , the settlements under individual columns tend to be
uniform . Therefore , in conventional design , the reactions in the beams at their junction
with columns are so adjusted that their sum equals to the column loads . Here , we shall
discuss the conventional beam - slab type raft foundation . In case of rafts , although
simplified methods for symmetrical cases are available , it is advisable to use the
modern methods of analysis by using standard software considering 3 D model . You
may think 1.5 m thick raft for 8 storeyed building, 2 - 3 m thick raft for 15- 20 storeyed
building and 3-5 m thick raft for 20 - 35 storeyed buildings. For such thick raft , the
minimum reinforcement as per IS : 456 - 2000 shall be checked .

Plinth w
1
Column

Load of this earth Filling and

above it transfers directly to soil
by arch action
A Load of this earth filling transfers
through the footing
60° 60°/
R .C.C. —
s • P.C.C.
FIG . 20- 21
770 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 20
In case of isolated footings, the allowable bearing pressure takes into account , the
backfilling of earth in trenches upto ground level . Earth mass above this level ( upto
say plinth level ) and loading at plinth level ( plain concrete , tiles , live load at plinth
level , etc .) can be distributed to the foundation soil directly at an assumed angle of
dispersion . Refer to fig . 20 - 21. The angle of dispersion may be assumed as 60° .
In case of raft foundation ( and to some extent in combined footings and strip
footings ) such possibility is absent. The loads of earth filling in plinth and the surcharge
loads acting at plinth level are transferred to soil via raft foundation . Although , this
load does not induce any shear and moment in the raft , it certainly increases the
bearing pressure on soil . Thus while calculating the required area of raft foundation ,
this load should be taken into account . In this connection , the additional excavation ,
which is usually made all around the foundation may be taken into account in favour
of economy.
For a given site and at the given depth of foundation , the allowable bearing
pressure on soil that can be used for raft foundation is generally higher than that used
for an isolated footing. This point also should be observed while designing a raft
foundation . Detailed soil investigations shall be carried out to obtain proper estimate
of the ABP on soil .
The worked example 20 - 9 explains the conventional design of a slab and beam
type raft foundation .
Example 20 - 9 .
The column lay - out of a multi - storeyed building ( GF parking + 7 upper floors ) at
foundation level is shown in fig. 20 - 22 . Size of all the columns is 500 mm x 500 mm .
The working loads on columns are 1160 kN, 1840 kN and 3160 kN respectively for
columns Q , C2 and C3.
<

Design a raft foundation for the building if the allowable bearing pressure on soil
at 2.6 m depth is 110 kN / m 2. The plinth level of the building is + 0.0 m . The loading
on the plinth may be taken as 10 kN / m 2 including loading of parking. The materials
are M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
( a ) Soil design : Assume 20 m x 20 m size raft . Also assume self - weight of the
foundation as 20% of column loads. The loads on soil are as follows :
( 1 ) From columns
4 x 1160 -f 8 x 1840 + 4 x 3160 = 32000 kN
( 2 ) Self weight @ 20% 6400 kN
( 3 ) Loads on plinth @ 10 kN / m 2
= 20 x 20 x 10 = 4000 kN
Total 42400 kN
42400
Pressure on soil =
20 x 20 = 106 kN / m 2 < 110 kN / m 2 .

Net upward pressure = 32000 = 80 kN / m 2 .

20 x 20
Factored upward pressure
Pu ,up = 80 x 1.5 = 120 kN / m 2.
( b ) Proposed structural arrangement : Proposed structural arrangement is shown in
fig. 20- 22 . Beams connecting the columns form a grid of 6 m x 6 m . To reduce
the span of the raft slab, the internal beams are introduced . All beams are
600 mm wide . The slab cantilevers for 700 mm all around .
Art . 20 - 5] Combined Footings 771

Note that the terms ‘ main beam ' and ‘secondary beam ' as used at the typical
floor level cannot be used here because the reactions of the beams are
pre - determined by geometry and not by moment distribution . In this connection ,
also note that all the beams are statically determinate beams.
- 500 x 500 columns
f
— 600 wide beams
1 1 m ::
I B1
c2
I
B2 I B3
w
B4 I I B5 B6 3 ~> '\
rv

O'
/
6 m co
2 I I 2I O'
co co | a
I B4 B5 I B6

I I I I
I I I I
B4 I I b5 B6
20 m 6m
^ OO
ta I I m| a
B4 I I B5 B6
'’

I I
B4 B5 B6
6m -
r
2C
o c r*

.
a || a| a
I B1 I I B2 I B3
1m - A C2
!
3
6m 6m 6m +H
1 m 1m
h* 20 m +H

FIG . 20 - 22
( c ) Design of slab:
Assume 350 mm thick slab .
d = 350 - 50 - 8 ( assume 16 mm diameter bar )
= 292 mm .
For internal spans , / = 3 m and w = 120 kN / m 2.
2 120 x 32
(+ )= M u (-) = w1 lQ 10
108 kNm .
Fu at d = 292 mm from face of beam
£3 - 0.3 - 0.292 x 120 = 108.96 kN .
2
For cantilever slab , l = 0.7 m and w = 120 kN / m 2.

K ( -) = 120 2 0.72 = 29.4 kNm

x

Fu at d = 120 (0.7 - 0.292) = 48.96 kN .

772 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
Slab reinforcement calculations are tabulated below.
b = 1000 mm , d = 292 mm , M 15 concrete , Fe 415 steel
Mu
Location A Asti mm 2 ^4 st , provided
bd 2

Internal 108 x 106 16 mm # @

spans 1000 x 2922 0.382 1116 170 mm c / c
( + ) and ( )
"
= 1.27 = 1182 mm 2

Cantilever 29.4 x 106 0.099 420 10 mm # @

1000 x 2922 ( minimum ) 170 mm c / c
= 0.35 = 461 mm 2
Minimum 0.12 of 420
steel overall depth
Distribution 10 mm # @
steel - do - 420 180 mm c / c
= 436 mm 2
( d ) Determination of beam reactions :
Loading on - B±< -
= 120 ( 1.0 + 1.5 ) = 300 kN / m
Loading on - B5 - B
^ 120 x 3
= 360 kN / m
Factored load on columns
Q 1.5 x 1160 = 1740 kN
C2 - 1.5 x 1840 = 2760 kN
C3 - 1.5 x 3160 = 4740 kN
Referring to fig. 20- 23, let R[ and R2 be the reactions of beam B\ - B2 - 53;
and /?3 and R± be the reactions of beam B± - B$ - B .
By proportion
^

^Rx ^ 3

R3
= R
=
1.2 R 1 and
2
4 360
300
1.2

= 1.2 R 2 ( 1)
Consider equilibrium of loads in beam -8 10 - Bxx - BX 2 referring to fig. 20- 22 .
2 R2 + 5 R4 = 2 ( 2760 + 4740 ) = 15000
But Ri = 1.2 R 2 from ( 1)
2 R 2 + 5 ( 1.2 R2) = 15000
R2 = 1875 kN
Ri = 1.2 x 1875 = 2250 kN .
Consider equilibrium of beam Bx B2 B$ - -
2 R| + 2 R 2
Rx + 2 2700
R
300 x 18
——
Rx = 2700 - R 2 = 2700 - 1875 = 825 kN.
Art . 20 - 5 ] Combined Footings 773

Consider equilibrium of beam B± - B$ - B§

2 R 3 + 2 R 4 = 360 x 18
R3 + = 3240
= 3240, = 3240 - 2250 = 990 kN .
Finally , we have , R y = 825 kN , R 2 = 1875 kN
= 990 kN , = 2250 kN .
For the check , consider equilibrium of beam By - B3 - By .
2 Ry + 5 + 20 x 120 = 2 ( 1740 + 2760)
2 x 825 + 5 x 990 + 2400 = 9000, 9000 = 9000
L. H .S. = R. H .S ( O . K. )
The beams can be now analysed and designed with known reactions as above ,

( e ) Design of beam B y - B2 - B3
The loading, S. F. and B . M . diagrams are plotted in fig. 20 - 23.
825 kN 1875 kN 1875 kN 825 kN

B1 B2 B3

A 300 kN/ m B 300 kN/ m c 300 kN/ m D

6m -
44 6m 6m
( a ) Loading
975 900
885 / 8 iq > 825
658 / 750 /1
583/ 508 /
/ 458 /
2.75 m
h4 -

H *
2.75 m
486
/508 /583458
w 50 / 810 ^
658
885
825 900 975
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
hHH HrmqH
0.25 J L 0.808 0.808 -1
iJJbH 0.808 J L 0.25
0.808 ' -
0.808 - L 0.808

3.24 m 0.25 ^ . ..
^
0.25 -
+
0.88 1.38 J —
3.04 m 0 7/ 0
I 1.23 1.23 1
( b) S.F.diagram
—
3.24 m
1.38 0.88 ^ - 0.25

450 kNm 450 kNm

A B
Ac D

1134 kNm [
900 kNm 1134 kNm
(c) B .M .diagram

Analysis of beam B y - B2 - B3
FIG . 20 - 23
774 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
( 1 ) Design for flexure :
The beam acts as a tee beam for span moments. As one of the flange is
discontinuous , it acts as an isolated tee beam . From symmetry , consider
b = 2000 mm . The flange width b{ is given by

if ^ 0
+
^b
0
+ 4

IQ = 0.7 x 6000 = 4200 mm

4200 + 600 = 1288 mm .
h 4200
+ 4
2000
The thickness of flange is very large . Therefore the N . A . will remain in the
flange . Thus , the beam acts as a rectangular beam of width 1288 mm at centre.
At the supports , it acts as a rectangular beam of 600 mm width ( tension
in flange ) .
Effective depth required :
( 1 ) At centre , Mu = 1134 kNm
1134 x 106
d =
2.07 x 1288 = 652 mm .
( 2 ) At support , Mu = 450 kNm
450 x 106 601.92 mm .
=
2.07 x 600 =
d
Take overall depth = 900 mm . The effective depth with 2 layers of 28 mm # bars
d = 900 - 50 - 28 - 14 = 808 mm .
The reinforcement for flexure are tabulated as follows:

Location
bd 2 Pt ^ st , mm * Ast , provided

1 134 x 106
External
1288 x 8082
= 1.35 0.409 4256 7- 28 # = 4312 mm *
span ( top )

450 x 106
Support = 1.15 0.343 1663 4 - 25 #= 1964 mm *
600 x 8082 ( throughout the beam )

900 x 106 6- 28 # mm 2
8082 = = 3696
Internal 1.07 0.317 3299
span 1288 x

Bottom steel 4 - 25 # is carried throughout the beam to support the stirrups.

( 2 ) Design for shear :
Refer to fig. 20 - 23 .
Maximum shear Vu, , BA = 885 kN .
885 x 103
= 600 x 808 = 1.83 N / mm 2
< 2.8 N / mm 2 (O. K . )
Art . 20 - 5 ] Combined Footings 775

Minimum shear reinforcement using 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups ( y4 sv = 201 mm 2 )

0.87 / Asw 0.87 x 415 x 200
sv
0.4 b 0.4 x 600 = 300 mm .
Consider 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups @ 300 mm c / c as minimum shear
reinforcement.
0.87 /y Asv d
V us , m i n 0.87 x 415 x 201 x 808 x 10 3"

300
195.5 kN
SPAN AB
^ us , AB at
100 As
d — 808 mm from face
100 x 4928
= 508 kN .

1.016
bd 600 x 808
x c = 0.62 N / mm 2
TC bd = 0.62 x 600 x 808 x lO 3 = 300.5 kN .
*

Vus = 508 - 300.5 = 207.5 kN .

Using 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups
0.87 x 415 x 201 x 808
sv 207.5 x 103
= 282 mm .
Provide 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups @ 250 mm c / c .
Shear resistance of a section with minimum sheai reinforcement ( i . e ., 8 mm
# 4 - legged stirrups @ 300 mm c / c )
300.5 + 195.5 = 496 kN .
=
This occurs at 0.88 m from face of support A .
0.88
No . of stirrups = 5.
0.25 + 1
u , BA at d = 808 mm from face = 658 kN
^ Fus = 658 - 300.5 = 357.5 kN .
Using 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups
0.87 x 415 x 201 x 808 164 mm .
5V =
357.5 x 103
Provide 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups @ 150 mm c / c. This is required upto
1.38 m [fig. 20 - 23 ( b ) ] .
1.38
No . of stirrups =
0.15 + 1
« 11 .

In the central portion use minimum shear reinforcement, of 8 mm # 4 - legged

@ 300 mm c / c .
SPAN BC
100 As 100 x 3696
bd 600 x 808 = 0.762
xc = 0.608 N / mm 2
xc bd = 0.608 x 600 x 808 x 10 3 = 294.7 kN . '

Shear resistance of a section with minimum shear reinforcement

= 294.7 + 195.5 = 490.2 kN.
PUs,BC 808 mm from face B = 583 kN
at
Fus = 583 - 294.7 = 288.3 kN .
776 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20

Using 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups

0.87 x 415 x 201 x 808
=
288.3 x 103
= 203.4 mm .
Provide 8 mm # 4 - legged stirrups @ 200 mm c / c .
This is required upto 1.23 m from B [ fig . 20 - 23 ( b ) ].
1.23
No. of stirrups = 0.2 + 1 8.
Use minimum shear reinforcement in central portion .
The shear design is symmetrical about centre of the span.
Column 500 x 500 ( all )
\
<
7-28 # 1
p® 6- 28 # i
B
7- 28 # -,
;
T T

L® L® — 4-25 # throughout
B j ( 600x 900 ) B 2( 600 X 900) B 3( 600X 900)
— 5500 5500 5500
H- -H
500 500 500 500
K 6000 H 6000 6000

D 8# 8# 8# D 8# 8# 8# D 8# 8# 8# D
N 5 rest 11 N 8 rest 8 N 11 rest 5 N
S 250 300 150 S 200 300 200 S 150 300 250 S
All Stirrups are 4 legged stirrups

H - 600 -H h* 600 -H
7-28 # 6-28 #

4 4 «
550 550
900 „ H— 700 900 ,, H— 700
'' "
350 350

L
4-25 # 4- 25 #
Section A - A Section B - B

Details of beam Bi - - B%
FIG . 20 - 24
( 3 ) Check for development length :
At support , reinforcement for flexure = 4 - 25 #
Ld = 47 x 25
= 1175 mm .
Point of contraflexure at 500 mm from support .
Art . 20 - 5 ] Combined Footings Ill

Length of the bar should not be less than

( i ) 500 mm + 808 ( rfeff ) = 1308 mm
( ii ) 500 mm + 12 x 25 ( i . e . , 12 # ) = 800 mm
( iii ) 500 mm +
1
x 5500 |i .e., Yfi c ^ ear spanj = 844 mm
( iv ) 1175 mm ( L j)
From ( i ) , ( ii ) , ( iii ) and ( iv ) , the support moment reinforcement (at bottom )
is required to extend for 1308 mm on both the sides from centre of the support.
It may be observed from S. F. and B . M . diagrams that a small change in
reaction ( i . e . , column loads ) changes the moments drastically. Also the
reinforcement (at bottom ) is required in the span to carry the shear reinforcement
( minimum 4 nos .) .
Considering these points , we decide to continue all 4 - 25 # throughout the
length of the beam .
990 kN 2250 kN 2250 kN 990 kN

B4 B5 B6

A 360 kN /m B 360 kN / m Q 360 kN / m D

K 6m -H 6m 6m H

(a ) Loading
1 70 1080
10807 990
990 30/
789.
609

2.75 m 3m
< > < >

, / 900
990 990 1170 / 1080
1080

0.25 J
, - .-
3.884 m0 25, i r 25 3.884 m 0.25 j r 0.25 3.884 m
Q

L- 0.808 0.808 - 1 0.808 0.808 -1 Vo

.808 0.808 nr 0.25
( b) S .F.diagram

540 kNm 540 kNm

1361 kNm 1361 kNm

0.5 m 0.55 m 0.55 m 0.5 m
(c) B.M.diagram
Analysis of beam - Bg
FIG . 20 - 25
778 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
For span moment reinforcement, the check for development length is critical
for internal span .
Consider : Lo 12 #
Mui = Mu = 900 kNm ( applied )
Vu = 810 kN (face of support )
1.3 ^1 «
+ LQ
—
1.3 x
900 x 106 + 12 # > 47 # i . e . # < 41.26 mm ( O . K. )
810 x 103
Details of the beam are shown in fig. 20 - 24 .
( f ) Design of beam B± - - B
The S. F. and B . M . diagrams are shown in fig. 20 - 25. The beam may be designed
exactly in a manner similar to the beam B\ - - B% .
( g ) Design of beam By - B% - Bg
Design the beam using the S. F. and B . M. diagrams shown in fig. 20- 26.
795 kN 1170 kN 1170 kN 795 kN

B7 B B8 C B9

A 120 kN /m D
throughout
990 kN 990 kN 990 kN
3 m - >+< - 3 m —M 3 m — H- 3 m 3m — +-* - 3 m —H

-
L 4-
6m 6m 6m
(a) Loading
855 kN
885 825 795 kN
^1 915 kN 765
555 kN
495 kN 435 kN

435 kN
495 kN 555 kN
765 825
795 kN 885
855 kN 915 kN
( b ) S. F.diagram
360 kNm 360 kNm

1845 kNm 1845 kNm

0.404 0.434 0.434 0.404
(c ) B . M .diagram
Analysis of beam B7 - B$ - Bg
FIG . 20 - 26
Art . 20 - 5 ] Combined Footings 779

( h ) Design of beam B By± -

Design the beam using the S . F. and B . M . diagram shown in fig . 20- 27.

885 kN 2490 kN 2490 kN 885 kN

Bio B 11 B 12
A B C D

990 kN 990 kN 990 kN

3m 3m H« - 3m 3m 3m 3m

h* 6m — -
*H 6m 6m
( a) Loading
1365 kN

1125 kN
885 kN

+ + +

885 kN
1125 kN
1365 kN
( b ) S . F.diagram

1440 kNm 1440 kNm

+ +

H
1.055 0.981 0.981 1.055
1575 kNm
2655 kNm 2655 kNm
(c ) B . M .diagram

Analysis of beam B± - B$ - B6
FIG . 20 - 27
780 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 20
20 - 6 . Closure: The difference between normal tee - beam - slab construction at
floor level and foundation slabs and beams shall be clearly noted . A floor level
continuous beam is an indeterminate structure where reactions are determined by
moment distribution or any other method . The foundation beams and slabs on the
other hand , are determinate structures because the column loads act as reactions .
The ideas of matching the c. g. of loads and footing, may be extended to irregular
geometry in the practical construction works . A small change in the dimensions of the
combined footings may change shears and moments drastically. More accuracy of
calculations is required here .

EXAMPLES XX
Note : Use M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 for all
examples.
( 1 ) Design a combined rectangular footing for two columns C\ and C2 spaced at
3.0 m apart . Characteristic loads on Cj and C2 are 750 kN and 1000 kN respectively
and the size of the columns is 300 mm x 600 mm where 600 mm size is along
C\ - C2. Width of the footing shall be 2 m . The A. B . P. on soil is 150 kN / m 2.
( 2 ) In Example ( 1 ) , now the width of footing is not restricted but the footing of
column Ci cannot extend for more than 0.9 m from centre of Q . Column Q is
an exterior column . Design the footing.
( 3 ) In Example ( 1 ) the width of footing is not restricted but the footing cannot
extend for more than 0.9 m from centre of C2. Column C2 is an exterior column .
( Note that the shape of the footing is trapezoidal ) . Design the footing .
( 4 ) Two columns Cj and C2 are spaced at 5 m centres. Cj is an exterior column
whereas C2 is an interior column . Characteristics loads loads on Q and C2 are
respectively 600 kN and 900 kN . A . B. P. on soil is 130 kN / m 2 . Design a strap
footing .
( 5 ) Four columns Q, C2, C3 and Q are collinear and carry characteristic loads of
600 kN , 900 kN , 900 kN and 600 kN respectively. The columns are spaced at
3.0 m c / c . Design a strip footing. A. B . P. on soil is 150 kN / m 2 . The width of
footing shall be 2.0 m .
( 6 ) Design the raft foundation with data of worked example 20 -9 if the working loads
on columns Q , C2 and C3 are 1270 kN , 1760 kN and 3210 kN respectively.
 hapter
: L21 _g j~
— PILE FOUNDATIONS
^

21 - 1. Introductory: If the good soil is available at a higher depth ( more than

3 m ) below the ground , pile foundations are economical . Piles transfer the loads
from the column to the hard soil by bearing and to the surrounding soil by Iriction .
Refer to tig. 18- 4.
In water - logged areas and in grounds with filled up soils, piles can be advantageously
used to provide safe foundations for any type of the structure. Pile foundations can
be used to support building columns, underground and overhead tanks , transmission
towers carrying loads with large eccentricity , to support retaining walls, marine structures
and many others. In general , pile foundations are adopted as a common solution for
poor and problematic soils.
Piles are nothing but reinforced concrete columns of large length cast in situ or
driven vertically or with limited inclination ( 1 : 10 to 1 : 5 ) with vertical , if required ,
in the ground . The column loads are transferred to the pile or piles in a group through
a pile cap . Piles support these loads and transfer them to the soil by side friction and
end bearing. Refer to fig. 18 - 4 .
Piles are mainly of two types :
( a ) Driven piles
( b ) Bored piles .
Driven piles are precast reinforced or prestressed concrete piles of required
diameter and length prepared on the ground . These pilesn are driven in required
position by special pile driving tools.
Bored piles are cast - in - situ reinforced concrete piles placed in holes previously
formed in the ground of required diameter and length . The holes are formed by using
special tools. A variety of methods are available for the purpose . For example , a steel
tube may be used as a liner ( not always) and driven in the hole following the boring
tool . After making the hole of required length , the boring tool is withdrawn .
A reinforcement cage is now lowered in the tube. The concreting is done by tremy, a
bucket like container which carries concrete inside the tube upto the required depth
and opens to place the concrete at required location. The steel casing is withdrawn
simultaneously as the concrete is placed .
Short bored plain concrete piles are sometimes used to carry light loads such as
ground beam to carry wall loads.
Soil design of piles consists of determining number of piles , diameter and length
of piles , spacing of piles in case of piles in group and bearing capacity of pile
using soil properties . The piles are designed for safe loads ranging from 100 kN
to 1500 kN. Piles in a group have a spacing of 0.8 m to 1.5 m depending on the
diameter of the pile. Inclined piles are used to resist horizontal loads in poor soils. The
structural design ot a pile (single pile) is to determine the grade of concrete to be used
and the reinforcement to be provided . If adequate lateral support is available, the ' plltfK Ca.Il
be designed as short columns . In many cases, the design results in minimum reinforcement .
When piles are used in a group , the group action shall be taken into account .
If the spacing of the piles is very less, the stresses in the soil may overlap thereby
reducing the capacity of a pile group. Let Q be the safe load for individual pile and
Qg be the safe load of a group of n piles. Then, we have
^

£g » X £ ( for closer spacing )

782 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21
When the spacing is too less , Q, g < rzQ, due to overlaping stresses in the soil .
This means that the spacing of the piles shall be so adjusted that Q, g = flQ.
The recommended minimum spacings for this condition are:
2b for compaction piles
2.5 b for end bearing piles through a relatively compressible strata
3b for friction piles
3.5 b for end bearing piles through a relatively compressible strata and resting on
stiff clay ,
where b is the diameter of the pile . If the pile section is non - circular , b is the
equivalent diameter of a circle based on the perimeter of a pile .
iV
zmm*.
^
/A AAA&s / AAAAAAA^ AA
^ A^s

AAAAAAAAA, AAAAAAAAA^
Stiff clay

Hard soil

Cost iron shoe

FIG. 21- 1
In this chapter, those pile groups where Q,g = nQ , are considered .
If the spacing of piles is much more than minimum required , the pile cap design
will be uneconomical . Thus , piles should be spaced as close as possible.
The work of manufacturing and providing the piles at required locations is
carried out by the specialist firms who guarantee to provide the piles with a specified
bearing capacity on the sites . The ultimate load carrying capacity of the piles can be
determined by two methods :
( 1 ) Performing actual load tests on a few randomly selected piles .
( 2 ) Using pile formulae which are based on the resistance from the energy of the
driving force or the penetration of the pile per blow. This method is available
for driven piles.
Art . 21 - 2 ] Pile Foundations 783

Pile caps are used to transfer the loads from column to the piles. The pile cap is
cast at the tops of the piles. Pile reinforcement shall be projected and anchored in pile
caps to obtain monolithic behaviour. The pile cap is a heavy concrete mass that can
be assumed as a rigid mass, thereby allows the imposed loads to be distributed on the
piles in a group equitably. The pile cap shall be deep enough to allow for necessary
anchorage of the column and pile reinforcement . The pile should project 50 mm into
~
the cap concrete . The clear overhang of the pile cap beyond the outermost pile In the group
be 100 mm tcT 150 mm . Pile caps are
shall normally usually of a uniform thickness
Pile caps for a group of 4 piles and tor a group of 6 piles are shown in fig. 21 - 2. ^
x ^ -

Iy

X X

Iy
p p
V V
M

W W

v- V V
(a ) Four piles group ( b ) Six piles group
FIG. 21 - 2
21- 2. Loads on pile groups: The pile groups carry the loads from the columns.
Thus, they are subjected to the axial loads , moments and horizontal loads. The pile
cap is assumed to be rigid . This means that it may tilt under the action of loads and
moments but will not bend . This assumption simplifies the calculation of loads on
each pile . The loads are discussed as follows:
(1) Axial loads on a group of vertical piles: Let P be the axial load on the column
and W be the self - weight of the pile cap . The total load on pile group is
P + W. The column is placed on the symmetrically arranged pile group so that
the load is axial on the pile foundation . As the pile cap is rigid , it will transfer
equal loads to each pile . If n is the number of piles , the load ( axial force F )
on each pile due to axial load
P +W ( 21 - 1 )
F* = n
784 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21
If number of piles is decided , the load in each pile is found from this equation .
Conversely , if the capacity of the pile is given , number of symmetrically
arranged piles can be determined .
( 2 ) Moment on a group of vertical piles: The pile cap is assumed to be rigid which
rotates about its centroidal axes under the action of the moment. Thus, the 0
piles located nearer to the centroidal axes have no significant effect of the
moment whereas the piles located farther from the centroidal axes are more
loaded due to moments. Refer to fig . 21 - 2 ( b ) .
The moment of inertia of the pile group of fig. 21 - 2 ( b ) is given by
Iy = 2 (*2 + *2 )
= 4 x2 , where x is the spacing of the piles .
Let P = axial load on the pile group
W — self - weight of pile cap
M = moment on the pile group
n = number of piles = 6
Iy = 4 x2 as calculated .
The load on each pile due to axial load
P +W
=
The load on piles due to moment
Mx
Fm = ± !y

= ±
4x
The loads on each pile are as follows :

No . 3, 6 -> P + tV + M .
n 4x

No. 2, 5
P+W
(V * = 0)
n

No. 1, 4 P +W M_
n 4x *

For a symmetrically arranged group of piles spaced at ± ± *2 »

± x3, . . . ± xn perpendicular to axis yy in general, referring to fig. 21 -3 shall
be as follows :
2 x 9 ( x j 2 + *22 +
Iy = + * n 2)
The maximum load on pile

Fmax
x
P +W + Mxn ( 21 - 2 )
n
' y
For a symmetrically loaded pile group subjected to axial force and biaxial
moment

*
Fmax P+W Mxn ± ( 21 - 3)
n 7 y 7y
Art . 21 - 2 ] Pile Foundations 785

y
O 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
<> O 0 0 0 0 0O 0
T
h
.t — — — — — — — —
yi

yi
X
© @

0 0 0 0
© © o o o o o-
O O 0 0 0
X

y2 0 0 O O O O 0 0 0
<) O O O O O O O 0
0 0 O O 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0
y
« H
X X
1 1

H- xn xn -H
FIG. 21 - 3
(3) Horizontal load : The resistance to horizontal load from the column can be
provided by friction , adhesion and passive pressure of the surrounding soil .
However , in case of poor soil , it is necessary to see that the horizontal load
is resisted by the piles . In case of an isolated foundation , if the pile cap is
resting on poor soil which may shrink and leave the contact with the cap , no
resistance from the ground can be sought . In case of jetties and wharves, the
piles are clear between the deck and the sea - bed . Such piles must be designed
to resist horizontal load .
Let a pile cap at the top be subjected to a vertical load P, the moment M
and a horizontal load H in the plane of P and M . Let the thickness of
the pile cap be h and its self - weight be W. Then the loads acting on a pile
group are:
Vertical load = P + W
moment = M + Hh
horizontal load = H .
The load in piles due to vertical loads and moments are discussed in the
previous paragraphs . The horizontal load on a group of piles is resisted by
following two methods :
( i ) By bending in piles
( ii ) By using inclined piles .
These are briefly discussed as follows :
(i ) By bending in piles: The piles are assumed as fixed at the pile cap and
at the bottom . The point of contraflexure is assumed at the mid - height .
If there are n piles under the pile cap , the horizontal load per pile = —.
Tl
786 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21

6 M,
/ / // ///// H
* n

h1
Point of
contraflexure

Ami Am

fixed // / / ////

Mi
( a ) Pile ( b ) Deflection (c) Moment
FIG. 21 - 4
The pile , its deflected shape and moment diagram are shown in fig. 21 - 4 .
IT Hh 1
The shear in each pile is —n and
2n
as indicated .
the moment is
( ii ) By using inclined piles : The horizontal load is usually induced due to
wind and earthquake loads or due to particular geometry of the superstructure .
The wind and earthquake loads are reversible. Therefore , the inclined piles
are used in pairs where the piles in a pair have opposite inclinations as
shown in fig. 21 - 5.
C
H

+
R
R R
1 1 1
H A B H
2 2

HR HR
2 2

( a ) Pair ( b ) Rake ( c ) Joint A

FIG . 21 -5
Let H be the force acting at the top of a pair of piles. Let the piles be
provided in a rake of 1 in R. The forces induced in the pile are shown in
fig. 21 -5. Note that the pile AC is in tension , whereas the pile BC is in
compression . If the horizontal force is reversed , the forces in the piles
will also be reversed . Thus the axial load in pile with arrangement
shown in fig . 21 - 5 is
Art . 21 - 2 ] Pile Foundations 787

^h A = ^h B =
, “
, Tf Vl + R2 •

Note that when inclined piles are used , the loads in pile due to axial load
and moment as obtained in case of vertical pile shall be multiplied by
Vl + R 2 . Thus, when inclined
pile is used , the maximum loads in the pile
R
due to axial load , moment and horizontal load are given by

F =
P+W V1 + R2
* n R

= X
V1 + R2
Iy R

Fh = f x VMTR2- ( 21 - 4 )
where H is the horizontal force acting on a pair of inclined piles .
( 4 ) Design of a pile: The maximum axial loads in piles of a pile group from
various applied loads for a selected arrangement of piles is determined as
discussed above . The soil design of the pile consists of determining the diameter
and length of the pile using soil properties of the site . The basics of such a
design are discussed in art . 21 - 3. For further details, a reference shall be made
to the books on Soil Mechanics. Structurally , the pile may be designed as a
reinforced concrete column subjected to axial load , moment and shear (due to
horizontal load ) as usual . If the pile is adequately supported throughout by
soil , the length of pile may be designed as a short column . However , if the
pile is clear between the cap and the ground ( as in jetty and wharf ) , the pile
shall be designed as a long column and a moment due to slenderness shall be
taken into account.
The method of analysis as discussed above is conventional and approximate .
A heavy concrete mass of a pile cap under compression usually acts as a rigid
element . The piles may be assumed as fixed or pinned at the end . A plane
frame programme may be used for the exact analysis .
Example 21 - 1 .
An R . C . C . column of a multi - storeyed building transfers following service loads
on the pile cap of a pile foundation . Propose the arrangement of piles and determine
the loads in the piles . The service loads are :
P = 1600 kN
Mx = 400 kNm about major axis
Column size = 400 mm x 600 mm .
Solution :
Proposed arrangement is shown in fig. 21 - 6 .
Let the pile cap be 0.9 m thick . Self load of pile cap and soil above it is assumed
to be 100 kN .

For piles 4= 2 ( 2 X 0.62 ) = 1.44

P = 1600 kN
W = 100 kN .
788 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 21
Loads on piles are as follows :
P +W 1600 + 100
F ,x to Fvi = = 425 kN
n 4
400 x 0.6 166.67 kN .
FU 2 = -^M l FM 3 ~
1.44
Maximum axial load in pile
425 + 166.67 = 591.67 kN.
=
The safe bearing capacity of piles shall be 591.67 kN , say 600 kN.
1600 kN
\

400 kNm 0.35

1.7 m 1m
T
0.9 m 0.35
I
i 100 kN „

H 1.2 m — H
K 1.9 m

\
1 ,3 2 ,4
FIG. 21 - 6
Example 21 - 2 .
A horizontal force of 150 kN ( Hy = 150 kN ) is also acting on the top of the pile
cap of Example 21 - 1 . Determine the capacity of pile required if
( i ) vertical piles of 6 m length are used
( ii ) inclined piles are used .
Solution :
( i ) Vertical piles are used :
On piles P + W = 1700 kN
Hy = 150 kN
Mx = 400 + 150 x 1.0 ( assume 1 m thick pile cap )
= 550 kNm .
Loads on piles
1700
^vl to Fvi = 4 = 425 kN

FM 2 ~ FM 4 = “
-^M l = ~
^M3
550 x 0.6
= 229.16 kN.
1.44
Shear in each pile = — = 37.5 kN .
g
Moment in pile = 37.5 x - 112.5 kNm .
Art . 21 - 2] Pile Foundations 789

Finally , the maximum loads in pile are:

axial force = 425 + 229.16
= 654.16 kN
shear = 37.5 kN
moment = 112.5 kNm .
( ii ) Inclined piles are used: Let two sets of inclined pile pairs be provided with a
rake of 1 in 6 as shown in fig. 21 -7.
1600 kN
\
“ 0.35 f
X

400 kNm 1.7 m 1m

j 0.35

r
1.0 m
H— 1.2 m —
1.9 m
H
H

i t 100 kN

6 6 / 35 6

1 ,3 2,4

0.35 m
1.2 m >~H-H
0.35 m
— 1
Rake

FIG . 21 - 7
1700 .. V37
Fvl to Fv 4 = 4
X
T"
FU 2 =
= 430.9 kN
-^M 4 =
_ = -^M3
550 x 0.6
^M 1 ~

X
1.44
= 232.32 kN
150 x
FHI to Fm r > / 37 = 228.1 kN.
The maximum pile load is
= 430.9 + 232.32 + 228.1
= 891.32 kN.
Example 21 - 3 .
A shear wall 8 m long transfers the following service loads to the foundation :
= P 11000 kN
Mx = 6200 kNm
Hy = 300 kN .
Proposed arrangement is shown in fig. 21 - 8. The thickness of the pile cap may be
assumed as 1.2 m . Determine the maximum loads in piles.
790 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21

0.5

1.2
-- ©—©—©—© —©—©—©- -
3.4 m
\ -- ©—©—©—©—©—©—©- -
1.2
~©
0.5 1

>4 >4 — H* -
0.5 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.5
H 8.2 m

11000 kN
6200 kNm
300 kN
~
1 *
1.2 m
1

1
( Rake 1 :6)
2 3
• 4
( Vertical )
5 6
( Rake 1 :6)
7

FIG . 21 - 8
Solution:
Self - weight of cap = 8.2 x 3.4 x 1.2 x 25 = 836 kN .
Weight of soil above cap ( assume 2 m equivalent height of soil from top of pile
cap to the plinth level and provision for live load on ground )
= 8.2 x 3.4 x 2 x 17 kN / m 3
= 948 kN .
W = 836 + 948
= 1784 « 1800 kN .
At top of piles P + W = 11000 + 1800
= 12800 kN
Hy = 300 kN
Mx = 6200 + 300 x 1.2
= 6560 kNm .
Art . 21 - 2 ] Pile Foundations 791

( 1 ) Central piles numbered 4

The piles are vertical .
12800
Loads on piles = = 610 kN .
21
Note that these piles do not carry any load due to moment and horizontal loads .^
( 2 ) Inclined piles
+
Let the piles be provided with a rake of 1 : R = 1 : 6 . Therefore - 1
The loads in piles are calculated as follows : ^ R2 = .

( 3 ) Axial loads
*vl - Fv2 ~ Fv 3 ~ Fv 5 ~ Fv6

( 4 ) Moment
12800 x
21 ^ 37
6 = 618 kN .

The moment of inertia

4= 2 x 3 ( l . 22 + 2.42 + 3.62 ) = 120.96
~ 6560
x 3.6 X
- FM l = + FM 7 197.9 kN
120.96
6560 x 2.4 V37
- FM 2 = +
^M 6 = 120.96 6
" 132.0 kN
_ FM 3
( 5 ) Horizontal force
— + -^ =
MS
6560 x 1.2 x
120.96 = 66 kN .

- FH \ = - FW1 = - FH 3 -
FH 5 = 7”H 6 = Fm
300 x
18 V37 = 101.4 kN .
Total loads in the piles are tabulated in table 21 - 1 below .
TABLE 21 - 1
TOTAL LOADS IN PILES ( EXAMPLE 21 - 3 )
Compression ( + ) , Tension ( -)
Applied loads
Row Axial Moment Horizontal Total kN
1 618 - 197.9 - 101.4 318.7
2 618 - 132.0 - 101.4 384.6
3 618 - 166.0 - 101.4 450.6
4 610 0 0 0
5 618 + 166.0 + 101.4 785.4
6 618 -I- 132.0 + 101.4 851.4
7 618 -»- 197.9 + 101.4 917.4
The maximum pile load is 917.1 kN and minimum pile load is 318.7 kN . As the
horizontal loads are usually due to wind and earthquake loads , reversal will be observed .
Therefore , the piles 1 - 7 , 2 - 6 , 3 - 5 , etc . , shall have the same details . If the difference
of the pile loads is not very large , same details for all piles may be provided . In the
present case , piles 1 , 2 , 6 and 7 may be designed for a safe bearing capacity of 920 kN
whereas the capacity of piles 3 , 4 , 5 may be 780 kN .
792 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21
21- 3. Soil design of a pile: The soil design of a pile is to determine its
cross - section and length using the available soil properties . Conversely , the soil
design may give the capacity of a pile for selected cross - sections ( e . g . , 300 0 ,
400 0, 500 0, 300 x 300 , 400 x 400, 500 x 500 , etc . ) and lengths (5 m , 6 m , 10 m ,
15 m , etc . ) for given site conditions . Then , the arrangement of the piles may be
based on these data.

I
1 r
1 r
1 r
/ 1 r Side friction
fs As
1 r
1 r
1 r
.[ A I ,.
42- k -P Y /
Bearing
px Ap
( a ) Pile ( b ) Pressure diagram (c) Average pressure
FIG . 21 - 9
A pile of cross - sectional area Ap is driven in the ground for length / as shown in
fig. 21 - 9 . The pile transfers the load to the soil by two ways :
( 1 ) At the base , it transfers the load by bearing, the bearing area being its cross - section .
( 2 ) At the surroundings , it transfers the load by skin friction .
Thus Q. u = 9 p x + fs (i)
where Qu = ultimate bearing capacity of a pile
qp = bearing capacity of soil at depth l
/s = average unit skin friction
As = surface area of the pile.
Most bearing capacity equations are given in the following form :
?p= c Cc + Y Df Nq Cq ( 2)
where c= unit cohesion
yvc , Nq == bearing capacity factors
Cc > Cq = shape factors
y = unit weight of soil
Z f = depth of foundation , presently
)

Df = /•
Art . 21 - 3 ] Pile Foundations 793

To determine frictional resistance , we have fs = p R.

