Chapter 14 – Performing a Dam Break Study with HEC-RAS

Bald Eagle Creek Example Dam Break Study Plan: PMF - Froehlich Breach Parameters 10/28/2008
Bald Eagle Cr. Lock Haven
Legend
680
EG 03JAN1999 0300
WS 03JAN1999 0300
Crit 03JAN1999 0300
Ground
660

640
Elevation (ft)

620

600

580

70000 75000 80000 85000

Main Channel Distance (ft)

Figure 14-23. Example of Initial Conditions for a Reservoir and Lateral Structures
connected to Storage Areas.

Low Flow Conditions. Low flows can often be very difficult to model with an unsteady flow
model. Medium to steeper slope streams will often have a pool and riffle sequence at low flow,
and the water surface will generally pass through critical depth at the upper end of the riffle
(bottom of the pool). In addition to this, the depths of water are very shallow. Once the flood
wave begins the water surface will change quickly, and there will be a large change in depth
with respect to distance and time. The leading edge of a dam break flood wave will be very
steep, and can often be a source of model instability as it propagates down the river system.
The finite difference solution to the equations will generally have the most trouble balancing
during the initial dramatic rise at the beginning of the flood wave. The fact that the initial
conditions may be very low flows and depths can make it even more difficult to solve the
equations through those shallow and steep riffle regions.

There are several things the modeler can do to allow the program to solve the equations in a
stable manner in low flow situations. The easiest solution is to increase the base flow for the
initial conditions. This will provide a higher initial depth of water in general, and it may also
drowned out the pool and riffle sequence. A general “rule of thumb” is to start out by trying a
base flow around 1% of the peak flow that will be routed. Increase the base flow if necessary,
but never go above 10% of the peak flow. If you artificially use a base flow that is 10% or more
of the peak, the computed peak flow and stage will be higher than it would have been
otherwise.

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 Chapter 14 – Performing a Dam Break Study with HEC-RAS
If you have increased the base flow to a reasonable level, and are still having model stability
problems at the leading edge of the flood wave, then try adding a pilot channel for the reach in
which the model is having stability issues. A pilot channel is an option in which will add some
depth without adding much flow area or conveyance. The pilot channel is an option in HEC-RAS,
and it is only used during low flow, once the cross sections get to some appreciable depth, the
program automatically removes it from the cross section. To learn more about the use of pilot
channels, please review the section on Pilot channels in Chapter 6 of the HEC-RAS User’s
Manual.

One other option that can help stabilize the model during the initial rise of the flood wave, is
turning on the Mixed Flow Regime Option. This option drops the acceleration terms when the
Froude number gets greater than a user defined threshold, which is often the case on the
leading edge of the flood wave.

Downstream Boundary Conditions

Downstream boundary conditions are important for all hydraulic models, especially unsteady
flow models. Downstream boundary conditions can often be a source of model error, as well as
model instability. More often than not, the true stage for a given flow at the downstream end
of our models is not known. Because of this we often use either Normal Depth (Manning’s
equation), or a rating curve computed from a steady flow model. The normal depth boundary
condition requires the user to enter a single energy slope, which is then in turn used in
Manning’s equation to compute the downstream stage for any flow occurring. Occasionally this
forced slope, or even a single valued rating curve can end up with stages that are not correct for
the given flow at a given point on the flood hydrograph. In general, the best solution is to make
sure that the downstream boundary condition is downstream from any of the locations in which
stages are being used to compute damages or loss of life, such that the error in the water
surface elevation at the boundary condition does not affect the area of interest.

Additionally, if a boundary condition is ill posed, this can be a source of model instability (i.e.
rating curves with not enough points, or the user entered stages are too low for a given flow
rate; and normal depth boundaries where the user has entered to steep of a slope for the
energy gradeline). In other words, the downstream boundary condition may be causing abrupt
drops or rises in the computed water surface near the location of the boundary condition. An
example of what can happen when using a Normal Depth boundary condition, and entering too
steep of an energy slope is shown in Figure 14-24. In this case, the steep energy slope caused
the program to compute lower stages than appropriate for a given flow, which in turn caused
the model to over steepen the flood wave at the downstream end of the model.

