iv Brief Contents

Brief Contents xvii PREFACE

2  CHAPTER 1
Introducing Social Psychology

36  CHAPTER 2
Conducting Research in Social Psychology

66  CHAPTER 3
The Self

110  CHAPTER 4
Social Cognition and Person Perception
158  CHAPTER 5
Attitudes and Persuasion

210  CHAPTER 6
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination

270  CHAPTER 7
Social Influence

324  CHAPTER 8
Group Behavior

372  CHAPTER 9
Interpersonal Attraction

416  CHAPTER 10
Intimate Relationships

472  CHAPTER 11
Aggression

522  CHAPTER 12
Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others
570 APPENDIX
587 GLOSSARY
597 REFERENCES
677 NAME INDEX
693 SUBJECT INDEX
 Table of Contents v

PREFACE xvii

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Introducing Social Psychology
1.1 What Is Social Psychology? 4
1.1a­ Social Psychologists Study How
We Are Influenced by Others. 5
1.1b Social Psychology Is More
Than Common Sense. 6
1.1c Social Psychologists Study
How Social Reality Is Created
(and Re-created). 6
1.1d Social Psychology Is Studied
in Both Psychology and
Sociology. 10
1.1e Social Psychology Has Both
European and American Roots. 11

1.2 Organizing Concepts

and Perspectives in
Social Psychology 16
1.2a The Self Is Shaped by—and Shapes
—the Social Environment. 16
1.2b Our Social Thinking Can Be
Automatic or Deliberate. 18
1.2c Culture Shapes Social Behavior. 20
1.2d Evolution Shapes Universal
Patterns of Social Behavior. 25
1.2e Brain Activity Affects and Is
Affected by Social Behavior. 28
1.2f Positive Psychology Is an
Emerging Perspective in
Social Psychology. 30
some milestones in the field
of social psychology 31
Key Terms 34
Websites 34
vi Table of Contents

CHAPTER 2
Conducting Research in Social Psychology
2.1 The Goals and Process of Research 39
2.1a  wo Research Goals Focus on
T
Acquiring and Applying Knowledge. 39
2.1b The Research Process Involves
a Series of Steps. 40
2.1c Meta-Analysis Examines
the Outcomes of Many Studies. 47
2.1d The Scientific Method Is Self-Correcting. 47

2.2 Common Scientific Methods 50

2.2a Description Is the Goal
of Observational Research. 50
2.2b Correlational Research Involves
Assessing the Relationship Between Variables. 53
2.2c Experimental Research Can Determine
Cause-Effect Relationships. 56

2.3 The Promise and Caution in

Using Emerging Technologies 59
2.3a Social Psychologists Are Increasingly Using
New Technologies. 59
2.3b The Study of Actual Behavior Is Declining
in Social Psychology. 63
Key Terms 64
Websites 65

CHAPTER 3
The Self
3.1 The Self as Both Active Agent and
Object of Attention 69
3.1a James and Mead
Shaped Contemporary Self Theories. 69
3.1b Self-Awareness Is Reflective Thinking. 70
3.1c Self-Regulation Is the Self’s
Most Important Function. 76

3.2 The Self as a Social Construction 81

3.2a Cultural Beliefs About
Self-Group Relationships Shape Self-Concept. 81
3.2b Gender Beliefs Shape Self-Concept. 86
 Table of Contents vii

3.2c Social Identities Establish “What” and “Where”

We Are as Social Beings. 87

3.3 Presenting the Self to Others 89

3.3a Self-Presentations Are Either
Consciously or Automatically Constructed. 89
3.3b Self-Presentation Strategies Differ in Their Goals. 91

3.4 Evaluating the Self 97

3.4a Self-Esteem Influences How We Approach
and Respond to Life Challenges. 97
3.4b Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification
Motives Conflict in Low Self-Esteem Persons. 98
3.4c There Is a Dark Side to High Self-Esteem. 100
3.4d In Relationships, Self-Esteem Is Maintained
Through Social Reflection and Social Comparison. 102
Applications 105
The Big Picture 107
Key Terms 108
Websites 108