The reaction R is nothing but average passive pressure of the soil . Referring to
fig. 21 -9, the average pressure of soil on a unit area is

where
R =
kp =
\ *pY /-
coefficient of passive pressure ,

Also p = tan 5 where 5 is an angle of repose of soil

1
fs = ( tan 8 ) x - kpY l (3)
1 + sin 0
where 0 is angle of internal friction of soil .
1 - sin 0
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3)
5c 5,] 4
+ Y l tan 6 x ( perimeter ) x /.
Finally we have Q, u ~~
Vp x ^ p + fs s
^
where ?p = f + T Cq
1 1 + sin 0 >
and fs y / tan 5 ( 21 - 5 )
2 1 - sin 0
Note that the safe load on pile also depends on the settlement criterion .
The method sited above refers to strength design only.
Example 21 - 4 .
Determine the safe bearing capacities of piles with following data :
Diameter : 300 mm , 400 mm , 500 mm , 600 mm
Length : 10 m , all .
Bearing capacity of soil at 10 m depth
q p = 8000 kN / m 2
Average unit skin friction , fs = 150 kN / m 2
Factor of safety = 3 .
Solution :
Q, U + fs A s
^p ^ p
= 8000
=
(f <P 2
6283 d> 2 + 4712 <t> .
J + 150 (71 X ( j> ) X 10

Applying a factor of safety 3 =

£ Safe = 2094 02 + 1570 0
= ( 2094 0 + 1570) 0 (1)
Substitute the diameters in equation ( 1 ) . We get the following safe loads:
Diameter of pile Safe load
0.3 m 660 kN
0.4 m 963 kN
0.5 m 1308 kN
0.6 m 1696 kN
794 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21
21- 4. Structural design of a pile: The structural design of a pile is carried
out by considering the pile as a column . For precast R . C. piles , the following points
shall be observed in addition to that for column design .
(1) General : For the piles , minimum concrete grade shall preferably be M 25 .
The concrete cover to the main reinforcement shall be not less than 50 mm .
In case of aggressive environment , the larger cover may be adopted . Projected
reinforcements at the top of the pile are required to have proper bonding with
pile cap . In case of driven piles , the top concrete of pile shall be stripped for
required bond length ( the cast length of the pile is accordingly adjusted ) .
The piles in a group are so adjusted that the centroid of the column section
and that of pile group coincide . The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement
within the pile shaft shall be 0.4 per cent of the sectional area calculated on
the basis of outside area of the casing of the shaft ( bored piles ) .
( 2 ) Handling stresses : Piles have large lengths . They suffer handling stresses
( precast driven piles ) due to self - weights during positioning, lifting and erecting
the piles . While lifting the piles, usually two supports are provided as shown
in fig . 21 - 10 ( a ) . The points for lifting are so selected that the moment induced
due to self - weight is minimum . To achieve this, cantilevers are provided while
lifting the piles as shown in the figure .

Self load = w kN / m

r
< H4-
0.206 / 0.206 /
/

w/ 2
w/ 2
23 0.293 /
h* H

0 =0 w/ 2
23
w/ 2 w/ 2
47 47

( a ) Pile supported at ( b) Pile suspended at one point and

two points ( stacking ) supported at ground ( Hoisting )
FIG . 21 - 10
The cantilever moment and the span moment are equal when the cantilevers
are 0.206 / for a pile suspended at two points [ fig. 21 - 10 ( a ) ] and a cantilever
of 0.293 l is required when the pile is suspended from one point and
supported at the ground during erection [ fig. 21 - 10 ( b ) ] . For lifting very long
Art . 21 - 4 ] Pile Foundations 795

piles ( 25 m - 30 m ) , three supports may be used . The pile is in bending due

to handling and the reinforcement should be sufficient to act as flexure
reinforcement. Modern constructions use short piles ( say 8 - 10 m ) with special
connections to lengthen the piles . For example , to have a 12 m long pile, an
8 m long pile is first driven , then another piece of remaining length is
connected by special steel plate joints previously prepared . Thus pile of
required length is obtained . By using such short driven piles , handling stresses
are reduced which permits the use of less percentage of minimum steel required .

— Pile cap

3b
0.6 % Vg Spreader

Tile
5000

m
j

J t - 0.2 % Vg

1.25 % to 2.0 %

/
( dependent on

^
( ef —3^ )
r "

i
3b

Ties J

Spreaders —I
/777777 i
(a ) ( b) (c )

FIG. 21 11 -
( 3 ) Main reinforcement : The main reinforcement is designed for axial load , shear
and moment as the case may be . The pile is considered as fixed at the base
( good soil or rock ) and at the top ( rigid pile cap ) . Therefore , the effective
2
length of the column may be considered as /ef = /. The minimum area of
^
longitudinal reinforcement within the pile shaft shall be 0.4 per cent of the
sectional area calculated on the basis of outside area of the casing of the shaft
( bored piles) . In case of driven piles, the minimum reinforcement is based on
handling stresses which ultimately depends on the length of the pile . The
minimum reinforcement for driven piles shall be as follows :
796 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21

/
7b ratio % of minimum reinforcement

upto 30 1.25
30 to 40 1.50
more than 40 2.00
( 4 ) Ties: The minimum lateral reinforcement shall be 0.2 % of the gross volume
of the pile with a spacing not exceeding
^
where b is the minimum lateral
dimension of the piles. The ties for end lengths of pile equal to 3 b shall be
reinforced by 0.6 % of the gross volume . The spacing of ties from end
length to the internal portions shall be gradually increased . If the pile is
required to penetrate a hard strata , the end lengths are additionally
reinforced with reinforcement in the form of helix .
(5 ) Spreaders ( forks ): To keep the main bars of a pile in position , 12 mm to 16 mm
diameter spreaders or forks are tied along the diagonals ( or the diameter for
circular section ) shall be used at a spacing not exceeding 1.5 m . Typical details
of spreaders is shown in fig. 21 - 11 ( b ) . To prevent the outward displacement
of the bars , 6 mm <J> ties are provided alongwith the spreaders .
Example 21 - 5 .
For Example 21 - 1, design the driven pile if the section adopted is 300 mm x 300 mm
and length of the pile obtained from soil design is 6 m . Use M 20 grade concrete and
mild steel reinforcement .
S o l u t i o n:
Assume the total length of the pile including its embedment in pile cap = 6.6 m .
( a ) Main reinforcement :
P = 600 kN
Pu = 600 x 1.5 = 900 kN
/ = 6.6 m
/ef =|x 6.6 = 4.4 m
4f 4400 : 14.67 > 12 /. long column
b 300
Pub /ey f 900 x 0.3 x
^
add
2000 b 2000 ( 14.67 )2 = 29.05 kNm

900 x 103
25 x 300 x 300 = 0.4
/ck bD
29.05 x \ Q6
= 0.043
/ck ^ 25 x 300 x 3002

- ^
p
—
fc k =
= 0.2 (say )

0.05 ( reinforcement
p = 1.25
on all faces)

Asc = 1125 mm 2.
Art . 21 - 4 ] Pile Foundations 797

The minimum reinforcement for

l 6600
= 300 = 22 is 1.25 %,
d
1.25 x 300 x 300
As c , m i n
100 = 1125 mm 2 .
Provide 4 - 20 0 = 1256 mm 2 .
Provide 50 mm clear cover , to main bars .
( b ) Lateral reinforcement :
Volume of the lateral reinforcement = 0.2 %.
Volume of ties needed per metre length of pile
0.2 x 300 x 300 x 1000
100 = 180000 mm 3.
Using 8 mm 0 reinforcement , the length of reinforcement of tie
= 4 ( 300 - 50 x 2 + 8) = 832 mm .
Volume of one tie = 50 x 832 = 41600 mm 3.
180000
No . of ties / m = = 4.327
41600
1000 231.1 mm .
Spacing = 4.327 =
Maximum permissible 300 150 mm .
pitch 2
Provide 8 mm 0 ties @ 150 mm c / c (i)
For bottom length 3 x 300 = 900 mm , 0.6 % volume of ties are required.
Using 8 mm 0 ties , the spacing required
0.2
231.1 x
= 77.03 mm .
0.6 =
Provide 8 mm 0 ties @ 75 mm c / c (2 )
For top length of 900 mm , spiral reinforcement shall be provided
of 0.6 °/o gross volume, i . e .
0.6 x
300 x 300 x 1000
100
= 540000 mm 3/ m length .
Volume of spiral = 71 ( 300 - 50 x 2 + 8) x 50 = 32673 mm 3.

No . of spiral = 540000 16.53

32673
1000
Spacing = = 60.5 mm .
16.53
Provide 8 mm 0 spiral @ 60 mm pitch for top 900 mm length (3)
( c ) Spacer forks and links: Provide two pairs of 12 mm 0 spacer forks with 6 mm 0
links @ 1.5 m c / c to keep the main reinforcement in position .
( d ) Check for handling stresses: The pile will be supported at two points with cantilevers
of 0.206 l ( 1360 mm ) as shown in fig. 21 - 10 ( a ) and at one point and ground and
with cantilever of 0.293 / ( 1935 mm ) as shown in fig . 21 - 10 ( b ) for erection .
2
The maximum self - weight moment is w l
23
798 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 21
H- 300 —H
I T I I

900
— 8 mm|
( ) spiral @ 60 mm c/c

1360 300 >

r T —-
< 4 20 <t>

1935
300 6-160 extra to
tie up spirals

Hole for stacking Spiral

r Ties
( b) Section A-A

4- 20 0
6600
I
6 mm 0 links
-Ji Hole for hoisting @ 1.5 m c/c

r 4- 20 0
Hole for stacking
A
8 mm 0 ties @ 150 mm c/c 12 spacer forks @ 1.5 m c/c
( b) Section B-B

r
M 25 grade concrete
1360

900
8 mm 0 ties @ 75 mm c/c

Cast iron shoe

(a ) Pile FIG . 21 - 12
Art . 21 - 5 ] Pile Foundations 799

w = 0.3 x 0.3 x 25
= 2.25 kN / m
2.25 x
6.62
M = 23
4.26 kNm=
Mu = 1.5 x 4.26
= 6.39 kNm
d = 300 - 40 - 10
= 250 mm .
K 6.39 x 10(>
300 x 250 x 250 =
0.34 .
bd 2
For M 25 grade concrete and mild steel ( table 3, SP: 16 )
pt = 0.096
0.096 x 300 x 250
^ st “
100
= 72 mm 2

^ sc = 2^ -x^ st
72
= 144 mm 2 ( both faces )
-^ sc , provided = 1256 mm 2 ( O. K. )
The designed pile is shown in fig. 21 - 12 .
21- 5 Design of a pile cap:
General: The pile cap should normally be rigid so as to distribute the forces
equally on the piles of a group . The pile cap is usually provided with a uniform
thickness and cast over a 75 mm to 100 mm levelling course using lean concrete
^
Although the self load of pile cap can be transferred to the piles , sometimes it is
assumed to be transmitted to the ground by direct bearing. The pile cap may support
the ground beams supporting masonry walls. The clear cover to the main reinforcement
shall be 60 mm or more. The pile should project for at l ast 50 mm in the pile cap?
^
The thickness of the pile cap should be sufficient to allow for necessary anchorage of
column bars and that of pile bars.
The main reinforcement is usually bend ( ell bend ) and extended for full depth of the
pile cap to fulfil the check for development length . The projected pile cap reinforcement
is tied by secondary reinforcement with 20 per cent area of the main reinforcement: :
One - way shear is checked at a distance of

^
from the face of the column .
In computing the external shear on any section the entire ( 100 %) reaction of the pile
shall be taken if the pile centre is located at 150 mm lor more outside the section .
The pile reaction will produce no sKFar (0 %) if the pile centre is located at 150 mm
or more inside the section . A linear interpolation shall be made for intermediate
values of the pile centres. Refer to fig . 21 - 13 and discussion of next paragraph .
Usually , the shear reinforcement in the pile cap is avoided . Therefore , sufficient
depth shall be used to limit the shear stresses .
Let the centre of the pile be located at x from the face of the column as shown
in fig. 21 - 13 . Let d be the effective depth of pile cap . Then the critical section is
xj
located at

^
from face of the column . And pile centre is located at - oustside
800 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21

the critical section when x <

^ ^ . If x

value indicating that the pile centre is located at

Thus when we write j

>
d\
the expression

2 I inside the section

* , outside is also true for other case . Let the fraction of
“
1/ x
. "
yields negative

pile reaction inducing shear be f R where R is the pile reaction . Then we have from
above rule of checking one way shear t
150 + ( X - 2 ) y ( 21 - 6 )
/= 300
where x and d are in millimetres .

% of R to be
considered

Pile centre
Critical axis for checking
one- way shear
150 1 150

100

d 1
0

X
_T d
Position of
critical axis
Column «—-— > < — >

d = effective depth of pile cap

x = distance of pile centre
from face of the column

FIG . 21 13 *

The pile cap is usually provided with a uniform thickness. It is designed by either
of the two theories , viz.
( i ) Truss theory and ( ii ) Bending theory.
These are discussed briefly as follows:
( i ) Truss theory : A truss is assumed to form with a node at the centre of a loaded
area as shown in fig. 21 - 14. The truss is solved for two piles system . Tension
"

in reinforcement,
Pi
T = 7 . The reinforcement shall be designed for this tension .
'

^
When the pile spacing exceeds 3 times the diameter of the pile , the width of
the tie shall not be taken more than 3 times the diameter of the pile?
The width shall be symmetrical to the centre line of * the- piles!
Art . 21 - 5 ] Pile Foundations 801

/\ /\
/ \

P d /
/ \
\ d /
/ \ \

l /
/ \
\ /
\
\
\

h* 2/ -H

T . i

Maximum width

( b)

Tensions in ties for two more cases are indicated in fig. 21 - 15. If the
spacing of piles is less than 3 4> , the reinforcement of ties may be uniformly
distributed .
-
A
e e B

21

D 0 (3
c
H- 21

TAB- TBC TCA-

2P /
5d
FIG . 21 - 15
1 TAB TBC TCD TDA -
" “ “
P/
4d
802 Reinforced Concrete Vol . I [ Ch . 21
( ii ) Bending theory : The pile cap area is divided into a framework of rectangular beams
depending on the geometry of the pile group . The width of the beam is taken as equal
to the width of the pile . The beam may be simply supported or continuous .
Example 21 - 6 .
Design a pile cap to support a column service load of 1000 kN . Size of the column
is 400 mm x 400 mm . The cap is supported on four 300 mm diameter piles spaced
at 900 mm centres. The cap projects 150 mm beyond the pile face . The materials are
M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
P = 1000 kN
W = 100 kN ( assume 10 % self - weight )
Total 1100 kN
Pu = 1100 x 1.5 = 1650 kN .
Factored load on each pile = = 412.5 kN.
Width of the pile cap = 900 + 300 + 2 x 150 = 1500 mm .
Assume 600 mm effective depth .
( 1 ) Reinforcement by truss theory :
PI 1650 x 0.45
^ AB -
T T
yCD = J2 4 x 0.6
= 309.38 kN .
As the spacing of piles is 3 <j), the reinforcement can be uniformly distributed .
Total tension = 2 x 309.38 = 618.76 kN along x or along y direction .
618.76 x 103
At = 0.87 x 415
1713 mm 2 (1)
( 2 ) Reinforcement by bending theory :
1650 x 0.9
Mu = 4 = 371.25 kNm

K 371 25 x IQ6 ,

= 0.69 ,
bd 2 1500 x 600 x 600
for M 25 grade concrete and Fe 415 steel
pt = 0.198.
0.198 x
At - 100
1500 x 600 = 1782 mm 2 (2)

Manimum steel = 0.12 x 1500 x 770 = 1386 mm 2 (3)

100
Provide 9 no . 16 mm # = 1809 mm 2, uniformly distributed both - ways. Provide
U bend at the edge and extend the reinforcement for full depth .
( 3 ) Secondary reinforcement :
A = 0.2 x 1809 = 362 mm 2.
Provide 5 - 10 # on each face ,
As = 392 mm 2 .
Art . 21 - 5 ] Pile Foundations 803

( 4 ) Shear :
The pile centre is located from face of the column at
x = 450 - 200 = 250 mm .
Critical section at
d
—
= 300 mm from face of support .
Fraction of pile reaction to the calculated is given by equation ( 21 - 6 ) as:
150 + ( x d
2
/=
300
150 + ( 250 300 ) 1 -
300 3'
The pile loads causing shear
1 x
" 2 x 412.5 = 275 kN.
3
275 x IQ3 0.306 N / mm 2
= 1500 x 600 =
100 x 1809
Pt = 1500 x 600 = 0.201
xc = 0.326 N / mm 2 ( O . K .)
(5 ) Development length :
For M 25 grade concrete
L & = 43 # = 43 x 16 = 688 mm .

< 400 >

5-10 #

1 5-10 #
each face
Not considered
for Ld
600 < 9-16 #
4# i
5#
75 9-16 #
100 0
100 : : M10
Lean concrete

< — -*
M — HH -*
150 150 150 150 100
400 HH *— + «—
100 150 150 150 150
H

FIG . 21 - 16
Available anchorage from point of maximum B. M . i .e., from centre ( refer to
fig . 21 - 16 )
= 750 - 50 - 5 # + 8 # ( ell bend )
= 700 + 3 x 16 = 748 mm (i)
804 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 21

Also , 1.3 + A) — development length criterion

L0 = 150 + 150 - 50 - 5 # + 8 # = 250 + ( 3 x 16 )
= 298 mm
Ki = 0.87 x 415 x 1809 x (0.9 x 600) x 10 6 "

= 352.7 kNm
Vu = 412.5 kN x 2 = 825 kN
352.7 x 106
1.3 x + 298 > 43 #
825 x 103
# < 19.85 mm . (O. K.)
The designed pile cap is shown in fig. 21 - 16 .
Example 21 - 7.
A column of a multi - storeyed building is subjected to the following characteristic
loads and moments . Design a pile cap if it is supported by 4 nos . 300 mm diameter
piles spaced at 1.2 m centres. Size of the column is 400 mm x 400 mm . The materials
are M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
DL + L L P =
2000 kN , Mx = 150 kNm , My = 90 kNm
E (l ( x ) P = 80 kN , My = 120 kNm , Hx = 6 0 kN
EQ. ( y ) P = 100 kN , Mx = 160 kNm , Hy = 80 kN

350 350
h* 1200 —-
>+ « * i

350 v 300 b pile

Pile cap
1200 x x 1200

350 , ,
*y 300 < j) pile
"

(a) ( b)

FIG . 21 - 17
Solution :
Assume 1900 mm thick pile cap . The horizontal forces will induce moment and
horizontal force at the base . The horizontal force will be resisted by inclined piles.
Presently for design of pile cap , we are concerned with vertical components of the pile
force . The characteristic loads in piles may be determined as explained earlier .
Here we follow limit state method and perform the design of pile cap .
Art . 21 - 5] Pile Foundations 805

At the base , the factored loads are as follows :

DL + LL Pu = 2000 x 1.5 = 3000 kN
M u, x 150 x 1.5 = 225 kNm
M uy
, 90 x 1.5 135 kNm
DL + LL + EQ ( x )
Pu = 1.2 ( 2000 + 80 ) = 2496 kN
Mux = 1.2 ( 150 + 0 ) = 180 kNm
MUy = 1.2 ( 90 + 120 + 60 X 1.2 ) = 338.4 kNm .
DL + LL + E (l ( y )
Pu = 1.2 ( 2000 + 100 ) = 2520 kN
M,u x = 1.2 ( 150 + 160 + 80 x 1.2 ) = 487.2 kNm
Muy = 1.2 (90 + 0) = 108 kNm .
The pile reactions are calculated as follows :
Case 7: ( DL + LL )
3000 225 . 135
M^ T +
1.2
+
1.2
1050 kN

^2 = —
„ 3000 225 135
1.2 =
+ 675 kN
1.2
3000 225 135
^_ = 4
3 1.2 0.9 =
450 kN
3000 225 135
F = ~
* r +
1.2 0.9 =
825 kN
Case 2 : \ DL + LL + EQ (*) ]

_
2496 + 180
4 1.2 -
338.4
1.2
1056 kN

F2 = —
2496 180
1.2
+
338.4
1.2
756 kN

^
,
3 = —
2496 180
1.2
338.4
1.2
192 kN

Fr = 2496 +
180 338.4
1.2 =
492 kN
^ 4 1.2
Case 3: \ DL + LL + E (l ( ) ]
^ 2520 487.2 . 108
+ + 1126 kN
4 1.2 1.2
r 2520 487.2 108
F 2 = ~T 1.2
+
1.2 =
314 kN

= 25204
487.2
1.2
108
1.2
134 kN
„
F =
* —
2520
+
487.2
1.2
108
1.2 =
946 kN

The maximum pile reactions for Mx and Afy of the pile cap are calculated as follows:
xx :
Maximum pile reaction (piles 1 and 2)
Case 1 : R = 1050 + 675 1725 kN
Case 2 : R = 1056 + 756 1812 kN ( Governs )
Case 3: R = 1126 + 314 1440 kN
806 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 21
yy :
Maximum reaction ( piles 1 and 4 )
Case 1 : R = 1050 + 825 = 1875 kN
Case 2 : R = 1056 + 756 1812 kN
Case 3 : R = 1126 + 946 = 2072 kN ( Governs )
For symmetry of design , consider same loads about ** and yy.
Mux = Muy = 2072 x 0.6 = 1243.2 kNm .
D = 1100 mm
d = 1100 - 100 ( pile projection ) - 60 ( clear cover )
- 10 ( centre of reinforcement )
= 930 mm .
Mu 1243.2 x IQ6
x 930 x 930 =
0.76
bd 2 1900
pt = 0.219.
0.219
At — 100 x 1900 x 930 = 3870 mm 2.
Provide 20- 16 # = 4020 mm 2, uniformly distributed both - ways. Provide U bend
at the edge and extend the reinforcement for full depth .
( 1 ) Secondary reinforcement :
As = 0.2 x 4020 = 804 mm 2.
Provide 8 - 12 # on each face , As = 904 mm 2.
( 2 ) Shear :
x = 600 - 200 = 400 mm ,
d 930
2 =
465 mm
d
x = 400 - 465 = - 65.
^
2
The pile loads causing shear
150 + ( - 65 )
= 2072 x 300 = 587 kN
587 x 103
= 1900 x 930 = 0.332 N / mm 2.
100 x 4020
Pt = 1900 x 930 = 0.228
TV = 0.342 N / mm 2 ( O. K.)
( 3 ) Development length :
Lft = 43 # = 43 x 16 = 608 mm .
Available anchorage from point of maximum B . M . i .e . , from centre of cap
= 950 - 50 - 5 # + 8 # ( ell bend )
= 900 + 3 x 16 = 948 mm > 608 mm .
Mu1
Also 1.3 + L0 > Ld
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 4020 (0.9 x 930) x lO "6

= 1214.84 kNm
Co 200 + 150 - 50 - 5 # + 8 # = 348 mm
Vu = 2072 kN
Ex . 21 ] Pile Foundations 807

1.3 x 1214.85
x 106 + 348 > 43 #
2072 x 103
# < 25.82 mm ( O . K .)
The designed pile cap is shown in fig. 21 - 18 .

•4 400 >

7- 12 #

7- 12 # each face

-J

1200 20-16 #

100
60
100 I 7

t
M 10
Lean concrete
r ”
— -V
mJ

- 20-16 #

400 4» — — 400 0
<— -*
150
H 350 —-H+ 1200 350 —
++<
150
FIG . 2 M 8
Note : When the wind loads are acting, the procedure of design remains the same .
Also note that either wind forces or the earthquake forces act on the column
( or footing) . Simultaneous loading ( WL and EL) is not considered in design .

EXAMPLES XXI
1) Explain where will you provide pile foundations .
(2) What is a difference in design of a bored pile and a driven pile ?
( 3) Why are the inclined piles provided ?
(4) An R . C. C. column of size 400 mm x 500 mm size transfers a service load of
2000 kN and a moment about major axis Mx = 375 kNm . Driven piles of 250 mm
diameter and 300 mm diameter and 8 m long may be used with capacities of
500 kN and 600 kN for the pile foundation with spacing not exceeding 3 times
the diameter of the piles . Propose the pile foundation with arrangement of
piles. Determine the loads in the piles . Use M 25 grade concrete and HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
808 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 21
( 5 ) In Example ( 4 ) above , if a horizontal load of 260 kN is also acting at the base .
of the column and if the thickness of pile is 1.2 m , solve the problem . Also design
8 m long driven pile for maximum axial load case pile .
( 6 ) An R . C. C shear wall of box shape with internal dimensions 3 m x 4 m having
200 mm thickness transfers the following service loads to the pile foundation
due to DL + LL + WL combination .
P = 8500 kN, Mx = 4600 kNm , Hy = 260 kN
or
P = 8000 kN, My = 3600 kNm , Hx = 210 kN .
The soil resistances may be increased by 25 per cent. Propose the arrangement
of the cast - in - situ bored piles assuming the spacing not exceeding 3 times the
width of the pile . The pile data are as follows :
(i) 300 mm x 300 mm , 6 m deep , capacity = 400 kN with increase of 50 kN
per 0.3 m depth .
( ii ) 350 mm x 350 mm , 6 m deep , capacity = 500 kN with increase of 60 kN
per 0.3 m depth .
( iii ) 400 mm x 400 mm , 6 m deep , capacity = 620 kN with increase of 75 kN
per 0.3 m depth .
Determine the loads in each pile and design reinforcement of one of the pile
using M 25 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 7 ) It is proposed to provide the pile foundation for the building of fig. 20 - 22 .
The bearing capacity of soil at 6 m depth is 3000 kN / m 2 and average unit
skin friction is 90 kN / m 2. Use factor of safely = 3. Design the pile foundations
for the building selecting piles of diameter 250 mm , 300 mm , 350 mm ,
400 mm , . . etc . Prepare the schedule of foundation design and a complete
drawing for the work at site .
 hapter
RETAINING WALLS
L22J V/ I

22 - 1. Introductory; Retaining walls are the structures used to support earth ,

loose stone or other materials which would not be able to stand vertically unsupported .
Such materials when unsupported , attain a natural slope . The angle which this slope
makes with horizontal is known as angle of repose. The angle of repose varies with the
type of material . The material retained or supported by retaining walls is called
backfill The backfill may have its top surface horizontal or inclined . Retaining walls
support the loose materials and prevent them from slipping; therefore , such walls are
acted upon by the pressure of the retained material and subjected to sliding and
overturning . The pressure of earth on retaining wall is known as earth pressure .
22- 2. Types of retaining walls: Retaining walls are classified according
to the shape and mode of resisting the pressure . The different types of retaining
walls are as follows :
( 1) Gravity wall
(2) Cantilever wall
( 3) Counterfort wall
(4) Buttress wall
(5) Bridge abutment
(6) Box culvert.
Each of the above retaining wall will be now briefly discussed .
(1) Gravity wall : A gravity wall is usually a plain concrete or masonry wall .
The stability in this case is entirely provided by the dead weight of the wall .
The dimensions of wall are so proportioned that there is no tension induced
in the wall i . e., the resultant of forces remain within the middle - third of the
base [ fig. 22 - 1 ( a ) ]. It is used for wall s up to about 3 m height .
( 2 ) Cantilever wall : This is a most common type of retaining wall and used for
3 m to 8 m height . It consists of three cantilever stairs known as stern , heel
'

and toe . The wall may be inverted "T * shaped or ‘ L ’ shaped where toe projection
is missing . The stem acts as a vertical cantilever and stability is provided by
the weight of earth on base slab and self - weight of the wall [ fig. 22 - 1 ( b ) and
fig. 22 - 1 ( c ) ] . Sometimes a key is provided in base slab for stability against
sliding [ fig. 22 - 1 ( d ) ] .
(3 ) Counterfort wall : In the counterfort wall , the stem and the base slab are tied
together by counterforts. A counterfort is a transverse wall spaced at intervals
which ties the stem and the base slab . Because of the counterfort , the stem is
supported on three sides by counterforts and base slab . In this \vftll . the stahiljty
is provided by the weight of the earth on base . Counterfort walls are economical
for heights over about t> m [tig. ].
( 4 ) Buttress wall : This wall is similar to the counterfort wall . In buttress wall ,
the buttresses are provided similar to the counterforts but on opposite side
to the retained material and act as compression struts [ fig. 22 - 1 ( f ) ] .
The counterfort is a tension tie and buttress is a compression strut. Naturally,
the compression strut is economical than the tension tie when R . C . C . member
is used . Thus, buttress wall is economical than the counterfort wall . However ,
counterfort wall is widely used in practice because the counterfort is hidden
beneath the backfill and the elevation of wall is plane .
810 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

Stem Stem —
Retained material Retained material Retained material

Toe -
r Heel Heel
I

( a ) Gravity wall ( b) Cantilever retaining wall ( c ) Cantilever retaining wall

Stem Retained
Retained material
material
Retained material
Stem Counterfort
Buttress «
*
—Stem
Toe
r Heel
*

1
Base key Base slab - Base slab

( d ) Cantilever retaining wall (e ) Counterfort wall (f ) Buttress wall

— Bridge deck Approach pavement

T T
\

Retained material Top

Stem

« Wall
Toe -i — Heel Floor
T

A
- Base slab
( g ) Bridge abutment ( h ) Box culvert

Types of retaining wall

FIG . 22 - 1
( 5) Bridge abutment : A wall type bridge abutment is similar to the cantilever
retaining wall. In addition , the top of stem of retaining wall is braced by the
deck bridge . The stem can be designed as fixed at base and simply supported
( propped cantilever ) or partially resting at top [ fig. 22 - 1 (g) ] .
Art . 22 - 4 ] Retaining Walls 811

( 6 ) Box culvert: A box culvert acts as closed rigid frame . It consists of either
single or multiple cells . A box culvert , in addition to lateral earth pressure ,
resists the vertical load from soil above it and also vehicle loads [fig. 22 - 1 ( h ) ].
22- 3. Earth pressure on walls: The earth particles exert force among each
other which is known as the earth pressure at rest .
When a retaining wall is provided to
retain the earth ; the pressure on the wall
is developed and the wall tends to deflect
outwards. This pressure is known as active
earth pressure. Due to active earth pressure ,
the backfill is subjected to tensile forces .
If there is any undisturbed earth on the
other side of backfill ( i . e . , toe ) , this earth
is compressed due to active earth pressure
and thus exerts the pressure in the opposite
direction to the active earth pressure . This
APlane of rupture
is known as passive earth pressure. Typical ( Backfill )
plane of rupture behind a retaining wall
is shown in fig . 22 - 2.
The rupture angle in fig. 22 - 2 generally
varies from 40° to 45°. For practical purpose,
it may be taken as 45° .
The pressure of backfill on the retaining Plane of rupture behind a retaining wall
wall depends on the type of the earth . FIG. 22 - 2
Usually well drained cohesionless materials like sand and gravel are used as backfill .
The cohesive material like clay exerts less pressure on the wall than the cohesionless
soil iif a dry condition . In a wet condition , the clay becomes soft and acts as a fluid ,
"’
'

tKereby inducing larger pressure on the wall.

""

The earth pressure at any depth h is given by

p= k . y. h ( 22 - 1 )
where p = earth pressure which may be pQ ( earth pressure at rest ) ;
pa ( active earth pressure) or /?p ( passive earth pressure )
k = coefficient of earth pressure which may be defined
as below :
kft = coefficient of earth pressure at rest . For most earths,
it lies between 0.4 to 0.6
£a = coefficient of active earth pressure
£p = coefficient of passive earth pressure
y = unit weight of soil .
22 - 4 . Calculation of earth pressure: Two most general cases of earth
pressure are given below depending on type of soil . The type of soil is defined by
the Coulomb ' s law of shear strength of soil . Accordingly the shear strength of any
soil is given by
Tf = c + a tan d
where if = shear strength of soil
c = apparent cohesion
a = normal stress
<t> = angle of internal friction .
812 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
A purely cohesionless soil , such as sand , has c = 0 and can be referred to as a d
soil . A purely cohesive soil, such as clay , has <{) = 0 , and can be referred to as c soil .
And all others can be designated as c - 0 soils .
(1) Cohesionless soil: The earth pressure for cohesionless soil is found out by
using Coulomb ' s theory or Rankine ' s theory. Both the theories yield the same
result. The earth pressure on vertical wall at any depth h is given by equation ( 22 - 1 ) .

T
6

1 / / / / / / / /. 7777 /777 / hi
Pa
T
"

h2
PP t hi
Tf
h- 3
3
i
h* b 6
1 i
Pp = kpYh 2
Pa ^
Earth pressure - cohesionless soil ( c = 0)
FIG . 22 - 3
Referring to fig. 22 - 3
Pa = ka Y h l
cos 6 - yjcos 28 - cos ^ b
where ka = COS 5 ( 22 - 2 )
cos 5 + yjcos ^ 5 - cos 2 (()
8 = angle of inclination of backfill with horizontal
<)) = angle of internal friction of soil .
If backfill is level , i .e ., 5 = 0, the above expression reduces to
sin <() 1 -
*a = ( 22 - 3 )
sin b 1 +
The total active earth pressure for the wall of fig. 22 - 3 is given by

= \ K x Y *! x A ,
= 2 KL Y I 2 ar> d it acts at the c .g. of a stress triangle,
^
i . e . , at —K o
from base ,
The passive earth pressure of frontfill on vertical wall is given by Pp = kp Y A
cos 5 + yjcos 25 - cos2 b
where kp = cos 8 ( 22 - 4 )
cos 6 - YJCOS28 - cos2 ( )
J
Art . 22 - 4 ] Retaining Walls 813

If frontfill is level , i . e . , 5 = 0
1 + sin 0
( 22 - 5 )
1 - sin 0
The total passive earth pressure for the wall of fig . 22 - 3 is given by
1
pP = x yh x
2 *p *2
=
^
i .e
£p yhf 2 and it acts at the c . g. of a stress triangle,

., at
T
^2 from base .

( 2 ) Cohesive soil : The earth pressure at any depth h with level backfill or frontfill
is given by :
( i ) P0 = k0 y h
( ii ) Pa = yh - 2 c
(i i i ) + 2 c (22-6)
where c = cohesion at zero normal pressure .
The active pressure as found by above equation will give negative value at the top
of the wall . In fact , negative pressure cannot exist on wall because the wall and
backfill are not bonded . The pull back is only possible if there is adhesive contact
between soil and the wall as strong as 2 c at the top . Therefore, the negative pressure
cannot be considered in design .
In a practical design of wall , the earth pressure is assumed triangular with zero
pressure at top . The value of earth pressure at the base of wall is yh - 2 c. For the
practical use , the value of pressure at the base should not be less than
—
\
2c

Active pressure
^ yh .

\
\ Practical design
2c

T h
X
Pi
=
11 T
h
X 3
T
i
F= P R
b
Yhi1 + 2c Yh -2c
Earth pressure -
cohesionless soil ( 0 = 0 )
FIG . 22 - 4
In general, the Rankine formulae are used to find out the earth pressures. Even for clay ,
it is a widespread design practice to estimate an equivalent 0 and apply the Rankine
formulae , rather than by applying more exact methods.
814 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
Two more cases of earth pressure are described in the following articles :
where ( 1 ) soil is submerged
( 2 ) soil is loaded with surcharge .
22 - 5. Earth pressure of submerged soil: When the earth is submerged,
the weight of soil is reduced by the buoyant force of water. This reduces the earth
pressure by an amount equal to weight of water displaced by soil . The reduced weight
of soil is called submerged weight . The retaining wall is also subjected to the full
hydrostatic pressure caused by water .
Let y'= submerged unit weight of soil
yw = unit weight of water.
Then , at any depth h below the surface , when soil is fully submerged
/> a = K Y ^ + Yw
^ ( 22 -7 )
Water level

Wall -H h* H
Ywh k Jh
(a )
Ground level
hi \ Water level

h2
i
Wall H «—
k a Y h j kaYh 2 Yw h 2
( b)

h2
. Water level
Ground level

Wall K
Ywh kaYh 2
(c )
- submerged soil
Earth pressure
FIG . 22 - 5
Pressure diagrams for various cases of submerged soil are shown in fig . 22 -5.
The passive earth pressure for similar conditions may be obtained by substituting
kp for A:a in equation ( 22 -7) .
22- 6. Earth pressure due to surcharge: The surcharge may be due to the
inclined backfill , uniformly distributed loads due to traffic or vehicle loads ,
concentrated permanent loads like nearby building, etc. If the surcharge acts outside
the failure plane ( refer to fig. 22 - 2 ) , the effect of surcharge may not be considered in
design . The earth pressure due to inclined backfill is treated in art . 22 - 4 .
Art . 22 - 6 ] Retaining Walls 815

The effect of surcharge due to uniformly distributed load is to give an effect of

equivalent height of soil. If the uniform surcharge is ws per unit run , the equivalent
height of earth is
Y ^
per unit run . This will give a uniform pressure throughout
_
the height of the wall and is equal to £a x y x L = ka ws . This is shown in fig. 22- 6.
Y

l\ f
ws / unit run I \
I \
ws
I \ Y
t i l l l \
i
I I
h
2

h
h 2
3
i i
k aws kaYh
( a ) Wall ( b ) Pressure diagram
Earth pressure - uniform surcharge
FIG . 22 - 6
When the surcharge acts at some distance from the wall face , the effect of surcharge
may be calculated over the reduced depth by considering the rupture plane at 45°.
Draw a line at 45° to the horizontal from the head of the surcharge cutting the stem
line . If this line does not cut the retaining wall , the effect of surcharge is not considered .
If it cuts the wall , the effect of surcharge shall be calculated over the reduced depth
as shown in fig. 22 - 7.
ws / unit run
I 11 I
I
t
hl

h2 kawsh 2

i
kaws kaYh
( a ) Wall (b) Pressure due (c) Pressure due to
to surcharge earth mass

FIG . 22 -7
Bit) Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
2 2 - 7 . D r a i n a g e o f r e t a i n i n g w a l l s : When earth behind retaining wall is
submerged or partially submerged , the hydrostatic pressure of water is considered as
discussed in art . 22 - 5 . When the soil is not submerged , the retaining wall is
designed only for earth pressure and surcharge if any. However , due to the seepage
of surface water or underground water , the retaining wall may be subjected to
hydrostatic pressure . The effective drainage to the retaining wall shall be provided to
let out the accumulated seepage water in the backfill which would otherwise increase
the pressure on the wall . This is achieved as follows :
( 1 ) At the surface , an effective drainage should be provided to drain off surface water.
( 2 ) A relatively impervious blanket like plain concrete shall be provided to reduce
the seepage of water.
( 3 ) Weep holes at about 1.5 m c / c horizontally and vertically should be provided
inside the wall to drain off the water accumulated at the back of the wall .
-
2 2 8 . S t a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s : A typical retaining wall with forces acting on
it is shown in fig . 22 - 8. The following requirements should be complied for the
stability of a retaining wall :

A
8

h Iw h ,
Pa
I
I
X1
1 : Pav f8
^> '

ah f
hi
3
I PP
* F = |i R 8
iR

A
4- b — H I

P max L P min
*
Forces on retaining wall
FIG . 22 - 8
( 1 ) The restoring moment (stabilizing moment ) should be more than the overturning
moment so as to get a factor of safety not less than 1.55 .
( i ) Stabilizing moment : The sum of vertical loads I W is composed of the
weight of backfill on the heel , the vertical component of earth pressure
Pav when backfill is inclined , and the dead weight of wall itself . If the
centre of gravity of I W is at xx from the toe of the footing, the stabilizing
moment is given by
I W xx (1)
Art . 22 - 8 ] Retaining Walls 817

(ii) Overturning moment : The overturning force is composed of active earth pressure
and pressure due to surcharge if any. It is equal to Pah , the horizontal
component of earth pressure . The overturning moment is given by
P X *3 (2 )
( iii ) Factor of safety : According to clause 20.1 of IS : 456 , ‘The stability of a
structure as a whole against overturning shall be ensured so that the
restoring moment shall be not less than the sum of 1.2 times the maximum
overturning moment due to characteristic dead load and 1.4 times the
maximum overturning moment due to the characteristic imposed loads .
In cases where dead load provides the restoring moment, only 0.9 times
the characteristic dead load shall be considered . Restoring moment due to
imposed loads shall be ignored . ’
It should be noted that the dead loads are reduced by 10% to take into
account the situations where they might had been over - estimated .
Thus , 0.9 x restoring moment 1.4 x overturning moment
restoring moment 1.4
i . e.
overturning moment
i 0.9
i .e . factor of safety 1.55 .
( 2 ) The vertical pressure on the soil under the base should not exceed the permissible
bearing pressure of soil.
The vertical pressure on the soil under the base for a cantilever retaining wall
is calculated as follows :
Consider 1 m length of wall and base width equal to b.
Base area A = b x 1 b.
1 x b2 b2
Section modulus Z =
6 6 ’
The base is subjected to vertical force LW and horizontal force Pah . It can be
considered that base is subjected to vertical force 1W passing through the
centre line of the base and moment ZM about the centre line of the base where
ZA/ is calculated as :
b ah x h1 ^
X Af = IW X 1 ~ 2
J '

3
The base pressures on soil are given by
1W + 1 M
Anax
^ z
and
ZJV 1M ( 22 - 8 )
P min A z
The maximum pressure on soil , pmax should not exceed the bearing capacity
of soil . The bearing pressure on soil can be controlled within safe limits by
properly adjusting the lengths of the toe and heel.