14-71
Chapter 14 – Performing a Dam Break Study with HEC-RAS
Unsteady with smaller event
Geom: Beaver Cr. - bridge Flow :
Beaver Creek Kentw ood
Le ge nd

Crit 10FEB1999 0605

215 WS 10FEB1999 0605
Ground

210
Elevation (ft)

205

200

0 500 1000 1500 2000

Main Channel Distance (f t)

Figure 14-24. Example model error due to bad downstream boundary condition.

Using 2D Flow Areas for Dam Break Analyses

The latest version of HEC-RAS (5.0 or later) now has the ability to perform two-dimensional flow
routing. For a dam break study, the user can model the downstream area entirely with 1D
elements (Cross sections and storage areas); as a combination of 1D and 2D elements (cross
sections, storage areas, and 2D flow areas); or the entire downstream area can be modeled as a
2D flow area.

2D flow areas can be directly connected to storage areas by using a hydraulic structure called a
Storage Area/ 2D Flow Area Hydraulic Connector (“SA/2D Area Conn”). See the example below
in Figure 14-25.

14-72
 Chapter 14 – Performing a Dam Break Study with HEC-RAS

Figure 14-25. Example of a Storage Area connected to a 2D Flow Area.

In the example shown in Figure 14-25, the storage area is upstream of the 2D flow area, so the
positive flow direction is from the storage area to the 2D flow area. So when defining the
hydraulic structure that connects the two areas, the storage area will be considered the
headwater side, and the 2D flow area will be considered the tailwater side. In the example
shown in Figure 14-25, a storage area is being used to represent a reservoir pool. The hydraulic
connection between the storage area and the 2D flow area is used to model the dam. The 2D
flow area is being used to model the hydraulics of the flow downstream of the dam.
Additionally, the user could model the reservoir pool with a 1D river reach, or a 2D flow area.

Using the approach shown in Figure 14-25, is a very quick way to get a dam break model up and
running. However, modeling the downstream area with a 2D flow area, does not necessarily

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Chapter 14 – Performing a Dam Break Study with HEC-RAS
make this a detailed model. Downstream areas will often have bridges, culverts, roads that are
barriers to flow, levees protecting urban areas, etc… These types of areas require detailed
modeling to get accurate answers, whether you are modeling them as 2D flow areas or 1D river
reaches. Developing a detailed model for the downstream area requires detailed terrain,
hydraulic structure information, and the time to model those areas correctly. If a 2D flow area is
used, it still requires lots of work to make the computational mesh respect all of the barriers to
flow (bridges, culverts, roads, levees, etc…). Developing a detailed computational mesh that
respects all of the flow barriers, and includes all of the hydraulic structures is the most time
consuming part of developing a model, but it is necessary to get good results downstream. If
you do not take the time to do this, and you just throw in a 2D flow area with a nominal grid
size, do not assume you have “accurate” results just because you are doing 2D modeling.

14-74
APPENDIX A

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Bradley, J.N., 1978. Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways, Hydraulic Design Series No. 1, Federal
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A-11
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis

APPENDIX B

Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater

Analysis
Bridges across floodplains may require special attention in one-dimensional hydraulic modeling
if they cause severe contraction and expansion of the flow. The accurate prediction of the
energy losses in the contraction reach upstream from the bridge and the expansion reach
downstream from the bridge, using one-dimensional models, presents particular difficulty.
Modeling these reaches requires the accurate evaluation of four parameters: the expansion
reach length, Le; the contraction reach length, Lc; the expansion coefficient, Ce; and the
contraction coefficient, Cc. Research was conducted at the Hydrologic Engineering Center to
investigate these four parameters through the use of field data, two-dimensional hydraulic
modeling, and one-dimensional modeling. The conclusions and recommendations from that
study are reported in this appendix. For further information regarding this study, the reader
should obtain a copy of Research Document 42 (HEC, 1995).