CHAPTER 4
Social Cognition and Person Perception
4.1 How Does Automatic Thinking Help Us
Make Sense of Social Information? 113
4.1a We Are Categorizing Creatures. 113
4.1b Schemas Affect What Information
We Notice and Later Remember. 114
4.1c Schemas Can Be Situationally or
Chronically Activated. 116
4.1d Heuristics Are Timesaving Mental Shortcuts. 119

4.2 How Does Deliberate Thinking Help Us

Make Sense of Past Events? 124
4.2a The Hindsight Bias Is Fueled by
Our Desire for Sense Making. 124
4.2b Counterfactual Thinking Likely Follows Negative and
Unexpected Events. 125
4.2c Suppressing Thoughts Can Sometimes Backfire. 126

4.3 How Do We Form Impressions of Others? 128

4.3a The Nonverbal Behaviors of Others
Shape Our Impressions of Them. 128
viii Table of Contents

4.3b Culture and Gender Influence

the Expression of Nonverbal Cues. 133
4.3c Our Brains Are Wired for Gossip. 134
4.3d Most of Us Are Poor Deception Detectors. 136
4.3e We Develop Implicit Personality Theories
Based on Central Traits. 138
4.3f We Often Seek Information to Confirm
Our First Impressions. 140

4.4 How Do We Construct

Causal Explanations for Events? 141
4.4a We Rely Upon Particular Information
When Explaining People’s Actions. 141
4.4b The Covariation Model Explains Attributions
Based on Three Types of Information. 142
4.4c There Are Biases in the Attribution Process. 144
4.4d Making Attributions Involves Both
Automatic and Deliberate Thinking. 150
Applications 152
The Big Picture 155
Key Terms 156
Websites 156

CHAPTER 5
Attitudes and Persuasion
5.1 The Nature of Attitudes 160
5.1a Attitudes Are Positive or
Negative Evaluations of Objects. 161
5.1b Implicit Attitudes May Underlie Explicit Attitudes. 162
5.1c Reference Groups Shape Attitudes. 164

5.2 How Does Automatic Thinking

Shape Attitudes and Behavior? 166
5.2a Mere Exposure Can Lead to Positive Attitudes. 166
5.2b Attitudes Can Form Through Classical Conditioning. 168
5.2c Reinforcement and Punishment Can Shape Attitudes. 170
5.2d Nonverbal Behavior Can Shape Attitudes. 171

5.3 How Does Deliberate Thinking

Shape Attitudes and Behavior? 174
5.3a Self-Justification Can Shape Attitudes. 174
5.3b Cognitive Consistency Is Not a Universal Motive. 182
 Table of Contents ix

5.3c Self-Perception Theory Contends That

Behavior Causes Attitudes. 184
5.3d The Theory of Planned Behavior
Explains “Thought-Through” Actions. 186

5.4 The Nature of Persuasion 189

5.4a Persuasion Can Occur Through Both Effortful and Effortless
Thinking.
189
5.4b Persuader Credibility and Attractiveness
Can Affect Persuasion. 192
5.4c Rapid Speech Discourages Central-Route Processing. 195
5.4d Emotions Can Motivate, Enhance, or Hinder Persuasion. 196
5.4e Two-Sided Messages Inoculate Audiences
Against Opposing Views. 199
5.4f Resisting Strong Arguments Creates
Greater Attitude Certainty. 201
Applications 205
The Big Picture 208
Key Terms 209
Websites 209

CHAPTER 6
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
6.1 What Are the Components of Intergroup Conflict? 213
6.1a Stereotypes Are Beliefs About Social Groups. 214
6.1b Prejudice Is an Attitude and Discrimination Is an Action. 218
6.1c There Are Three Basic Forms of Prejudice. 220