Substituting A = b , Z —— and the eccentricity of load

TJ A/
in equation
( 22 -8) , the limiting value of zero pressure at the heel can be obtained as :

0 =
IW IW x e
b b 2/ 6
818 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

b
which gives e = 6 ’

b b b
< b
3
H* - 3 3
b b b
h*
3 3 3
h* 3X 2 -
>I

R R

min

P max <t

—
« H- H
x2 e
(a ) Resultant within middle third ( b ) Resultant outside middle third

Soil pressure distribution under the base

FIG . 22 - 9
This means that the equation ( 22 -8 ) is valid for the position of resultant within
the middle third of the base [ fig. 22 - 9 ( a ) ] .
When the resultant acts outside the middle third , equating the forces
1
ZW = pmax ( 3 X 2 ) 2

Anax 2 1W ( 22 - 9 )
3*2
for 0 < 3*2 < b [ fig. 22 - 9 ( b ) ]
Anax should bearing pressure on soil .
not exceed the allowable
(3 ) The restoring force against sliding should be more than the sliding force so as
to get a factor of safety not less than 1.55 .
The resistance of the wall against sliding for cohesionless soil is given by
\xR = \ilW
where p = coefficient of friction tan <i> =
0 = angle of internal friction of soil .
The sliding force is obviously Pajj. Then factor of safety against sliding is
given by
ilW
[
F. S. = p
ah
According to clause 20.2 of IS : 456 , ‘The structure shall have a factor of
safety against sliding of not less than 1.4 under the most adverse combination
of the applied characteristic forces. In this case only 0.9 times the characteristic
dead load shall be taken into account.’
Considering the above statement , the factor of safety against sliding should
be more than
1.4
“ 1.55.
0.9
\ilW
Thus, factor of safety against sliding = —5 i 1.55 .
rah
Art . 22 - 9 ] Retaining Walls 819

It may be noted that passive earth pressure is not taken into account while
calculating the resistance to sliding as it is possible that soil on toe may be
removed for construction purpose . In fact , to develop the passive pressure
actually against wall , the concrete should be placed without using forms for
toe and thus without disturbing the soil against which concrete is placed .
When all the reliable resisting forces to sliding are calculated and still the
factor of safety is less than 1.55, a base key may be provided as shown in
fig. 22- 10 to get additional resisting force to sliding due to passive earth pressure ..
\

<— Stem
Toe — > r Heel
I
h> Pp ji i h
i
-
s y ..
<
•

\ — Base key
kpYh |
Passive resistance and effect of base key
FIG . 22 - 10
The base key is constructed such that the formwork is not used while
casting . This should be expected to develop the passive resistance. The base
key alongwith toe develops a passive resistance equal to
1 2
pP = p Y h ( 2 2 - 10)
2 * '
Now the factor of safety against sliding may be calculated as
[i l W + Pp
F.S. = P.a h
i 1.55 ( 22 - 11)

CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

2 2 - 9 . P r e l i m i n a r y p r o p o r t i o n i n g o f c a n t i l e v e r r e t a i n i n g w a l l : The
dimensions of a retaining wall should be assumed before starting the design . These
assumptions are based on some practical considerations as discussed below.
( 1 ) Height of wall: The overall height of the wall is equal to the height of backfill
at the face of wall ( i . e . , difference in elevation of front and back ) plus the
depth of foundation . The minimum depth of foundation should be such that :
( i ) The foundation is not affected by the upper surface of earth which may be
affected by erosion , roots of plants , frost , etc . Usually , this requires a
minimum depth of 900 mm .
( ii ) A good hard soil should be available below the footing to resist the pressures
from wall . The allowable bearing pressure on soil should be found out .
( 2 ) Base width and position of stem on the base of footing: A simplified formula
can be obtained to find out the base width and position of stem on the base
of footing considering that the resultant of forces should pass through the
middle third of the base .
Assume an average unit weight of concrete and earth be y . As the unit weight
of concrete is usually more than the backfill , the assumption is conservative .
Neglect the weight of toe for the derivation of the formula.
820 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

Earth surface
A T D

r
K
k! b
y

2 h
Neglect for 2
derivation kaYh
k ,l b
J
h
3
i
B c
R
k2 b H
h* b H

Preliminary proportions of a cantilever retaining wall

FIG. 22- 11
R e f e r r i n g t o f i g . 2 2 - 1 1 , t h e t o t a l w e i g h t o f t h e a r e a ABCD i s e q u a l t o t h e
reaction R and is given by
R = W= yh { kx b) .
T a k i n g m o m e n t s a b o u t h e e l (p o i n t C )
h b
P x, h
3 +
W x - y x = R ( k2 b)

k ,l b
KY Y x
\ + Y A (A , A) ~
Y~ = ,
y h A b ( A2 b ) .
\

S i m p l i f y i n g a n d r e-a d j u s t i n g

= Y A A , Aa A 2 - ,
1
Aa
^
2
A Y AA 2.
3
Dividing both sides by —yA
- 3 Ai 2 A2
Aa = 6 k\ A2
A2 A2
'

Aa = 3 A2 (2
*2 - A, )
A2 *a
A2 3 Ai ( 2 kr , - Aj )
(1)

To g e t t h e economical solution, the term

s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d.
A
^
s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d , i . e ., A—2

Now A2 Aa / 3
A2 2 Aj A2 - A]2
Aa / 3 Aa / 3
A22 - ,
( A 2 - 2 A, A2 + A22 ) A22 - ( A, - Aa )2
Art . 22 -9 ] Retaining Walls 821

2
To minimize A
A2 ’
the denominator should be maximized . As
positive , this condition is satisfied when
2 are both
^
( ki - k2 ) 2 = 0 i . e. ky - k>2 = 0
k\ = 2 (2)
*
Thus we get an important result that the resultant of soil pressure should be in a
line with the front face of the wall.
Also , the resultant should lie in middle third of base which follows that the
width of toe should be equal to

^ .
As the resultant of forces is expected to lie at face of toe , the moments about
that point should be zero .
( i ) For ‘ L’ shaped wall
Ph
ybh x| 3 =
0

b = ( 22 - 12 a )
(ii ) For ‘ T ’ shaped wall
2 LL x b Ph
3 YAA 3 =
0
3
b = ( 22 - 12 b )
The width of base and toe fixed by the above equations, are the minimum required .
Also , the pressure under the toe should not exceed the allowable bearing
pressure on soil. This condition may necessiate to increase the width of base .

W W

h
4 P
h
i
3

H- H« - > H* * 4-4-

A A A b b b
3 3 3 3 3 3
(a ) L shaped wall ( b ) T shaped wall

FIG . 22 - 12
The base width can also be fixed by considerations of sliding, however , the
above equations are used in general and if the sliding is not satisfied , a base
key is provided . Alternatively , as a thumb rule , the width of the base may be
taken as 0.5 times to 0.7 times the overall height of the wall .
( 3 ) Thickness of base slab: The thickness of base slab may be considered as

=
yi to where h is the overall height of the wall with a minimum thickness
of 300 mm .
822 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
( 4 ) Thickness of stem: The thickness of stem at top may be taken as 150 mm to
200 mm and at the base , for preliminary calculations, it may be assumed as

^
h
to where h is the overall height of the wall. It is better to calculate the
12
actual required thickness considering moment criterion .
22- 10. Design of a cantilever retaining wall: The design of a cantilever
retaining wall consists of design of stem , design of toe, design of heel and design of base key ,
if provided . These are explained below and the reinforcements are shown in fig. 22 - 13.
The minimum concrete cover to the main reinforcement may be kept as 40 mm
as all the components of the wall are in direct contact with the earth . The cantilever
retaining wall should be treated as a slab while applying the IS limitations like minimum
reinforcement , crack control, permissible shear stress, etc. For stem , the minimum / secondary
reinforcement shall not be based on average depth . The stem may be divided into
2 or 3 convenient parts and minimum reinforcement shall be based on larger thickness
of the respective part. Deflection need not be checked as it is of minor importance .
Where the appearance on the front face is important, a batter on that face is provided
to counteract the effect of deflection . The usual batter is about 20 mm to 25 mm per
metre height of the wall .

Main steel
Temperature steel

(!)
( )
!
Distribution steel

Main steel Net pressure

Distribution steel
Distribution steel
7
v57
I tsi

Main steel
Pressure
< — Key
Reinforcement details - cantilever wall
FIG. 22 - 13
(1) Design of stem: Calculate the maximum bending moment and shear force caused
by the horizontal earth pressure. Design the wall for moment steel which may
be curtailed where not required for flexure if rules for curtailment are satisfied .
It would be sufficient to assume that the rules of curtailment are satisfied if
the bars in stem are curtailed at a distance equal to the development length
of bar from the point of theoretical cut off . The horizontal secondary reinforcement
is provided (0.15 per cent for mild steel and 0.12 per cent for HYSD bars) at
the inner face of the wall . At the external face , the reinforcement should be
provided horizontally and vertically. This reinforcement in each direction may
be half the minimum reinforcement to serve as a temperature reinforcement .
Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 823

( 2 ) Design of heel: The heel is subjected to an upward soil pressure and downward
weight of earth above it . The net pressure on heel acts in downward direction
causing tension at top face of the heel . The reinforcement is designed for this moment.
(3 ) Design of toe: The moment due to earth pressure causes tension at the bottom
face of the toe. Here the weight of the frontfill may reduce the moment, but
this will not be taken into account as the frontfill may get scoured or may be
excavated . The reinforcement for toe is designed at the bottom face .
It should be noted that all the components of cantilever retaining wall are acting as
cantilevers and the reinforcement should be properly anchored .
( 4) Base key : The dimensions of base key are calculated considering stability
requirements . It is a practice to extend temperature bars of stem into the key.
Example 22 1 *

Design a retaining wall to retain the earth 4 m high . The top surface is horizontal
behind the wall . The soil behind the wall is a well drained medium dense sand with
following properties :
unit weight = 17 kN / m 3
angle of internal friction , 0 = 30 °.
The material under wall base is the same as above with a safe bearing capacity of
150 kN / m 2. The coefficient of friction between base and soil is 0.55. Design the wall
using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
( 1 ) Coefficients of earth pressure :
0 = 30 °
- _ _ J_
K - 1
1
sin 0
+
sin 0
1
1
-
+
0.5
0.5 3
1 +
sin 0
1 - sin 0 = 3.
( 2 ) Preliminary proportions of wall dimensions :
( i ) Height: Assuming 1 m depth of foundation, the overall height of wall =
4 4- 1 = 5 m .
( ii ) Width of base : For cantilever ‘T’ shaped wall , the minimum base width
may be taken as:
b =
1 1 1
P = 5 *ayA2 = j x j x 17 x 52 = 70.83 kN

b = 4
3 x 70.83
2 x 17 = 2.5 m .
Toe width = 0.33 x 2.5 = 0.83 m .
Consider total width of foundation
= 2.7 m and width of toe = 0.8 m .
( iii ) Thickness of base slab :
Thickness = to

^
Consider uniform thickness of 350 mm .
, h = 5000 mm ; i .e. 333 mm to 416 mm .
824 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
( iv ) Thickness of stem : This may be assumed considering the moment criterion .
Maximum moment at the base of stem

=
1
£a y A3 =
1
x -1 x 17 x 4.653

=
^ 94.96 kNm
^
Mu = 1.5 x 94.96 = 142.44 kNm .
142.44 x 106 = 227.2 mm .
^required 2.76 x 1000
D = 227.2 + 40 ( cover ) 4- 10 ( assume 20 # bar )
= 277.2 mm .
Provide an overall thickness of 350 mm at the base and 200 mm at the top .
The proposed arrangement is shown in fig . 22 - 14 . A base key of size
0.35 m x 0.55 m is provided to resist sliding.
200

s\\\\\\\' k\\\\\\\\\\>

1975 114.62 kN
>

1150 '’
4000
5000
1000 I

i
8.72
70.83 kN

T
\\ \\\\ \ \ \\ \\\ \ x
650 1350 I 23.63 kN 1667
, 350
T 20.65 kN//
i
550 * 300 -»
/
A
LU^ si
B

45.9 kN/ m 2 1075 28.33 kN/ m 2

«
900 350 1450
K 2700 H

i i 2
2 18.44 kN/ m
111.2 kN /m
2
68.26 kN / m
2
80.28 kN/ m
Soil pressure diagram
FIG . 22 - 14
( 3 ) Wall stability : Consider 1 m length of wall . Horizontal pressure at depth y
from top
1
= k^ y y = x 17 x y = 5.67 y kN / m 2.
Horizontal pressure at base = 5.67 x 5 = 28.33 kN / m 2 . ^
Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 825

The stability calculations are tabulated in table 22 - 1.

TABLE 22 - 1
STABILITY CALCULATIONS
Load type Horizontal load ( kN ) Distance from A ( m ) Moment about A ( kNm )
Active 0.5 x 28.33 x 5 70.83 1.667 - 118.07
pressure
Total 70.83 - 118.07
Vertical load ( kN )
Wall 0.50 x 0.15 x 4.65 x 25 8.72 1.00 8.72
0.20 x 4.65 x 25 23.25 1.15 26.74
Key 0.35 x 0.55 x 25 4.81 1.075 4.88
Base 2.70 x 0.35 x 25 = 23.63 1.35 31.90
Backfill 1.45 x 4.65 x 17 = 114.62 1.975 226.37
Total 175 kN 298.61
Distance of c . g . of vertical forces from the face of the toe , i . e., from point A
298.61 118.07
175 1.028 m .

Eccentricity e = 2.7 1.028 = 0.322 m .

(i) Base properties are :
Area A = l x 2.7 = 2.7 m 2.
Modulus Z =| X 1 x 2.72 = 1.215 m 3.
Maximum pressure at A
175 175 x 0.322
2.7 + 1.215 = 64.82 + 46.38
= 111.2 kN / m 2 < 150 kN / m 2 . ( Safe )
Minimum pressure at B
= 64.82 - 46.38
= 18.44 kN / m 2 > 0 ( Safe )
The earth pressure and forces are shown in fig. 22 - 14 .
( ii ) Factor of safety against overturning:
Overturning moment = 118.07 kNm
Stabilizing moment = 298.61 kNm
298.61
118.07 = 2.53 > 1.55
Factor of safety = ( Safe )
( iii ) Factor of safety against sliding:
Sliding force = active pressure = 70.83 kN.
Passive pressure under the base of key
= 3 x 17 x 0.9 = 45.9 kN / m 2.
Resistance to sliding = friction under the base + passive resistance taken
on a depth of 900 mm on key , i . e ., to the top of
the base
826 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 22
1
= >x W
=
+

0.55 x 175 +
^ ApY *2
|x 3 x 17 x 0.92
= 96.25 + 20.65 = 116.9 kN .
116.9
Factor of safety = 70.83 ~ 1.65 > 1.55 (Safe )

Note that if the key is not provided , this check would be critical and the
base width has to be increased .
The assumed section is thus satisfactory.
( 4 ) Structural design : The structural design consists of design of stem , design of
heel , design of toe and design of key. These are designed below.
(i ) Stem :
Pressure at the base = 5.67 x 4.65 = 26.37 kN / m .
1
x 26.37 x 4.65 = 61.31 kN.
Shear =

Moment =
^
61.31 x
4.65
3 = 95.03 kNm

Vn = 1.5 x 61.31 = 91.96 kN

1.5 x 95.03 = 142.55 kNm .
Afu =
Assuming 20 mm diameter bars and 40 mm clear cover
d = 350 - 40 - 10 = 300 mm
Mu 142.55 x IQ6 1.58
bd 2 1000 x 300 x 300
pt = 0.487
= 1461 mm 2.
Provide 16 mm # @ 130 mm c / c = 1546 mm 2.
Let us now find the depth yj from the top of the wall where half the bars
can be curtailed .
1
At depth yj , M\ = 6 A a - Y - >1 3
= g x|x 17 , 3 = 0.944 Ji 3 kNm
^
Mul = 1.5 Af, = 1.416 yx 3 kNm .
1 50
Effective depth d\ = ( 200 - 50) + y\
= ( 150 + 32.26 yj ) mm .
Assume lever arm = 0.9 d l
1.416 Yi 3 x 106
^ stl
— 0.87 x 415 x 0.9 ( 150 + 32.26 )
Asl 1530
= 765
2 2
Art. 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 827

4358 yx 3
which gives
150 + 32.26 y , 765

i .e. 4358 y { 3 = 114750 + 24679 y ,.

Simplifying yj 3 - 5.66 y\ - 26.33 = 0.
Solving by successive trial yj = 3.6 m .
The bars should extend a development length from the theoretical point
of cut off , i .e ., at 3600 - 47 x 16 = 2848 mm from top .
Curtail half the bars at 2.8 m from the top.
Shear at base = 91.96 kN
91.96 x 103 0.307 N / mm 2
Ty =
1000 x 300 =
100 As 100 x 1546
bd “
1000 x 300 ' = 0.52
= 0.486 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
Shear at theoretical cut off point, i . e., at y = 3.6 m
1 1
V = X x 17 x 3.62 = 36.72 kN
2 3
Vu = 55.08 kN
d = 150 + 32.26 x 3.6 = 266.1 mm
55.08 x 103 0.207 N / mm 2
Tv = 1000 x 266.1 =
100 At 100 x 773
bd 1000 x 266.1 = 0.29

TC = 0.379 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
Development length = 47 x 16 = 752 mm .
The bars should be anchored for 752 mm inside the support . The bars are
anchored in toe and key and used as toe and key reinforcement.
Deflection need not be checked .
Maximum spacing for crack control.
For minimum secondary reinforcement , provide 0.12 % of gross area for
HYSD bars .
0.12
At base As = x 350 x 1000 = 420 mm 2.
100
Use 10 mm # @ 180 mm c / c = 436 mm 2.
At 2.7 m from top
150
D = 200 + x 2.7 = 287 mm .
4.65
0.12
As = 100 x 287 x 1000 = 344 mm 2.
Use 10 mm # @ 220 mm c / c = 357 mm 2.
Maximum spacing at base = 3 x 300 = 900 mm or 450 mm , i .e., 450 mm .
Maximum spacing at top = 3 x 150 = 450 mm .
828 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
For crack control on outer face use 0.06% both ways on other face .
At base , use 10 mm # @ 360 mm c / c.
At 2.7 m from top, use 10 mm # @ 440 mm c / c.
( ii ) Heel: Total downward pressure
= weight of earth b self - weight of heel
= 4.65 x 17 + 0.35 x 25
= 79.05 + 8.75 = 87.8 kN / m 2 .
The net pressures are calculated in fig. 22 - 15 .
14.16 50.29 kN

Z
Z

^
18.4
2
68.26
kN/ m 2
kN/ m + = zz 69.36
kN /m 2
87.8 kN / m 2 Z
Z
Z
19.54
kN/ m 2
1.45 m
Net pressures on heel
FIG . 22 - 15
1
Shear = x 19.54 x 1.45 + 1 x 69.36 x 1.45
2
= 14.16 + 50.29 = 64.45 kN
Vu = 96.67 kN .
1.45 2
Moment = 14.16 x x x 1.45
3 + 50.29 3
= 6.84 + 48.61 = 55.45 kNm
Mu = 83.18 kNm
d = 350 - 40 - 10 = 300 mm .
Mu 83.18 x IQ6
bd 2 1000 x 300 x 300 = 0.924

pt = 0.272
. 4 st
i = 816 mm 2.
Provide 12 mm # @ 130 mm c / c = 869 mm 2.
x 103
= 96.67
1000 x 300 =
0.322 N / mm 2
100 A , 100 x 869
bd 1000 x 300 = 0.29
Tc = 0.379 N / mm 2
tv < TC ( O . K. )
Anchorage 47 x 12 = 564 mm .
There is 1200 mm available for anchorage .
 >v

Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 829

Distribution steel :
0.12
= 100 x 350 x 1000 = 420 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 180 mm c / c = 436 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 360 mm c / c both ways at bottom face for crack
control .
( iii ) Toe: Total downward pressure
= self - weight of toe = 0.35 x 25
= 8.75 kN / m 2.
The net pressures are calculated in fig. 22 - 16.
K 0.9 m > 4 0.9 m >

111.2 80.28 +
kN / m 2 kN / m 2
8.75 kN / m 2

46.1 32.19 kN

s
( » sN 71.53 \ S 71.53
102.45 2 102.45 \
sN kN / m 2
\> kN/ m \
kN /m 2 kN/m 2 \
: \
L 81.84 kN/m 2
H4 M- H
0.3 m 0.3 m 0.3 m
—
H 0.6 m — +-*
0.3 m
Flexure Shear
Net pressures on toe
FIG . 22 - 16
Shear at distance d ( reinforcement confined by compressive reaction )
102.45 + 81.84 x 0.6 = 55.29 kN
2
1.5 x 55.29 = 82.93 kN .
Vu =
Moment = 46.1 x 0.6 + 32.19 x 0.3 = 37.32 kNm
Mu = 1.5 x 37.32 = 56 kNm
d = 350 - 40 - 10 = 300 mm
Mu 56 x 106
1000 x 300 x 300 =
0.62
bd 2
pt = 0.178
Asi = 534 mm 2.
Half the reinforcement of stem , i . e ., 16 mm # @ 260 mm c / c = 773 mm 2
anchored in toe will serve as toe reinforcement. The anchorage is provided
by bend and a straight length of the bar along the toe .
Let internal radius of bend r = 200 mm , a = 260 mm .
 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

Ld = 47 x 16 = 752 mm .
At centre of bend , anchorage = 244 mm .
752 - 244
as = 0.87 x 415 x 752 = 243.9 N / mm 2
200

T i
«
\\\
^\\\\^\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
16 mm # @ 260 mm c/c
• • «- Vertical face
10 mm # @ 220 mm c/c

10 mm # @ 440 mm c/c outer face

2800

4000

10 mm # @ 360 mm c/c

16 mm # @ 130 mm c/c
10 mm #@ 180 mm c/c

10 mm # @ 360 mm c/c outer face

12 mm # @ 130 mm c/c
i-
650
/7777777777777

Internal radius
, i
— 10 mm # @ 180 mm c/c

=
r 200

V37
350 \r
© ©
f
550
16 mm #
10 mm #
@ 260 mm c/c
@ 180 mm c/c —
©
*
10 mm # @ 360 mm c/c both ways
10 mm # @ 360 mm c/c
, 10 mm #@ 360 mm c/c —
«
16 mm # @ 260 mm c/c
h* 900 -
4 4- 1450
350
K 2700 H
FIG . 22 - 17
Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 831

243.9 x 201 x 10 3 49 kN .
Fbt = ’
=
Design bearing strength
1 - 5 /ck 1.5 x 20
= 26.71 N / mm 2 .
1 +
20
a —
1 + 2 16
x
260

Actual bearing stress =

bt £
49 x IQ3
r 0 = 200 x 16 =
15.3 N / mm 2 < 26.71 N / mm 2.
Provide 200 mm internal radius of bend .
x 103
= 82.93
1000 x 300 =
0.276 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 773
bd
~
1000 x 300 “= 0.26
Tc = 0.351 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
Provide 10 mm # @ 180 mm c / c distribution bars ,
( iv ) Key : Provide minimum reinforcement in key.
0.12
= 100 x 350 x 1000 = 420 mm 2.
Half the reinforcement of stem are anchored in key = 773 mm 2. Also
extend temperature reinforcement of stem on outer face in the key. This
is 10 mm # @ 360 mm c / c = 170 mm 2 . Total area in key = 773 +
218 = 991 mm 2.
Distribution bars:
0.12
x 350 x 1000 = 420 mm 2.
100
Provide 10 mm # @ 360 mm c / c on both faces .
(v ) Sketch : The cross - section of the designed retaining wall with reinforcement
details is shown in fig. 22 - 17. Note the anchorages of various bars.
Example 22 - 2 .
Design a retaining wall to retain the earth 4 m high . The top surface is horizontal
behind the wall but subjected to a surcharge of 17 kN / m 2. The soil behind the wall
is a well drained medium dense sand with following properties:
unit weight y = 17 kN / m 3
angle of internal friction 0 = 30 °.
The material under the wall base is the same as above with safe bearing capacity
of 150 kN / m 2. The coefficient of friction between base and soil is 0.55. Design the
wall using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
Solution :
( 1 ) Coefficients of earth pressure :
0 = 30 ° \'
jyjl: 1 - sin 0 1 - 0,5 _ l
k5 ftBcicTN* ^ K = 1 + sin
0
= 1 + 0.5 3

\\
HC
]c
p — - +-
1
1
sin 0
sin 0 = 3.
832 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
( 2 ) Preliminary proportioning of wall dimensions :
( i ) Height : Assuming 1 m depth of foundation, the overall height of wall =
4 + 1 = 5 m.
( ii ) Width : For cantilever ‘T’ shaped wall , the minimum width of the base
may be taken as:
n
b =
4
3 P
2y
s «
P=

P =|x ^ ^
= 70.83
kay h 2 + ka ws
x 17 x 52 +
+ 28.33 = 99.16 kN
h

^ x 17 x 5

b = 4
b
3 x 99.16
2 x 17 —
2.96 m

toe width =
3 = 0.99 m
.
Consider total width foundation = 3.2 m and width of toe = 1 m.
( iii ) Thickness of base slab : Equivalent height of surcharge
17
1.0 m
V 17
h = 5 + 1 = 6 m.
h
Thickness = r1, to 400 mm to 500 mm .
15 12 =
Consider uniform thickness of 450 mm .
( iv ) Thickness of stem: This may be assumed considering the moment criterion .
h = 5.0 - 0.45 = 4.55 m .
Maximum moment at the base of stem
1 1
- 6 aY * + 2 a ws h 2 *
|
^ |x
1
~ X 17 X x 4.553 + x 17 x 4.552
6
= 88.96 + 58.66 = 147.6 kNm
Mu = 1.5 x 147.6 = 221.25 kNm
221.25 x IQ6
d =
Assuming 16 mm diameter bars
4 1000 x 2.76 = 283 mm .

D = 283 -f 40 ( cover ) + 8 = 331 mm .

Consider D = 400 mm . Reduce to 200 mm at top .
The proposed arrangement is shown in fig. 22 - 18. A base key of size
400 mm x 750 mm is provided to resist sliding .
)
( 3 Wall stability: Consider 1 m length of wall . Surcharge is equivalent to additional height
17
1 m.
Y 17
Total equivalent height = 5 + 1 = 6 m .
 Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 833

Horizontal pressure at depth y from top of surcharge

= . y = 1 x 17 x y = 5.67 y kN / m 2.
Horizontal pressure at top of the wall
= 5.67 x 1 = 5.67 kN / m 2.
Horizontal pressure at base of the wall
= 5.67 x 6 = 34 kN / m 2 .
Stability calculations are tabulated in table 22 - 2 .
\ TABLE 22 - 2
STABILITY CALCULATIONS
Load type Horizontal load ( kN ) Distance from A ( m ) Moment @ A ( kNm )
Active 5.67 x 5 28.35 2.500 - 70.88
pressure 0.5 x 28.33 x 5 70.83 1.667 - 118.07
Total 99.18 - 188.95
Vertical load ( kN )
Wall 0.5 x 0.2 x 4.55 x 25 = 11.38 1.133 12.89
0.2 x 4.55 x 25 22.75 1.30 29.58
Key 0.40 x 0.75 x 25 7.50 1.20 9.00
Base 3.2 x 0.45 x 25 = 36.00 1.60 57.60
Backfill 1.8 x 4.55 x 17 139.23 2.30 320.23
Surcharge 1.8 x 17 130.60 2.30 70.38
Total 247.46 kN 499.68 kNm
Distance of c . g. of vertical forces from the face of the toe ( point A )
499.68 - 188.95
247.46 = 1.26 m .
Eccentricity e = -3.2
rp 1.26 = 0.34 m .
(i) Base properties are :
area A = l x 3.2 = 3.2 m 2
1
Z = g x 1 x 3.22 = 1.707 m 3.
Maximum soil pressure at A
247.46 247.46 x 0.34
3.2 + 1.707 = 77.33 + 49.29
= 126.62 kN / m 2 < 150 kN / m 2 ( O. K. )
Minimum soil pressure at B
= 77.33 - 49.29
= 28.04 kN / m 2 > 0 ( O . K. )
The earth pressures and forces are shown in fig. 22 - 18.
( ii ) Factor of safety against overturning:
With surcharge Without surcharge
Overturning moment 188.95 kNm 118.07 kNm
Stabilizing moment 499.68 kNm 429.30 kNm
Factor of safety 2.644 > 1.55 3.636 > 1.55 . ( O . K.)
834 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

T 200 17 kN /m 2 ft
1000 Surcharge
H 'K MW 5.67 kN/m 2
till i \

i 2300
4
30.6 kN
139.23 kN

5000
H* 2300

<
1 *
28.35 kN
1300 'i 22.75
h*
'
*
133 1 11.38 kN +
70.83 kN
2500
550 ; : H-1600 36.0 kN 1667
450
A
7.5 i
750
400
T
i
/
-H
36.72 kN I 136.10 kN 34.0 kN/m 2

61.2 kN / m 2 1200
h* - H- 1800 H
1000 400
—
b* 3200 v

28.04 kN / m 2
126.62
kN / m 2 L 83.5 kN/m 2
2
-
95.8 kN / m
FIG . 22 - 18
( iii ) Factor of safety against sliding:
Sliding force = active pressure = 99.18 kN .
Passive pressure under the base of key
= 3 x 17 x 1.2 = 61.2 kN / m 2 .
Resistance to sliding = friction under the base 4- passive resistance
taken on a depth of earth 1200 mm ( on key ), i . e .,
to the top of the base
1
= H W+ x 61.2 x 1.2
2
0.55 x 247.46 + 36.72
=
= 136.10 + 36.72 = 172.82 kN
172.82 , , cr
-
.
Factor of safety = 74 > 1 55 ( O . K. )
99.18 “ L
The assumed section is thus satisfactory.
( 4 ) Structural design: All the components of the cantilever wall will be now designed ,
( i ) Stem : Pressure at the top of the wall
= 5.67 x 1 = 5.67 kN / m 2.
Pressure at the base of the wall
= 5.67 x 5.55 = 31.47 kN / m 2.
Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 835

Shear = 5.67 x 4.55 + 0.5 x 25.8 x 4.55

= 25.8 + 58.7 = 84.5 kN .
Vu = 1.5 x 84.5 = 126.75 kN .
4.55 4.55
Moment = 25.8 x 58.7 x
2 + 3
= 58.7 4- 89.0 = 147.7 kNm
Mu = 1.5 x 147.7 = 221.55 kNm .
Assuming 20 mm diameter bars and 40 mm clear cover
d = 400 - 40 - 10 = 350 mm
K 221.55 x IQ6 1.81
bd 2 1000 x 350 x 350
/> t = 0.569 , Ast = 1992 mm 2. f
Provide 20 mm # @ 150 mm c / c = 2093 mm 2.
Let us now find out the depth yx from the top of the wall where half the
bars can be curtailed .
At depth yx

Mi = 5.67
yi 3
+ 5.67
Jl 2
0 z
= (0.945 + 2.835 yx 2 ) kNm .
yi 3
200
Effective depth d\ = ( 200 - 50) +
4.55
= 150 + 43.96 yx
2093
As t l
2 = 1047 mm 2 .
Assuming lever arm = 0.9 d\
1.5 ( 0.945 y{ 3 + 2.835 yx 2 ) x 106
= 0.87 x 415 x 0.9 ( 150 43.96 ) 1047.
^stl +
Simplifying , we get ^
y\ 3 + 3yj 2 - 10.55 yx - 36 = 0 .
Solving by trial and error
yx = 3.36 m .
The bars should extend a development length from the theoretical point
of cut off , i . e . , upto 3360 - 47 x 20 = 2420 mm from top .
Curtail half the bars at 2.4 m from top .
Shear at base = 126.75 kN
126.75 x 103
Tv = 1000 X 350 = 0.362 N / mm 2
100 100 x 2093
bd 1000 x 350 = 0.598
TC - 0.511 N / mm 2
(O . K . )
^ Ty Tc
836 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

Shear at theoretical cut off point at 3.36 m from top

1 1
= 5.67 x 3.36 + 2 X 3 x 17 x 3.36 = 51.04 kN

Vu = 76.56 kN
d = 150 + 43.96 x 3.36 = 298 mm
76.56 x 103
= 0.257 N / mm 2 (Safe )
1000 x 298 =
Development length = 20 x 47 = 940 mm .
The bars should be properly anchored inside the support . Half the bars
are anchored in toe and used as toe reinforcement . Remaining half the
bars are anchored in key and used as key reinforcements.
Deflection need not be checked .
Maximum spacing for crack control
At base spacing = 3 x 350 = 1050 mm or 450 mm , i . e . , 450 mm .
At top spacing = 3 x 150 = 450 mm .
For minimum secondary reinforcement, provide 0.12 per cent of the gross
area for HYSD bars.
( a ) Inner face ;
0.12
At base x 400 x 1000 = 480 mm 2.
As =
100
Use 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 491 mm 2.
At 2.4 m from top , D = 200 + 43.96 x 2.4 = 305.5 mm
0.12
= x 305.5 x 1000 = 367 mm 2.
100
Use 10 mm # @ 200 mm c / c = 392 mm 2 ,
( b ) Outer face: Provide 0.06 % both ways.
At base , As = 240 mm 2
Use 10 mm # @ 320 mm c / c = 245 mm 2
At 2.4 m from top , As = 184 mm 2.
Use 10 mm # @ 400 mm c / c = 196 mm 2 ,
( ii ) Heel: Total downward pressure
= weight of earth + self - weight of heel + surcharge
= 4.55 x 17 + 0.45 x 25 + 17 = 105.6 kN / m 2 .
The net pressures on heel are calculated in fig. 22 - 19 .
M- 1.8 m -H I
/

+ /
/
/
/

83.5 28.04 105.6 kN / m 2 22.1 77.56

kN/ m 2 kN/ m 2 kN / m 2 kN / m 2
Net pressures on heel
FIG . 22 - 19
Art . 22 - 10 ] Retaining Walls 837

1 1
Shear = 2 x ^ 2.1 x * + 2 x
^ ^- 56 x 1.80
= 19.90 4- 69.8 = 89.7 kN
Vu = 134.55 kN .
Moment = 19.9 x 0.6 + 69.8 x 1.2 = 95.7 kNm
Mu = 143.55 kNm ( tension top )
d = 450 - 40 - 10 = 400 mm
Mu 143.55 x 106
bd 2 1000 x 400 x 400 = 0.897
p =
{ 0.263, 4 st = 1052 mm 2 .
i

Provide 16 mm # @ 190 mm c / c = 1058 mm 2.

x 103
= 134.55
1000 x 400 =
0.336 N / mm 2
100 4
100 x 1058
bd1000 x 400 = 0.265
”

= 0.367 N / mm 2 ( O . K. )
Anchorage = 16 x 47 = 752 mm .
There is 1400 mm available for anchorage.
Distribution steel
0.12
x 450 x 1000 = 540 mm 2 .
100
Provide 10 mm # @ 140 mm c / c = 560 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 280 mm c / c both ways on outer face for crack control ,
( iii ) Toe: Total downward pressure
= self - weight of toe = 0.45 x 25 = 11.2 kN / m 2.
The net pressures are calculated in fig . 22 - 20.
h* 1000 H

95.8
126.62 kN /m 2
kN /m 2 11.2 kN/m 2

57.71 42.3 kN H— 600 400 -H

H- 1000 \

s\ 84.6 \ 84.6
\ \
115.42 \ kN /m 2 115.42 \ kN /m 2
kN /m 2 N
\ kN / m 2 \
\

L 96.93 kN/m 2
Flexure Shear
Net pressures on toe
FIG . 22 - 20
838 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
Shear ( at d. = 400 mm )
1 1
V = x 115.42 x 0.6 + x 96.93 x 0.6
2 2
= 34.63 + 29.07 = 63.7 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 63.7 = 95.5 kN .
1 15.42 2 84.6 1
Moment M = x x = 52.57 kNm
2 3 + 2 3
Mu = 78.86 kNm .