1
4
Contraction Reach
CR
Lc

A B 2
C D
Typical flow transition
pattern

Le Expansion Reach

Idealized flow transition

pattern for 1-dimensional ER
modeling

Figure B- 1 Typical Cross Section Layout for Bridge Modeling

B-1
Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
The data used in this study consisted of 3 actual bridge sites and 76 idealized bridge sites. The
field data had certain hydraulic characteristics in common. All had wide, heavily vegetated
overbanks, with Manning’s n values from 0.07 to 0.24, and slopes between 2.5 feet/mile and 8.0
feet/mile. To extend the scope and general applicability of the study, it was decided to create a
large number of two-dimensional models (using RMA-2, King, 1994) of idealized floodplain and
bridge geometries. Figure B-2 shows a typical cross section for the idealized cases. The overall
floodplain width was constant at 1000 feet. The main channel n value was constant at 0.04.
The other pertinent parameters were systematically varied as follows:

Bridge opening width, b = 100, 250, and 500 feet

Discharge, Q = 5000, 10000, 20000, and 30000 cfs

Overbank Manning coef., nob = 0.04, 0.08, and 0.16

Bed slope, S = 1, 5, and 10 feet/mile

1000 feet

Pier
b

4
10 feet 1
2

Bridge Embankment
50 feet

Figure B- 2 Idealized Case Cross Section

In addition to the systematic variation of these parameters, eleven additional cases were
created which had vertical abutments rather than spill-through abutments, six cases were
developed which had asymmetric rather than symmetric bridge obstructions, and four more
cases were studied which were enlarged-scale and reduced-scale versions of four of the
standard cases. A total of 97 idealized models were created.

Once the data were collected for all of the idealized models, they were analyzed with the aid of
the statistical analysis program STATGRAPHICS (STSC, 1991). The goals of the statistical analysis
were to compile summary statistics and develop regression relationships for the parameters of

B-2
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
interest where possible. Table B-1 lists the summary statistics for the four parameters of
interest.

Table B-1 Summary Statistics

Variable Le Lc Ce Cc

Sample size 76 76 76 76

Average 564 feet 386 feet 0.27 0.11

Median 510 feet 360 feet 0.30 0.10

Standard deviation 249 feet 86 feet 0.15 0.06

Minimum 260 feet 275 feet 0.10 0.10

Maximum 1600 feet 655 feet 0.65 0.50

Range 1340 feet 380 feet 0.55 0.40

The regression relationships were required to express Le, Lc, Ce, and Cc as functions of
independent hydraulic variables which could be easily evaluated by the users of a one-
dimensional model such as HEC-RAS. Some of the independent variables used in the regression
analysis, such as discharge, slope, and roughness, had been set in defining each case. The other
variables, such as Froude numbers, discharge distributions, velocities, depths, and conveyances,
were evaluated from the HEC-RAS models, which had been developed for each case. The raw
independent variables were then entered into a spreadsheet. In the spreadsheet other
variables were created as ratios and multiples of some of the raw variables.

After the spreadsheet of independent variables was complete, it was saved as an ASCII text file,
which was in turn converted into a STATGRAPHICS data file. Only the cases with symmetric
openings and spill-through abutments were included in the regression analyses. Those cases
which had asymmetric openings or vertical abutments, were later compared with the
corresponding symmetric, spill-through cases.

B-3
Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis

Conclusions From The Study

The research has successfully provided valuable insight with regard to all four parameters of
concern. Also, strong relationships between the expansion reach length, the contraction reach
length and the expansion coefficient and the independent variables that affect them have
emerged from the analysis of the idealized two-dimensional models. The insights gained and
relationships determined from this study provide a basis for improved guidance in the bridge-
related application of one-dimensional models such as HEC-RAS and HEC-2.

Expansion Reach Lengths (Le on Figure B-1)

Of all of the two-dimensional cases created for this study, which included a wide range of
hydraulic and geometric conditions, none of the cases had an expansion ratio (ER on Figure B-1)
as great as 4:1. Most of the cases had expansion ratios between 1:1 and 2:1. This indicates that
a dogmatic use of the traditional 4:1 rule of thumb for the expansion ratio leads to a consistent
over prediction of the energy losses in the expansion reach in most cases. The accompanying
over prediction of the water surface elevation at the downstream face of the bridge may be
conservative for flood stage prediction studies. For bridge scour studies, however, this
overestimation of the tailwater elevation could in some circumstances lead to an
underestimation of the scour potential.