6.2 Who Are Common Targets of Intolerance? 222

6.2a Race-Based Appearance Cues
Can Trigger Discrimination. 223
6.2b Modern Racism Is More Ambivalent
than Openly Hostile. 227
6.2c 
Sexism Has Both a Hostile and
a Benevolent Component. 231
6.2d Intolerance Based on Weight, Sexual Orientation, and
Mental Illness Is Often Accepted. 236
6.2e Stigmatized Groups Can Experience Stereotype Threat. 240

6.3 What Shapes Prejudice and Discrimination? 244

6.3a Ingroup Members Are Favored
over Outgroup Members. 244
6.3b Intergroup Competition Can Lead to Prejudice. 247
x Table of Contents

6.3c Prejudice Can Serve as a Justification for Oppression. 250

6.3d Authoritarianism Is Associated with
Hostility Toward Outgroups. 254

6.4 Can We Reduce Intergroup Bias

and Intolerance? 258
6.4a Prejudice and Discrimination Can Be Reduced
by Monitoring Stereotyped Thinking. 258
6.4b Targets of Prejudice Can Become Agents
of Positive Social Change. 261
6.4c The Contact Hypothesis Identifies Social Conditions
That Reduce Intergroup Conflict. 261
Applications 266
The Big Picture 268
Key Terms 269
Websites 269

CHAPTER 7
Social Influence
7.1 What Is Social Influence? 272
7.1a Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Are
Different Types of Social Influence. 273
7.1b People with Social Power Are
More Likely to Initiate Action. 274

7.2 Classic and Contemporary Conformity Research 275

7.2a Sherif Analyzed Conformity to an Ambiguous Reality. 275
7.2b Social Norms Are Often Automatically Activated. 279
7.2c Asch Analyzed Conformity to a Unanimous Majority. 280
7.2d Normative and Informational Influence
Shape Conformity. 283
7.2e Schachter Investigated the Rejection of
the Nonconformist. 285

7.3 What Factors Influence Conformity? 287

7.3a Situational Factors Impact Conformity. 288
7.3b Personal Factors Influence Conformity. 290
7.3c Cultures Differ in Their Conformity Patterns. 292
7.3d The Minority Can Influence the Majority. 293

7.4 Compliance 297

7.4a Manipulating Moods and Invoking
Norms Foster Compliance. 298
 Table of Contents xi

7.4b Two-Step Strategies Are Effective Compliance Traps. 300

7.4c Intense Social Influence Can Lead
to Unusual Compliance. 304

7.5 Obedience 307

7.5a Milgram Discovered That Destructive
Obedience Is Common. 307
7.5b Recent Studies Partially Replicated
Milgram’s Original Findings. 311
7.5c Observing Others Defying Authority
Greatly Reduces Obedience. 313

7.6 Toward a Unified Understanding of

Social Influence 314
7.6a Social Impact Theory Explains Influence Strength. 315
Applications 318
The Big Picture 320
Key Terms 322
Websites 322

CHAPTER 8
Group Behavior
8.1 The Nature of Groups 326
8.1a Groups Accomplish Instrumental Tasks
and Satisfy Socio-emotional Needs. 327
8.1b There Are Five Phases to Group Membership. 328
8.1c Group Structure Develops Quickly
and Changes Slowly. 330
8.1d Group Success Fosters Social Identification. 332
8.1e Groups Differ in Their Social Cohesiveness. 333

8.2 Group Influence on Individual Behavior 336

8.2a The Presence of Others Can Energize Us. 336
8.2b The Presence of Others Can Hide Us. 339
8.2c Being Both Energized and Hidden Can
Lower Our Inhibitions. 342

8.3 Decision Making in Groups 346

8.3a Group Decision Making Occurs in Stages and
Follows Various Rules. 347
8.3b Group Discussion Enhances Majority Opinions. 349
8.3c Consensus Seeking Overrides Critical Analysis
in Groupthink. 352
xii Table of Contents