78.86 x 106
1000 x 400 x 400 = 0.493
bd 2
p = 0.141
Ast = 564 mm 2.
Half the reinforcement of stem , i .e., 20 mm # @ 300 mm c / c = 1046 mm 2
anchored in toe will serve as toe reinforcement. The anchorage is provided
by bend and a straight length of bar along the toe . Zj = 47 x 20 = 940 mm .
Let the radius of bend r = 250 mm , a = 360 mm .
At centre of bend , anchorage = 347 mm
1126 - 347
as = 0.87 x 415 x
1126 = 249.8 N / mm 2
Fbt = 249.8 x 314 x 10 3 = 78.4 kN.
"

1 - 5 /ck 1.5 x 20
= 27 N / mm 2.
2 x 20 =
Design bearing strength
2
i + —
a* i +
360
F bt 78.4 x 103
Actual bearing stress = r $ 200 x 20
= 19.6 N / mm 2 ( OK. )
Provide 200 mm internal radius .
95.5 x 103
= 1000 x 400 = 0.239 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 1046
bd 1000 x 400 = 0 262

xc = 0.365 N / mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 140 mm c / c distribution bars.
( iv ) Key : Provide minimum reinforcement in key.
0.12
A = 100 x 400 x 1000 = 480 mm 2.
Half the reinforcement of stem are anchored in key = 1046 mm 2 .
Also extend temperature reinforcement of stem on outer face in the key.
This is 10 mm # @ 360 mm c / c = 218 mm 2.
Total area in key = 1046 + 218 = 1264 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 300 mm c / c on both faces as distribution bars,
As = 2 x 261 = 512 mm 2.
Art . 22 - 10] Retaining Walls 839

( v ) Sketch: The cross - section of the designed retaining wall with reinforcement
details is shown in fig. 22 - 21.
200

20 mm # @ 300 mm c/c
Vertical face

C« 10 mm # @ 200 mm c/c

2400 % 10 mm # @ 400 mm c/c

I

4000 < 10 mm # @ 320 mm c/c

* 10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c

X 20 mm # @ 150 mm c/c

10 mm # @ 320 mm c/c

10 mm # @ 320 mm c/c
<
' / / / / / / / / / / /Internal
//////
radius - 10 mm # @ 140 mm c/c
550 r = 200
10 mm # @ 280 mm c/c -i r- 16 mm # @ 1 8 0 mm c/c
10 mm # @ 280 mm c/c both ways
x
vJ7
450
• &
I V
20 mm # @ 300 mm c/c -1
i
750 10 mm # @ 140 mm c/c — V 10 mm # @ 300 mm c/c
20 mm # @ 300 mm c/c
' - - 10 mm # @ 320 mm c/c
h* 1000 -
>4 «-
400
1800 H

3200 H
FIG . 22 - 21
840 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
* ~
COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALL
22- 11. Counterfort wall: The cantilever retaining wall as discussed in previous
articles is economical upto about 6 m height of retaining. As the height increases ,
the moments in the stem , heel and toe increase rapidly and thus the wall becomes
uneconomical . The deflection of wall also increases rapidly. The counterfort walls are used
for such cases.
r Toe Front counterforts ( not usual )
r Stem
f

< >

i
Heel — Counterforts
(a ) Plan

Stem — Counterfort Stem Counterfort

Front counterfort
Toe

T
Heel

T
Z Heel

( b ) Section when front counterforts not provided (c) Section when front counterforts are provided

Counterfort retaining wall

FIG . 22 - 22
A typical counterfort wall is shown in fig. 22 - 22 . The counterforts are nothing but
the vertical wall connecting the stem and the heel and act as beams supporting the
stem and the heel . Stem and heel slabs thus act as continuous slabs spanning between
the counterforts . The toe slab may be either cantilever or spanning between front
counterforts, if provided ( but not usual ) .
The counterforts are usually provided at 3 m to 4 m spacing. As a guide , the clear
spacing may be
0.25
H
lcs =
Y
3.5

where = clear/ cs
spacing of counterforts
H = height of retaining wall
y = unit weight of backfill .
Three different schemes are shown in fig. 22- 23 to position the counterforts along
the length of the wall . The schemes are adopted to get economy and simplicity in
placing the reinforcements . The end counterfort may or may not be provided . When the end
counterforts are provided , the spacing of the counterforts may be equal as per scheme I,
or the end bays have reduced spans ( 70 % to 80% of the internal spans ) as per scheme II.
The moments in the external and internal spans are different when scheme I is followed .
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 841

~ Toe r Stem

——
j t

/«

— Counterforts
>+« — /—
)
H<- / — - — — - — / — -*- /
+« / > H
( a Scheme I - equal spans
H

/ 1 = (0.7 to 0.8 ) /

H — l - — / — — / — -«— / —
+« N /
( b ) Scheme II - external spans made smaller
/c < < / ; /c Cantilever

/c
-H~« — / — +- — / < - —H- - /
+ *- / 4

( c ) Scheme III - external spans made cantilever

FIG . 22 - 23
In scheme II, the end bays are so adjusted that the moments of the external and
internal spans are nearly equal . The same objective can also be achieved by keeping
internal bays constant but the external spans are cantilevered from internal spans as
per scheme III .
For scheme I, scheme II or scheme III , the design of wall for internal spans will
be similar . The moment and shear coefficients will be different for external spans . For
internal spans, the moments and shear are given by

MM - wfi and M (-)

24
uulcs ,
= J2
vv m a x —— where /cs is the clear span .
2 2- 1 2 . S t a b i l i t y a n d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e:
( 1 ) Stability: The stability of counterfort wall may be checked for a unit centre
to centre of the counterfort to take into account the weight of the counterforts .
Considering a unit length of the wall for checking the stability is conservative
because the weight of the counterfort is more than the weight of earth of its
volume . The checking of stability considering unit length is easier and will be
followed . The factor of safety against overturning and sliding should be satisfactory
as per cantilever wall . The upward soil pressures shall not be more than
allowable soil bearing pressure and not less than zero .
842 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
( 2 ) Stem: The stem is designed as spanning between counterforts and loaded with
triangular load from the earth pressure . In fact , the stem is supported at three
edges , therefore , the bottom triangular portion ABC as shown in fig . 22 - 25 ( a)
is designed as a cantilever from the base . As the loading on the stem is
variable , the stem height may be conveniently divided into two or three parts
for designing . Note that at the connection between stem and counterfort ,

( and not at distance d ) and that the 30% increase in *u .

tension is induced , hence , the shear force is checked at the face of the support

for checking
development length is not available .
(3 ) Base: The inner footing [ heel ) slab is supported on three sides and subjected
to trapezoidal load due to net effect of upward soil pressure and downward
weight of the earth . Again , the ends of the reinforcement are confined by
tensile reaction , hence , the shear force at the face shall be checked and 30%
increase
.
in ^ul for checking the development length is not available .
*
A small portion of heel nearer to the stem is designed as cantilever .
The outer footing ( toe ) is usually designed as a cantilever subjected to the
upward soil pressure minus self - weight of the toe . The weight of the soil above
the toe is usually neglected . In some cases , the front counterforts are also
provided , where the toe is designed as continuous slab spanning between
the front counterforts .
( 4 ) Counterforts: The counterforts support the stem and the base slab . The counterforts
are designed as vertical cantilevers of varying T- beam section . The connection
between stem and counterforts and that between base slab and counterforts in
the form of stirrups shall be provided to transfer the loading .
Example 22 - 3 .
A counterfort retaining wall has a height of retaining earth of 6 m . The top surface
is horizontal behind the wall . The soil behind the wall is a well drained medium dense
sand with following properties :
Unit weight 16.2 kN / m 3
Angle of internal friction 0 = 30 ° .
The material under the wall base is the same as above with allowable bearing
pressure of 150 kN / m 2 . The coefficient of friction between the base and the soil is 0.6 .
Design the wall using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415 .
Solution :
( 1 ) Coefficients of earth pressure :
0 = 30 °
1 - sin 0 1 - 0.5 1
K = 1 + sin 0 1 + 0.5 = 3
1 + sin 0
*p = r -
~
sin 0 =
3.
( 2 ) Proportioning the dimensions :
( i ) Height : Assume 1 m depth of foundation . Then height of
wall = 6 m + l m = 7 m .
( ii ) Width of base : Assume 0.65 x 7 = 4.55 4.5 m width of the base .
Toe width maximum 4500
= 1500 mm . Assume 1250 mm width of toe .
3
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 843

( iii ) Thickness of base : Assume

thickness . Try 400 mm thick base .
( iv ) Spacing of counterforts:
( H 0.25
t

^
° 15 ’ i . e . , 350 mm to 466 mm

7 0.25
Spacing = 3.5
Y
= 3.5
16.2 = 2.84 m .
Provide counterforts at 3 m c / c .
( v ) Thickness of stem : Pressure at bottom of the stem
= | X 16.2 ( 7 - 0.4) = 35.64 kN / m 2 .
Maximum moment
M ( -) 35.64 x 32
= 12 = 26.73 kNm .
Mu (-) = 1.5 x 26.73 = 40.1 kNm
ireq
4 40.1
1000 X 2.70
x 106
121 mm .

Try D = 250 mm . Larger depth is provided for shear. Reduce to

160 mm at top .
d = 250 - 40 - 5 = 205 mm .
Proposed arrangement is shown in fig. 22 - 24 .
( 3 ) Wall stability : Consider 1 m length of wall . Horizontal pressure at depth y
from top
1
= K Y • y = 3 x 16.2 y = 5.4 y kN / m 2.
Horizontal pressure at base
= 5.4 x 7 = 37.8 kN / m 2.
The stability calculations are tabulated in table 22 - 3.
TABLE 22 -3
STABILITY CALCULATIONS
Load type Horizontal load ( kN ) Distance from A ( m ) Moment @ A ( kNm )
Active 7
0.5 x 37.8 x 7 132.3 kN 308.70
pressure 3
Total 132.3 kN - 308.70 kNm
Distance Moment
Vertical load ( kN ) from A ( m ) @ A ( kNm )

Wall 0.5 x 0.09 x 6.6 x 25 7.44 1.310 19.73

0.16 x 6.6 x 25 26.40 1.42 37.49
Base 4.5 x 0.4 x 25 45.00 2.25 101.25
Backfill 3.0 x 6.6 x 16.2 320.76 3.0 962.28
Total 399.60 kN 1110.75 kNm
Distance of c. g. of vertical forces from the face of the toe ( point A )
1 1 10.75 - 308.7
= 2.01 m .
399.6
Eccentricity e = 2.25 - 2.01 = 0.24 m .
844 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [Ch . 22

T
160
——H

Back Fill

6000

320.76 kN
K 3000 >
< 1500 > 132.3 kN

h* 1420 *
26.4 kN
h* 1310
i 7.43 kN

2333
+ 2250 > 45 kN
600 35.34 kN /m 2
750

400
A B H* H
250 37.8 kN/ m 2
h* 1250 -N- 3000
K 4500 H

2
60.4 kN /m
2
117.2 kN/m

FIG . 22 - 24
Art. 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 845

Base properties are

area A = l x 4.5 = 4.5 m 2
1
modulus Z =|x 4.52 = 3.375 m 3.
399.6 399.6 x 0.24
Maximum pressure at A = 4.5 + 3.375 = 88.8 + 28.4
= 117.2 kN / m 2 < 150 kN / m 2 .
Minimum pressure at B = 88.8 - 28.4
= 60.4 kN / m 2 > 0.
The earth pressure and the upward soil pressures are shown in fig . 22 - 24 .
(i) Factor of safety against overturning:
Overturning moment = 308.7 kNm
Stabilizing moment =
1110.75 kNm
1110.75
Factor of safety = 308.7 = 3.6 > 1.55 ( Safe )
( ii ) Factor of safety against sliding:
Sliding force = active pressure = 132.3 kN
Restoring force = [L W = 0.6 x 399.6 = 239.76 kN
239.76
Factor of safety = 1.81 > 1.55 ( Safe )
132.30
Provision of base key is not necessary. Assumed section is thus satisfactory.
( 4 ) Structural design : The structural design consists of design of stem , design
of toe slab , design of heel slab and the design of counterfort . These are
designed below :
( i ) Design of stem: The stem slab is designed as a continuous slab spanning
between counterforts. An interior span is considered . As the moments in
the external span is large , the arrangement may be to reduce the external
span to about 70% of the interior span ( scheme II ) , or a cantilever may
be provided ( scheme III ) .
The design will be made at two levels , viz., 6.6 m and 3.5 m from the top .
y = 6.6 m
Earth pressure = 5.4 x 6.6 = 35.64 kN / m 2

«„ <-> - wl 2
12 12
1.5 x 35.64 x 32 = 40.1 kNm
wl 2
M " 24 1.5 x 35.64 x 32 = 20.05 kNm
24
wl x
K = 1.5 x 35.64 2.7 ( based on clear span )
2 “ 2
= 72.2 kN , assuming 300 mm thick counterforts
d = 250 - 40 - 5= 205 mm
Mu 20.05 x 106
1000 x 205 x 205 =
{+ ) 0.477
bd 2
pt = 0.136, Ast = 279 mm 2.
846 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

8 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 294 mm 2

( -) 40.1 x 10 (i
1000 x 205 x 205 =
0.954
bd 2
pt = 0.281, Ast = 576 mm 2
12 mm # @ 190 mm c / c - 595 mm 2 .
As the reinforcements are not confined by compressive reaction at the
support, shear at the face of the support shall be used for design .
Vu = 72.2 kN
72.2 x 103
v = 1000 X 205
= 0.352 N / mm 2
100 As 100 x 588
1000 x 205 =
0.287
bd
Tc = 0.378 N / mm 2
( Safe )
At point
^ tc
tv
of contraflexure where moment changes sign ( at 0.15 / )
Vu = 72.2 - 1.5 x 35.64 (0.15 x 2.7 )
= 50.55 kN
50.55 x IQ3
tv = 1000 x 205 =
0.247 N / mm 2
100 4 100 x 281
bd 1000 x 205 = 0.137
tc = 0.28 N / mm 2
(Safe )
Tv ^ Tc

(a) Distribution steel: Since difference of thickness at top and that at base
is not large, average depth may be assumed fer calculation of distribution
steel .

(
0.12 250 + 160 x
100 ,
1000 = 246 mm 2
8 mm # @ 200 mm c / c = 250 mm 2.
To check development length at point of contraflexure
Mui = 20.05 kNm , Vu = 50.55 kN
ZJQ = deff = 205 mm
Mu i +
^0 Ld
20.05 x 106 + 205 > 47 #
50.55 x 103
# < 12.8 mm ( Safe )
y = 3.5 m
3.5
D = 160 + 90 x
6.6 = 207.7 mm
d = 207.7 - 40 - 5 = 162.7 mm .
Earth pressure = 5.4 x 3.5 = 18.9 kN / m 2
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 847

(+ ) 1.5 x 18.9
x 32
Mu = 24
10.63 kNm

(- ) Mu = 1.5 x 18.9
x 32 = 21.26 kNm .
12

bd 2
Pt ^ St Reinforcement

( + ) 0.402 0.115 246 mm 2 8 mm # @ 200 mm c / c

( minimum ) ( 250 mm 2 )
(-) 0.803 0.234 381 mm 2 10 mm # @ 200 mm c / c
( 393 mm 2)
Shear check may be done as per above section at y = 6.6 m .
( b ) Bottom cantilever : Bottom portion of the stem acts as a cantilever .
Instead of considering exact analysis, refer to an approximate analysis
from fig. 22 - 25 .
H* 2700 > 2
28.35 kN / m
H* — 900 r* 900 900 — H
-
V
r*
A
H
A

d
/
7 19.14 kN

1350
/
/
/ 24.05 kN
45°
/
/

t B e' a d' C a

2
35.64 kN/m
(a ) Elevation ( b) Pressure diagram
Bottom cantilever of stem
FIG . 22 - 25
At centre of the span , Aa vertical shall be considered as fixed at base .

Mu = 1.5 (19.14 x|x 1 - 35 + 24.05 x I x 1.35 )

= 42.08 kNm
d = 205 10 = 195 mm ( second layer )
42.08 x IQ6 1.11
bd 2 1000 x 195 x 195
pt -- 0.33, Ast = 644 mm 2.
As this steel is required only at section Aa and can be reduced at ee'
or dd\ half the toe reinforcement is anchored in stem . This is 16 mm
# @ 320 mm c / c = 628 mm 2.
Shear Vu = 1.5 ( 19.14 + 24.05) = 64.8 kN
64.8 x 103
Tv = 1000 x 195 = 0.332 N / mm 2
848 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

100 As 100 x 628

bd
“
1000 x 195 = 0.322

— 0.394 N / mm 2 .
Tv < Tc ( O . K .)
Use 8 mm # @ 190 mm c / c distribution bars to match with spacing
of main bars at support.
( c ) Connection with counterfort : It is usual to provide the connection
between stem and counterfort in the form of two - legged stirrups to
carry entire shear force .
The horizontal pressure at any depth y
= 5.4 y kN / m 2.
Total shear at any depth y
= 5.4 y x 2.7 kN / m height of stem
= 14.58 y kN / m
1.5 x 14.58 x IQ 3
A = } = 60.57 y mm 2 / m .
0.87 x 415
At different depths , different shear reinforcement may be used .
At 6.6 m As = 400 mm 2 / m , 8 mm # two- legged stirrups @ 240 mm c / c .
At 5.0 m As = 302.8 mm 2/ m, 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 330 mm c / c.
At 3.5 m As = 212 mm 2 / m , i.e., 8 mm # two-legged stirrups @ 470 mm c / c
( less than minimum ) .
These connection stirrups are also used as the stirrups of the counterfort.
The minimum shear reinforcement for 300 mm wide beam is 8 #
@ 345 mm c / c . Provide 8 # @ 330 mm c / c from 5.0 m to top .
( ii ) Design of toe: The pressure diagrams for toe are shown in fig. 22 - 26 .
h* 1.25 m > H* 1.25 m
101.4 94.4
107.2
117.2 kN/ m 2 kN/ m 2
kN /m 2 kN / m 2
0.4 x25 = 10 kN/m 2
( a ) Soil pressure ( b) Self load ( c ) Net pressure

67 59 kN 48.24 44.1 kN
\
\ \

107.2 s 94.4
107.2
\ 94.4
kN / m 2 N kN/m 2 \ kN/m 2
kN /m 2
V k
L 98 kN/ m 2
h* >+ * +«
«
H h* H i
EQ EQ EQ 0.9 m 0.35 m
H— 1.25 m »
H— 1.25 m H
(d ) Flexure (e ) Shear ( at d )

Pressure diagrams for toe

FIG . 22 - 26
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 849

The top is designed as a cantilever. As the ends of the reinforcement are

confined by compressive reaction , shear at distance d = 350 mm may be
checked. This is calculated in fig . 22 - 26 ( e) .
1.25
M = 59 x 3 + 67
x |
X 1.25 = 80.42 kNm

Mu = 120.62 kNm
Fu = 1.5 ( 48.24 + 44.1 ) = 138.51 kN
d = 400 - 40 - 10 = 350 mm
Mu 120.62 x 106
bd 2 1000 x 350 x 350 = 0.985
pt = 0.284 (1)
xc = 0.376 N / mm 2
138.51 x IQ 3 0.396 N / mm 2
= 1000 x 350 =
TV > xc
When Tv > xc , it is usual to increase the depth . However , we may use
another alternative . Instead of increasing the depth , we may increase the
flexure reinforcement to increase the shear capacity of the section . We
may follow such alternatives when p{ < 0.5 /> t , bal present case -
pt required for Tc = Tv = 0.396 N / m 2 is pt = 0.325 (2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , use p{ = 0.325
0.325 x 1000 x 350
^
st “
100 = 1138 mm 2 .
Provide 16 mm # @ 170 mm c / c = 1182 mm 2.
0.12
Distribution steel 100 x 1000 x 400 = 480 mm 2.
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 491 mm 2.
For crack control , provide 10 mm # @ 320 mm c / c on top face .
Toe reinforcement shall be sufficiently anchored for L& = 47 x 16 = 752 mm
half in the heel, and half in stem which is used as bottom stem reinforcement .
( iii ) Heel slab: The heel slab is designed as continuous slab spanning between
counterforts. The pressure diagrams are shown in fig . 22 - 27.
3m H
H
1m
- 1m
+< >4^
1m
H
H* 3m > 3m a b d
31.3 44
+ a 1

b
c
18.7 d'
2
kN/m 56.6
2
kN/ m
98.3 60.4 0.4 x 25 ( self ) + 6.6 x 16.2 (earth )
2 2
kN /m kN/ m = 117 kN/ m2
( a ) Soil pressure ( b ) Net pressure
Pressure diagrams for heel
FIG . 22 - 27
850 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ Ch . 22
The loading on the heel slab is uniformly varying load . The design may
be done stripwise , i .e., ab, be, cd, etc. Unlike the cantilever wall , larger
thickness is required at dd\ thus , a uniform thickness is recommended .
We shall design the strip width cd and follow the same design for inner
strips also.
44 + 56.6 x
Strip cd : Total load = 2
2.7 = 135.8 kN
135.8
Vu = 1.5 x x 101.9 kN .
2
d = 400 - 40 - 10 = 350 mm
135.8 x 3
K ( -) = 1.5 x
12 = 50.93 kNm

= 0.42, pt = 0.12 ( 1)
bd 2
101.9 x IQ 3
*v = 1000 x 350 = 0.29 N / mm 2
pt for TC = xv = 0.29 N / mm 2
pt = 0.162 (2)
Adopt pt = 0.162
.4 st =
i 567 mm 2.
Provide 12 mm # @ 130 mm c / c = 604 mm 2.
135.8 x 3
Mu ( +) = 1.5 x = 25.46 kNm
24
Mu
bd 2
= 0.208 , pt — ¥ minimum (1)
At 0.15 /, i . e . 0.15 x 2.7 = 0.4 m ( point of contraflexure )
44 + 56.6
Vu = 101.9 - 1.5 x 0.4 2 = 71.72 kN

x 103
= 71.72
1000 x 350 =
0.205 N / mm 2
pt for Tc = Tv —> minimum (2 )
0.12
St - !00 x 1000 x 400 = 480 mm 2.
^
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c = 491 mm 2.
The same design is followed for inner sections also .
( a ) Distribution steel:
Use 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c.
At point of contraflexure
Vu = 71.72 kN
LQ = deff = 205 mm
Mul = 0.87 x 415 x 419 (350 - 0.42 x 0.48 x 350) x 10 " 6

= 42.27 kNm
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 851

Mul + L0 Ld
Vu
42.27 x 106 + 205 > 47 #
71.72 x 103
# 16.9 mm (Safe )
( b ) Heel as cantilever : Some length of heel acts as cantilever as shown in
fig. 22 - 28. At centre of the span , the cantilever is 1.35 m , while at the
support, it is zero . The design is made for the central section .

300 1350 1650 >

a b c
450
18.7 < 450
H- > 35.7
kN / m 2 56.6
kN / m 2
2700 a
12.6 24.1 kN
- Cantilever from steam

Length ab as cantilever

30o ; ;

( a ) Plan ( b) Pressure diagram

Heel as cantilever
FIG . 22 - 28
135 2
M = 12.6 x + 24.1 x|x 1.35 = 27.36 kNm
Mu = 1.5 x 27.36 = 41.04 kNm
V= 12.6 + 24.1 = 36.7 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 36.7 = 55.05 kN
d = 350 - 10 = 340 mm ( second layer )
Mu 41.04 x 106
= 0.355
bd 2 1000 X 340 X 340

Pi = 0.101 (1)
x 103
= 55.05
1000 x 340 =
0.162 N / mm 2
pt for Tc = Tv i s m i n i m u m ( 2)
0.12
At x 1000 x 400 = 480 mm 2.
100
852 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 22
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c. Anchor the reinforcement in toe .
Provide 10 mm # @ 160 mm c / c distribution bars .
( c ) Connection with counterfort :
Referring to fig. 22- 27, the shear force for various strips are as follows.
56.6 + 44 2.7
cd portion , V =
2
X
2 = 67.9 kN ; Vu = 101.9 kN
44 + 31.3 x 2.7
be portion , V =
2 2 = 50.8 kN ; Vu = 176.3 kN
31.3 + 18.7 2.7
ab portion , V =
2 =
33.75 kN ; Vu 150.6 kN .
2
Assuming 8 mm # two - legged stirrups, Asv = 100 mm 2 .
101.9 x IQ 3 282 mm 2.
cd portion , As=
0.87 x 415 =
For 8 mm # two - legged stirrups @ 350 mm c / c , As = 285 mm 2. The
minimum shear reinforcement for 300 mm wide counterfort is 8 # @
345 mm c / c .
To use these connection bars as shear reinforcement also, provide
8 mm # stirrups @ 330 mm c / c throughout.
( iv ) Counterfort : The counterfort is designed as a cantilever beam from the
base . The assumed section and depths at various levels are worked out by
simple geometry in fig . 22 - 29.
400
f -
4

O Ki
870 T \
[V 0 = 24.7°
i A
i
B
i 0 = 24.7°
i

y
3500
1
y x 16.2 x 3y
5000
«5
V
= 16.2 y
6600

i
-
4

J 4 -
1000
400 i
250 113.4 kN/m
4 I H 3000 H
1250
(a ) Counterfort (b) Loading diagram

FIG . 22 - 29
Art . 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 853

3000 + 160 - 400

=
tan 0 = 6000
0.46
0 = 24.7 °
OA = 400 cot 0 = 870 mm .
y = 3.5 m , D = (870 + 3500 ) sin 0 = 1825 mm
d = 1825 - 80 ( 2 layers of 25 0 ) = 1745 mm
y = 5.0 m , D = (870 + 5000 ) sin 0 = 2453 mm
d = 2453 80 = 2373 mm .
y = 6.6 m, D = (870 + 6600 ) sin 0 = 3121 mm
d = 3121 - 80 = 3041 mm .
The counterfort is a cantilever beam with varying depth . The loading is
on vertical face . The depth shall be perpendicular from the loading face
to the inclined face ( as calculated above ) . The effective shear is given by :
M
V
d = V -
tan 0 , where tan 0 = 0.46.

Loading on counterfort at any depth y

= ka . y . y x spacing of counterfort
1
= x 16.2 x y x 3 = 16.2 y kN / m .
At base , loading = 16.2 x 7 = 113.4 kN / m .
i y
Moment at any depth y, M = x 16.2 y x y x - = 2.7 y 3 kNm .
^
Shear at any depth y, V
At 6.6 m
=
M =
Mu =
^ x 16.2 y x y = 8.1 y 2 kN .
2.7 x 6.63
1164.36 kNm
= 776.24 kNm

Mu 1164.36 x 106
= 0.42
bd 2 300 x 3041 x 3041
pt = 0.12 minimum pt = 0.205
^4 st = 1870 mm 2, use 6 - 20 # = 1884 mm 2 (1)
V = 8.1 x 6.62 = 352.84 kN
776.42 x 0.46
Ve = 352.84 -
3.042 = 235.45 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 235.45 = 353.2 kN .
100 As _ 100 x 1884
300 x 3041 =
“ 0.206
bd
= 0.325 N / mm 2
0.325 x 300 x 3041 x 10 3
Fuc = '
= 296.5 kN
Fus = 353.2 - 296.5 = 56.7 kN
VUS
18.6 minimum stirrups required .
d
854 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22
For 300 mm width , minimum shear reinforcement is 8 mm # two- legged
stirrups @ 345 mm c / c . The connection stirrups provided (8 # @ 330 mm c / c)
will serve the purpose .
At 5.0 m M = 2.7 x 53
= 337.5 kNm
Mu = 506.25 kN
Mu 506.25 x \ Q 6
= 0.3
bd 2 300 x 2373 x 2373
/h /h , min 0.205
Ast = 1460 mm 2 .
Use 5 - 20 # = 1570 mm 2 (2)
8 mm # @ 200 mm c/c
i —.
8 mm # @ 170 mm c/c
. £
Stem ( plan at 6.6 m )

250
:; C vm
T-

? -*T ~*i.
M
*•

L®
Counterfort

12 mm # @ 190 mm c/c -
16 mm # @ 320 mm c/c
8 mm # @ 190 mm c/c
> < > >4-4
300 300 300
-H h* > H- >4*- >
900 900 900 900 900 900
<-
-—
* 3000 >+ * - 3000 -
*4 * 3000 >M- 3000 >

(a ) Details of stem reinforcement ( h = 6.6 m )

—— 10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c
12 mm # @ 180 mm c/c (extra top)

* V-
Counterfort
300
900
<
> <
900
H H
900
>
-—
«
900
H
300
900
h*
> 4
900
>
300

i4— /T

400 T
& - #

10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c — Heel ( Longitudinal section )

( b) Details of heel reinforcement (section at edge )

FIG . 22 - 30 ( a )
Art. 22 - 12 ] Retaining Walls 855

>~t — H- 400

8 mm # @ 170 mm c/c >

8 mm # @ 400 mm c/c ( both ways)
8 mm # @ 200 mm c/c

1350
T
10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c ( both ways )
/3
400 ^> S . M2
650
- v— 10 mm # @ 170 mm c/c ( both ways)
I

- 16 mm # @ 170 mm c/c
10 mm # @ 160 mm c/c
H-1250 > - <r 3000 >
250
K 4500 >

(c ) Section A - A

>4 4 400

v
3.5 m 4-20 #
Horizontal stirrups
5.0 m
8 # @ 330 mm c/c

5-20 #

6-20 #
Horizontal stirrups
1.6 m
8 # @ 240 mm c/c
i L 1

1200 mm
250 — <-3000
H- Vertical stirrups -H
8# @ 300 mm c/c (Counterfort reinforcement only )
(d ) Section B - B
FIG . 22 - 30 ( b )
856 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 22

V = 8.1 x 52 = 202.5 kN
337.5 x 0.46
Ve = 202.5 - 2.373
= 137.1 kN
Vu = 1.5 x 137.1 = 205.6 kN
100 As 100 x 1570
300 x 2373 =
0.22
bd
Tc = 0.336 N / mm 2.
0.336 x 300 x 2373 x lO 3
Vus = "

= 239.2 kN
Vvuc > Vr u *

Provide minimum shear reinforcement , 8 mm # @ 330 mm c / c .

At 3.5 m M = 2.7 x 3.53 = 115.76 kNm
Mu = 173.6 kNm
Mu 173.6 x IQ 6
bd 2 300 x 1745 x 1745
= 0.19
pt = 0.205%
ylst = 1073 mm 2.
Use 4 - 20 # = 1256 mm 2 (3)
From ( 1 ) ( 2 ) and (3)
Use 6 - 20 # at base level with proper anchorage in the heel for
47 x 20 ^ 940 mm . Curtail 1 - 20 # at 4 m level and 1 - 20 # at 2.5 m
level . The connection stirrups used for stem will serve the purpose of
shear reinforcement.
Details of reinforcement is shown in fig. 22 - 30.

E X A-M P L E S X X I I
- ’. if :;. :
*
••V; * *
. \ , :

( i ) Design a cantilever retaining wall to retain the earth 5 m high . The top surface
is horizontal behind the wall . The soil behind the wall is a well drained medium
dense sand with following properties:
unit weight y = 18 kN / m 3
angle of internal friction = 35°.
The material under the wall base is the same as above with allowable bearing
pressure of 150 kN / m 2 at 1 m depth . The coefficient of friction between the
base and soil is 0.6 . Design the wall using ( i ) M 20 grade concrete and mild steel
(ii ) M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of grade Fe 415.
( 2 ) Redesign the wall of Example ( 1 ) if the backfill is horizontal , but subjected
to the surcharge of 27 kN / m 2 .
( 3 ) Redesign the wall of Example ( 1 ) if the top surface of backfill is inclined at an
angle of 15° with horizontal .
( 4 ) Redesign the wall of Example ( 1 ) if the top surface of backfill is horizontal but
soil is submerged upto 2 m depth from the top of the wall.
Ex . 22 ] Retaining Walls 857

( 5 ) In a residential building, the basement floor level is - 2.5 m , ground level being
± 0.0 m . There is a nearby building of three storeys constructed on load bearing
masonry walls of 350 mm thickness . Clear distance between the two building is
2 m . If the depth of foundation of nearby building is 1.5 m , discuss how you will
take into account the pressure of nearby building on the basement wall of the
building to be constructed . Estimate for the pressure on basement wall.
H i n t : for an estimate , consider the stress in brick masonry of nearby building
as 0.4 N / mm 2 at ground level and thus find out the load supported per
metre length .
( 6 ) Explain the importancy of providing counterfort wall over the cantilever retaining wall.
( 7 ) A counterfort retaining wall has a height of retaining earth of 7 m . The top
surface is horizontal behind the wall . The soil behind the wall is a well drained
medium dense sand with following properties :
nit weight 17 kN / m 3
angle of internal friction 0 = 30°.
The material under the wall base is the same as above with a safe bearing
capacity of 170 kN / m 2 . The coefficient of friction between the base and the soil
is 0.6 . Design the wall using M 20 grade concrete and HYSD reinforcement of
grade Fe 415.
( 8 ) Redesign the counterfort wall of worked example 22 - 3 by making it cantilever
retaining wall . Compare the economy.
( 9 ) Redesign the counterfort wall of excercise example ( 7 ) above by making it cantilever
retaining wall. Compare the economy.
 hapter
FORMWORK
L23J
.
23 - 1 Introductory: The temporary structure erected to support the concrete
in its required shape, till it hardens and becomes self -supporting is known as formwork,
centering or shuttering. The cost of formwork is estimated as 25 per cent to 30 per cent
of the total cost of the reinforced concrete . Therefore , the design of reinforced concrete
building will be governed to some extent by the design , use and re - use of the
formwork as explained by the following examples :
( 1 ) Beam width and depth of rib may be selected to utilize the standard width of timber.
( 2 ) Uniform sizes of beams , columns , storey heights , etc., are selected to get the
maximum re - use of the formwork and to secure the economy.
( 3 ) Same spacing of beams and columns are adopted as far as possible so that form
panels can be re - used for maximum number of times.
( 4 ) Clear spacing of beams may be selected such that standard plate widths
can be arranged for slab centering.
It is practically true to state that the use of slight excess of concrete to get the uniformity
or symmetry in construction will reduce the final cost of the reinforced concrete through
simplification in formwork .
23- 2. Requirements for good formwork: The requirements for good formwork
are as follows:
( 1 ) The material for formwork should be easily available , cheap and suitable
for re - use .
( 2 ) The forms must be strong enough to bear the loads of concrete and
workmen , the liquid pressure of the fresh concrete and the impact effect of
ramming or vibrating .
( 3 ) The forms must be water - proof so as to prevent the absorption of water from
the concrete .
( 4 ) The forms should be as light as possible and stiff enough to have minimum deflection .
(5 ) The joints in forms should be rigid enough to prevent bulging or twisting due
to loads and escape of liquid concrete .
( 6 ) All lines in formwork should be true and surface plane to minimize the cost
of surface finishing.
( 7 ) The forms of beams, slabs , etc ., should be given a camber ( equal to dead load
deflection of reinforced concrete element ) to allow for the sag.
( 8 ) The forms should be easily removable without damage .
( 9 ) The forms should rest on non - yielding supports.
Concrete is liable to stick to formwork during its removal , thereby damaging both
concrete and forms . To prevent this damage , the forms are coated with a thin layer
of mineral oil , soft soap , proprietary solution or white wash . If concrete is required
to be plastered , oil should not be applied to the shutters as it will prevent the adhesion
between concrete and plaster and one of the other coating may be used . For plastering
the concrete , usually the surface is roughened by power tool or a small hand pick to
give a good key to plaster. Sometimes a retardant solution is applied which prevents
the setting of skin layer of concrete that can be roughened by a thin wire brush and
plaster can be applied .
Art . 23 - 3] Formwork 859

To give good surface texture , if required , the formwork liners are placed inside the
formwork . The liners are made of glass reinforced plastic or high expanded polystyrene.
23 - 3. Materials for forms: Forms are generally built of timber, plywood and
steel . These are discussed below.
(1) Timber: Timber is the most commonly used material for formwork . For small
works , timber forms are cheap while for large works such as multi - storeyed
buildings where repeated use of formwork is to be made , steel may be used .
The kind of timber to be used depends on the cost and availability of the
material . Fir , deodar , kail and chir are generally used for forms . Timber
should be free from knots , twists, shakes , decay and other imperfections which
would otherwise affect the strength of forms and finished surface of the concrete.
Lumber ( forest timber ) used for forms should be partly seasoned , as kiln - dried
lumber absorbs water from concrete and swell and bulge causing honeycombing
in concrete , while green lumber will dry out and shrink forming gaps
between the boarding through which the concrete will flow producing ridges
on the finished concrete surface. About 20 per cent moisture content is appropriate
for timber formwork .
Face forms should be dressed on all four sides , sheathing dressed two edges
and one face while braces , supports and ties may be undressed . As timber swells,
bulges and shrinks , care must be taken in storage and re - use of the forms. To
eliminate the shrinking and distortion of forms , wood is combined with plastics
and resins to make modern plywood. Plywood is stiff , water - proof and having a
high re - usable values ( about 3 to 4 times ) compared to that of ordinary timber.
The timber forms have the following advantages :
( i ) Timber is easy for working, handling and fixing at required place .
( ii ) It is durable ( particularly plywood ) and having good insulation properties.
( iii ) Striking is easier due to flexible nature of timber and plywoods .
( iv ) The damaged sections of timber formwork can be easily removed and
remaining portion can be re - used .
( v ) It is readily available and economical .
( 2 ) Steel: For large works such as multi - storeyed buildings where repeated use
of formwork is required , steel formwork is employed . It is also used in precast
concrete works . Steel formwork has following advantages :
( i ) It is simple in erection and supervision .
( ii ) It can give plane surface and good finishing to the concrete , such that
plastering may not be necessary as in exposed concrete works .
( iii ) It can withstand rough site handling.
( iv ) It is possible to cast a large amount of concrete without bolting.
( v ) It is economical when employed for large works with repeatative uses.
However , steel formwork has following disadvantages :
( i ) It is costly for small works . If it is purchased , its long term return must
be estimated .
( ii ) After striking the steel plates , patterns are left on concrete , which
may not be acceptable.
( iii ) It gives very smooth surface which makes it difficult to apply other
finishes such as plaster.
( iv ) The damaged forms are costly to repair.
Steel tubes are also used as scaffolding and formwork for casting R . C . structures.
860 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23

2 3- 4 . C h o i c e o f f o r m w o r k : The kind of material , to be used for formwork

depends on many factors . It is not necessary to use only one material for formwork.
For example , steel plates for slabs, plywood for beams , wooden props and bamboo
bracings may be employed as formwork .
The following points may be considered while selecting the material for formwork .
( 1 ) Availability of material , self or hired .
( 2 ) Time available for the work and speed required .
( 3 ) Skilled and unskilled labour available .
( 4 ) Working and storage space available .
( 5 ) Repeatative uses possible .
( 6 ) Type of concrete and method of filling the forms .
Considering these points , one may select one of the followings:
( 1 ) Formwork manufactured on site .
( 2 ) Formwork manufactured in shops and then employed on site .
( 3 ) Use of hired formwork .
( 4 ) Sub - contractor may be employed to prepare the formwork.
2 3 - 5 . L o a d s o n f o r m w o r k : Loads on formwork consist of following:
( 1 ) Dead loads of concrete and reinforcement resting on forms. Dead weight of
wet concrete may be taken as 26.5 kN / m 3.
( 2 ) Construction loads such as weight of runways , workmen, loaded barrows,
etc . , and impact loads of falling concrete , impact due to vibrator , etc . The
temporary construction loads including impact loads for the design of planks
and joists in bending and shear may be taken as 4 kN / m 2 .
( 3 ) Hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete .
The hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete depends on many factors and increases
with water - cement ratio of concrete , smaller size of aggregate , higher rate of filling
the forms and lower temperature . It is very difficult to estimate the hydrostatic pressure
accurately . However , it is found that after initial setting of concrete , this pressure
reduces rapidly. Usually the initial setting time of concrete is 1 / 2 to 3/4 of an hour ,
therefore , the hydrostatic pressure of the height of concrete deposited in 3/4 of an
hour need only be considered . The hydrostatic pressure for 1 / 2 to 3/4 of hour pouring
concrete may be taken as a liquid weighing 23 kN / m 3 for 1.5 m height of concrete
linearly decreasing to 12 kN / m 3 for 6 m height of concrete .
2 3 - 6 . P e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s e s f o r t i m b e r: Permissible stresses for various
kinds of timber are given in IS : 883- 1994 ( Code of practice for design of structural
timber in building) . Structural timber is grouped as group A y group B and group C.
The characteristics of these groups are as follows:
Group A : E > 12.6 kN / mm 2, f > 18 N / mm 2
Group B : 9.8 kN / mm 2 < E < 12.6 kN / mm 2
^
12 N / mm 2 < f h 18 N / mm 2
Group C : 5.6 kN / mm 2 < E 9.8 kN / mm 2
8.5 N / mm < 2 < 12 N / mm 2
where E = modulus of elasticity in bending
/b = permissible bending stress on the extreme fibre.
For formwork , usually group C timber is used , e .g., deodar ( E = 9.48 kN / mm 2 )
and chir ( E = 9.82 kN / mm 2 ) .
Art . 23 - 6 ] Formwork 861

Locations of timber are specified as inside , outside and wet . Inside location is
one in which timber remains dry . Outside location is one in which timber is
subjected to alternate wetting and drying. Wet location is one where timber remains
continuously wet .
Timber is graded as select grade, grade I and grade II . Select grade timber is one
having minimum or no defect at all . Grade I timber is one having defects not
larger than specified ones ( refer to IS: 883) . Grade II timber is poorer in quality than
grade I timber.
Basic permissible stresses for different groups of timber are given in table 3 of
IS: 883- 1994 and reproduced in table 23 - 1.
TABLE 23 - 1
MINIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESS LIMITS ( N / mm *)
IN THREE GROUPS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
( FOR GRADE I MATERIAL)
Location of Group Group Group
Sr. no . Strength character use A B C
1 Bending and tension along grain Inside 18.0 12.0 8.5
2 Shear *
Horizontal All locations 1.05 0.64 0.49
Along grain All locations 1.5 0.91 0.70
3 Compression parallel to grain Inside 11.7 7.8 4.9
4 Compression perpendicular to grain Inside 4.0 2.5 1.1
5 Modulus of elasticity All locations 12.6 9.8 5.6
( x 103 N / mm 2 and grade
* The values of horizontal shears to be used only for beams. In all other cases shear
along grain to be used .
** For working stresses for other locations of use, that is , outside and wet, generally
factors of 5 / 6 and 2 / 3 are applied .