The results from the two-dimensional flow models did not always indicate the presence of large-
scale flow separations or eddy zones downstream of the bridge. Their presence corresponded
with the larger values of Le. For many of the cases there was no significant separation evident
in the results. In sensitivity tests, the presence or absence of eddy zones was not sensitive to
the eddy viscosity coefficient value. Likewise, eddy viscosity settings did not have an
appreciable effect on Le.

It was found that the ratio of the channel Froude number at Section 2 to that at Section 1
(Fc2/Fc1) correlated strongly with the length of the expansion reach. Regression equations
were developed for both the expansion reach length and the expansion ratio. The equations are
presented later in this appendix. Both equations are linear and contain terms involving the
Froude number ratio and the discharge. The equation for expansion length also includes the
average obstruction length in one term. To use these regression equations in the application of
a one-dimensional model will usually require an iterative process since the hydraulic properties
at Section 2 will not be known in advance. The effort involved in this process will not be large,
however, because the method will usually converge rapidly.

The value of the Froude number ratio reflects important information about the relationship
between the constricted flow and the normal flow conditions. It is in effect a measure of the
degree of flow constriction since it compares the intensity of flow at the two locations. Since
these Froude numbers are for the main channel only, the value of Fc1 also happens to reflect to
some extent the distribution of flow between the overbanks and main channel.

There was no support from these investigations for the WSPRO concept of the expansion reach
length being proportional to or equal to the bridge opening width.
B-4
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis

Contraction Reach Lengths (Lc on Figure B-1)

While the apparent contraction ratios of the five field prototype cases were all below 1:1, the
contraction ratios (CR on Figure B-1) for the idealized cases ranged from 0.7:1 to 2.3:1. As with
the expansion reach lengths, these values correlated strongly with the same Froude number
ratio. A more important independent variable, however, is the decimal fraction of the total
discharge conveyed in the overbanks (Qob/Q) at the approach section. A strong regression
equation was developed for the contraction length and is presented later in this appendix.

Because the mean and median values of the contraction ratios were both around 1:1, there is
some support from this study for the rule of thumb which suggests the use of a 1:1 contraction
ratio. There is no support, however, for the concept of the contraction reach length being equal
to or proportional to the bridge opening width.

Expansion Coefficients
Regression analysis for this parameter was only marginally successful. The resulting relationship
is a function of the ratio of hydraulic depth in the overbank to that in the main channel for
undisturbed conditions (evaluated at Section 1). Perhaps more interesting are the summary
statistics, which indicate lower values for this coefficient than the traditional standard values for
bridges.

Contraction Coefficients
Owing to the nature of this data (69 out of 76 cases had the minimum value of 0.10), a
regression analysis was not fruitful. Like the expansion coefficients, the prevailing values are
significantly lower than the standard recommended values.

Asymmetric Bridge Openings

For these data the averages of the reach length values for the two corresponding symmetric
cases closely approximated the values determined for the asymmetric cases. When the
regression equations for Le, ER, and Lc were applied to the asymmetric cases, the predicted
values were near the observed values. This indicates that the regression relationships for the
transition reach lengths can also be applied to asymmetric cases (that is, most real-world cases).

Vertical-Abutment Cases
For these data there was no major effect on the transition lengths or the coefficients due to the
use of vertical rather than spill-through abutments. The exceptions to this statement were
three vertical-abutment cases in the narrow-opening class for which square corners were used.
The square-cornered abutments were a deliberate attempt to model a very severe situation.
Because the RMA-2 program, or any two-dimensional numerical model for that matter, is not
well-formulated to handle such drastic boundary conditions, no general conclusions should be
drawn from these cases about actual field sites having such a configuration.

B-5
Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis

Recommendations From The Study

The remainder of this appendix presents recommendations arising from the results documented
in RD-42 (HEC, 1995). These recommendations are intended to provide the users of one-
dimensional water surface profile programs, such as HEC-RAS, with guidance on modeling the
flow transitions in bridge hydraulics problems.

In applying these recommendations, the modeler should always consider the range of hydraulic
and geometric conditions included in the data. Wherever possible, the transition reach lengths
used in the model should be validated by field observations of the site in question, preferably
under conditions of high discharge. The evaluation of contraction and expansion coefficients
should ideally be substantiated by site-specific calibration data, such as stage-discharge
measurements just upstream of the bridge. The following recommendations are given in
recognition of the fact that site-specific field information is often unavailable or very expensive
to obtain.