8.4 Leadership 355

8.4a A Leader Is an Influence Agent. 355
8.4b Transformational Leaders Inspire Followers. 356
8.4c The Contingency Model Is an
Interactionist View of Leadership. 357
8.4d Gender and Culture Can Influence Leadership Style. 360

8.5 Group Interests Versus Individual Interests 362

8.5a Social Dilemmas Occur When Short-Term
and Long-Term Interests Conflict. 363
8.5b Cooperation Is Necessary to Resolve Social Dilemmas. 364
Applications 368
The Big Picture 370
Key Terms 371
Websites 371

CHAPTER 9
Interpersonal Attraction
9.1 Belongingness Needs 375
9.1a Two Reasons for Affiliation Are
Comparison and Exchange. 375
9.1b Our Evolutionary Heritage and Biology
Influence Our Belongingness Needs. 377
9.1c Socialization Shapes Our Belongingness Needs. 378

9.2 Characteristics of the Situation and Attraction 380

9.2a Close Proximity Fosters Liking. 380
9.2b Our Affiliation Desires Increase with Anxiety. 382

9.3 Characteristics of Others and Attraction 387

9.3a We Are Drawn Toward the Physically Attractive. 388
9.3b There Are Gender-Based Attractiveness Standards. 391
9.3c Gender-Based Attractiveness Standards
Shape Body Esteem. 395
9.3d Social Comparison Influences
Attractiveness Judgments. 398
9.3e Birds of a Feather Really Do Flock Together. 400
9.3f We Like Those Who Like Us. 402

9.4 When Social Interaction Becomes Problematic 403

9.4a Social Anxiety Can Keep Us Isolated from Others. 403
9.4b Loneliness Is the Consequence of Social Isolation. 405
 Table of Contents xiii

Applications 410
The Big Picture 413
Key Terms 414
Websites 414

CHAPTER 10
Intimate Relationships
10.1 What Is Intimacy? 419
10.1a Intimacy Involves Including Another in
Your Self-Concept. 419

10.2 Parent-Child Attachment and

Later Adult Relationships 422
10.2a Attachment Is an Inborn, Adaptive Response. 423
10.2b Attachment Styles Influence Romantic Relationships. 424

10.3 Friendship 429

10.3a Self-Disclosure Shapes Friendship Development
and Maintenance. 429
10.3b Gender Differences Exist in Heterosexual Friendships. 431
10.3c Cross-Sex Heterosexual Friendships Gravitate to
an “Intimacy Mean.” 436
10.3d Friends-with-Benefits Relationships
Pose Unique Challenges and Dangers. 437
10.3e Gender Differences Disappear in
Same-Sex Homosexual Friendships. 438
10.3f Important Barriers to Long-Distance Friendships
Are Falling. 439

10.4 Romantic Relationships 440

10.4a Culture Shapes How We Think About Romantic Love. 440
10.4b Online Romance and Speed Dating
Follow Similar Rules to Face-to-Face Romance. 443
10.4c Passionate Love Can Be Triggered by
Excitation Transfer. 445
10.4d Companionate Love Is More Stable and Enduring
Than Passionate Love. 450
10.4e Women and Men May Differ in Their
Experience of Love. 451

10.5 Will Love Endure? 454

10.5a Social Disapproval of One’s Partner
Harms Relationship Stability. 454
xiv Table of Contents

10.5b People Are Happiest with Romantic Equity. 455

10.5c Self-Esteem Can Both Facilitate and
Undermine Romantic Love. 456
10.5d Romantic Happiness Is Based on
Both Positive Illusions and Accurate Judgments. 457
10.5e Being Playful Fosters Relationship Satisfaction. 459
10.5f Social Support Predicts Relationship Satisfaction. 460
10.5g We Are Meaner to Those We Love
Than We Are to Strangers. 461
10.5h People Use Different Strategies
to Cope with a Troubled Relationship. 463
10.5i Romantic Breakups Often Cause Emotional Distress. 465
Applications 467
The Big Picture 470
Key Terms 471
Websites 471