The above permissible stresses are applicable to grade I timber. For other grade
timber , the permissible stresses shall be multiplied by following values :
( 1 ) For select grade timber 1.16 .
( 2 ) For grade II timber 0.84 .
The above basic values of permissible stresses should be modified for ( a ) change
of slope of grain and ( b ) change in duration of load as given in table 4 and table 5
of IS : 883 and are reproduced in table 23- 2 and table 23- 3.
TABLE 23 - 2
MODIFICATION FACTOR kx TO ALLOW
FOR CHANGE IN SLOPE OF GRAIN
Slope Strength of beams , Strength of posts
joists and ties or columns
(i) (2 ) ( 3)
1 in 10 0.80 0.74
1 in 12 0.90 0.82
1 in 14 0.98 0.87
1 in 15 and flatter 1.00 1.00
862 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
TABLE 23 -3
MODIFICATION FACTOR k 2
FOR CHANGE IN DURATION OF LOADING
Sr. no . Duration of loading Modification factor , k2

1 Continuous 1.00
2 Two months 1.15
3 Seven days 1.25
4 Wind and earthquake 1.33
5 Instantaneous or impact 2.00
The duration of load on formwork may be assumed as seven days for columns,
beam sides, slabs , slab props and two months for beam bottom and beam props.
Solid columns are classified as short, intermediate and long depending on their
slenderness ratio S / d as follows :
where S = unsupported overall length of column in mm
and d = dimension of least side of column in mm
( a ) Short columns where S / d does not exceed 11 .
( b ) Intermediate columns where S / d is between 11 and k
£
where k = 0.584 -—
/cp
= modulus of elasticity in bending

/cp = permissible compressive stress along grain as

given in table 23 - 1 .
( c ) Long columns where S / d is greater than k but less than 50 .
The permissible stresses on column may be calculated as follows :
( 1 ) For short columns, the permissible compressive stress shall be calculated as :
fc = /cp
where f c = permissible compressive stress in short column .
( 2 ) For intermediate columns the permissible compressive stress is
calculated by using the following formula :
1 5 \4 1
fc = /cp 1
3 \kd
( 3 ) For long columns , the permissible compressive stress shall be calculated
by using the following formula :

fc = 0.329 E
{ S /d ) 2
For group C timber ( chir ) , used as formwork at inside locations :
E = 9.82 kN / mm 2
/cp = 0.0 N / mm 2
k = 0.584 V9820 / 6.0 = 23.63.
The above formulae are for columns with pin end conditions and length
shall be suitably modified for other end conditions .
The permissible load on a column of circular cross - section shall not exceed
that permitted for a square column of an equivalent cross - sectional area .
Art . 23-8 ] Formwork 863

23 - 7 . Design of formwork: Formwork should be designed such that it is

simple , symmetrical and economical . It should be strong enough to withstand the
loads and stiff enough to prevent the deflection of formwork . Very often deflection
rather than strength is a governing factor in the design of formwork .
The moment to be used in design of members subjected to flexural stress such as
floor decking depends upon conditions of loading and supports . It is sufficient to
consider M wl 2 except for single span formwork . Deflection may be estimated
=
from the formula 5 =
3
7T7T7 x -wl ^ o rr-
777- . Coefficient
3
•

384 —
is a mean between
1 for beams
384 El 384
with fixed ends and 5 for beams with simply supported ends .
384
Permissible deflection for members supporting brittle materials like gypsum
1
ceilings , slates , tiles and asbestos sheets shall not exceed 360 of the span . The
deflection in case of other flexural members shall not exceed 1 of the span and
240
1
of the freely hanging length in case of cantilevers .
150
The sheathing with full live load of 4 kN / m 2 should not deflect by more than
3.2 mm and the joists with 2 kN / m 2 of live load should not deflect by more than
3.2 mm . This maximum permissible deflection may be reduced to 1.6 mm when
concrete is to be left as a self - finish , e . g. , for exposed concrete works .
23- 8. Shuttering for columns: A typical column shuttering also known as column
box for a square column is shown in fig. 23- 1. The shuttering for column consists of:
( 1 ) Sheathing all round the column periphery
( 2 ) Cleats and yokes
( 3 ) Wedges
( 4 ) Bolts .
Side sheathing consists of long narrow strips to make it easier to reduce the size
of the column in upper storeys. The sheathing is nailed to cross battens or cleats.
Thickness of sheathing may be 25 mm to 40 mm and width from 125 mm to 225 mm .
The cleats are 25 mm to 40 mm thick like the sheathing and spaced at 300 mm at
the bottom of the column . Spacing of cleats can be increased to the top of the column ,
however in practice , uniform spacing is provided as the form may be reversed in the
next operation .
25 ±
40 M Wedges 40 mm x 40 mm
75 End shutter
:125 Side shutter
z Yokes 100 mm x 75 mm
2
300 $ £
gz — Cleats 150 mm x 32 mm
25 ;
f 1 — Sheathing 25 mm thick
75 Cleats 75 mm x 50 mm
40 M M
- : 25 l
~ Bolts 25 mm
32 32
H- 270 — 1~H
100 40 40 100
Shuttering for square column
FIG . 23- 1
864 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [Ch . 23
Each of the sheathing nailed to the cleats constitute a Shutter. The pair of shutters
parallel to the yokes are called side shutters and the other pair as end shutters. Four
sides of the column form are held in position by means of yokes of 75 mm x 50 mm
or 100 mm x 75 mm stuff drilled to receive 20 mm or 25 mm diameter bolts. Yokes
are spaced at about 300 mm at the bottom of the column. Spacing can be increased
towards the top of the column , however , uniform spacing is followed . Both the ends
of the bolts are threaded and when the nuts are tightened , the opposite sides are
brought tightly against the edges of other two sides, which are secured tight by
driving down the wedges between the rod and cleats of the end shutters .
Column forms are erected complete for full storey height . One side of the form
is left open and the form is built up in sections as the placing of concrete proceeds
if height of column exceeds 1.8 metres. This is done to avoid segregation of concrete
falling from height. For a correct alignment of the column form , a kicker or a starter i
should be used. At the bottom of the column form , a small opening is left to clean
out the sawdust, dirt, etc. after the form is erected and before the concrete is deposited .
The column form may be prepared as a complete box and hoisted over the reinforcement
cage if it is light . However , if the form is heavy , each shutter may be erected separately
round the cage and then assembled . Whenever required , the column box is removed
by easing and removing the wedges ( usually at 48 hours after the column is cast ) .
The sheathing is considered as a continuous slab spanning over the cleats or yokes
with its span equal to the spacing of yokes. The sheathing should be designed for
moment and checked for shear and deflection . Cleats are supported on wedges which
transmit the loads to the bolts . The yokes are supported on bolts and subjected to
bending moment due to the pressure from sheathing and axial tension due to reaction
from cleats . The bolts are subjected to bending due to the reactions from the cleats
through wedges and axial tension due to reactions from yokes .
Example 23 - 1 .
Design the formwork for a column 300 mm x 300 mm having a height of 2.5 m .
It is proposed to deposit the entire concrete in one stage . Use chir wood formwork .
Use IS : 883 for design values.
Solution :
( 1 ) Design of sheathing: Pressure of wet concrete at 2.5 m depth is equivalent to
fluid weight of 23 -||(
Let the spacing of cleats
Pressure =
width =
^
) (2.5 - 1.5) = 20.56 kN / m 3.
be * m and assume uniform pressure for x m height .
20.56 x 2.5 = 51.4 kN / m 2
0.3 m
load / m = 51.4 x 0.3 = 15.42 kN / m
wl 2 15.42 x 2
M
10 10 = 1.542 x2 kNm.
Basic permissible bending stress for outside location group C wood = 7.3 N / mm 2 .
Modification factor for 7 days duration = 1.25.
Permissible stress = 7.3 x 1.25 = 9.125 N / mm 2.
If 25 mm thick sheathing is used
1
Z = io x 300 x 252 = 31250 mm 2
M = fZ
1.542 x2 x 106 = 9.125 x 31250
x = 0.43 m .
Provide spacing of cleats at 400 mm c / c.
Art . 23 - 8] Formwork 865

Check for shear :

0.4
= 3.08 kN .
Maximum shear

Shear stress
= 15.42 x
3
2
^
*
A

3.08 x 103
300 x 25 =
0.62 N / mm 2
< 1.25 x 0.91 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
Check for deflection :
5 =
3 wft_ 3 wiA_ __
384 El 384 El
1 x 300 x 253
/ = 12 = 390625 mm 3
5 =
_
J x 15.42 x 0.4 x 103 x ( 400 )
3
384 9820 x 390625
= 0.804 mm .
400 ( Safe )
Permissible 5 = 240
1.66 mm
( 2 ) Design of end shutter cleats :
Load = 51.4 x 0.4 = 20.56 kNm .
Assuming 40 mm x 40 mm wedge section , span of cleat
= 300 + 2 x 25 - 40
= 310 mm = 0.31 m .
0.312
x 20.56 = 0.25 kNm .
M =
8
0.25 x 106 27397 mm 3.
1.25 x 7.3 =
Section modulus required =
Use 75 mm x 50 mm size cleat .
1
Z = ±6 x 50 x 752 = 46875 mm 3.
0.27 x
Shear = 20.56 = 2.78 kN .
2
Shear stress =
3 2.78 x 103
2 75 x 50
= 1.11 N / mm 2
< 1.25 x 0.91 N / mm 2.
( 3) Design of side shutter cleats : Side shutter cleats are to join the sheathing. Loads
from side shutter will be taken by yokes. Hence , provide 150 mm x 32 mm
cleats for side shutter .
( 4 ) Design of yokes : Centre to centre distance of bolts assuming 25 mm diameter
bolts = 300 + 2 ( 25 + 75 + 40 ) + 25 = 605 mm .
20.56 kN/ m

t
3.08 kN 3.08 kN
i
< 300 >+* >
152.5 152.5
< 605 mm - >
FIG . 23- 2
866 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
Pressure of concrete = 51.4 x 0.4 = 20.56 kN / m
M = 3.08 x 0.3025 0.152 x 20.56
2
= 0.93 - 0.23 = 0.7 kNm .
Axial tension from end shutter cleat
0.3 x
20.56 = 3.08 kN .
2
Try 100 mm x 75 mm section .
0.7 x 10 (i x 6 3.08 x 103
/= 75 x 1002
+
75 x 100
= 5.6 + 0.41 = 6.01 N / mm 2
< 1.25 x 7.3 N / mm 2 (Safe )
3.08 x 3
Shear stress = 3
IQ
2 75 x 100
= 0.62 N / mm 2
< 1.25 x 0.91 N / mm 2 ( Safe )
__
Deflection = 1 x W
/ 3
384 El
I = 1 x 75 x 1003 = 6250000 mm 4
12
5 ( 20.56 x 0.3 x 103 ) ( 605 )3
5 = x = 0.29 mm
::
384: 9 soo x 6250000
605
Permissible 5 =
240 =
2.52 mm ( Safe )
( 5 ) Design of bolts : Bolt is subjected to both axial tension and bending moment
since the load is transferred through wedges .
Axial tension = reaction from yokes = 3.08 kN .
Distance of load transmitted through the centre of wedges
= 32 + 20 = 52 mm .
Bending moment = 3.08 x 0.052 = 0.16 kNm .
Try 25 mm diameter bolt .
A = 7
4
x 252 = 491 mm 2

Z = x ( 25 ) 3 = 1534 mm 3
0.16 x 106 + 3.08 x 103
/= 1534 491
104.3 + 6.3

= 110.6 N / mm < 140 N / mm 2

2 ( Safe )
The designed section is shown in fig. 23 - 1.
23 - 9. Shuttering for beam and slab floor: The beam and slab floor consists
of the beams supported on girders or columns while the slab is supported on beams
or girders . The area within the four adjacent columns is called floor panel which
usually consists of two girders and two or more beams . The shuttering for beam and
slab flooring is quite complex and expensive . A typical simple floor is shown in
fig. 23 - 3 ( a ) and the formwork for the floor is shown in fig. 23-3 ( b ) and fig. 23- 3 (c) .
 >1
Column -
i — Beam
to
co
Floor panel > CO

s < >

H- -H
4000 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000
( a ) Part floor plan
P Q
120 mm slab r 120 mm slab
Cleats 25 side sheathing
i o
-3 t

M ‘
| |Joist -

n o
-!

900
900
—
>
< Ledger
150 x 75 Joist
}
175 x 75 Ledger
100 x 38 Block
* 8
*
^
<-
VOI
25 Sheathing
150 x 32 cleat

75 x 32 Fixing plate
7T

900 >4
4
900 >
—
Brace
X
S/
50 Bottom sheathing
100 x 100 Head free
Props >
— 100 x 100 Props @
< 1200 c/c
1200 4 4200
Hard wood wedges
50 Sole piece r- Floor
li
( b ) Elevation Q (c) Section

Shuttering for beam and slab floor oc

FIG . 23 - 3
868 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
Slab is supported on 25 mm thick sheathing or decking laid parallel to main
beams. The decking is supported on joists or battens , the spacing of which depends
on the load carried by the floor slab . Decking may be directly nailed to the joists
working from above . Edge of the decking rests on to the edge of side sheathing of
beam . The joist is supported on ledger or bearer 75 mm x 50 mm or 100 mm x
38 mm which runs parallel to the beam side and nailed to the cleats. A clearance of
about 6 mm is kept on both the ends of the joists for the ease of striking . Side
sheathing of beam 32 mm thick consists of long narrow strips held in position by
cleats 150 mm x 32 mm . Side sheathing is subjected to hydrostatic pressure of fluid
concrete . The bottom sheathing ( soffit ) of beam may be 40 mm to 50 mm thick
directly supported on head tree. Side sheathing of beam is placed up against the edge
of the soffit. The head tree 100 mm x 75 mm is a horizontal member supporting the
beam soffit and connected to vertical post by cleats. Right hand side board of beam
is fixed in position to the head tree by 75 mm x 32 mm fixing plate and left hand
side board fixed by a block nailed on a head tree which tightens the joints between
the soffit and sides . Bracings 75 mm x 25 mm are provided to head tree and vertical
posts. If the height of vertical post is more , bracings on both directions are provided
at mid - height . These may be 25 mm x 25 mm wooden sticks or usually bamboo. The
bottom of the vertical post is supported on sole piece through two wedges of hard
wood . The sole piece is supported on a solid floor so that the vertical post cannot
settle down during and after concreting .
Slab sheathing or decking is designed as a continuous slab spanning over joists for
a live load of 4 kN / m 2. The design load is comparatively light and the design may
span
be governed by deflection criterion . Allowable deflection on decking is
240
or 3.2 mm whichever is less .
The joist is designed as a simply supported beam spanning between ledgers . To
reduce the span , joist may be supported on intermediate vertical posts, where the joist
is designed as a continuous beam .
At the head tree , ledger is supported by the wedges which transfers the load from
ledger to the head tree . The ledger will therefore be designed as a continuous beam
spanning over head tree . Maximum moment in ledger may be because of the

—
central point load from joists and may be taken as Wl and deflection as 5 =
Side form is subjected to hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete and designed as a
Wfi
48 El '

continuous slab spanning between joists . Because of the reactions of side forms, joists
are subjected to axial compression . As wood is very strong in compression , this load
may be neglected . Side forms are also tied by bolts or wires which may be left in
concrete after striking the formwork . The beam bottom is subjected to dead loads of
wet concrete and self - weight and live loads from slab . It is designed as a continuous
slab - spanning over the vertical posts . Usually the thickness of beam bottom is selected
and spacing of props is found out . Permissible deflection for beam bottom may be
span
taken as or 3.2 mm whichever is less.
360
Example 23 - 2 .
Design the formwork for beam and slab construction from the following data:
Centre to centre spacing of beams 4 m
thickness of slab 120 mm
width of rib 300 mm
depth of rib 450 mm
height of ceiling above floor 4 m.
Art . 23- 9 ] Formwork 869

Take live load with impact on decking and for that of beam bottom = 4 kN / m 2 .
Use deodar wood using outside location for all formwork .
Solution:
( 1 ) Design of decking : Let 25 mm thick sheathing be used , laid parallel to the beam .
Let the spacing of joists be S metres centre to centre .
Live load on decking 4.00 kN / m 2
120 3.18 kN / m 2
Dead load of wet concrete = 26.5 x
1000
Self - weight ( say ) 0.20 kN / m 2
Total 7.38 kN / m 2
Sheathing acts as a continuous slab with span equal to S metres.
Moment :
WS 2 7.38 S2
M = = 0.738 S 2 kNm
10 10
1
Z = £o x 1000 x 252 = 1.04 x 106 m m 3

/= 1.25 x 8.7 = 13.59 N / mm 2 (seven days duration of load )

M = fZ
0.738 S2 x 106 = 13.59 x 1.04 x 105
S = 1.38 m (1)
Shear :
1
= 2 x = 3.69 S.
Maximum shear force
^x 380.91x
* S
Permissible shear stress = 1.25 = 1.1375 N / mm 2
3.69 x IQ3 S 3
1.1375 = 1000 x 25 2
S = 5.13 m (2 )
Deflection :
E =9480 N / mm 2
1 x
/ = 1000 x 253 = 1302083 mm 4
12
w = 7380 N / m = 7.38 N / mm
6 =
384
L
x
El
S=
V
128 El 6
w
5 = 3.2 mm ( maximum permissible deflection )
4 / 128 x 9500 x 1302083 x 3.2
S = 7.38 = 910 mm . (3 )
For 910 mm span , permissible deflection
910
or 3.2 mm , whichever is less
240
= 3.79 mm or 3.2 mm , whichever is less
i.e. 3.2 mm (O. K.)
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3) , provide the joists at 910 mm ( 3'- 0") c / c .
 870 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
( 2 ) Design of joists: Joist is supported on ledgers fixed at side sheathing of beams
with one central intermediate support .

Therefore , span =
4.0 - 0.3
1.85 m .
2
Moment :
Load from slab 7.38 x 0.9 = 6.64 kN / m
self - weight assume = 0.16 kN / m
total 6.80 kN / m
M =
w l2 6.8 x 1.852
10 10 = 2.33 kNm
/ = 1.25 x 7.3 = 9.12 N / mm 2
Z = 2.33 106 = 25548 mm 3.
x
9.12
For 75 mm wide section
1 x 75 x '2
d = 25548
^
Shear :
d = 143 mm (i)

> Maximum shear = 0.5 x 6.8 x 1.85 = 6.29 kN

permissible shear stress = 1.25 x 0.91 = 1.13 N / mm 2
1.13 = 3 6.29 x IQ3
2 75 x d
d = 111.3 mm (2)
Deflection :
1
/ = x 75 x rf 3 = 6.25 d 3 mm 4
^J2 _
Wl 3
5 = 384 x El
3 6800 x 1 , 85 x 18503
3.2 = 384 9480 x 6.25 d 3
d = 148.6 mm ( 3)
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3) , provide 75 mm x 150 mm section .
( 3 ) Design of side forms : Side forms are subjected to hydrostatic pressure of wet
concrete which may be taken as equivalent to pressure of liquid of unit
weight of 23 kN / m 3. As the pressure is varying, the average pressure may
be taken as the pressure at the centre of the rib .
Depth of centre of rib from top of slab = 120 + 125 = 345 mm .
Pressure at 345 mm = 0.345 x 23 = 7.94 kN / m 2.
Height of side form = 450 - 25 ( sheathing of slab ) = 425 mm .
Load on side form = 0.425 x 7.94 = 3.37 kN / m .
Side forms are supported between joists and act as continuous slab .
x 0.92
M = 3.37 = 0.273 kNm
10
/ = 1.25 x 7.3 = 9.12 N / mm 2
Z = 0.273 106 = 29934 mm 3
x
9.12
1 x

^ 425 x / 2 = 29934
t = 20.56 mm .
Provide 25 mm thick side sheathing .
Art . 23 - 9 ] Formwork 871

Note: Design of side forms as worked out above is conservative . In fact side forms are
supported throughout by nails at the bottom , fixed with beam bottom and at the
top fixed with slab plates and also by wires connecting both sides of side forms.
In fact , joist may not be supported at the ledger but by a vertical post near the
end of the joist and a gap between side form and joist may be kept for easy
stripping of side forms after 48 hours of concreting (stripping of joist will be made
after 7 days of concreting ) .
( 4 ) Design of beam bottom: The beam bottom is designed as continuous slab supported
on vertical posts .
Dead weight of wet concrete
= 26.5 x 0.3 x 0.57
= 4.53 kN / m
Live load 4 x 0.3 = 1.20 kN / m
Self - weight ( assume ) 0.20 kN / m
total 5.93 kN / m
Use 50 mm thick beam bottom . Let the spacing of vertical posts be S m c / c .
Bending :
S2
M = 5.93 = 0.593 S 2 kNm
10
Z = ±1 x 300 x 502 = 125000 mm 3
0
/= 1.15 X 7.3
= 8.395 N / mm 2 ( two months duration )
M = fZ
0.593 S 2 x 106 = 8.395 x 125000
which gives S = 1.33 m (1)
Shear :
Maximum shear force = 5.93 x S x 0.5 = 2.97 S
Permissible shear stress = 1.15 x 0.91 = 1.046 N / mm 2
3 2.97 5 x IQ3
1.046 = 2 300 x 50
S = 3.52 m (2)
Deflection :
1 x 300 x 503
/ = 12 = 3125000 mm 4
w = 5930 N / m = 5.93 N / mm
5 §-
= 384 X
El

tl 128 El 5
w
128 x 9480 x 3125000 x 3.2
1196 mm . . . . ( 3 )
5.93
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3) , props may be spaced at 1200 mm c / c .
( 5 ) Design of ledger : Ledger is supported at head tree , therefore , its span will
be 1.2 m . It is a continuous beam supporting load from end of the
joist . The worst case may be a central point load from the joist .
Wfi
Maximum moment may be taken as
4— and deflection as
48 El
*
872 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
Moment :
W = load from joist = 0.5 x 1.85 x 6.8 = 6.29 kN
6.29 x 1.2
M = 4
1.89 kNm
/= 1.25 x 7.3 = 9.125 N / mm 2
1.89 x 106
Z =
9.125 = 207123 mm 3.
If section is 50 mm wide
1 2
g x 50 x d = 207123
which gives d = 157.65 mm (i)
Shear :
Maximum shear force = 0.5 x 6.29 = 3.15 kN .
Permissible shear stress = 1.25 x 0.91 = 1.1375 N / mm 2
1.1375 =
3 3.15 x IQ3
2 50 x d
d = 83 mm (2 )
Deflection :
/ = 1 x 50 x d 3 = 4.167 d 3 m m 4
12
Wl 3
5 =
48 El
6.29 x 1000 x ( 1200 )3
3.2 =
48 x 9480 x 4.167 d 3
d — 121.4 mm
From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3) , provide 75 mm x 175 mm size ledger.
( 3)

( 6 ) Design of props:
Load from beam = 1.2 x 5.93 7.12 kN
Load from slab = 7.38 x 1.85 x 1.2 16.38 kN
Self - weight ( say ) 00.50 kN
total 24.00 kN
/cp 1.15 x 7.8 = 8.97 N / mm 2 considering inside location and two- months
duration of load .
E = 9480 N / mm 2
k = 0.584 i =
fc p-
0.584
V 9480
8.97
18.99

S 4000 - 450
= 35.5, lies between k and 50.
d 100
Permissible compressive stress
0.329 E x 1.1 0.329 x 9480 x 1.15 2.846 N / mm 2.
( S/ d ) 2
= ( 35.5 )2
=
Provide 100 mm x 100 mm props.
Allowable load = 2.846 x 100 x 100 x 10 ~3 = 28.46 kN (Safe )
To reduce S/ d ratio , props may be braced centrally in x and y directions.
The designed formwork is shown in fig . 23-3.
Art . 23- 10 ] Formwork 873

2 3 - 1 0 . P r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s: Examples 23 - l and 23 - 2 illustrate

the design of forms , sizes of different components, etc ., considering the loads they
have to bear.
In practice , re - use of forms is very important and hence the design is made
by using the available sections . A sort of standardization is always made for
available sections . For slab sheathing, instead of long strips, 610 mm x 910 mm
( 2 ' x 3') wooden plates or steel plates are used so that spacing of joist will be
either 610 mm or 910 mm . Depending on the section of joist available , one or
more props may be necessary. When more props are provided , the load supported
by props will be reduced and smaller sections 75 mm x 75 mm or 75 mm
diameter props from cheaper wood may be provided . It is not necessary to have
only one kind of timber used for all components. Steel plates for slabs , plywood
for beam sides , any available wood for beam bottom and joists and smaller
size vertical posts with bamboo bracing may be employed .
Example 23 - 3 .
610 mm x 910 mm ( 2 ' - 0 x 3'- 0 ) deodar wood plates are used for slab forms.
Find the safe thickness of plates for ( a ) 610 mm span and ( b ) 910 mm span .
Solution :
Assume 150 mm thick slab to standardize the sizes of plates .
Dead load 26.5 x 0.15 = 3.98 kN / m 2
Live load = 4.00 kN / m 2
Self - weight = 0.20 kN / m 2
total 8.18 kN / m 2
( a ) 610 mm span :
Moment :
M = 8.18 0.612 = 0.31 kNm
x
10
IQ6
Z = 0.31 x 33973 mm 3
1.25 x 7.3 =
1
|x 1000 x d 2 = 33973
d = 14.28 mm (i)
Deflection :
5 = 3 x wS
384
±
El
w = 8.18 kN / m = 8.18 N / mm
wS 4 8.18 x ( 610 )4
/=
128 x 9480 x 3.2 =
" 291678 mm 4
128 E 5
1 x
1000 x d 3 = 291678
12
d = 15.18 mm ( 2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , 16 mm (5 / 8") thick plates may be used .
( b) 910 mm span:
Moment :
M = 8.18 x 0.912 = 0.68 kNm
10
Z = 0.68 x 106
74521 mm 3
1.25 x 7.3 =
1
g x 1000 x d 2 = 74521
d = 21.14 mm (1)
874 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
Deflection :
wS 4 8.18 x ( 910 ) 4
= 128 E 6 = 128 x 9480 x 3.2 = 1444610
/ mm 4
1 x 1000 x d
12 * = 1444610
d = 25.88 mm (2)
From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , 25 mm ( 1 ") thick plates may be used .
Example 23 - 4 .
In a slab - beam formwork , 25 mm thick slab sheathing plates are used on a span
of 910 as calculated in Ex . 23- 3. On site 75 mm x 100 mm deodar joists are available .
Find the safe spacing of props below the joists .
Solution :
Load from slab = 8.18 x 0.91 = 7.44 kN / m
Self - weight ( assume ) = 0.56 kN / m
total 8.00 kN / m
For 75 mm x 100 mm joist
1
= 12 x 75 x 1003 = 6250000 mm 4
/

Z = 1 x 75 x 1002 = 125000 mm 3

Moment :
/= ^
1.25 x 7.3 = 9.125 N / mm 2.

M = fZ
= 9.125 x 125000 x IQ-6 = 1.14 kNm
wS 2 1.14
10
8 S2 1.14
10
which gives S = 1.19 m ( 1)
Shear :
Maximum shear = 0.5 x 8 x S = 4 S kN
permissible shear stress = 1.25 x 0.91 = 1.1375 N / mm 2
1.1375 = 3 X 4 5*
2 75 x 100
S = 1422 mm ( 2)
Deflection :
3 x
w = 8000 N / m = 8 N / mm , 5 =
384
128 El 5
S = w

1 128 x 9480 x 6250000 x 3.2

8
1320 mm . . . ( 3 )

From ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and (3) , spacing of props for joists may be taken as 1200 mm c / c .
Example 23 - 5 .
Assuming the cross - section of beam below slab as 300 mm x 600 mm
( 750 mm overall depth ) , determine the safe span for the beam bottom 65 mm thick
of deodar wood .
Art. 23- 10 ] Formwork 875

Solution :
Dead weight of wet concrete
= 26.5 x 0.3 x 0.75 = 5.96 kN / m
Live load 4 x 0.3 = 1.20 kN / m
Self - weight ( assume ) = 0.24 kN / m
total 7.40 kN / m
Bending :
7.4 S2 0.74 S 2 kNm
M = 10 =
1
Z = 20 x 300 x 652 = 211250 mm 3
/ = 1.15 x 7.3 = 8.395 N / mm 2 ( two months duration )
M = fZ
0.74 5* 2 x 106 = 8.395 x 211250
S = 1.548 m (i)
Shear :
Maximum shear 0.5 x 7.4 x £ = 3.7 S kN
=
Permissible shear stress = 1.15 x 0.91 = 1.0465 N / mm 2
S x IQ3 3
1.0465 = 3.7
300 x 65 2
S = 3.676 m (2)
Deflection :
1
/ = 12 x 300 x 653 = 6865625 mm 3
w = 7400 N / m = 7.4 N / mm
8 = 384
i- x
El

^
4
S
7
= / l 28 wEl 8 128 x 9480 x 6865625 x 3.2

( 3)
7.4
= 1377.7 mm
From 1 , 2 and 3 safe span for beam bottom may be taken
( ) ( ) ( ) , as 1350 mm .
Example 23 - 6 .
Find the maximum spacing of 75 mm x 75 mm deodar posts to support the forms
for 230 mm x 500 mm beam ( cross - section given below slab ) spaced at 3 m centre
to centre with 120 mm thick slab . Assume that the joists supporting the slab sheathing
are centrally supported . Height of ceiling above floor is 3.0 m .
Solution :
Load on slab = 0.12 x 26.5 + 4.0 = 7.18 kN / m 2
Load / m on beam = 7.18 x 1.5 4- 0.23 x 0.5 x 26.5
= 10.77 + 3.05 = 13.82 kN.
Height of prop = 3.0 - 0.5 = 2.5 m .
£ 2500
75 =
33.33
d
k = 0.584
5
= 0.584
7 9480
1.15 x 8.97
18.99

k < d
<
876 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23
Permissible compressive stress
x 9480
1.15 x 0.329 = 3.22 N / mm 2.
( 33.33) 2
Safe load = 3.22 x 75 x 75 x 10 3 = 18.11 kN .
'

Maximum spacing of props

18.1 1 1.31 m .
13.82
Note that the actual spacing of props under the beam bottom also depends on
the safe span of beam bottom .
23- 11. Erection of forms: When all the components of the forms are prepared ,
they are stacked in a pile of similar form sections near the place where they are to
be erected . The surfaces of the forms which are to be in contact with concrete are
given a coat of light lubricating oil or similar compound . All the form sections of one
kind should be erected at one time , e .g., all main beam soffits shall be erected at one
time . If the slab area is very large , shuttering may be done in parts.
The erection will be done in following lines:
( 1 ) Column boxes are erected and set up in position with the help of previously
cast kicker or column .
( 2 ) Main beam soffits are placed in position working from outside of the building
to the centre . Soffits rest on 50 mm x 50 mm piece nailed to the column
boxes. Position of beam soffits are checked with steel tape . Previously prepared
head trees and props are placed below the beam soffits and accurately fixed on
ground and levelled .
( 3 ) Secondary beam soffits, head trees, props, etc ., are erected in the same way as
for main beam soffits.
( 4 ) Side boards for main and secondary beams are now fixed in position , nailed
and secured tight at top by wires.
(5 ) Joists are placed in position on ledger and intermediate supports are erected .
( 6 ) Slab decking plates are fixed .
( 7 ) Bracings to the props are fixed .
Note: ( i ) If the joists are not to be supported on ledgers , actions (5 ) and (6 ) will be
done simultaneously.
( ii ) Sometimes when columns are long and large , they are cast upto beam bottom
before the slabs and beams are cast . In such cases 300 mm deep side sheathing
at column top is provided to receive the beam soffit in position .

23- 12. Action prior to and during concreting: When the formwork is
completed , bar bending gang will start the work . Beam reinforcement cage is
prepared on ground and lifted and placed to the position if it is light. If the beam
is heavily reinforced , the cut size reinforcement bars, stirrups, etc . , are lifted to
the formwork and the beam cage is prepared on forms. Reinforcement supports are
tied to the bottom bars and side ties and the beam is placed in position inside
the beam forms . Extra top bars at continuous supports are now placed in position
and tied . Slab bars are now placed in position and tied with binding wires. Reinforcement
supports to slab reinforcement and reinforcement chairs are now provided . Reinforcement
should be get checked by the consulting engineer. Extending binding wires should
Art . 23 - 13 ] Formwork 877

be cut off . If any tie wires are left on forms, they should be found out and
removed . If these wire pieces are not removed , they will be open to atmosphere
and cause staining on concrete face . A small magnet may be used to pick up the
wire pieces.
Check all the props , bracings , supports and level of the form work . Check
whether all the instruments like hand tools, vibrators , etc., are in working conditions.
The forms are cleaned and properly washed with water before concreting starts .
During concreting there should be a continuous watch for the formwork that may
develop any dangerous situation . Despite all precautions , the formwork failure may
occur during concreting because of any loose wedges, bolt, support, etc .
If any failure of forms is noticed , the concreting should be stopped immediately.
If any prop is settled , bulging of concrete is appeared . The wet concrete below the
bulge should be removed . Then bulge concrete is removed and may be used at
other place . Then the faulty form may be replaced . It is very dangerous to provide
extra propping which may push the whole shuttering up and serious failure can occur.
If a tie fails , some of the remaining ties become overloaded and progressive
failure can occur. The pressure should be relieved in such cases and then faulty
tie may be replaced .

-
23 13. Striking of forms: The forms are removed when concrete has sufficiently
achieved its strength at least twice the stress to which it may be subjected at the
time of removal . Care should be taken to preserve the sections themselves and the
corners of the concrete from damage while striking. The forms should be cleaned ,
re - oiled and stacked for erection at a new location if required .
According to IS: 456, clause ll . 3, where ordinary portland cement is used , the
forms may generally be removed after the expiry of the following periods:
( a ) Walls , columns and vertical faces 24 to 48 hours as may be decided by the
of all structural members engineer - in - charge .
( b ) Slabs ( props left under ) 3 days
( c ) Beam soffits ( props left under ) 7 days
( d ) Removal of props under slabs :
( 1 ) Spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
( 2 ) Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
( e ) Removal of props under
beams and arches :
( 1 ) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days
( 2 ) Spanning over 6 m 21 days .
For other cements, the stripping time recommended for ordinary portland cement
may be suitable modified .
The number of props left under , their sizes and disposition shall be such as
to be able to safely carry the full dead load of the slab , beam or arch as the case
may be together with any live load likely to occur during curing or further
construction .
Where the shape of the element is such that the formwork has re - entrant angles,
the formwork shall be removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid
shrinkage cracking occurring due to the restraint imposed .
878 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 23

EXAMPLES XXIII
( 1 ) Design shuttering for 300 mm x 500 mm size column . It is proposed to pour 2 m
height of concrete at one time . Use chir wood shuttering.
( 2 ) Design the formwork for beam and slab construction from the following data:
centre to centre spacing of beams 3.2 m
thickness of slab 100 mm
width of rib 250 mm
depth of rib 450 mm
height of ceiling above floor 3.6 m .
Take live load with impact on decking and for that of beam bottom as 4 kN / m 2.
Use chir wood for all formwork .
( 3 ) Solve the above Ex. 23 - 2 if the joist is not to be supported on ledger and for
joist 75 mm x 100 mm sections are available .
( 4 ) In Ex . 23 - 2 , 100 mm x 150 mm joists are available . Find the safe spacing
of props below the joists.
( 5 ) Assuming the cross- section of beam below slab as 300 mm x 900 mm ( 1000 mm
overall depth ) , determine the safe span for the beam bottom 75 mm thick of
deodar wood .
( 6 ) Design the props for the joists in Ex. 23- 4.
( 7 ) Find the proper spacing of 80 mm diameter deodar posts to support the forms
for 300 mm x 600 mm beam (cross - section given below slab ) spaced at 3.6 m
centre to centre with 125 mm thick slab . Assume that the joists supporting the
slab sheathing are centrally supported . Height of ceiling above floor is 3.6 m .
 hapter DETAILING OF
REINFORCEMENT
t 24J M ,W

.
24 - 1 Introduction: After completing the structural design , detailed drawings
are prepared for the work at site . Much time , effort and expense can be saved if the
drawings are simple , clear and comprehensive . The methods of detailing and drawing
vary considerably in design offices and in most offices a particular practice of detailing
is developed to suit a particular class of work . It is necessary to see that for one
particular job , the same conventions are adopted and uniformity of the drawings
including the size of the drawing should be aimed at. Two main points are considered
in R . C . C . detailing :
( 1 ) the outlines of the concrete that give necessary information of the formwork , and
( 2 ) reinforcement details to fabricate and place it in required position .
In this chapter , detailing of R . C . C . elements in design office is dealt with .
24 - 2 . General informations for drawing: The symbols and abbreviations
used may be different in different design offices , however , uniform symbols
and abbreviations should be used for one particular job . The following symbols
are suggested ( also refer to IS : 5525 - 1969 , recommendations for detailing of
reinforcement in R . C . C. works ) .
Plain round bar or diameter of plain round bar
Plain square bar or size of plain square bar
# HYSD bar or diameter of HYSD bar
@ Spacing centre to centre
4- Direction of spanning
^
Bt Bent bar
St Straight bar
Stp Stirrups
Sp Spiral
Ct Column tie .