Expansion Reach Lengths

In some types of studies, a high level of sophistication in the evaluation of the transition reach
lengths is not justified. For such studies, and for a starting point in more detailed studies, Table
B-2 offers ranges of expansion ratios, which can be used for different degrees of constriction,
different slopes, and different ratios of overbank roughness to main channel roughness. Once
an expansion ratio is selected, the distance to the downstream end of the expansion reach (the
distance Le on Figure B-1) is found by multiplying the expansion ratio by the average obstruction
length (the average of the distances A to B and C to D from Figure B-1). The average obstruction
length is half of the total reduction in floodplain width caused by the two bridge approach
embankments. In Table B-2, b/B is the ratio of the bridge opening width to the total floodplain
width, nob is the Manning n value for the overbank, nc is the n value for the main channel, and S
is the longitudinal slope. The values in the interior of the table are the ranges of the expansion
ratio. For each range, the higher value is typically associated with a higher discharge.

Table B-2 Ranges of Expansion Ratios

nob / nc = 1 nob / nc = 2 nob / nc = 4

b/B = 0.10 S = 1 ft/mile 1.4 – 3.6 1.3 – 3.0 1.2 – 2.1
5 ft/mile 1.0 – 2.5 0.8 – 2.0 0.8 – 2.0
10 ft/mile 1.0 – 2.2 0.8 – 2.0 0.8 – 2.0

b/B = 0.25 S = 1 ft/mile 1.6 – 3.0 1.4 – 2.5 1.2 – 2.0

5 ft/mile 1.5 – 2.5 1.3 – 2.0 1.3 – 2.0
10 ft/mile 1.5 – 2.0 1.3 – 2.0 1.3 – 2.0

b/B = 0.50 S = 1 ft/mile 1.4 – 2.6 1.3 – 1.9 1.2 – 1.4

5 ft/mile 1.3 – 2.1 1.2 – 1.6 1.0 – 1.4
10 ft/mile 1.3 – 2.0 1.2 – 1.5 1.0 – 1.4

B-6
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
The ranges in Table B-2, as well as the ranges of other parameters to be presented later in this
appendix, capture the ranges of the idealized model data from this study. Another way of
establishing reasonable ranges would be to compute statistical confidence limits (such as 95%
confidence limits) for the regression equations. Confidence limits in multiple linear regression
equations have a different value for every combination of values of the independent variables
(Haan, 1977). The computation of these limits entails much more work and has a more
restricted range of applicability than the corresponding limits for a regression, which is based on
only one independent variable. The confidence limits were, therefore, not computed in this
study.

Extrapolation of expansion ratios for constriction ratios, slopes or roughness ratios outside of
the ranges used in this table should be done with care. The expansion ratio should not exceed
4:1, nor should it be less than 0.5:1 unless there is site-specific field information to substantiate
such values. The ratio of overbank roughness to main-channel roughness provides information
about the relative conveyances of the overbank and main channel. The user should note that in
the data used to develop these recommendations, all cases had a main-channel n value of 0.04.
For significantly higher or lower main-channel n values, the n value ratios will have a different
meaning with respect to overbank roughness. It is impossible to determine from the data of this
study whether this would introduce significant error in the use of these recommendations.

When modeling situations which are similar to those used in the regression analysis (floodplain
widths near 1000 feet; bridge openings between 100 and 500 feet wide; flows ranging from
5000 to 30000 cfs; and slopes between one and ten feet per mile), the regression equation for
the expansion reach length can be used with confidence. The equation developed for the
expansion reach length is as follows:

F 
Le = − 298 + 257  c 2  + 0.918 L obs + 0.00479 Q
 Fc1  (B-1)

Where: Le = length of the expansion reach, in feet

Fc2 = main channel Froude number at Section 2

Fc1 = main channel Froude number at Section 1

Lobs = average length of obstruction caused by the two bridge

approaches, in feet, and

Q = total discharge, cfs

When the width of the floodplain and the discharge are smaller than those of the regression
data (1000 ft wide floodplain and 5000 cfs discharge), the expansion ratio can be estimated by