CHAPTER 11
Aggression
11.1 What Is Aggression? 474
11.1a Aggression Is Intentional Harm. 475
11.1b Instrumental and Hostile Aggression
Have Different Goals. 475
11.1c Gender and Personality Moderate the
Expression of Aggression. 477
11.1d Intergroup Aggression Is Often More Extreme
Than Interpersonal Aggression. 480

11.2 The Biology of Aggression 482

11.2a Evolution Shaped Our Aggressive Behavior Patterns. 482
11.2b Biological Factors Influence Aggressive Behavior. 484

11.3 Aggression as a Reaction to Negative Affect 486

11.3a The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
Asserts That Frustration Triggers Aggression. 487
11.3b Unpleasant Situations Can Activate
Aggressive Thoughts and Associations. 489
11.3c Alcohol Consumption Increases the
Likelihood of Aggression. 494
11.3d Excitation Transfer Can Intensify
Hostility-Based Aggression. 495
 Table of Contents xv

11.4 Learning Aggressive Behavior 496

11.4a Social Learning Theory Emphasizes the Shaping of
Aggressive Behavior. 496
11.4b Media and Video Violence Foster Aggressive Behavior. 499
11.4c Media Coverage Can Encourage Copycat Violence. 503
11.4d Cultures of Honor Encourage Male Violence. 504

11.5 Sexual Aggression 506

11.5a Pornography Promotes the “Rape Myth” and
May Increase Violence Against Women. 507
11.5b Culture-Based Sexual Scripts Make
Acquaintance Rape More Likely. 512

11.6 Reducing Aggression 514

11.6a Punishment Can Both Decrease and
Increase Aggression. 514
11.6b Inducing Incompatible Responses Can
Inhibit Aggression. 515
11.6c Teaching Nonaggressive Responses to
Provocation Can Control Aggression. 515
Applications 518
The Big Picture 519
Key Terms 520
Websites 520

CHAPTER 12
Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others
12.1 Why Do We Help? 525
12.1a There Are Two Basic Forms of Helping. 525
12.1b Helping Is Consistent with Evolutionary Theory. 527
12.1c Social Norms Define the Rules of Helping Others. 529
12.1d Political and Social Class Differences
Shape Willingness to Help. 530
12.1e Individualists and Collectivists Differ in
Their Helping Tendencies. 531
12.1f Gender and Personality Influence
Helping Responses. 533
12.1g Learning to Be a Helper Involves Both
Observation and Direct Reinforcement. 536
12.1h Being Helpful Can Benefit Personal Well-Being. 541
xvi Table of Contents

12.2 When Do We Help? 542

12.2a Bystander Intervention Involves
a Series of Decisions. 542
12.2b Outcome and Information Dependence Produce
the Audience Inhibition Effect. 545
12.2c Diffusion of Responsibility Increases with
the Number of Bystanders. 548
12.2d Bystander Intervention Is Shaped by Arousal
and Cost-Reward Assessments. 551
12.2e Positive and Negative Moods Can Either Increase or
Decrease Helping. 553
12.2f The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis Contends That
Empathy Produces Altruistic Motivation. 555

12.3 Whom Do We Help? 559

12.3a We Tend to Help Similar Others. 559
12.3b We Help Deserving Others,
but We Also Blame Victims. 561

12.4 Are There Hidden Costs For Help Recipients? 563

12.4a Being Unable to Reciprocate Help Can Create Stress. 563
12.4b Receiving Help Can Threaten Self-Esteem. 564
Applications 566
The Big Picture 567
Key Terms 568
Websites 568

APPENDIX 570

GLOSSARY 587

REFERENCES 597

NAME INDEX 677

SUBJECT INDEX 693