_
The following conventions are suggested in drawings :
Dimension and witness lines ( 0.2 mm )
Concrete outlines , ties and stirrups ( 0.3 mm )
Reinforcement except as above ( 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm )
Column in plan ( fully dark )
_ IIII Beam in plan (0.3 mm ) .
Following scales are recommended in drawings :
Plan 1 : 100 1 : 50
Elevation 1 : 50 1 : 30
Section 1 :50, 1 : 30 1 : 25, 1 : 15 , 1 : 10.
24- 3. Drafting: Structural drawings should be prepared such that all informations
regarding the work are covered . Much of the general informations regarding the work
can be covered by general notes in first drawing. For a moderate size R . C . C. building ,
the following drawings may be prepared .
 - [ Ch . 24

-
880 Reinforced Concrete Vol . I

CL,_ _ ci,_ _c t _ o
n i . f
i i
r i _ cww Lr 8= .
F m

if oo
I ojiLuJi i i i O

I
Hh~
rHh 1i
——lb
Hf
150 15P° 150
5.0 m 150 1 150 !i
I I I
_ s + r ^. *7 p I
{
C7
~ 4 | ;
.t
2.5 m I
~ cjf - cT -
I I I
5.0 m I I I I I
I
_c _ - I I I

> > > >

C2
C
- - - - - °i
C C
'V
K
3m ^H-*
3m
*-H
2.5 m
H-*
3m
H
3m
H

Key plan at foundation level

( a ) Foundation plan
Y
<
X
i
G.L. Main steel
E — Ties

T 51
? Dowel bars
100 mm Kicker X
-
>
300 minimum
it . ^ /

•
A'
ii
It
ii
T
150
Elevation
r n
T 150 I
I V /
I \ /
Reinforcement parallel
——
\ /
I \
to longer side
V c
b B ( First layer )
/ \

f
/ \
\ — 1 Reinforcement parallel

- 150 L
A \
_J to shorter side
(Second layer)
> H L <
•

150 150
4- /
Plan
( b) Typical details of isolated footing
Foundation details
FIG . 24 - 1
 A r t. 2 4 -4 ] Detailing of Reinforcement 881

( 1 ) F o o t i n g p l a n a n d f o o t i n g d e t a i l s i n c l u d i n g g e n e r a l n o t e s ( 1 t o 2 d r a w i n g s)
(2) C o l u m n d e t a i l s
( 3) B a s e m e n t w a l l d e t a i l s, b a s e m e n t f l o o r a n d s t a i r d e t a i l s
( 4 ) B a s e m e n t s l a b a n d b e a m d e t a i l s (2 t o 3 d r a w i n g s)
( 5 ) L i n t e l s , l o f t s, w e a t h e r -s h e d a n d t y p i c a l s t a i r d e t a i l s ( 1 t o 2 d r a w i n g s )
( 6 ) F i r s t f l o o r ( t y p i c a l f l o o r e t c. ) f r a m i n g p l a n a n d s l a b - b e a m d e t a i l s ( 2 t o 3 o r
m o r e d r a w i n g s)
( 7) R o o f f l o o r f r a m i n g p l a n a n d s l a b- b e a m d e t a i l s (2 t o 3 d r a w i n g s)
( 8 ) S t a i r c a b i n , w a t e r t a n k a n d l i f t c a b i n d e t a i l s.
A draftsman prepares the drawings based on the sketches given by the design
if e n g i n e e r a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l d r a w i n g s, u n d e r c o n s t a n t s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e e n g i n e e r.
T h e b e s t d r a w i n g s a r e t h o s e w h i c h a r e c l e a r a n d s i m p l e t o u n d e r s t a n d , e . g., s l a b b a r s
m a y b e a c t u a l l y s h o w n i n p l a n , w h e r e p o s s i b l e , i n s t e a d o f m a r k i n g t h e s l a b n o s. a n d
p r o v i d i n g s e p a r a t e s c h e d u l e f o r i t. I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t w h i l e d r a w i n g s e c t i o n o f b e a m
o r s l a b, i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o s h o w t h e e f f e c t i v e d e p t h a s t h e o v e r a l l d e p t h i s i m p o r t a n t
f o r s i t e w o r k . E f f e c t i v e d e p t h i s i m p o r t a n t i n d e s i g n a n d n o t i n d e t a i l i n g. A l l d r a w i n g s
should be thoroughly checked by the design engineer or a chief engineer keeping in
m i n d t h a t a detail is not correct until it is proved correct . D r a f t i n g o f t y p i c a l d r a w i n g s
i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r t i c l e s:
T A B L E 2 4 -1
FOOTING SCHEDULE
Steel parallel to
Footing Size of
mark footing T t Shorter Longer Size of bed block
Bx L side side
D i a. n o. D i a . n o. b / t h i c k n e s s C o l u m n n o s.
1500 x 1800 500 230 10 13 10 11 1800 2100 150 Q» Q24
F2
?3

CJ -J Cg and
F5 THIS IS A COMBINED FOOTING - REFER TO DRAWING N O. 2
^13 “

N o t e:T h i s t a b l e s h o w s t h e s t y l e o f p r e s e n t i n g t h e d e t a i l s . B l a n k s p a c e s a r e t o b e f i l l e d w i t h
a c t u a l d e s i g n v a l u e s. I f p a d f o o t i n g s a r e a d o p t e d f o r s o m e o f t h e c o l u m n s , t h e v a l u e s
of t and T in the table will be the same. Also note that reinforcement parallel to
l o n g e r s i d e a r e p l a c e d i n f i r s t l a y e r.
( T h i s n o t e i s f o r e x p l a n a t i o n , n o t f o r w r i t i n g i n t h e a c t u a l d r a w i n g. )
2 4 - 4 . C o l u m n s f r a m i n g p l a n a n d f o u n d a t i o n d e t a i l s: C o l u m n s t h o s e
b e l o w t h e f l o o r a r e s h o w n i n f r a m i n g p l a n . T h e y a r e m a r k e d fully d a r k . I n f o u n d a t i o n
f r a m i n g p l a n , c o l u m n s a n d f o o t i n g s i n p l a n a r e s h o w n. C o l u m n s a r e n u m b e r e d a s C j ,
C2 > C3 > e t c. C o n t i n u o u s n u m b e r s (m a y b e 8 0 , 1 0 0 o r s o) a r e g i v e n t o t h e
c o l u m n s. S o m e t i m e s v e r t i c a l a x e s o f c o l u m n s a r e n a m e d a s Ay B, C, Z>, e t c.
a n d h o r i z o n t a l a x e s a s 1, 2, 3, 4, e t c. A n y c o l u m n i n t h e p l a n i s t h e n k n o w n
a s B 4 , C 8, Z> 5, e t c.
882 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 24

ED m
v v

X 1

H H
4 4

H H Lap in central H »
2 half length of column 2
( Not more than 50% bars
be lapped at one section )

H H
4 4
5 li5Q
' '
i
^
/ . 1150
%
Ground beam Ground beam

Minimum
300 mm
— Minimum
300 mm
I

( Foundation details not shown for clarity )

4 bars 6 bars 8 bars 10 bars

Typical details of columns
FIG . 24 - 2
In design of columns and their footings , grouping of similar load carrying members
is made . Thus in one group , one or more columns are included . Similarly footings are
also grouped for similar conditions and named as F { , F2, F3 , etc . It is not
necessary that all the columns of one particular type will have the same kind
of footing as similar columns may have different kinds of footings depending on the
site conditions , position of columns and boundary of plot .
Art . 24 - 4 ] Detailing of Reinforcement 883

A typical column framing plan ( key plan ) at foundation level and typical details
of isolated footing are shown in fig . 24 - 1. A typical footing schedule is shown
in table 24 - 1 . If combined footings are used for some columns , they should be
separately detailed for each type . Some general informations may be supplied by
general notes. Some typical general notes are listed below which may be used wherever
necessary. In usual case, fig. 24 - 1, table 24 - 1 and general notes will constitute drawing no. 1 .
General notes:
( 1 ) All structural drawings shall be read in conjunction with relevant architectural
drawing. In case of discrepancy between architectural and structural drawings ,
stop the work and consult the architect as well as the structural engineer.
( 2 ) All masonry should be done in 1 :6 cement mortar and well watered for seven days.
( 3 ) Unless specified , the concrete shall be of grade M 20 with specified characteristic
strength at 28 days of 20 N / mm 2.
( 4 ) Under no circumstances concreting be done unless the reinforcement is
checked , approved and certified by the structural engineer.
( 5 ) # indicates HYSD bars and d indicates mild steel bars .
( 6 ) All HYSD bars used shall be confirming to IS : 1786 - 1985 grade Fe 415.
( 7 ) All mild steel bars used shall be confirming to IS : 432 - 1966 grade I .
( 8 ) Reinforcement shall be bent and fixed in accordance with the procedure
specified in IS : 2502 - 1963 .
( 9 ) Clear cover to main reinforcement for R . C. C. members shall be as follows :
Footings 50 mm
Columns 40 mm
Coping, lintel , etc . 20 mm
Stair 15 mm
Beams 30 mm
Slabs 15 mm
( 10 ) Lap in reinforcement shall be provided nearer to the support in case of
simply supported members and staggered. For continuous beam , lap shall be
nearer to support for bottom bars and no lap shall be preferred for extra
top bars. For columns , tension lap shall be provided in central half length of
the column and not more than 50% of the reinforcement shall be lapped at
-
a given cross section .
( 11 ) Lap length for reinforcing bars shall be as follows :
45 d for mild steel
47 # for HYSD bars.
( 12 ) All bent bars shall be at 45 °, unless otherwise specified .
( 13 ) 25 mm spacer bars shall be used at 600 mm c / c to separate the layers of beam bars.
( 14 ; Chairs of approved types shall be used to support the slab steel where necessary.
At least one chair shall be used to each 1.5 m 2 of floor area .
( 15 ) Formwork for slabs must be kept for minimum 7 days , beams 14 days upto
6 m span and 21 days for more than 6 m span and that of walls, columns ,
etc., for 48 hours . For striking the formwork of cantilever beams , wait for
structural engineer ' s instructions .
( 16 ) A . B. P. of soil = 200 kN / m 2 at 2.0 m depth with 40 mm permissible
settlement is considered as per soil testing report .
( 17 ) In footings, reinforcement parallel to longer side should be
placed in first layer.
884 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 24
( 18 ) All dimensions are in millimetres .
( 19 ) The building is designed for ground + four upper floors .
B1 B2 r- Cut Out B2
n
I
o
1.5 in U
CN
2 I
u
— 22 I I
O
CQ I

I i N 450 mm
Sunk Slab II
I I 1250fr
l
-2501 |
ll

ri
5m 11 i
6 i> @ 150 c/c
i

© <N
I I I
CQ CQ I I CQ

.
I I I - 10 # @ 150 c/c
I ifo rI (alt.bent )

i-
i i »n
B5
i 1

8# @ 150 c/c
2.5 m
I ( alt .bent.)
CQ

6 cb @ 150 c/c

t H
500

750 —44+—H
^
900 750 rUp | | 900
© <N |
oa cT l CQ I „
5m I 300 600 I 1600 300 I I co "
I
N y~
~ TT ~
n r ~r i
* L I
<>
T

N—*H+ I I
n 900 | | 900 n i i
6 <t> @ 150 c/c 6 <)> @ 150 c/c

1.5 m ©
I I|
I 10 # @ 300 c/c
extra top I B3 I
I 2
u I
r I
u
_ a I I
U I
_ iU
I QQ
1 pa CQ
l LJ l I

B1 B2 B2
^ Cut out

3m 3m >+< 2.5 m ;«< 3m

All slabs 120 mm thick
Key plan at typical floor level
FIG. 24 - 3
Art . 24 - 5] Detailing of Reinforcement 885

These are some common instructions. In drawing, these instructions shall be listed
separately and not scattered . Depending on the work , the above notes may be modified .
2 4 - 5 . C o l u m n s d e t a i l s : Typical details of exterior and interior columns and
column schedule constitute the complete column details . In column schedule , the
details of reinforcement are supplied as the column extends upwards. It is important
to show how the bars are positioned in the section , details of lap and details of bend
where the section of column is changing.
TABLE 24 - 2
COLUMN SCHEDULE
No . of columns Q , Cg , C19 , C24 Q * Q> o > Q23
Floor

Size of column 230 x 500 230 x 500

X x Y
Third floor Main steel 6- 12 # 6- 12 #
( centre of third Ties near slab 8 # @ 75 c / c 8 # @ 75 c / c
floor to terrace )
Ties in central height 8 # @ 150 c / c 8 # @ 150 c / c
Mix M 20 M 20
Size of column 230 x 500 230 x 500
X x Y
Second floor Main steel 6- 12 # 6 - 12 #
( centre of second floor Ties near slab 8 # @ 75 c / c 8 # @ 75 c / c
to centre of third floor )
Ties in central height 8 # @ 150 c / c 8 # @ 150 c / c
Mix M 20 M 20
Size of column 230 x 500 230 x 500
X x Y
First floor Main steel 4 - 16 # b 2- 12 # 6 - 16 #
( centre of first floor to Ties near slab 8 # @ 75 c / c 8 # @ 75 c / c
centre of second floor )
Ties in central height 8 # @ 150 c / c 8 # @ 150 c / c
Mix M 20 M 20
Size of column 230 x 500 230 x 600
X x Y
Ground floor Main steel 6- 16 # 8- 16 #
( centre of ground floor Ties near slab 8 # @ 75 c / c 8 # @ 75 c / c
to centre of first floor )
Ties in central height 8 # @ 150 c / c 8 # @ 150 c / c
Mix M 20 M 20
Size of column 230 x 500 230 x 600
X x Y
Basement floor Main steel 6 - 16 # 8 - 16 #
( foundation to centre Ties near footing / 8 # @ 75 c / c 8 # @ 75 c / c
of ground floor )
ground beam
Ties in central height 8 # @ 150 c / c 8 # @ 150 c / c
Mix M 20 M 20
886 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ Ch . 24

Typical details of exterior and interior columns for one of the projects is shown
in fig. 24 - 2 . Sketches of four bars , six bars , eight bars , etc ., are also shown in the same
figure . Note that different arrangements of the bars in section of column are possible
for different sizes of columns to fulfil the IS requirements . A typical column schedule
is shown in table 24 - 2 . In normal case , fig . 24 - 2 and table 24 - 2 constitute
the complete column details .
Wherever required, the column bars shall be spliced or lapped for a length equal
to development length of bar in tension . This is because the columns are subjected to
large moments due to gravity as well as win and earthquake loads . (These topics are
dealt with details in volume II of the book .) Also refer to art . 17- 20 . When bars of
two different diameters are to be spliced , the lap length shall be calculated on the
basis of diameter of smaller bar. Since the columns are subjected to large moment at
slab level , the code requires to provide splices in the middle half length of the column
( as per IS: 13920 - 1993, Ductile detailing of Reinforced Concrete structures subjected
to seismic forces - Code of practice ) . Thus column bars are lapped in central half
length of column . Cases of lap bars are detailed in fig. 24 - 2. The ties of columns are
also spaced nearer at slab level and farther in central half portion . This is tabulated
in table 24- 2.
Kicker : To provide an exact alignment to the upper column , starter of kicker is
cast above the footing or above the slab . Thickness of kicker is usually 80 mm to 100 mm
and cast in richer mix than the column mix . If alignment is not proper , kicker shall
be removed and recast . Sometime kicker is also framed from steel channels to
facilitate its displacement in order to get proper alignment of column .
24 - 6. Slabs and beams details: A key plan at required floor level is drawn
and beam numbers are given . Continuous numbers may be given to the beams as ,
Bi , B‘2 , £3, etc . Cantilever beams may be differentiated by naming them as i? C2 ,
BC5 , etc . If openings , cut - outs , irregular shapes, etc . , are to be shown in the
drawing, a separate plan showing only dimensions may be prepared which is
known as surface plan. Note that surface plan is not always necessary.
In one method , some designers provide schedules of slabs and beams . Slabs,
however , can be best detailed in plan instead of providing schedule. In plan , the slab
reinforcement is shown by full line for bottom bars and by dotted line for top bars.
The plan of slab bars is such that if one reads it keeping on table , it is a plan and
if the drawing is held vertically , it is a section .
A separate section for slab details is also necessary to complete the slab details.
Typical floor details are shown in fig . 24 - 3. If there are many types of slabs and it
becomes clumsy to show all the details, schedule of slab bars may be prepared .
For the beam details, beam schedules are given with typical details of beam .
However , beams are best shown by detailing each beam in elevations with sufficient
cross - sections and arrangement of stirrups .
Note that scales chosen for elevation and section are different . The sections are
drawn to a double scale ( or a convenient larger scale ) than the elevations. Also note
the style of detailing the stirrups . The intersections of beams with girders or girders
with columns shall be carefully detailed . For long span and particularly cantilever
beams , camber shall be shown at the points of maximum deflection .
24 - 7. Closure:* The ideas of detailing the basic elements may be extended to
detail the complicated elements. In design office , one should continuously try to
improve the style of detailing such that it is simple to understand as much of the site
work lies in the hands of non - technical persons .
Appendix SHORT QUESTIONS
WITH ANSWERS
LAJ
CHAPTER 1:
( 1 ) How are plain and reinforced concrete produced ?
Plain concrete is produced by mixing cement , fine aggregate ( sand ) , coarse
aggregate ( kapchi) and water mixed in a definite proportion . Fresh concrete is
an easily workable plastic mixture so that it can flow easily and be placed in
the previously made form work . The product is allowed to ‘cure’ for hardening.
When reinforcement is placed in the forms before the fresh concrete is placed
around it , the final solidified mass becomes reinforced concrete .
( 2 ) Why is the reinforced concrete not used for very long spans ?
With long spans , larger sections of the members are required which makes it
uneconomical as compared to other building materials like steel . Therefore it
is not used for very long spans .
( 3 ) Why is reinforced concrete design termed empirical ?
Reinforced concrete is a non - homogeneous material and the equations derived
in strength of materials for homogeneous materials cannot be directly applied
to concrete . Also concrete shrinks , creeps and cracks under the load . Much of the
reinforced concrete design is therefore empirical and based on experimental studies.
( 4 ) What are the unit weights of plain and reinforced concrete ?
According to IS : 456 , “ Unless more accurate calculations are warranted , the
unit weights of plain concrete and reinforced concrete with sand and gravel or crushed
natural stone aggregate may be taken as 24 kN / m 3 and 25 kN / m 3 respectively ” .
(5 ) What is a rigid diaphragm ?
The rigid diaphragm is a plate whose all elements displace equally in the
direction of applied in - plane loads .
( 6 ) How does a slab in the building act as a rigid diaphragm ? What is its effect ?
The slab with a sufficient thickness acts as a rigid diaphragm when in - plane
loads like wind and earthquake are acting on the building due to its very large
in - plane moment of inertia . As a result, it constraints the connected columns
to deflect equally in a given horizontal direction of wind or earthquake loads .
( 7 ) Why is the factor of safety considered greater in column concrete than in
beam or slab concrete ?
The importance of the column is greater than that of the beams and slabs .
This is because if one beam fails, it will be a local failure of one floor , but
if one column fails , it can lead to the collapse of the complete structure .
Therefore , the safety provisions adopted by standards is greater for column
concrete than for beam or slab concrete. ( Also refer to Ques. 103) .
( 8 ) Why are the earthquake loads and wind loads not expected to act simultaneously ?
Earthquakes are rare phenomena. It is therefore very unlikely that the m a x i m u m
earthquake will coincide with maximum of other occasional forces like wind ,
flood , etc. Therefore, for design purpose these are not assumed to occur simultaneously.
( 9 ) Which two criteria form the basis of designing a structural member ?
The design of a structure or the members of the structure is made to ensure
an adequate degree of safety and serviceability.
888 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 10 ) What is ductility ? Why is it important ?
Ductility can be described as the ability of a material to undergo large
deformations without rupture before failure . If ductile members are used to
form the structure , the structure can undergo large deformations before failure.
This is beneficial to the users of the structure as in case of overloading, if
the structure is to collapse , it will undergo large deformations before failure.
This gives a notice to the occupants and provides sufficient time for taking
preventive measures .
( 11 ) What is a strength criterion ? Explain .
The structure or its members should be strong enough to resist the loads
applied to it . This is a strength criterion .
The structure is designed with a capacity for load that is significantly greater
than anticipated service loads . This extra or reserve capacity of the member
provides factor of safety against overloading. Also , it reduces the level of
stresses in the materials .
( 12 ) What is a serviceability criterion ? Explain .
The structure should be designed for an adequate serviceability. The deflection
and cracking of the members should not be excessive . This is a serviceability
criterion .
The deflection should be limited to ensure the better appearance of the structure
and to prevent the ceiling plaster and partition walls from cracking.
The cracking of the reinforced concrete should not be excessive to ensure
better appearance and also to prevent the access of water from cracks which
may otherwise corroid the reinforcement .
( 13 ) What is working stress method of design ?
In working stress method of design the structure or the structural elements
are designed in such a way that the stresses in the materials are not greater
than permissible stresses . The materials are assumed to be elastic .
( 14 ) What is limit state method of design ?
In limit state method , the structural elements are designed to carry the loads
with sufficient degree of safety and serviceability.
( 15 ) What is the major deficiency of elastic design ?
Elastic design does not consider the mode of failure of the structure ( ductile
or brittle ) . Also the reserve strength of materials beyond the yield point is
not considered in this design .
( 16 ) Why is limit state method considered more desirable than wroking stress method ?
In working stress method , the stresses in the materials are limited . Thus it
does not take into consideration the failure mode of the member , i . e., ductile
or brittle . As the reasonably ductile structural members are required to form
a structure , designing the structure by using limit state method design is
desirable as it can accurately access the failure mode of the member.
( 17 ) What is a code of practice ? What is its importance ?
A code is a set of technical specifications intended to control the design and
construction . The codes can be legally adopted to see that sound structures
are erected and thus the occupant is protected from the serious damages to
the building. The code specifies acce ptable methods of design and construction
to produce safe and sound structures .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 889

CHAPTER 2:
( 18 ) What is cement ? Why is it called hydraulic cement ?
Cement is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties . Cement , when
mixed with mineral fragments and water , binds the particles into a compact
whole . For construction purpose , cement is used to bind stones , bricks, sand , etc.
The materials which set and harden in the presence of water are said to
possess hydraulic properties . As cement gets strength due to the chemical
action between cement and water ( known as hydration ) and its ability to
harden under water , it is known as hydraulic cement.
( 19 ) What is flesh setting of cement ?
As soon as the water is added to cement , the reaction between cement and
water immediately starts if gypsum is not added while grinding of clinker.
This is called flesh setting . However, this is not acceptable since mixing the
ingredients and placing the concrete to the required location requires some time .
( 20 ) Why is gypsum added to clinker while crushing it to manufacture cement ?
Gypsum is added to prevent the flash setting of the cement, i . e., to delay the
hydration or prevent the fast reaction for some time after adding the water
to cement. The addition of calculated quantity of gypsum retards and controls
the setting times . This ensures that concrete will not set too quickly before
it is placed and compacted at required place .
( 21 ) What is the volume of one 50 kg bag of cement ?
- 34.5 litres.
( 22 ) What is a significance of lime saturation factor ( LSF) ?
The higher value of LSF corresponds to a higher content of free lime which
makes the concrete vulnerable to sulphate attack and reduces soundness of concrete .
( 23 ) What is hydration ? On which factors the rate of hydration depends ?
When water is added to cement , a chemical reaction starts which is exothermic
in nature and produces a significant amount of heat . This is known as hydration and
the liberated heat is called the heat of hydration . It depends on following factors .
However, it may be noted that total heat of hydration evolved , remains the same .
( a ) The temperature at which hydration takes place . Higher the temperature ,
rapid is the hydration .
( b ) The fineness of cement . Finer the cement , rapid is the hydration .
( c ) The proportion of ingredients of cement.
( 24 ) Explain the difference between setting and hardening of cement.
The change from fluid to rigid state of a cement paste is termed as setting
of cement. The hardening refers to the gain of strength of set cement paste.
During setting , cement acquires some strength , however for practical purpose ,
the terms setting and hardening are separately defined .
( 25 ) Is setting time of cement related with setting time of concrete ?
The setting time of cement is purely a conventional one . It is not related to
the setting and hardening of actual concrete .
( 26 ) How much water is required to hydrate 50 kg cement in sealed container ?
About 19 litres ( 38 percent ) .
( 27 ) What is a workable concrete mix ?
A mix is workable if it can be easily mixed , placed and compacted at
the
required place .
890 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ App. A
( 28 ) What is grade 43 cement ?
The ordinary portland cement when tested for its compressive strength at 28
days according to the method described by the standard specification , yields
a minimum compressive strength of 43 N / mm 2 is called 43 grade cement .
( 29 ) How is the rapid hardening property of rapid hardening cement obtained ?
The rapid hardening property of this cement is obtained by a higher C3 S
content and by finer grinding of the cement clinker.
( 30 ) Why is rapid hardening cement not used for mass concrete or for large
structural sections ?
In early stage , this cement gives out a large quantity of heat of hydration .
Due of this, the temperature inside the concrete increases leading to the
formation of undesirable cracks on cooling. Therefore , it is not used for mass
concrete or for large concrete sections.
( 31 ) What are the benefits of blast furnace slag cement ?
It has a low heat of hydration , more durability and is better resistant to soil
and water containing excessive amount of sulphates , alkalies, metals as well
as acidic waters. It is helpful for marine works .
( 32 ) How is the high strength of cement achieved in cement factories ?
The higher strength of cement (grade 43 and 53) is achieved by
( i ) Selecting good quality of line stone as a raw material
( ii ) Using low ash coal firing as the coal ash is detrimental to the quality
of clinker . Many plants in India import good quality coal to ensure
consistent quality product .
( iii ) Ratio of CaO with SjC , AI 2 O 3 and Fe 203 is always maintained during
manufacturing. ^
( iv ) At all stages of manufacturing, required quality controls are carefully excercised .
( 33 ) What are the advantages of using higher grade cements ?
The following are the noteworthy advantages of using higher grade cements:
( i ) Saving of cement consumption for required specification of concrete.
( ii ) Development of high early strength which may facilitate the early stripping
of form work .
( iii ) The reduced quantity of cement reduces the shrinkage cracks and heat of
hydration .
( iv ) Due to low percentage of alkalies , chlorides, magnesia and free lime ,
they offer more durable structures .
( v ) Due to high fineness , the workability of concrete increases for a given
water cement ratio .
( 34 ) What happens if the cement is too fine ?
Too fine cement is susceptible to air set and deteriorates earlier.
( 35 ) What happens if the cement is not uniformly fine ?
If the cement is not uniformly fine , the concrete made out of it will have
poor workability and will require a large quantity of water for mixing. Also
bleeding ( flowing of water above surface ) of concrete can occur.
( 36 ) Define consistency of standard cement paste .
The consistency of standard cement paste is defined as that consistency which
will permit the Vicat plunger 50 mm long and having 10 mm diameter to
penetrate to a point 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat mould .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 891

( 37 ) How is the setting time of cement controlled ?

The setting time of cement can be controlled by varying the quantity of
gypsum in cement .
( 38 ) What is false set ?
Sometimes with the addition of water to cement , a premature set occurs
within 5 minutes . This is called false set and is due to the presence of
anhydrous gypsum which is formed due to grinding of gypsum with too hot
clinker. This is not to be worried. Continuous mixing aggregates, cement and
water will break the false set without harming any property of the concrete.
( 39 ) Why are the excess quantities of magnesium oxide , free lime or sodium oxide
in cements considered undesirable ?
These are considered undesirable as they undergo a large change in volume,
which produces cracks in concrete .
( 40 ) What is a soundness of cement ?
The ability of cement to maintain a constant volume is known as soundness of cement .
( 41 ) Which shape of aggregate is considered the best for making concrete ? Why ?
The round shape of aggregate is considered the best for making concrete as
rounded particles can be packed to get minimum voids.
( 42 ) What size of aggregates divide the coarse from fine aggregate ?
Aggregate of size 4.75 mm or more are termed as coarse aggregate while
those with smaller size are termed as fine aggregate .
( 43 ) Explain bulking of sand . How does it affect the quantity of sand in volume
batch mixing ?
Due to the presence of moisture content , the aggregate , particularly sand ,
bulks in volume . The moisture particles form a thin film around the sand
particles and exert surface tension . This keeps the particles away from each
other and thus sand bulks in volume .
When volume batch mixing is employed on site, the actual mass of the bulk
sand is less than the required which results in stony mix , and the concrete
made out of it will be honeycombed .
( 44 ) How will you find out bulking factor at site ?
Fill the measuring cylinder with the available sand containing moisture upto
one- half the height . Let this volume be V\ . Add water and stirr gently so that
all the sand is settled and saturated . Find the volume Vi of saturated sand .
>

Keeping in mind that the volume of dry sand is equal to the volume of the
saturated sand , the bulking factor may be found as
V\ - v2
*
V2
( 45 ) What is soundness of aggregate ?
The ability of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume due to changes
in physical conditions is known as soundness . In laboratory , it is found by
determining resistance of aggregate to disintegration by saturated solution of
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate .
( 46 ) What is grading ? How are the aggregates graded ?
The process in which aggregates are sieved through the specified sieves is
known as sieve analysis . The results of sieve analysis are expressed
graphically
on logarithmic scale . This is known as grading and used to determine the
particle
size distribution in a given sample . The graphs are known as
grading curves.
892 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . A
( 47 ) What is fineness modulus ? What is its significance ?
The fineness modulus is the sum , divided by 100, of the cumulative percentage
mass which is retained on each of the ten sieves specified by Indian Standards.
The specified sieves are 150 micron , 300 micron , 600 micron , 1.18 mm ,
2.36 mm , 4.75 mm , 10 mm , 20 mm , 40 mm , 80 mm and larger ( if required )
increasing in the ratio of 2 : 1.
The fineness modulus represents the massed average size of the sieve on which
the material is retained , the sieve being counted from the finest. For example,
a fineness modulus of 3 indicates the third sieve, 600 micron , is the average size .
( 48 ) What are the admixtures ?
A material other than water , aggregates and hydraulic cement used as an
ingredient of concrete or mortar , and added to the batch immediately before
or during its mixing to modify one or more of the properties of concrete is
known as admixture . The admixture is used not to improve the quality of
concrete but to modify the properties of concrete as per special requirements.
( 49 ) What is flowing concrete ?
Concrete with increased workability without adding more water is called flowing concrete.
( 50 ) Why is steel used as reinforcement ?
Steel is used as reinforcement for following reasons :
( a ) It possesses high tensile strength .
( b ) n can develop perfect bond with concrete .
( c ) It possesses high modulus of elasticity.
( d ) Its coefficient of thermal expansion is nearly the same as that of concrete.
( e ) It is easily available .
( 51 ) Why is the round shape used for reinforcement bars ?
Round bars are used as reinforcement to avoid any possible stress concentration .
( 52 ) What is a deformed bar ?
A deformed bar is one which is provided with lugs, ribs or deformations on the
surface of the bar to minimize the slippage of the bar in concrete so that its bond
strength exceeds that of a plain bar of the same size by 60 percent or more .
( 53 ) How is a CTD bar manufactured ?
A CTD ( cold twisted deformed ) bar is manufactured by subjecting the mild
steel plain bars to cold working by pre - determined tensioning and twisting.
Tensioning raises both the yield as well as the ultimate strength of steel ,
while twisting produces deformations on the surface of the bar which increases
its bond with concrete .
( 54 ) How is a TMT bar manufactured ?
The TMT bar is manufactured by subjecting the hot rolled M . S. bars to a
sophisticated and controlled cooling process which converts the outer surface
of the bar into hardened structure . The subsequent cooling allow the hot
inner core to soften the outer surface through thermal exchange resulting into
tempered martensite in the peripheral zone and a fine grain ferrite - pearlite at
the central zone . This process increases the yield strength of the bar without
losing its yielding property. Thus these bars possess definite yield point. In
addition, the bond strength is also increased due to such treatment . TMT bars
have high strength combined with high elongation . This increases the ductility
and weldability of the bars. Due to higher ductility and toughness , these are
used in earthquake prone areas. Also, these bars have better corrosion resistance .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 893

TMT bars are manufactured in three grades, viz ., 400, 500 and 550 having
characteristic yield strength of 400 N / mm ^ , 500 N / mm ^ and 550 N / mm ^ and
are available in limited variety of diameters ( 8, 10 , 12, 16, 20 , 25 mm ) .
CHAPTER 3 :
( 55 ) Define the characteristic strength of materials .
The characteristic strength of materials is defined as the strength of material
below which not more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall .
( 56 ) What do you mean by M 20 mix ?
M 20 is the designation of concrete mix. Letter M refers to the mix and number
20 refers to the characteristic strength of 15 cm cube after 28 days equal to 20 N / mm 2.
( 57 ) What is a design mix concrete ?
The proportion of ingredients of concrete to produce the concrete of required
strength is found out by laboratory methods. Concrete produced by using this
proportion of ingredients is called design mix concrete.
( 58 ) What is a nominal mix concrete ?
For small works proportions of ingredients of concrete to produce the concrete
of required strength are given in table 3 of IS: 456. Concrete produced by
using this proportion of ingredients is called nominal mix concrete .
(59 ) Why is the mass batching superior to volume batching for measurement of
materials in production of concrete ?
Mass batching gives the correct measurement of materials .
When volume batching is used , the precautions to be taken are :
( a ) materials should not be heaped in measuring boxes
( b ) bulking of sand should be taken into account
( c ) water -cement ratio should be suitably modified .
The follow up of these precautions is usually left to the non - technical labours.
Thus mass batching is superior to the volume batch mixing.
( 60 ) What is the importance of compaction while preparing concrete ?
It is very important to produce a dense concrete so as to get the concrete
with minimum voids. This can be achieved by proper compaction . Compaction
is extremely important as 5% of voids can give a loss of 30% in strength ,
10 % of voids can give a loss of 60% in strength and 25% of voids can
give a loss of 90% in strength . Other properties of concrete like durability ,
impermeabilty , etc ., also greatly depend on the compaction of concrete .
( 61 ) What is curing ? How does it influence the strength of concrete ?
The hydration of cement takes place only in water filled capillaries . The
products of hydration are filled in these capillaries. The water in capillaries may
get lost due to evaporation . If this water is retained by some means or , in other
words, if the water is continuously available , the chemical action can be continued
as long as all the cement is hydrated . The process by which the loss of water from
concrete is prevented is known as curing. Curing enables previously unwetted
minute particles of cement to participate in the chemical action . It can be seen
that the required strength of concrete cannot be achieved without proper curing.
( 62 ) What is workabilty ?
Workability is the ease with which a concrete can be mixed , placed and
compacted so that a dense concrete is obtained (full compaction ) . The workable
mix should not show any segregation or bleeding. In a wide sense
workabilty
is defined as the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full
compaction.
894 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [App. A
( 63 ) What is segregation ? How does it occur ?
Segregation is said to occur when the constituent materials of concrete try to
separate out from each other producing concentration of coarser material at
one place and finer material at other place in the concrete . Such concrete
contains large voids and is less durable .
Segregation occurs due to poor grading of aggregates (i .e ., large difference in
sizes of particles ) , over -vibration and dropping the concrete from above a
certain height , which should be avoided .
( 64 ) What is bleeding of concrete ? What is its effect ?
Bleeding of concrete is said to occur when unreacted water in the mix tends
to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete due to sedimentation of
constituents of concrete. This produces continuous capillary pores which provides
a clear straight access to chemicals and deleterious materials in concrete and
lowers the strength and workability of concrete .
( 65 ) What is slump ? What is its significance ?
Slump is an arbitrary measure of workability. Fresh concrete filled in slump
cone subsides when the cone is taken up . This subsidance of concrete is
measured and recorded as slump . Slump does not give a true measure of
workability as the same slump can be obtained for different workabilities of
concrete . However , it is useful as a day to day check on site . Too high or
too low slump gives immediate warning.
( 66 ) What field test is used to measure workability ?
Slump test is used to measure workability on site as a day to day check on
workability of concrete .
( 67 ) What are the two major parameters that determine the strength of concrete ?
Water - cement ratio and degree of compaction are the two major parameters
which determine the strength of concrete . Higher the water - cement ratio, lower
the strength of concrete . Similarly the strength is reduced with lower degree
of compaction .
( 68 ) What is compaction factor ?
Concrete is passed through compacting factor apparatus where it is dropped
through specified height and thus gets partially compacted which is collected in
cylinder. Mass of this concrete is known as “ the mass of partially compacted concrete ”.
The cylinder should be refilled from the same specimen and fully compacted .
The mass of this concrete is known as “ the mass of fully compacted concrete ” .
mass of partially compacted concrete
The compaction factor is defined as
mass of fully compacted concrete
( 69 ) What is water - cement ratio law ?
The water - cement ratio law is , “ with given materials and conditions of test,
the ratio of quantity of mixing water to the quantity of cement alone determines
the strength of concrete so long as the mix is of a workable plasticity ” . This
was shown by Prof . Abrams.
( 70 ) Why is the concrete cube tested in wet condition ?
The concrete cube is tested in wet condition to prevent any loss of moisture .
If the cube is dry and brought from outside for testing in the laboratory , it
should be immersed in water for an hour before testing.
( 71 ) What is a range of tensile strength of concrete ?
Tensile strength of concrete ranges from 10 % to 18% of its compressive strength .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 895

( 72 ) Explain why the tensile strength of concrete is much less than the compressive
strength .
In concrete , there exists numerous fine cracks which lower the tensile strength .
When a compressive load is applied , the compressive stress can push up any
crack in concrete and can be transferred through the cracks . On the other hand ,
when a tensile load is applied , tensile stress pulls up the concrete and can be
transferred only through the uncracked concrete. The average tensile stress may
be small , the actual stress in uncracked concrete is much larger. This further
causes the cracks to lengthen which reduces the uncracked concrete area . Thus the
tensile strength of concrete is much lower than the compressive strength .
( 73) What is a modulus of rupture of concrete ? How is it measured ?
The normal tensile stress in concrete when cracking occurs in a flexure test
is known as modulus of rupture of concrete . It is measured by performing a
flexure test on unreinforced concrete beam of specified size and span considering
concrete to be homogeneous . In absence of the test, the flexural strength of
concrete may be taken as fCT = 0.7 yffcV .
( 74 ) Name the two important non - destructive tests for estimating compressive strength
of a concrete structural member.
They are ( i ) Rebound hardness test ( schmidt hammer ) and ( ii ) Ultrasonic pulse
velocity test .
( 75 ) What is shrinkage ? What is the major factor that influences the magnitude of
shrinkage ?
The volumetric contraction of the concrete per unit volume due to drying when
concrete sets is known as shrinkage . It is an irreversible process and unrelated to
the application of loads. It is most influenced by the total amount of water present
in the concrete at the time of mixing and to a lesser extent by the cement content .
( 76 ) How is a secant modulus obtained from stress - strain diagram ? What is its
significance ?
To obtain the secant modulus, a straight line is drawn from the origin to the
point on stress- strain curve at which the deformations are to be calculated .
The slope of this line is known as secant modulus. The term modulus of
elasticity of concrete means the secant modulus only.
( 77 ) What is the value of short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete ?
As per IS : 456 - 2000 , the short term static modulus of elasticity shall be
assumed as follows :
/
Ec = 5000 y fck N / mm 2
where Ec = short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete
/ck = characteristic cube strength of concrete .
( 78 ) What problems are created due to shrinkage ? How can they be overcome ?
In concrete , particularly mass concrete , the shrinkage is more at the surface
than in the internal particles. Due to this, self - balancing forces are set up in
concrete resulting in shrinkage cracks. These cracks permit water to enter which
deteriorates reinforcement, reduces shear strength and is detrimental to appearance .
To minimize the shrinkage cracks, the following measures may be taken :
( a) Use dense , non - porous aggregates, low water - cement ratio and produce
well compacted , low slump and well cured concrete .
( b ) Add shrinkage steel to concrete to reduce hair cracks visible to naked eye ,
due to shrinkage .
( c ) Use construction and expansion joints to control the location of
cracks.
896 Reinforced Concrete - Vol. I [ App. A
( 79 ) What is a value of shrinkage of concrete as per IS: 456 ?
As per the code , in the absence of the test data , the approximate value of
total shrinkage strain for design may be taken as 0.0003.
( 80 ) What is a control joint ?
To control the shrinkage cracks, expansion and construction joints are used in
the regions of low shear near the mid -span . These joints are known as control
joints .
( 81 ) Define creep . List two negative effects of creep.
Creep is that property of concrete by which it continues to deform with time
under sustained stress . The negative effects of creep are:
( a) Deformations of the concrete members are 2 to 3 times the initial deformations.
( b ) In R . C . C. columns supporting constant load , creep deformation causes
initial stress proportional to time in steel reinforcement , to 2 to 3 times i
the designed stress assuming the steel remains elastic .
( 82 ) What steps can be taken to reduce the creep ?
The effect of creep can be reduced by:
( a ) using high strength concrete
( b ) delaying the application of finishes , partition walls , etc .
( c ) adding reinforcement
( d ) steam curing under pressure .
( 83 ) What is a durable concrete ?
A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment
during its anticipated exposure conditions during service .
( 84 ) What type of concrete is required for high durability ?
Concrete with higher cement content and lower water - cement ratio is required
for high durability .
( 85 ) What is the effect of temperature on concrete ?
Concrete expands with the rise of temperature and contracts with the drop of
temperature . Rise of temperature may produce compressive stresses and drop
of temperature may produce tensile stress in restrained member.
( 86 ) How is the quality of concrete checked on site ?
Frequently , the concrete cubes are cast and tested for compressive strength .
Thus , quality of concrete can be checked . To get relatively quicker idea ,
beams are also cast for testing its modulus of rupture . Cubes and beams are
tested at 3 days , 7 days and 28 days.
( 87 ) Define standard deviation for samples .
The standard deviation or root mean square deviation of a set of samples is
defined as

s
2 (x- x )2
n-1
where s =standard deviation
x =invidual value of a sample
x =mean value of a sample
n = total no. of observations .
 App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 897

( 88) What is target mean strength ?