B-7
Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
Equation B-2. The computed value should be checked against ranges in Table B-1. Equation B-2
is:

Le F 
ER = = 0.421 + 0.485  c 2  + 0.000018 Q (B-2)
L obs  Fc1 

When the scale of the floodplain is significantly larger than that of the data, particularly when
the discharge is much higher than 30,000 cfs, Equations B-1 and B-2 will overestimate the
expansion reach length. Equation B-3 should be used in such cases, but again the resulting value
should be checked against the ranges given in Table B-1:

Le F 
ER = = 0.489 + 0.608  c 2 
L obs  Fc1  (B-3)

The depth at Section 2 is dependent upon the expansion reach length, and the Froude number
at the same section is a function of the depth. This means that an iterative process is required
to use the three equations above, as well as the equations presented later in this chapter for
contraction reach lengths and expansion coefficients. It is recommended that the user start
with an expansion ratio from Table B-1, locate Section 1 according to that expansion ratio, set
the main channel and overbank reach lengths as appropriate, and limit the effective flow area at
Section 2 to the approximate bridge opening width. The program should then be run and the
main channel Froude numbers at Sections 2 and 1 read from the model output. Use these
Froude number values to determine a new expansion length from the appropriate equation,
move Section 1 as appropriate and recompute. Unless the geometry is changing rapidly in the
vicinity of Section 1, no more than two iterations after the initial run should be required.

When the expansion ratio is large, say greater than 3:1, the resulting reach length may be so
long as to require intermediate cross sections, which reflect the changing width of the effective
flow area. These intermediate sections are necessary to reduce the reach lengths when they
would otherwise be too long for the linear approximation of energy loss that is incorporated in
the standard step method. These interpolated sections are easy to create in the HEC-RAS
program, because it has a graphical cross section interpolation feature. The importance of
interpolated sections in a given reach can be tested by first inserting one interpolated section
and seeing the effect on the results. If the effect is significant, the subreaches should be
subdivided into smaller units until the effect of further subdivision is inconsequential.

Contraction Reach Lengths

Ranges of contraction ratios (CR) for different conditions are presented in Table B-3.
B-8
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
These values should be used as starting values and for studies which do not justify a
sophisticated evaluation of the contraction reach length. Note that this table does not
differentiate the ranges on the basis of the degree of constriction. For each range the higher
values are typically associated with higher discharges and the lower values with lower
discharges.

nob / nc = 1 nob / nc = 2 nob / nc = 4

S = 1 ft/mile 1.0 - 2.3 0.8 - 1.7 0.7 - 1.3

5 ft/mile 1.0 - 1.9 0.8 - 1.5 0.7 - 1.2

10 ft/mile 1.0 - 1.9 0.8 - 1.4 0.7 - 1.2

Table B-3 Ranges of Contraction Ratios (CR)

When the conditions are within or near those of the data, the contraction reach length
regression equation (Equation B-4) may be used with confidence:

2 0.5
F  Q  n 
Lc = 263 + 38.8  c 2  + 257  ob  − 58.7  ob  + 0.161 L obs
 Fc1   Q   nc  (B-4)

Where: _Lobs = average length of obstruction as described earlier in this chapter, in feet

Qob = the discharge conveyed by the two overbanks, in cfs, at the approach section
(Section 4)

nob = the average Manning n value for the overbanks at Section 4, and

nc = the average Manning n value for the main channel at Section 4

In cases where the floodplain scale and discharge are significantly larger or smaller than those
that were used in developing the regression formulae, Equation B-4 should not be used. The
recommended approach for estimating the contraction ratio at this time is to compute a value
from Equation B-5 and check it against the values in Table B-3:

2 0. 5
F  Q   nob 
CR = 1.4 − 0.333  c 2  + 1.86  ob  − 0.19  n 
 Fc1   Q   c  (B-5)
B-9
Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis
As with the expansion reach lengths, the modeler must use Equations B-4 and B-5 and the
values from Table B-2 with extreme caution when the prototype is outside of the range of data
used in this study. The contraction ratio should not exceed 2.5:1 nor should it be less than 0.3:1.