For designing the concrete mix of a given characteristic strength, the statistical
methods are used . It can be seen from the accepted Gaussian curve for
analysis of cube test results that there is only 5 percent probability that a
result would fall below x - 1.65 s or above x + 1.65 s.
The characteristic strength of concrete fck can be defined as
- -
/ck = /m ! 65 *
where fm = the mean strength and s = standard deviation .
Therefore while designing a concrete mix , the target should be to get a mean
strength or target strength of f = fck + 1.65 J, where /t is the target mean strength .
CHAPTER 4:
( 89 ) How is the cover (concrete cover ) defined ?
i Cover ( concrete cover ) is defined as the minimum distance between the surface
of concrete to the outside of the reinforcement.
( 90 ) Why is the concrete cover to reinforcement required ?
The concrete cover to reinforcement is required
( a ) to protect the reinforcement from weather and fire so that it does not
corrode or melt , and
( b ) to ensure the grip of concrete over reinforcemeznt so that they act as one
and resist the loads .
( 91 ) Why is the maximum and minimum limits on the spacing of bars specified ?
Maximum spacing of bars is specified to limit the width of crack in concrete
while minimum spacing of bars is specified to allow the concrete to enter
when poured or a vibrator can be immersed .
( 92 ) How many 20 mm diameter tension bars can be adjusted in a beam of
200 mm width in one layer ?
Three .
( 93 ) For which two main criteria is the structure or its component be designed ?
The structure or its component is mainly designed for :
( i ) strength and (ii ) serviceability.
( 94 ) How are the beams classified for flexure design ?
The beams are classified as:
( i ) Singly reinforced and doubly reinforced ;
( ii ) Rectangular and flanged .
( 95 ) What is a difference between singly reinforced and doubly reinforced beam sections ?
In singly reinforced beams , concrete resists comression while steel resists
tension . In doubly reinforced beams, steel bars are provided in compression
zone also to give additional strength in compression .
( 96 ) How are the usual beams and slabs monolithic ?
In usual beam and slab constructions where the beam and the slab are cast
together and where the slab reinforcement crosses the beam reinforcement and
vice - versa , the beams and slabs are called monolithic . Monolithic means that
they structurally act together as one , so that the overall depth of the beam
is the depth of rib plus the depth of slab . As they are monolithic , some of
the slab concrete can be used as a bart of the beam and can be employed
to resist compression if there exists compression on slab side.
898 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 97 ) Which are the required conditions for a beam section to behave as a flanged ?
The required conditions for a beam section to behave as a flanged beam are as follows:
( i ) Slab and beam should be monolithic .
( ii ) The slab exists on compression side of the beam , and
( iii ) The slab spanning is perpendicular to that of the beam spanning .
( 98 ) Why is the over - reinforced design not preferred ?
For the over - reinforced section , concrete fails first. Prior to failure , concrete
does not give notice as it does not yield . Thus over - reinforced structure
may collapse without giving a notice when overloaded . Also this kind of
design is uneconomical because the available strength of steel is not effectively
used . Therefore , over - reinforced design is not preferred .
( 99 ) What is a nominal flexural strength of a beam ?
The nominal flexural strength ( or cracking moment ) of a beam is defined as
the moment which causes the tensile stress in concrete equal to the tensile
strength of concrete given by its modulus of rupture [ fcr = 0.7 J f c ] .
( 100 ) Explain how the actual or available width of flange of tee beam is not ^
always effective in carrying compression .
If the flange is very large , concrete farther from the centre line of the beam
will not be effective for carrying compression . On the other hand if the
flange is very small , it is possible that the whole flange can take the
compressive forces . IS : 456 gives the empirical formulae to find out the
effective width of flange based on practical experiments .
( 101 ) What is a balanced design ?
In balanced design the section is so proportioned that the steel and concrete
both reach their maximum permissible value of stresses ( or design strengths)
at the same time . Thus at some value of loads , both the materials will fail
at the same time . The failure in this case is called a balanced failure . No
practical beam has a balanced failure, however , the concept acts as a boundary
line between under - reinforced and over - reinforced designs .
CHAPTER 5 :
( 102 ) What concrete mixes will you specify to resist the bending stresses upto
5 N / mm 2, 7 N / mm 2 and 8.5 N / mm 2 in working stress method ?
M 15 , M 20 and M 25 mixes respectively.
( 103 ) Why is more factor of safety applied for direct stress than for bending stress ?
When a cross - section is subjected to bending stress, the stress induced on it is
variable , being maximum at extreme fibre and zero at neutral axis. When the
maximum stress exceeds the permissible value , the extreme fibre will not fail
actually but will transfer the additional force to the inner fibre which has a
lower stress. When the section is subjected to a direct stress, all points of the
section have uniform stress having no scope afore such a transfer of the force .
It is for this reason that larger factor of safety is adopted for direct stress than
the bending stress .
' 104 ) How is the modular ratio defined ?
modulus of elasticity of steel
The modular ratio m is defined as m — modulus of elasticity of concrete
280
According to IS: 456 , the modular ratio m has the value 3 where acbc
acbc
is the permissible compressive stress due to bending in N / mm 2. This value
includes the effect of long term modulus of concrete .
App. A ] Short Questions with Answers 899

( 105 ) Define : ( a ) effective depth ( b ) depth of neutral axis and ( c ) lever arm .
( a ) The effective depth is defined as the distance from extreme compression
fibre to the centre of tensile reinforcement.
( b ) The depth of neutral axis is defined as the distance of neutral axis from
extreme compressive fibre .
( c ) The lever arm is defined as the distance between centroid of compressive
force to the centroid of tensile force .
( 106 ) What is a transformed section ?
A transformed section is a section in which the steel area is replaced by an
equivalent concrete area .
( 107 ) In some type of concrete , permissible stress in compression in bending
is 6.2 N / mm 2 . Find out value of m.
280
m ~ 15.05.
3 x 6.2
CHAPTER 6:
( 108 ) What is an ultimate load theory ? What is its significance ?
The theory which takes into account , the inelastic strains of the material
before failure is called ultimate load theory. Using this theory the failure
loads on the structure can be calculated . As against elastic load theory , the
ultimate load theory gives better understanding of the load carrying capacity
of the given structure .
( 109 ) Why was it necessary to refine the ultimate load theory ?
The ultimate load theory which takes into account the inelastic behaviour of
the materials , resulted in economical design . At the same time , it resulted
in slender sections , large deformations and larger crack widths in concrete .
This created the necessity of refining the method so that in addition to
strength , the structure would be serviceable also .
( 110 ) What is called a Limit state ?
The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirement of a structure
or structural element before failure occurs is called a ‘ Limit state’ .
( 1 1 1 ) What is the aim of limit state design ?
The aim of limit state design in to achieve acceptable probabilities that the
structure will not become unfit for the use for which it is intended , that is,
it will not reach a limit state .
( 112 ) What is a characteristic strength of the material ?
The strength of the material below which not more than 5 percent of the
test results are expected to fail is known as the characteristic strength of the
material and is denoted by f
( 113 ) What is a characteristic load ?
The value of load which has a 95 percent probability of not being exceeded
during the life of the structure is known as characteristic load and is denoted
by F.
( 114 ) What are the partial safety factors ?
The partial safety factors denoted by Yf when applied to loads and materials give
the design values. The partial safety factors take into account the possible overloads,
the limit state considered and inaccurate accessment of the effects of loading.
900 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . A
( 115 ) Select the answers :
(i) Shear design in IS : 456 - 2000 refers to
elastic analysis
plastic analysis
limit state analysis .
( ii ) Side face reinforcement in the beam designed for flexure shall be provided
when the depth of web in a beam exceeds
450 mm
750 mm
1050 mm .
( iii ) Unit weight of reinforced concrete is
- 23 kN / m 3
- 24 kN / m 3
- 25 kN / m 3.
( iv ) Maximum spacing of vertical stirrups permitted is
- 0.75 d
- ji d
- 5 *
(v) Basic span to effective depth ratio of simply supported beam in view
of deflection is
20
26
30 .
( vi ) To find out modification factor for span - depth ratio with respect to
percentage of tension reinforcement for a tee beam in deflection check ,
the width is taken as
effective flange width
effective rib width
- average of above two .
( vii ) In a slab of 100 mm thickness, the maximum size of reinforcing bar is
10 mm
12 mm
16 mm .
( viii ) The minimum HYSD reinforcement in slab is
- 0.12%
- 0.15 %
- 0.20%.
( ix ) In limit state method of design , percentage of redistribution of moment
in a continuous beam is limited to
- 10%
- 15%
- 30%.
( x ) The limiting value of the depth of neutral axis in a beam when HYSD
reinforcement of grade Fe 415 is used , is
- 0.53 d
- 0.48 d
- 0.46 d.
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 901

Answers :
(i) Limit state analysis ( vi ) effective flange width
( ii ) 750 mm ( vii ) 12 mm
( iii ) 25 kN / m ( viii ) 0.12 %
( iv ) 0.75 d ( ix ) 30%
( v ) 20 ( x) 0.48 d.
( 116 ) Which measures are specified to prevent the brittle failure of the beam in
flexure ?
The following measures are specified :
( i ) Use of over - reinforced section is restricted by limiting the depth of neutral axis .
( ii ) Limit on maximum area of reinforcement is specified to prevent the use
of over - reinforced section .
( iii ) Limit on minimum area of reinforcement is specified which prevents the
snapping of bars in case of over - loading .
CHAPTER 7 :
( 117 ) What is a flexural shear ?
The shear associated with change of bending moment along the span is
known as flexural shear or simply shear .
( 118 ) What is a punching shear ?
The shear associated with the possibility of punching a thin member by a
concentrated load is called punching shear.
( 119 ) What is a torsion shear ?
When a member is subjected to torsion , it is subjected to torsion shear. In
RCC structures , the torsion shear is usually accompanied with flexural shear.
( 120 ) What are the shallow and deep beams ?
The beams are classified as deep when the ratio of effective span /, to
overall depth D is less than 2 for simply supported beams and less than 2.5
for continuous beams . The beams are otherwise classified as shallow.
( 121 ) Why is the shear design considered as a limit state of collapse ?
Usually the shear failures of shallow RCC beams may not lead to immediate
failure , however , it considerably reduces its flexural strength and thus there
is a state of impending failure . Hence , the shear design is considered as a
limit state of collapse .
( 122 ) Why is a larger margin of safety provided on design shear strength than
that provided on design flexure strength ?
If the shear failures take place before flexure failures , they are brittle and
occur without warning. Hence safety margins provided on design shear strength
are larger than that provided on design flexure strength . At failure loads the
flexure failure will take place prior to shear failure , thus the ductile failure
of the beam is ensured .
( 123 ) How does a concrete beam resist shear ?
The shear in concrete beam is resisted by:
( a ) Above neutral axis the shear resistance is provided by the uniform shear
stress in uncracked concrete ( 20 % to 40 % of total resistance ) .
( b ) Along the crack , the shear resistance is provided by the vertical component of
force due to the interlocking of aggregates ( 33% to 50% of total resistance ) .
( c ) At the tensile reinforcements , shear is resisted by dowel action of the
longitudinal bars ( 15% to 25% of total resistance ) .
902 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . A
( 124 ) How does an increase in tension steel improve shear capacity of a concrete beam ?
( a ) When amount of tension steel increases , the depth of neutral axis increases
and thus the depth of uncracked concrete increases . This increases the
capacity of concrete in shear .
( b ) When amount of tension steel increases , the cracks formed are smaller
which improves the aggregate inter - lock . Also because of larger steel
area , the dowel action is improved . This further improves the capacity
of section in shear.
( 125 ) On which factors the shear strength of concrete depends ?
Shear strength of concrete depends on the following factors :
( a ) Compressive strength : Higher the compressive strength , greater the shear
strength . Shear strength of concrete is proportional to yjjck where fc
is the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete .
^
( b ) Percentage of tensile steel : Larger the steel area , greater the shear strength . ci
( 126 ) How is the nominal shear stress defined ?
The nominal shear stress Tv in beams of uniform depth shall be obtained
from the equation
_Tv
V
bd
where V = shear force due to design loads
b = width of member in case of rectangular beam and width of
rib in case of flanged beam
d = effective depth .
( 127 ) Why is the upper limit to shear strength ( even with shear reinforcement )
of concrete specified ?
The upper limit ( table 7 -2 ) is specified to prevent the failure of beam by
diagonal compression .
( 128 ) Why is the shear design of concrete beam empirical ?
The design for shear is empirical for the following reasons :
( a ) The reinforced concrete is a non - homogeneous material and does not
resist tension without cracking. It is therefore difficult to form the equations
to find out the maximum shear stress on a given plane .
( b ) Shear failures do not occur in the direction of shear force , but along the
diagonal planes.
( c ) The tensile strength of concrete is highly variable . Thus , the shear resisted
by dowel action and by aggregate inter - lock cannot be accurately determined .
( 129 ) What are the primary functions of the stirrups ?
The primary functions of the stirrups are :
( i ) to resist a part of the shear.
( ii ) to resist the growth of the inclined cracks and improve aggregate interlock .
( iii ) to tie the longitudinal bars in place , thereby increase the dowel action .
'
130 ) What does code ensure by designing the shear reinforcement in vertical directions ?
The shear design as described in code is based on the assumption that the
shear failure of section occurs on a vertical plane , when the nominal shear
stress exceeds the vertical shear strength of the concrete , i . e., Tc. By limiting
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 903

the shear stress on a section and designing the shear reinforcement when it
exceeds the shear strength of concrete , the code ensures that the possibility
of brittle failure caused by the diagonal tension is eliminated .
( 131 ) Why is the minimum shear reinforcement required when Tv < Tc ?
The instant a shear crack is formed , the tension carried by concrete is
transferred to the shear reinforcement . In other words, the shear reinforcement
restrains the growth of shear crack and increases the ductility of the beam .
In case of overloading, this provides the warning before sudden failure . To
ensure that stirrups will have sufficient strength to absorb the diagonal
tension in concrete , the minimum shear reinforcement is required .
( 132 ) What is a shear resistance provided by minimum shear reinforcement ?
The shear resistance provided by minimum shear reinforcement in the form
of vertical stirrups in 0.4 N / mm 2 .
( 133 ) Why is the characteristic strength of shear reinforcement limited to 415 N / mm 2 ?
The width of shear crack is proportional to the strain in shear reinforcement .
To limit the width of shear crack , strain in shear reinforcement shall be
limited . To ensure this, code requires that the characteristic strength in shear
reinforcement shall not exceed 415 N / mm 2 .
( 134 ) Are the bent bars alone satisfactory as shear reinforcement ? Why ?
No . They should be designed to carry a maximum of 50% of design shear.
This is because the exact behaviour of bent bars in resisting shear is not clearly
understood . Also, the bent bars do not resist the reversal of shear force .
( 135 ) Why is the maximum spacing of vertical stirrups limited to 0.75 ?
^
The horizontal distance between two successive cracks is approximately equal
to effective depth es . 3 des 0 . The spacing of stirrups shall be such that it
crosses the crack and also no crack shall remain unreinforced . To ensure
this , the spacing of vertical stirrups is limited to 0.75 d.
( 136 ) What is a development length ?
A length of reinforcement embedded in concrete so that it can develop the
stress by bond is termed as development length and is denoted by Lj.
( 137 ) How is the shear strength of concrete enhanced near to the beam support ?
The shear strength enhancement of concrete nearer to the beam support is
attributed to the fact that for such sections , the concrete in diagonal compression
also resist some amount of shear .
( 138 ) How is the development length calculated for single bar and bundled bars ?
The development length for single bar is obtained from the formula
0 cs
= 4
Tbd
where 0 = nominal diameter of the bar
as = stress in bar at the section considered at design load
Tbd = design bond stress .
For bundled bars, the development length of each bar of bundled bars shall
be that for the individual bar , increased by 10% for two bars in contact ,
20% for three bars in contact and 33% for four bars in contact .
( 139 ) What is a local bond ? Why is it called flexure bond ?
The grip of the reinforcement and concrete due to adhesion or bearing is
termed as bond . The magnitude of the bond stress at a point is called local
bond stress which varies with the bending moment . Local bond is therefore ,
also termed as flexure bond .
904 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 140 ) What are the factors influencing the stress transfer by bond ?
The factors influencing the stress transfer by bond are :
( i ) adhesion of concrete and steel
( ii ) shear strength of concrete
( iii ) interlocking of surface ribs of HYSD ( CTD or TMT) bars with concrete.
The design bond strength can be determined considering these factors
into account .
( 141 ) Why is the design bond strength in concrete increased for compression bars ?
Design bond strength in compression is increased by 25%. This is because
the end bearing of the bar helps in resisting compression . Also the possibility
of cracking the concrete is nil and hence , the allowable bond stress is
increased .
( 142 ) Why is the design bond strength in concrete increased for deformed bars ?
Design bond stress for deformed bars is increased by 60%. This is because
for deformed bars , the actual contact area of a bar with concrete is taken
into account which is much more than contact area based on nominal diameter.
( 143 ) Why is the reinforcement with surface deformation used ?
The reinforcement with surface deformation is used to increase the bond
with the concrete .
CHAPTER 8:
( 144 ) What are the limits of deflection of a structure or a structural member ?
The deflection of a structure or a structural member due to dead loads only should
span
not exceed or 20 mm whichever is less. For DL + LL and other total
350
span
effects such as temperature, shrinkage , creep, etc., it shall not exceed
250 ‘

; 145 ) Which two methods are suggested by the code for checking that deflection
in beams and slabs are not excessive ?
The two methods are :
( i ) Control of span / effective depth ratio which shall be used for all normal cases.
( ii ) For special cases , the deflection may be actually calculated as given in
annex B of IS : 456.
1, 146 ) Larger the tension reinforcement area, lesser is the modification factor while
calculating permissible span / depth ratio . Why ?
This is because
( a ) When the area of steel reinforcement increases , the neutral axis shifts
towards the tension steel. Thus the area of concrete in compression zone
increases which leads to a larger deflection due to creep .
( b ) The smaller area of concrete in tension zone reduces the stiffness of the beam .
( 147 ) Can the deflection of a member be reduced by adding tension reinforcement ? How ?
By providing more tensile steel than required for flexure , the service stress
in steel is reduced and hence the deflection . However , while providing excess
reinforcement , care should be taken to see that the section is not over - reinforced .
( 148 ) Why is the modification factor for compression reinforcement increases with
the increase of compression reinforcement ?
This is because the reinforcement in compression zone reduces shrinkage
and increases the stiffness of the beam . Thus a larger area of compression
steel reduces the deflection .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 905

( 149 ) In which cases the calculations for deflection are required ?

Deflection calculations are necessary in some cases , such as
( i ) when the designer wishes to exceed span depth ratio
( ii ) where specific deflection control is required .
( iii ) where the structure is abnormal due to loading or behaviour .
( 150 ) How is the crack width in flexural member be controlled ?
Crack width can be controlled by limiting the tensile stress in reinforcement
( as in water retaining structures ) and by proper detailing of reinforcement .
A large number of smaller diameter bars well distributed in tension zone
reduce the width of crack more effectively than the larger diameter bars of
the same area.
( 151 ) What is a camber ?
Camber is a term applied to the slight upward curve of a beam made in
construction such that on loading ( usually dead load ) it will straighten out
and attain its correct shape .
( 152 ) What is an empirical value of camber provided on sites for cantilever beams ?
For cantilever beams , the cambering is usual on site . The usual cambering
span
provided is - , for cantilever beams upto 105 m span . For larger spans
Q
span span
the camber may be suitably adjusted as t0
Too
"
*

CHAPTER 9:
^
( 153 ) Why are the minimum and maximum flexure reinforcement specified for the
beam section ?
The minimum reinforcement is specified to resist the nominal flexural strength
or cracking moment of the section . In case of overloads , if the applied moment
exceeds the cracking moment, the beam will immediately fail by rupture of the
steel if designed steel area ( less than minimum area ) is provided . The maximum
percentage of reinforcement is specified to avoid congestion of reinforcement.
( 154 ) What are the rules for provision of stirrups in doubly reinforced beams ?
The rules are :
( a ) the diameter of stirrups should not be less than one - fourth of the diameter
of the largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than 5 mm .
( b ) spacing : the spacing should not exceed
( i ) the least lateral dimension of the compression member
( ii ) sixteen times the diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied
( iii ) 300 mm .
( 155 ) How is the effective span of simply supported beam or slab is determined ?
The effective span of a simply supported beam ( or slab ) is taken as clear
span plus the effective depth of beam ( or slab ) or centre to centre of
supports, whichever is less .
( 156 ) What is a template or a bed block ?
When an end of the beam rests on brick masonry, a bed block or template
should be designed to transfer the loads safely to the brick walls . This is
because the brick walls have much lower load carrying capacity. Template is
nothing but an R . C . C. pad of width equal to the width of the brick wall
provided under the end of the beam .
906 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 157 ) What conditions should be satisfied to get perfect arch action of masonry
over a lintel ?
The following conditions shall be satisfied .
( i ) The height of masonry above lintel should be at least 1.25 times the
height of a triangle over lintel with base angle 45° for good masonry
and 60 ° for second class masonry.
( ii ) The length of masonry wall on either side of lintel should be more
than

^ , where / is the span of lintel .

( 158 ) Why only 90% of deal load is considered for restoring moment calculation ?
The restoring moment is provided by actual loads . The estimated dead loads
may be little higher than what they are . Therefore only 90% dead load is
considered for restoring moment calculation .
CHAPTER 10 :
( 159 ) For the same percentage of steel , the shear resistance in slabs is more than
the beam . Why ?
The increased shear strength in slab is based on test results which show that
thin plates would fail at loads corresponding to a higher nominal shear stress .
( 160 ) What are the necessary conditions for a slab to be considered as two - way ?
The conditions are :
( i ) The slab shall be supported on all four edges.

( ii ) ly < 2 lx or h < 2.
( 161 ) Which are the three methods of analysing the slabs ?
The three methods are :
( i ) Elastic analysis
( ii ) Using coefficients
( iii ) Yield line method .
( 162 ) What are the functions of distribution bars in slabs ?
The functions of distribution reinforcement in slabs are:
( a ) To distribute uniformly the concentrated loads on the slab .
( b ) To resist stresses due to shrinkage and temperature .
( c ) To tie and keep the main reinforcement in position .

( 163 ) Why is the minimum reinforcement less than 0.85 is permitted in slabs as
compared to the beams ?
fy
In case of the beams , ‘ the minimum reinforcement is specified to avoid the
possibilities of sudden failure due to overloading when the design moment
is less than the nominal flexural strength of the beam . In case of slabs , this
possibility is not considered . It is observed that when the slabs are overloaded ,
the loads have a tendency to be distributed laterally reducing the possibilities
of such a failure . The minimum reinforcement required here is to resist the
stresses due to shrinkage and temperature. Thus in slabs, the minimum reinforcement
less than 0.85 is permitted
.
fy
( 164 ) What maximum diameter can be used for a slab of 130 mm thickness ?
16 mm .
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 907

( 165 ) What is a limit of nominal shear stress in normal slabs ?

The nominal shear stress in normal slabs should not exceed 0.5
T c , max is a limit of nominal shear stress in beams .
.
T c max where

( 166 ) What are the rules to satisfy limit state of cracking in slabs ?
The rules are :
( i ) The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall
not be more than three times the effective depth of a solid slab or 300
mm , whichever is smaller.
( ii ) The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement provided against
shrinkage and temperature shall not be more than five times the effective
depth of a solid slab or 450 mm , whichever is smaller .
( 167 ) What is the function of bent bars in a simply supported slab ?
The bent bars help in shear and also resist some negative moment induced
at support . In fact , the slab is considered as capable of free rotation at
support and thus no negative moment is assumed to occur at the support .
However , some negative moment is always induced due to monolithic nature
of the structure . The bent bars resist this moment .
( 168 ) Which conditions shall be satisfied for bending the bars in slabs ?
The bars can be bent up only if the continuing bars provide minimum
reinforcement and also the check for development length is satisfied .
( 169 ) What shall be the minimum bearing of a slab when supported on masonry
walls . The minimum bearing of a slab shall be equal to its depth when
supported on masonry walls .
( 170 ) What are the scissor reinforcements ? Where are they used ?
When a tension reinforcement is required to be kinked due to geometry , two
sets of bars are used instead of one set to avoid spalling of concrete at the
kink . This arrangement of bars is like scissors and hence it is known as
scissor reinforcement . The landing level of a dog-legged staircase , the kink
at the sloping slab , etc . are the examples where scissor bars are used .
( 171 ) What camber is usually provided in cantilever slabs ?
Usually 20 mm camber is provided per metre span of cantilever slab , i .e . , 1 : 50.
CHAPTER 11 :
( 172 ) What are secondary and main beams ?
The beams that are not monolithic or not cast integrally with the supports are
called secondary beams. These beams are capable of free rotations at the supports.
The beams that are cast integrally with the supports like columns are called
main beams. These beams are not capable of free rotations at the supports.
The main beams together with columns are designed as continuous frames.
( 173 ) What is a plastic hinge ?
When a section sustaining a moment A/p can rotate , a plastic hinge is said
to have formed .
( 174 ) What is a redistribution of moment ?
The ability of an over -stressed reinforced concrete section to shift the loads
to the adjacent under-stressed sections in an indeterminate structure is called
the moment redistribution .
908 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 17.5 ) Why is the moment redistribution be limited to 30% in reinforced concrete
beams ? The reinforced concrete is a material with limited ductility. While
applying moment redistribution , following points are noted .
( i ) There should not be serious cracking in concrete .
( ii ) There should be adequate ductility at the hinge points .
To ensure the above objectives , the code permits redistribution of moment
upto 15 percent in working stress method of design without any checks and
30 percent in limit state method of design subject to some requirements.
( 176 ) Why is 20% of support bars extended in the span in continuous beam ?
In some cases , the point of contraflexure lies at 0 . 2 5 1 to 0.35 / from the
support when different arrangement of live load are considered . To resist a
small tension at top , 20% support bars are extended in the span .
CHAPTERS 12 , 13 , 14 and 15 :
( 177 ) What is an effect of torsion on the beams ? How is it simplified for design ?
Torsion induces shear stresses in the beam . Because of the torsion a beam
fails in diagonal tension forming spiral cracks around the beam . The behaviour
of concrete structures subjected to torsion is complicated and not clearly
understood . As a simplification the effect of torsion is split up into
( a ) equivalent shear , and
( b ) equivalent moment .
The provision of reinforcement is then simplified to vertical stirrups in
addition to stirrups for diagonal tension induced due to vertical shear force
and longitudinal reinforcement in addition to the reinforcement required for
bending moment.
( 178 ) What is an important aesthetic requirement in staircase design ?
The excellency of the staircase design lies in providing thickness of stair as
small as possible . The staircase is a very important element of the building
which gives beauty to the building .
Therefore , architects require that when the thickness of stair is visible , it should
be as less as possible because thicker elements usually do not look aesthetic .
( 179 ) Name the units of loads on slabs and beams.
The slab loads are specified in kN / m 2 while the beam loads are specified in kN / m .
( 180 ) In load calculations of a multi - storeyed building, the dead and live loads are
separately calculated . Why ?
When a complete building is to be designed , one should specify dead and
live load separately mainly for the following reasons :
( i ) When these loads are transferred to columns in a multi - storeyed building,
reduction in live loads is allowed .
( ii ) While designing for wind and earthquake loads, different load combinations
are required to be worked out. This will necessiate writing the dead and
live loads separately.
( 181 ) Why is higher live load considered for design of a sunshade ?
Higher live load is assumed as the area is smaller and higher live loads may
be observed during construction like supporting upper floor sunshade form
work while casting or supporting 2 - 3 persons while painting work is in progress.
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 909

CHAPTER 16:
( 182 ) What are the structural joints ?
The structural joints are visualised between two structural members meeting
at a joint due to monolithy of the structure . Two types of structural joints
are visualised . They are hinged joints and moment resisting joints .
( 183 ) What are the fixed beams ?
The beams which are framed into the supports possessing infinite moment of
inertia are called fixed beams .
( 184 ) What are the cantilever beams ?
The cantilever beams are framed into R . C. C . supports , e . g., columns , are
perfectly fixed into the supports by virtue of their geometry. They are fixed
at one end and free at the other.
( 185 ) What are the framed beams ?
The beams framed into the R . C . C . supports possessing finite moment of
inertia are called the framed beams . Fixed and cantilever beams are the
special cases of the framed beams .
( 186 ) What is a substitute frame ?
Substitute frame is a part of the multi - storeyed frame simplified for analysing
a particular floor. In this frame, for determining the moments and shears at
any floor or roof level due to gravity loads , the beams at that level together
with columns above and below with their far ends fixed may be considered
to constitute a substitute frame .
CHAPTER 17 :
( 187 ) What are the braced columns ?
The columns occurring in braced buildings or braced frame are called braced
columns. In braced frames, the lateral loads like wind , earthquake, etc. , are
resisted by some special arrangements like shear walls , bracings or other
arrangement . In other words , the sidesway or joint translation is not possible
in such columns .
( 188 ) What are the unbraced columns ?
The columns occurring in unbraced buildings or unbraced frames are called
unbraced columns. In unbraced frames , no special bracing systems are adopted
to resist horizontal forces. The resistance to lateral loads is provided by the
bending in the columns and beams in that plane .
( 189 ) What are No - Sway and Sway columns ?
The columns of the floor having limited value of sway under the action of
horizontal forces are called No -Sway columns. This definition includes all
braced columns and also some unbraced columns having limited value of
Sway. If they Sway more , they are called Sway columns. The limitation to
Sway is decided through stability index, Q/, If £, < 0.004 , the columns of
the floor are No - Sway columns. If (£ > 0.004 , the columns of the floor are
classified as Sway columns .
( 190 ) What is a stability index ?
The stability index ££ , is computed from the following equation .

Q= Au
As
where IPu = sum of axial loads on all columns in the storey
Au = elastically computed first order lateral deflection
Hu = total lateral force acting within the storey, and
hs = height of the storey.
910 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A
( 191 ) What are the short and long columns ?
Short columns are those which fail due to material failure . Short columns do
have buckling effect , but of a limited value. The buckling effect is measured
by secondary moments .
Long columns are those which fail due to material failure and also due to
buckling . The buckling effect may have a predominent value .

In design it is assumed that the column is short if slenderness ratio '

ex
• and '
ey
y
l ey
are not greater than 40 . For rectangular columns, the ratios -=r- and
D b
' ex
—- r are
not greater than 12 for the column to be short . If the ratios exceed the
specified values , it is considered as long.
( 192 ) Explain the criterion of minimum reinforcement in the columns .
The minimum reinforcement in column shall be 0.8 percent of gross cross -
section area . This gross area shall not be greater than the concrete area
required to carry the direct load . When the load on column is very small
and column area is very large , the concrete area required to carry direct
load shall be found and minimum steel area shall be based on this area.
( 193 ) What precautions are taken if the longitudinal reinforcement in column is
more than 4 percent ?
When column reinforcement exceeds 4 percent, it may exceed 6 percent at
laps . The laps in such cases shall be staggered to see that reinforcement
does not exceed 6 percent at any section . Also the laps shall not be provided
at the slab level .
( 194 ) What is a criterion for minimum eccentricity in column design ?
According to criterion for minimum ecentricity , all columns shall be designed
for minimum eccentricity equal to the unsupported length of column / 500
plus lateral dimension / 30, subject to a minimum of 20 mm . Where biaxial
bending is considered , it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time .
( 195 ) The slenderness ratio of all unbraced columns of a particular storey in a
multi - storeyed building is taken as average value . Why ?
The unbraced columns of a given normal building in a given direction , in
a given storey subject to lateral load are so constrained to deflect equally.
This constraint is provided by the slab diaphragm which usually acts as a
rigid plate due to its very large stiffness in horizontal direction . Therefore ,
the slenderness ratio of such columns may be taken as average value for all
the columns in a given direction .
( 196 ) What is an interaction diagram for column design ?
Due to the assumptions made by the code for design of an R . C . C. column
subjected to eccentric loads , the direct design is not possible . Therefore, the design
charts are prepared called interaction diagrams . An interaction diagram consists
d' , p 1
of charts drawn for various values of and - for the values of~
j
against
Mu
j
^
D2
/ck
‘
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 911

CHAPTER 18:
( 197 ) What are the flexible and rigid foundations ?
This classification is based on the rigidity of the footings . Flexible footing
is free to bend and follow the theoretical settlement profile such as rubber
pad . Soil bearing pressure on such footing is always uniform . The rigid
footing on the other hand does not bend and settles uniformly such as an
R . C . C . footing .
( 198 ) What are shallow and deep foundations ?
This classification is based on the ratio of depth of foundation Z) f to the
D
width of foundation B. Then footing is classified as shallow is - jrf 2 and

deep if * > 2. In most practical cases of shallow foundations, this ratio

lies between 0.25 to 1.0 whereas for deep foundations, it lies between 5 to 20 .
( 199 ) What do we determine in soil design of a footing ?
In soil design of a footing, we determine the depth of foundation Df , the
allowable bearing capacity on soil at the level of Df , the plan dimensions
of the footing and upward soil pressure on the footing.
( 200 ) How will you decide the minimum depth of foundation ?
The minimum depth of foundation should be such that
( a ) the foundation is not affected by the upper surface of earth which may
be affected by erosion , roots of plants, frost , etc . Usually , this requires
a minimum depth of 900 mm .
( b ) a good hard soil should be available below the footing to resist the
pressures from the footing. Designer should know the allowable bearing
pressure on soil at a given foundation depth .
( 201 ) What is allowable bearing pressure on soil ?
The allowable bearing pressure on soil ( qna ) abbreviated as A . B . P. of soil is
that pressure on the soil which can be applied on soil without causing excessive
settlement and depends on shear strength of soil . Various soil properties have
to be studied for determination of allowable bearing pressure on soil .
Thus A . B . P. minimum of S. B . C . and S. B. P. , where S . B . C. is safe bearing
capacity of soil and S . B . P. is safe bearing pressure on soil .
( 202 ) Usually square footings are preferred . When does it become advisable to
use rectangular footing ?
A rectangular footing may be advisable for the following cases :
( a ) The column is subjected to a large moment about one of the axis.
( b ) There may be restriction on one of the side of footing due to geometry
of the foundation lay - out of the building .
( c ) The column is rectangular with large difference in its cross - sectional
dimensions . The rectangular footing may be provided for economy.
( 203 ) What are the dowels from footings ? Why are they provided ?
Extended reinforcement of columns into the footings are called the dowels.
They are provided for the following reasons:
( a ) When the actual bearing pressure on footing concrete is more than the
permissible bearing pressure , they are used to transfer the balanced ( not
shared by concrete ) load on footing. The dowels used should not be less
than minimum required by the code.
ft

912 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. A

( b ) Even though the actual bearing pressure on footing is less than the
permissible bearing pressure , the minimum dowels as required by code
should be provided .
The minimum dowels of at least 0.5 percent of the cross- sectional area of
the supported column or pedestal and a minimum of four bars shall be
provided . Where the dowels are used , their diameter shall not exceed the
diameter of column bars by more than 3 mm .
( 204 ) What is proportioning of footings ? What precautions are necessary while
proportioning the footings ?
Providing the sizes of different footings by using the load and the allowable
bearing pressure on of soil so as to get equal soil pressure under each column
is called the proportioning of the footings . This is done by providing footing
area very near to the required area considering A . B . P. of soil . If under one column ,
the exact required area of footing is provided and for another column in the same
structure , a larger area than required is provided , the soil pressures under both the
columns are different which may lead to differential settlement. This is usually avoided . I
CHAPTER 19:
( 205 ) Why is the permissible bearing pressure on footing concrete increased ?
The permissible bearing pressure on footing concrete is increased to take
into account the increase in bearing capacity produced by the lateral confinement
of the concrete under the loaded area by the surrounding concrete .
( 206 ) What are the advantages of using pedestal under the column ?
The pedestal has the following advantages:
( 1 ) It reduces effective cantilevers of footing and thus reduces the bending
moment and shear.
( 2 ) It gives larger width to resist the bending moment .
( 3 ) It gives larger perimeter while checking two - way shear.
( 4 ) It reduces the bearing pressure on footing .
( 207 ) A lean concrete pad is used between soil and R . C. C. footing. Why ?
Under the R. C.C. footing usually a lean concrete is laid first and then the
footing is cast . This is done to prevent direct contact of footing with soil
and to act as levelling course . The lean concrete is projected beyond the
footing which varies from 0 mm to 150 mm . This is particularly useful for
the sloped footing to have a space for formwork for the depth at the end
of the slope . The thickness of such lean concrete shall not be less than the
projection beyond the footing.
( 208 ) Why is a large concrete cover required for footing reinforcement ?
Larger cover is required for footing reinforcement to allow for small irregularities
in the surface of the excavation and for potential contamination of the bottom
layer of concrete with soil . For aggressive soils, still larger cover may be provided .
( 209 ) How is the resistance to horizontal load is provided by soil ?
The horizontal forces from column are transmitted at the top of the footing .
These forces are resisted by
( 1 ) the friction between soil and the footing, if the soil is cohesionless such as sand
( 2 ) the adhesion between soil and the footing, if the soil is cohesive such as clay
( 3 ) the passive pressure provided by the soil to the footing
( 4 ) a slab tie ( ground slab ) may be provided at the top of the footing
connecting many footings .

\
App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 913

CHAPTER 20 :
( 210 ) Why is it necessary to combine the footings ?
Combined footings are needed for the following reasons :
( a ) The distance between two columns is small , the allowable bearing pressure
on soils is lower and their isolated footings coincide with each other .
( b ) When a column is placed at the property line . If an isolated footing is
tried , the centre of gravity of column loads does not coincide with that
of the footing . The eccentricity is so large that it produces negative
pressure on the footing. Thus it is necessary to combine its footing
with that of another suitable internal column .
( c ) One of the dimensions of the footing is restricted to some lower value
so that the footings of the columns coincide with each other.
( 211 ) What is a major difference between continuous beam of a normal beam - slab
floor and continuous beam of foundation ?
The continuous beam of a normal beam - slab floor is indeterminate whereas
the foundation beam is determinate . The reactions of a foundation beam are
pre - determined being loads and moments on the columns. A small change in
dimension drastically changes the moments in the beam .
( 212 ) Where is a raft foundation used ?
Raft foundation is used for combining the footings of a group of columns
or all the columns of a building when columns carry heavy loads on weak
soils . Also , when the isolated footings occupy more than 75% of the plan
area, raft foundation is used .
( 213 ) What will happen if centre of gravity of column loads does not coincide
with that of the footing ?
If c. g. of column loads does not coincide with that of the footing, non - uniform
upward pressures will occur on the footing.
CHAPTER 21 :
( 214 ) What are the piles ?
Piles are nothing but reinforced concrete columns of large length cast - in - situ
or driven vertically or with limited inclination ( 1 : 10 to 1 :5) with vertical if
required , in the ground . The column loads are transferred to the pile or
piles in a group through a pile cap . Piles support these loads and transfer
them to the soil by side friction and the end bearing.
( 215 ) How does a pile transfers the loads to the soil ?
The pile transfers the load to the soil by two ways:
( a ) At the base , it transfers the load by bearing, the bearing area being
its cross - section .
( b ) At the surroundings , it transfers the loads by friction .
( 216 ) What is a soil design of piles ?
Soil design of piles consists of determining number of piles , diameter and
length of piles , spacing of piles in case of pile groups and bearing capacity
of pile using soil properties .
( 217 ) Where are inclined piles used ?
Inclined piles are used to resist horizontal loads in poor soils .
( 218 ) How is the horizontal load resisted in pile foundation ?
The horizontal load on a group of piles is resisted
( a ) by bending in piles , or ( b ) by using inclined piles.
 914 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . A

( 219 ) What is structural design of a pile ?

The structural design of a pile ( single pile ) is to determine the grade of
concrete to be used and the reinforcement to be provided . If adequate lateral
support is available , the piles can be designed as short columns . In many
cases , the design results in minimum reinforcement.
( 220 ) How can the ultimate load carrying of the piles be determined ?
The ultimate load carrying capacity of the piles can be determined by two methods:
( i ) Performing actual load tests on a few randomly selected piles .
( ii ) Using pile formulae which are based on the resistance from the energy
of driving force or the penitration of the piles per blow. This method
is available for driven piles .
( 221 ) How are very long driven piles provided in modern constructions ?
Modern constructors use short piles ( say 8- 10 m ) with special connections to
lengthen the piles. For example, to have a 12 m long pile , an 8 m long pile
is first driven , then another piece of remaining length is connected by
special steel plate joints previously prepared . Thus, pile of required length
is obtained . By using such short driven piles , handling stresses are reduced
which permits the use of less percentage of minimum steel required .
( 222 ) What are the spreaders used in piles ?
To keep the main bars of a pile in position , 12 mm to 16 mm diameter
spreaders or forks are tied along the diagonals (or the diameter for circular section )
shall be used at a spacing not exceeding 1.5 m . To prevent the outward
displacement of the bars, 6 mm 0 ties are provided alongwith the spreaders.
CHAPTER 22:
( 223 ) What are the retaining walls ?
Retaining walls are the structures used to support earth , loose stone or other
materials which would not be able to stand vertically unsupported . Retaining
walls support the loose materials and prevent them from slipping; therefore ,
such walls are acted upon by the pressure of the retained material and
subjected to sliding and overturning .
( 224 ) How will you provide drainage to the retaining walls ?
The effective drainage to the retaining wall shall be provided to let out the
accumulated seepage water in the backfill which would otherwise increase
the pressure on the wall . This is achieved as follows :
( a ) At the surface , an effective drainage should be provided to drain off
surface water .
( b ) A relatively impervious blanket like plain concrete shall be provided
to reduce the seepage of water.
( c ) Weep holes at about 1.5 m c / c horizontally and vertically should be provided
inside the wall to drain off the water accumulated at the back of the wall .
( 225 ) State the stability requirements for the retaining walls .
Following are the stability requirements for the retaining walls :
( a ) The restoring moment ( stabilizing moment ) should be more than the
overturning moment so as to get a factor of safety not less than 1.55.
( b ) The vertical pressure on the soil under the base should not exceed the
permissible bearing pressure on soil .
( c ) The restoring force against sliding should be more than sliding force so
as to get a factor of safety not less than 1.55 .

\
 ’A

App . A ] Short Questions with Answers 915

( 226 ) What is a significance of base key in retaining wall ? How is it provided ?

When all the reliable resisting forces to sliding are calculated and still the
factor of safety is less than 1.55 , a base key is provided to get additional
resisting force to sliding due to passive earth pressure . The base key is
constructed such that the formwork is not used while casting. This should
be expected to develop the passive resistance .
( 227 ) Where is the counterfort retaining wall used ?
The cantilever retaining wall is economical upto about 6 m height of retaining.
As the height increases , the moments in the stem , heel and toe increase
rapidly and thus wall becomes uneconomical . The counterfort walls are used
for such cases. In counterfort wall , the stem , heel and toe are supported by
the counterforts and hence it becomes economical for large heights .
CHAPTER 23 :
( 228 ) What is formwork ?
The temporary structure erected to support the concrete in its required
form , till it hardens and becomes self - supporting is known as formwork ,
centering or shuttering .
( 229 ) Why are the forms coated with oil before using ?
Concrete is liable to stick to formwork during its removal , thereby damaging
both concrete and forms . To prevent this damage, the forms are coated with a
thin layer of mineral oil , soft soap, proprietary solution or white wash .
( 230 ) What is plywood ? Why is it used for formwork ?
Plywood is a wood combined with plastics and resins to eliminate shrinking and
distortion of forms . It is used for formwork as it is stiff , water - proof and having
a high re - usable values (about 3 to 4 times) compared to that of ordinary timber.
( 231 ) How can a good surface texture be achieved on concrete ?
Good surface texture on concrete , if required , can be achieved by placing
the formwork liners inside the formwork . The liners are made of glass
reinforced plastic or high expanded polystyrene .
( 232 ) How much hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete be considered in design of formwork ?
3
The hydrostatic pressure for

^ to
^
3
of hour pouring concrete may be
taken as a liquid weighing 23 kN / m for 1.5 m height of concrete linearly
decreasing to 12 kN / m 3 for 6 m height of concrete .
( 233 ) What action will you take if any prop settles during construction ?
If any prop is settled , bulging of concrete is appeared . The wet concrete
below the bulge should be removed , which may be used at other place . Then
faulty form shall be replaced . It is very dangerous to provide extra proping
which may push the whole shuttering up and serious failure can occur.
CHAPTER 24 :
( 234 ) What are the general notes provided in structural drawings ?
Some information which are necessary for work and also imply to all structural
drawings are called the general notes . Instead of writing these notes everywhere
as required , they are written as general notes in the very first structural drawing.
( 235 ) What is a kicker ?
To provide an exact alignment to the upper column , starter or kicker is cast
above the footing or above the slab . Thickness of kicker is usually 80 mm to
100 mm and cast in richer mix than the column mix . If alignment is not proper ,
kicker shall be removed and recast . Sometimes kicker is also framed from steel
channels to facilitate its displacement in order to get proper alignment of column .
akppendix
,
USEFUL TABLES
LBJ
TABLE B - l
AREAS OF BARS IN SLABS ( in mm 2 )

Spacing Bar diameter in millimetres

mm 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

50 565 1005 1571 2262 3079 4021 5089 6283

60 471 838 1309 1885 2566 3351 4241 5236
70 404 718 1122 1616 2199 2872 3635 4448
80 353 628 ^ .982 1414 1924 2513 3181 3927
90 314 558 873 1257 1710 2234 2827 3491

100 283 503 785 1131 1539 2011 2545 3142

110 257 457 714 1028 1399 1828 2313 2856
120 236 419 654 942 1283 1675 2121 2618
130 217 387 604 870 1184 1547 1957 2417
140 202 359 561 808 1100 1436 1818 2244

150 188 335 524 754 1026 1340 1696 2094

160 177 314 491 707 962 1257 1590 1963
170 166 296 462 665 905 1183 1497 1848
180 157 279 436 628 855 1117 1444 1745
190 149 265 413 595 810 1058 1339 1653

200 141 251 393 565 770 1005 1272 1571

210 135 239 374 539 733 957 1212 1496
220 128 228 357 514 700 914 1157 1428
230 123 218 341 492 669 874 1106 1366
240 118 209 327 471 641 838 1060 1309

250 113 201 314 452 616 804 1018 1257

260 109 193 302 435 592 773 979 1208
270 105 186 291 419 570 745 942 1164
280 101 179 280 404 550 718 909 1122
290 97 173 271 390 531 693 877 1083

300 94 168 262 377 513 670 848 1047

320 88 157 245 353 481 628 795 982
340 83 148 231 333 453 591 748 924
360 78 140 218 314 428 558 707 873
380 74 132 207 298 405 529 670 827
400 71 126 196 283 385 503 636 785
App . B ] Useful Tables 917

TABLE B - 2
MOMENT AND SHEAR COEFFICIENTS
All beams freely supported at ends
For all spans equally loaded For incidental load causing
simultaneously the worst effect

-a- . 125 .125

O .071 A .071 A A .096 A .096 A
8
JB
9 . 100 .100 .117 .117
c A .080 A .025 A .080 A A . 101 A .075 A . 101 A
y.

.107 .072 .107 .121 .107 . 121

E
E
A .077 A .036 A .036 A .077 A A .099 A .081 A .081 A .099 A
2
«
. 105 .080 .080 .105 . 120 .111 . 111 . 120
y e
e
v
D A .078 A .033 A .046 A .033 A .078 A A .100 A .080 A .086 A 0.80 A . 100 A
o
w- . 188
A .156 A .156 A
.188
A .203 A .203
o "O
a
O .150 .150 .175 .175
E
o c A .175 A .100 A .175 A A .213 A . 175 A .213 A
£ SL
W)
g . 161 .107 .161 . 181 .160 . 180
-o
E

E
E
aj
A .169 A . 116 A .116 A .169 A A .210 A . 183 A .183 A .210 A
£ U
£ . 158 .119 .119 .158 .179 . 167 . 167 .179
3
E A . 171 A . 110 A .130 A .110 A . 171 A A .211 A . 181 A . 191 A . 181 A .211 A
2
-
X
c3
w
c
. 167 .167
' A .i n A .i n A A .139 A .139 A
8.
.133 .133 .157 .157
A .123 A .034 A .123 A A . 145 A .100 A .145 A
a
-aa y .143 .095 . 143 .160 .144 .160
o A . 119A .056 A .056 A . fm A .143 A . 111 A .111 A .143 A
c , 141 .106 .106 .141 .159 .148 .148 .159
— 5
'

A . 120 A .050 A . 061 A .050 A . 120 A A . 144 A . 108 A .115 A .108 A .144 A
w
E
o
- .38 .62 .44 .62
a
O A .62 A .38 A A .62 A .44 A
£O 3
O
.40 .50 .60 .45 .58 .62
J2
c A .60 A .50 A .40 A A .62 A .58 A .45 A
<U
JS -a .60 .57 .62
.39 .54 .46 .61 .45
£E A .61 A .46 A .54 A .39 A A .62 A .57 A .60 A .45 A
Eu
E £
X
E .40 .53 .50 .47 .60 .45 .60 . 59 .58 .62
£ D A .60 A .47 A .50 A .53 A .40 A A .62 A .58 A .59 A .60 A .45 A
 918 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . B
TABLE B -3
REINFORCEMENT PERCENTAGE, p t FOR SINGLY REINFORCED SECTIONS
/ck = 20 N / mm 2
M J b d2 f y , N / mm 2 M J b d2 /y, N / mm 2
N / mm 2 240 250 415 480 500 N / mm - 240 250 415 480 500
0.30 0.146 0.140 0.085 0.073 0.070 2.16 1.212 1.164 0.701 0.606 0.582
0.35 0.171 0.164 0.099 0.086 0.082 2.18 1.226 1.177 0.709 0.613 0.588
0.40 0.196 0.188 0.114 0.098 0.094 2.20 1.239 1.190 0.717 0.620 0.595
0.45 0.222 0.213 0.128 0.111 0.106 2.22 1.253 1.203 0.725 0.627 0.602
0.50 0.247 0.237 0.143 0.123 0.119 2.24 1.267 1.216 0.733 0.633 0.608
0.55 0.272 0.262 0.158 0.136 0.131 2.26 1.281 1.230 0.741 0.640 0.615
0.60 0.298 0.286 0.172 0.149 0.143 2.28 1.295 1.243 0.749 0.647 0.621
0.65 0.324 0.311 0.187 0.162 0.156 2.30 1.309 1.256 0.757 0.654 0.628
0.70 0.350 0.336 0.203 0.175 0.168 2.32 1.323 1.270 0.765 0.661 0.635
0.75 0.376 0.361 0.218 0.188 0.181 2.34 1.337 1.283 0.773 0.668 0.642
0.80 0.403 0.387 0.233 0.201 0.193 2.36 1.351 1.297 0.781 0.675 0.648
0.85 0.430 0.412 0.248 0.215 0.206 2.38 1.365 1.311 0.790 0.683 0.655
0.90 0.456 0.438 0.264 0.228 0.219 2.40 1.380 1.324 0.798 0.690 0.662
0.95 0.483 0.464 0.280 0.242 0.232 2.42 1.394 1.338 0.806 0.697 0.669
1.00 0.511 0.490 0.295 0.255 0.245 2.44 1.408 1.352 0.814 0.704 0.676
1.05 0.538 0.517 0.311 0.269 0.258 2.46 1.423 1.366 0.823 0.711 0.683
1.10 0.566 0.543 0.327 0.283 0.272 2.48 1.438 1.380 0.831 0.719 0.690
1.15 0.594 0.570 0.343 0.297 0.285 2.50 1.452 1.394 0.840 0.726 0.697
1.20 0.622 0.597 0.359 0.311 0.298 2.52 1.467 1.408 0.848 0.734 0.704
1.25 0.650 0.624 0.376 0.325 0.312 2.54 1.482 1.423 0.857 0.741 0.711
1.30 0.678 0.651 0.392 0.339 0.326 2.56 1.497 1.437 0.866 0.748 0.719
1.35 0.707 0.679 0.409 0.354 0.339 2.58 1.512 1.451 0.874 0.756 0.726
1.40 0.736 0.707 0.426 0.368 0.353 2.60 1.527 1.466 0.883 0.764 0.733
1.45 0.765 0.735 0.443 0.383 0.367 2.62 1.542 1.481 0.892 0.771 0.740
1.50 0.795 0.763 0.460 0.397 0.382 2.64 1.558 1.495 0.901 0.779 0.748
1.55 0.825 0.792 0.477 0.412 0.396 2.66 1.573 1.510 0.910 0.786 0.755
1.60 0.855 0.821 0.494 0.427 0.410 2.68 1.588 1.525 0.919 0.794
1.65 0.885 0.850 0.512 0.443 0.425 2.70 1.604 1.540 0.928
1.70 0.916 0.879 0.530 0.458 0.440 2.72 1.620 1.555 0.937
1.75 0.947 0.909 0.547 0.473 0.454 2.74 1.636 1.570 0.946
1.80 0.978 0.939 0.565 0.489 0.469 2.76 1.651 1.585 0.955
1.85 1.009 0.969 0.584 0.505 0.484 2.78 1.667 1.601
1.90 1.041 1.000 0.602 0.521 0.500 2.80 1.683 1.616
1.95 1.073 1.030 0.621 0.537 0.515 2.82 1.700 1.632
2.00 1.106 1.062 0.640 0.553 0.531 2.84 1.716 1.647
2.02 1.119 1.074 0.647 0.559 0.537 2.86 1.732 1.663
2.04 1.132 1.087 0.655 0.566 0.543 2.88 1.749 1.679
2.06 1.145 1.099 0.662 0.573 0.550 2.90 1.766 1.695
2.08 1.159 1.112 0.670 0.579 0.556 2.92 1.782 1.711
2.10 1.172 1.125 0.678 0.586 0.562 2.94 1.799 1.727
2.12 1.185 1.138 0.685 0.593 0.569 2.96 1.816 1.743
2.14 1.199 1.151 0.693 0.599 0.575 2.98 1.833 1.760
Note: Blanks indicate inadmissible reinforcement percentage.

N
 \
A p p. B] Useful Tables 919

TABLE B - 4
REINFORCEMENT PERCENTAGES FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED SECTIONS
/ck = 20 N / mm 2, f y = 415 N / mm 2
M J b d 'i d' / d = 0.05 d' / d = 0.10 d' / d = 0.15 d' / d = 0.20
N/mm2
Pt Pc Pt Pc Pt Pc Pt Pc
2.77 0.958 0.002 0.958 0.002 0.959 0.003 0.959 0.003
2.80 0.967 0.011 0.968 0.012 0.968 0.013 0.969 0.015
2.90 0.996 0.042 0.998 0.045 1.001 0.049 1.004 0.054
3.00 1.025 0.072 1.029 0.077 1.034 0.084 1.038 0.093
3.10 1.055 0.103 1.060 0.109 1.066 0.119 1.073 0.132
3.20 1.084 0.133 1.091 0.142 1.099 0.154 1.108 0.171
3.30 1.113 0.164 1.122 0.174 1.131 0.190 1.142 0.210
3.40 1.142 0.194 1.152 0.207 1.164 0.225 1.177 0.249
3.50 1.171 0.224 1.183 0.239 1.197 0.260 1.212 0.288
3.60 1.200 0.255 1.214 0.271 1.229 0.295 1.246 0.327
3.70 1.230 0.285 1.245 0.304 1.262 0.331 1.281 0.366
3.80 1.259 0.316 1.276 0.336 1.294 0.366 1.315 0.405
3.90 1.288 0.346 1.306 0.369 1.327 0.401 1.350 0.444
4.00 1.317 0.376 1.337 0.401 1.360 0.437 1.385 0.483
4.10 1.346 0.407 1.368 0.433 1.392 0.472 1.419 0.522
4.20 1.375 0.437 1.399 0.466 1.425 0.507 1.454 0.561
4.30 1.405 0.468 1.429 0.498 1.457 0.542 1.489 0.600
4.40 1.434 0.498 1.460 0.530 1.490 0.578 1.523 0.640
4.50 1.463 0.528 1.491 0.563 1.523 0.613 1.558 0.679
4.60 1.492 0.559 1.522 0.595 1.555 0.648 1.593 0.718
4.70 1.521 0.589 1.553 0.628 1.588 0.683 1.627 0.757
4.80 1.550 0.620 1.583 0.660 1.620 0.719 1.662 0.796
4.90 1.580 0.650 1.614 0.692 1.653 0.754 1.696 0.835
5.00 1.609 0.680 1.645 0.725 1.686 0.789 1.731 0.874
5.10 1.638 0.711 1.676 0.757 1.718 0.825 1.766 0.913
5.20 1.667 0.741 1.707 0.790 1.751 0.860 1.800 0.952
5.30 1.696 0.772 1.737 0.822 1.783 0.895 1.835 0.991
5.40 1.725 0.802 1.768 0.854 1.816 0.930 1.870 1.030
5.50 1.755 0.832 1.799 0.887 1.849 0.966 1.904 1.069
5.60 1.784 0.863 1.830 0.919 1.881 1.001 1.939 1.108
5.70 1.813 0.893 1.861 0.952 1.914 1.036 1.974 1.147
5.80 1.842 0.924 1.891 0.984 1.946 1.071 2.008 1.186
5.90 1.871 0.954 1.922 1.016 1.976 1.107 2.043 1.225
6.00 1.900 0.985 1.953 1.049 2.012 1.142 2.078 1.264
6.10 1.930 1.015 1.984 1.081 2.044 1.177 2.112 1.303
6.20 1.959 1.045 2.014 1.114 2.077 1.213 2.147 1.342
6.30 1.988 1.076 2.045 1.146 2.109 1.248 2.181 1.381
6.40 2.017 1.106 2.076 1.178 2.142 1.283 2.216 1.421
6.50 2.046 1.137 2.107 1.211 2.175 1.318 2.251 1.460
6.60 2.075 1.167 2.138 1.243 2.207 1.354 2.285 1.499
6.70 2.105 1.197 2.168 1.276 2.240 1.389 2.320 1.538
6.80 2.134 1.228 2.199 1.308 2.272 1.424 2.355 1.577
6.90 2.163 1.258 2.230 1.340 2.305 1.459 2.389 1.616
7.00 2.192 1.289 2.261 1.373 2.338 1.495 2.424 1.655
7.10 2.221 1.319 2.292 1.405 2.370 1.530 2.459 1.694
920 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App. B
TABLE B - 5
LIMITING MOMENT OF RESISTANCE FACTOR, Mu , /im , r / { f c k b w d 2 ) FOR
SINGLY REINFORCED T- BEAMS, N / mm 2
f y = 415 N / mm 2
bf / bw
D{/ d
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
0.06 0.138 0.164 0.190 0.216 0.242 0.268 0.294 0.320 0.346 0.372
0.07 0.138 0.168 0.198 0.228 0.259 0.289 0.319 0.349 0.379 0.409
0.08 0.138 0.172 0.207 0.241 0.275 0.309 0.344 0.378 0.412 0.446
0.09 0.138 0.176 0.215 0.253 0.291 0.330 0.368 0.406 0.445 0.483
0.10 0.138 0.180 0.223 0.265 0.308 0.350 0.392 0.435 0.477 0.519
0.11 0.318 0.184 0.231 0.277 0.324 0.370 0.416 0.463 0.509 0.555
0.12 0.138 0.188 0.239 0.289 0.339 0.390 0.440 0.490 0.541 0.591
0.13 0.138 0.192 0.247 0.301 0.355 0.409 0.463 0.518 0.572 0.626
0.14 0.138 0.196 0.254 0.312 0.370 0.428 0.487 0.545 0.603 0.661
0.15 0.138 0.200 0.262 0.324 0.386 0.448 0.509 0.571 0.633 0.695
0.16 0.138 0.204 0.269 0.335 0.401 0.466 0.532 0.598 0.663 0.729
0.17 0.138 0.207 0.277 0.346 0.416 0.485 0.554 0.624 0.693 0.762
0.18 0.138 0.211 0.284 0.357 0.430 0.503 0.576 0.649 0.723 0.796
0.19 0.138 0.215 0.291 0.368 0.445 0.522 0.598 0.675 0.752 0.828
0.20 0.138 0.218 0.299 0.379 0.459 0.540 0.620 0.700 0.780 0.861
0.21 0.138 0.221 0.305 0.388 0.471 0.554 0.638 0.721 0.804 0.887
0.22 0.138 0.224 0.309 0.395 0.480 0.566 0.651 0.737 0.822 0.908
0.23 0.138 0.226 0.314 0.402 0.489 0.577 0.665 0.753 0.841 0.928
0.24 0.138 0.228 0.318 0.408 0.498 0.588 0.678 0.768 0.859 0.949
0.25 0.138 0.230 0.323 0.415 0.507 0.600 0.692 0.784 0.876 0.969
0.26 0.138 0.233 0.327 0.422 0.516 0.611 0.705 0.800 0.894 0.989
0.27 0.138 0.235 0.331 0.428 0.525 0.622 0.718 0.815 0.912 1.008
0.28 0.138 0.237 0.336 0.435 0.534 0.632 0.731 0.830 0.929 1.028
0.29 0.138 0.239 0.340 0.441 0.542 0.643 0.744 0.845 0.946 1.047
0.30 0.138 0.241 0.344 0.448 0.551 0.654 0.757 0.860 0.963 1.066
0.31 0.138 0.243 0.349 0.454 0.559 0.664 0.770 0.875 0.980 1.085
0.32 0.138 0.245 0.353 0.460 0.568 0.675 0.782 0.890 0.997 1.104
0.33 0.138 0.248 0.357 0.466 0.576 0.685 0.795 0.904 1.014 1.123
0.34 0.138 0.250 0.361 0.473 0.584 0.696 0.807 0.919 1.030 1.142
0.35 0.138 0.252 0.365 0.479 0.592 0.706 0.819 0.933 1.046 1.160
0.36 0.138 0.254 0.369 0.485 0.600 0.716 0.831 0.947 1.063 1.178
0.37 0.138 0.256 0.373 0.491 0.608 0.726 0.843 0.961 1.079 1.196
0.38 0.138 0.258 0.377 0.497 0.616 0.736 0.855 0.975 1.094 1.214
0.39 0.138 0.260 0.381 0.503 0.624 0.746 0.867 0.989 1.110 1.249
0.40 0.138 0.262 0.385 0.508 0.632 0.755 0.879 1.002 1.126 1.249
0.41 0.138 0.263 0.389 0.514 0.640 0.765 0.890 1.016 1.141 1.267
0.42 0.138 0.265 0.393 0.520 0.647 0.775 0.902 1.029 1.156 1.284
0.43 0.138 0.267 0.396 0.526 0.655 0.784 0.913 1.042 1.172 1.301
0.44 0.138 0.269 0.400 0.531 0.662 0.793 0.924 1.055 1.187 1.318
0.45 0.138 0.271 0.404 0.537 0.670 0.803 0.936 1.068 1.201 1.334
 N

App. B ] Useful Tables 921

TABLE B - 6
PROPERTIES OF ROUND BARS USED AS REINFORCEMENT
Area Perimeter Mass per
Size mm 2 mm metre kg Remark
5 20 15.7 0.157
6 28.2 18.8 0.222
8 50 25.1 0.395
10 78.5 31.4 0.617 Unit mass
12 113 37.7 0.888 of steel
14 154 44 1.208 7850 kg / m 3
16 201 50.3 1.578
18 254 56.5 2.000
20 314 62.8 2.466
22 380 69.1 2.980
25 491 78.5 3.854
28 616 88 4.830
32 804 100.5 6.313
36 1018 113 7.990
40 1257 125.7 9.864
TABLE B - 7
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH OF CONCRETE xc, N / mm 2

100 As Concrete grade

bd M 15 M 20 M 25 M30 M35 M 40 and above
(1) (2 ) ( 3) (4) (5 ) (6) (7)
< 0.15 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30
0.25 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.64 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.50 0.68 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.71 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.71 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.71 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.71 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
3.00 0.71 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01

Note : The term As is the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement which continues
at least one effective depth beyond the section being considered except at
support where the full area of tension reinforcement may be used provided the
detailing conforms to the code requirements.
TABLE B - 8
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS T C, OTflX N / mm 2
M 40
Concrete grade M 15 M20 M 25 M30 M35 and above
T c , max N / mm ^ 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
922 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I [ App . B
TABLE B - 9
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT ( TWO - LEGGED STIRRUPS )
Bar Beam Maximum spacing in mm for two - legged stirrups
dia width >
1
—150 175 200 230 250 300 350 400 450
Fe 250
60 200 170 150 130 120 100
80 300 300 270 230 210 180 150 135 120
10 0 300 300 300 300 300 280 240 210 185
Fe 415 and higher
6 # 300 295 260 225 200 170 145 130
8 # 300 300 300 300 300 300 255 225 200

Note: ( a ) Value of 5 V in this table is rounded off to 5 mm .

( b ) In any case JV } 0.75 d or sy } 300 mm .
( c ) For practical reasons sy 100 mm .

TABLE B -10
VALUES OF FOR TWO - LEGGED STIRRUPS IN N / mm

fy = 250 N / mm 2 fy =415 N / mm 2
Stirrups spacing Diameter in mm Diameter in mm
sy in mm
6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12
50 246.0 437.3 683.3 983.9 408.3 725.9 1134.2 1633.4
60 205.0 364.4 569.4 820.0 340.3 604.9 945.2 1361.1
70 175.7 312.4 488.1 702.8 291.7 518.5 810.2 1166.7
80 153.7 273.3 427.1 615.0 255.2 453.7 708.9 1020.8
90 136.7 242.9 379.6 546.6 226.9 403.3 630.2 907.4
100 123.0 218.6 341.6 492.0 204.2 363.0 567.1 816.7
110 118.8 198.8 310.6 447.2 185.6 329.9 515.6 742.4
120 102.5 182.2 284.7 410.0 170.1 302.5 472.6 680.6
130 94.6 168.2 262.8 378.4 157.1 279.2 436.3 628.6
140 87.9 156.2 244.0 351.4 145.8 259.3 405.1 583.3
150 82.0 145.8 227.8 328.0 136.1 242.0 378.1 544.5
160 76.9 136.6 213.5 307.5 127.6 226.9 354.5 510.4
170 72.3 128.6 201.0 289.4 120.1 213.5 333.6 480.4
180 68.3 121.5 189.8 273.3 113.4 201.6 315.1 453.7
190 64.7 115.1 179.8 258.9 107.5 191.0 298.5 429.8
200 61.5 109.3 170.8 246.0 102.0 181.5 283.6 408.3
250 49.2 87.5 136.7 196.8 81.7 145.2 226.9 326.7
300 41.0 72.9 113.9 164.0 68.1 121.0 189.0 272.2
350 35.1 62.5 97.6 140.6 58.3 103.7 162.0 233.3
400 30.7 54.7 85.4 123.0 51.0 90.7 141.8 204.2
450 27.3 48.6 75.9 109.3 45.4 80.7 126.0 181.5
 V

INDEX

A
. .bram ’s law 63 Balanced design 99, 136, 147
Aggregate 2 , 29 Bar spacing 94 , 326 , 327
alkali- aggregate reaction 37 Bars
all- in 30 bending and fixing 49
bulk density • 34 bent - up 260
bulking factor 36 bundled 294
bulking of sand 35 curtailment of 351
coarse 30, 40 Beams
compressive strengths 32 assumptions 107
crushing value 32 balanced 99
deleterious substances 36 bending 101
fine 30, 40 cantilever 369
impact value 33 capable of free rotation 413
interlock 254 classification 110
particle shape 31 computer programmes 199, 215, 242
size 29 continuous 413
soundness 37 cover 76
specific gravity 33 definition 3
surface texture 31 design aids 131 , 146 , 183, 214, 235
ten percent fines value 33 236, 286
water absorption 35 design requirements 94
Allowable doubly reinforced 96, 136, 158, 207
bearing pressure on soil 673 effective span 339, 369, 379, 414
span / effective depth 313 fixed 417
Analysis
flanged 96 , 146, 158, 224, 237
arrangement of live load 415
framed 559
beams 334
moment coefficients 440
continuous beams 413
over- reinforced 100, 195
parameters 414
rectangular 96
slabs 377
shear coefficients 440
Anchorage
simply supported 334, 339
bond 293
hooks, bends
singly reinforced 96, 108, 180
295
size 92
in compression , shear and tension 295
slenderness limits 338
point of contraflexure 336
stiffness 414
simple supports 336
transformed area method 114, 137
Areas of reinforcement
maximum in beams 338 under- reinforced 100, 196
maximum in columns 592 Bearing
minimum for stirrups 261 stresses at bends 301
minimum in beams 336 Bending
minimum in columns 592 biaxial 638
minimum in slabs 381 of an R.C.C. beam 107
Aspects of soil design 671 uniaxial 603
Assumptions Bending and fixing of bars 49
elastic theory 107 Blaine’s method 20
limit state theory 175, 594 Bogue’s equations 9
Autoclave expansion 25 Brittleness 5
Axially loaded pad footing 693 Bulking of sand 35
Axially loaded sloped footing 699 Bundled bars 294
924 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

Calculation of crack width 327 Concrete

design mix 54, 89
Calculation of earth pressure 811
durability 74
Camber 313
Cement 8 grades of 54
chemistry of 9 mixing and placing 56
manufacture 8 modulus of elasticity of 70, 73
specifications for 27 nominal mix 54
storing 28 pedestal 682
tests for 19 quality control 77
types 14 segregation 58
Characteristic shrinkage 71
loads 173 strength test of 64
strengths 53, 173 stress-strain diagram 175
Chemical admixtures 45 tensile strength 66
Chemical properties of cement 10 unit weight 3
Chemistry of cement 9 workability 58
hydration 12 Concrete testing
Codes of practice 7 acceptance criteria 84
Cold twisted deformed bars 47 compacting factor 60
Columns 3, 586 compressive strength 64
axially loaded 594 modulus of elasticity 70
braced 586 modulus of rupture 67
composite 590 rebound hardness 69
definitions 3 sampling and strength tests 77
eccentrically loaded 603, 638 slump test 58
effective length 591, 645 split cylinder 66
minimum eccentricity 594 tensile strength 66, 67
no - sway 588 ultrasonic pulse velocity 69
reinforcement requirements 591
vee bee 61
short 590 , 594
Continuous beams 413
slender 590, 653
analysis 413
spiral 589, 596
arrangement of live load 415
splices 663
moment and shear coefficients 440
stability index 588
sway redistribution of moment 416
588
tension with bending 618 reinforcement requirements 420
tied 589 Continuous slabs
ties 593 one - way 443
unbraced 587 restrained two - way 451
unsymmetrically reinforced 631 Corrosion - resistant steel 48
Combined footings 733 Cover
Compacting factor test 60 beam 77
Compaction of concrete 57 column 594
Computer programmes 199, 215, 242 reinforcement 93
Concentrated loads on slabs 406 slab 382
Concrete 53 Cracking moment 101
bleeding 58 Cracking 173, 309, 325
characteristic strength 53, 81 beam 326
compaction 57 calculation of crack width 327
creep 72 column 592
curing of 57 slab 327, 381
 >

Index 925

Creep coefficient 73 Diameter of bars

Creep 72 maximum in slabs 381
Critical sections for footing design minimum in columns 592
bending moment 693 nominal 294
development length 694 of helical reinforcement 594
one - way shear 694 of ties in column 593
two - way shear 694 Distribution steel 327, 379
Cube strength 53 Dosage of admixtures 55
Curing 57 Drafting 879
Drainage of retaining walls 816
Dead loads 4 Ductility 5
Deflection Durability of concrete 74
beams 309
calculations 315 Earth pressure
control on site 313 due to surcharge 814
long term 320 of submerged soil 814
modification factor 311, 312 on walls 811
reduction factor 313 Earthquake loads 5
short term 315 Edge strip 454
slabs 381 Effective
span /effective depth ratio 309, 313 cover 111
Design depth 92 , 108
aids for beams 131 , 146, 183, 214 flange width 97
236, 286 length calculations 646
aids for columns 617, 618, 619, 620 length of column 591, 645
aids for shear reinforcement 286 perimeter 294
constants 112 , 180, 181, 184 span 339, 369, 379 , 414, 482
methods 104 Elastic theory 6
minimum shear reinforcement 261 Environmental exposure conditions 75
mix concrete 54
S. F. diagram 339, 520 Factor of safety 6
shear strength of concrete 254 against overturning 369, 835
values 174 against sliding 836
Detailing of Factors influencing strength of concrete 63
beams 886 False set 24
columns 881, 885 Final setting time of cement 23
continuous beams 413 Fineness modulus 38, 39
footing 881 Fineness of cement 20
general informations 879 Flash set 13
general notes 883 Footings / Foundations
reinforcement 879 classification 667
slabs 394 , 886 combined 668, 733
Development length 293 concentric 679
in beams 334 concrete cover 695
in compression 294 continuous wall 667, 690
in shear 295 deep 666
in slabs 382 deflection 695
in tension 295 depth of 671
pull out test 293 eccentric 679
Diagonal compression 252 flexible 666
Diagonal tension 252 for multi -storeyed building columns 724
926 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

Footings / Foundations Isolated footings 690

fundamentals 665 eccentrically loaded 712
isolated 667 pad 693
nominal reinforcement 693 slab and beam 718
pile 670 sloped 699
raft 670, 769 wall 690
resistance to horizontal loads 722
rigid 666 Kicker 886
shallow
soil design
666
670, 677
Lever arm 108, 181
Lime saturation factor 10
strap 669, 759 Limit state
strip 670, 764 173, 175
collapse
structural design 670, 681 method 6, 170
types 667 serviceability 173
Formwork 56, 858 shear 253
beam and slab floor 866 Limiting
columns 863 moment of resistance factor 181
design of 863 moment of resistance index 185
erection 876 Limiting
loads 860 reinforcement index 185
materials 859 reinforcement 184
permissible stresses 860 Lintel 365, 523
practical considerations 873 Live load arrangement 415
requirements 858 Load calculations 505
striking 877 from one- way slabs 509
Framed beams 559, 560 from two- way slabs 512, 547
analysis and design 561 of walls 510
cantilever 559, 567 on beams 509, 510, 512
fixed 417, 559, 564 on slabs 505
unit loads 512
General notes 883 Loads
General soil design considerations 677 live 4
General structural design considerations 681 longitudinal 5
Grades of concrete 54 on slab 505
Grading curves 38, 42 on stairs 482
Grading of aggregate 39 wind 5
Long term modulus of elasticity
Hard drawn steel wire fabric 49 of concrete 73
Heat of hydration 13
Helical reinforcement
Hooks
Horizontal loads
596
295
4
^^ ass- batching
Middle strip
Mild steel bars
56
454
46
Hydration of cement 12 Minimum eccentricity of column 594
Modes of soil failures 671
Impact loads 4 Modular ratio 107
Inclined slabs 397 Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Increase in permissible stresses 105 long term 73, 88
Indian Standards 7 short term 70
Initial setting time of cement 23 Modulus of elasticity of steel 46
Interaction diagram 609 Monolithic 96, 413
 Index 927

^ Jeutral axis
Nominal
cover
91, 108

76
Retaining walls
base key
cantilever
counterfort
809
819
819
840
diameter 294
drainage 816
shear 254
Non destructive tests stability requirements types 816
rebound hammer test 69
Rigid diaphragm 3
ultrasonic pulse velocity test 69 Safe bearing capacity of soil 673
Partial safety factors 173
Safe bearing pressure on soil
Secondary reinforcement
673
327 , 380
Pedestal 586 , 682
Permissible stresses 105 Serviceability limit state
cracking 172, 325
Pile / Pile foundations 781
deflection 172, 309
bored 781
serviceability 5, 309
cap 783, 799
Shear 249
driven 781
bent- up bars 260
group 781, 783
critical sections 266
inclined 786
design of beams with variable depth 288
soil design 792
design of complete beam 273
structural design 794
design strength 254
Plastic hinge 417
diagonal compression 252
Portal frame 563
diagonal tension 252
building 575
elastic theory 253
fixed 583
enhanced shear strength 267
hinged 570
flexural 249
Portland cement 8
homogeneous beams 250
types of 14
inclined stirrups 259
Practical notes 362
limit state theory 253
Pressure
practical considerations 260
allowable bearing pressure on soil 673
punching 249
net upward on footing 676
reinforcement in beams 257
safe bearing 673
slab 381
Properties for nominal mix concrete 55
torsion 249
Raft foundation 769 vertical stirrups 257
Rate of hydration 14 Shear in footing
Redistribution of moment 416 one - way 694
Reinforcement 46 two - way 694
curtailment of 351 Short questions 887
cover 695 Short term static modulus of elasticity
dowels 684 of concrete 70
permissible stresses 106 Shrinkage 71
requirements 50 Sieve analysis 37
service stress 311 Simple designs 520
shear 257 Slabs 166
splicing 304 cantilever 401
stress-strain curve 175 concentrated loads on 406
supports 93 continuous 443
types of 46 definition 3
unit mass 923 inclined 397
welding 49, 305 one - way 379, 382
928 Reinforced Concrete - Vol . I

Slabs Torsion 462

restrained two - way 451 critical section 465
simply supported 377, 382, 407 design rules 464
stair 481 general cases 468
two - way 407, 452 Transformed
Slenderness ratio 590 area method 114, 137
Slump test 58 section 114
Soundness of cement 24 Transverse reinforcement 593
Spacing of bars Two - way slabs 407, 451
maximum '
326, 327 moment coefficients 408, 453
minimum 94 restrained 451
Span / effective depth ratio shear stresses 408
allowable 313 simply supported 407
basic 309
Splice X-Jltimate load theory 170
beam bars 304 Under- reinforced beam 100, 196
Spreaders 796 Unit mass steel 48, 923
Stability index of columns 588 Unit weight of concrete 3
Stair slabs 481 Upward soil pressure 676
classification 481 Useful tables
design requirements 482 areas of bars in slabs 918
effective span 482 design shear strength of
reducing the span 484 concrete Tc, n/ mm 2 255, 923
single flight 489 limiting moment of resistance
tread - riser staircase 500 factor, Mu ftm r / (£k K d f o r singly
’ ’
Standard deviation 82, 84 reinforced T- beams, N / mm 2 236, 922
Standard grading 39 maximum shear stress tc, n / mm 2 256, 923
maA

Starter 886 minimum shear reinforcement

Strap footings 669, 759 ( two - legged stirrups) 286, 924
Strength 5 moment and shear coefficients 919
Stress- block parameters 609 properties of round bars
Stress-strain curves used as reinforcement 923
concrete 69, 175 reinforcement percentage, p {

reinforcement 46, 177, 178 for singly reinforced sections 183, 920
Strip footings 670, 764 reinforcement percentages
Structural design 1 for doubly reinforced sections 214, 921
Structural elements 3 Vus
.
Structural joints values of for two-legged
hinged 559 ^
stirrups in N / mm 286, 924
moment resisting 559
Substitute frame 563 icat apparatus 22
Sunshade 521 Vibrator
form 57
Template 362 needle 57
Tests for cement 19 Volume batching 56
autoclave expansion
compressive strength
consistency
density
25
26
22
25
^
AA all footings
Water -cement ratio
Workability
667, 690
63
58
factors influencing 62
fineness 20 suggested ranges of 59
heat of hydration 28 Working stress method 6, 105
setting times 23
Y ield strength
^

soundness 24 46
Thermo- mechanically treated bars 48 Yield stress 46