Expansion Coefficients
The analysis of the data with regard to the expansion coefficients did not yield a regression
equation, which fit the data well. Equation B-6 was the best equation obtained for predicting
the value of this coefficient:

D  F 
C e = − 0.09 + 0.570  ob  + 0.075  c 2 
 Dc   Fc1  (B-6)

Where: Dob = hydraulic depth (flow area divided by top width) for the overbank
at the fully- expanded flow section (Section 1), in feet, and

Dc = hydraulic depth for the main channel at the fully-expanded flow

section, in feet

It is recommended that the modeler use Equation B-6 to find an initial value, then perform a
sensitivity analysis using values of the coefficient that are 0.2 higher and 0.2 lower than the
value from Equation B-6. The plus or minus 0.2 range defines the 95% confidence band for
Equation B-6 as a predictor within the domain of the regression data. If the difference in results
between the two ends of this range is substantial, then the conservative value should be used.
The expansion coefficient should not be higher than 0.80.

Contraction Coefficients
The data of this study did not lend itself to regression of the contraction coefficient values. For
nearly all of the cases the value that was determined was 0.1, which was considered to be the
minimum acceptable value. The following table presents recommended ranges of the
contraction coefficient for various degrees of constriction, for use in the absence of calibration
information.

Table B-4 Contraction Coefficient Values

Degree of Constriction Recommended Contraction Coefficient

0.0 < b/B < 0.25 0.3 - 0.5

0.25 < b/B < 0.50 0.1 - 0.3

0.50 < b/B < 1.0 0.1

B-10
 Appendix B Flow Transitions in Bridge Backwater Analysis

The preceding recommendations represent a substantial improvement over the guidance

information that was previously available on the evaluation of transition reach lengths and
coefficients. They are based on data, which, like all data, have a limited scope of direct
application. Certain situations, such as highly skewed bridge crossings and bridges at locations
of sharp curvature in the floodplain were not addressed by this study. Even so, these
recommendations may be applicable to such situations if proper care is taken and good
engineering judgment is employed.

B-11
 Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2

APPENDIX C

Computational Differences Between HEC-

RAS and HEC-2
HEC-RAS is a completely new software product. None of the computational routines in the HEC-
2 program were used in the HEC-RAS software. When HEC-RAS was being developed, a
significant effort was spent on improving the computational capabilities over those in the HEC-2
program. Because of this, there are computational differences between the two programs.
This appendix describes all of the major areas in which computational differences can occur.

Cross Section Conveyance Calculations

Both HEC-RAS and HEC-2 utilize the Standard Step method for balancing the energy equation to
compute a water surface for a cross section. A key element in the solution of the energy
equation is the calculation of conveyance. The conveyance is used to determine friction losses
between cross sections, the flow distribution at a cross section, and the velocity weighing
coefficient alpha. The approach used in HEC-2 is to calculate conveyance between every
coordinate point in the cross section overbanks (Figure C-1). The conveyance is then summed to
get the total left overbank and right overbank values. HEC-2 does not subdivide the main
channel for conveyance calculations. This method of computing overbank conveyance can lead
to different amounts of total conveyance when additional points are added to the cross section,
without actually changing the geometry. The HEC-RAS program supports this method for
calculating conveyance, but the default method is to make conveyance calculations only at n-
value break points (Figure C-2).

n n n n
1 2 ch 3
A1 A2
P2 A3 P A P A P A5 P A6 P A P A8
P
1
3 4 4 ch ch 5 6 7 7
P
8

K =K +K +K +K K =K +K +K +K
lob 1 2 3 4 rob 5 6 7 8

K ch

Figure C-1 HEC-2 Conveyance Subdivision

C-1
Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2

n n2 nch n3
1

A1 P1 A P A P A P
2 2 ch ch 3 3

K lob = K 1 + K K rob = K 3
2

K ch

Figure C-2 HEC-RAS Default Conveyance Subdivision Method

Testing Using HEC-2 Conveyance Calculation Approach

Comparisons of HEC-RAS results with those from HEC-2 were performed using 97 data sets from
the HEC profile accuracy study (HEC, 1986). Water surface profiles were computed for 10% and
1% chance floods using HEC-2 and HEC-RAS, both programs using the HEC-2 approach for
computing overbank conveyance. Table C-1 shows the percentage, of approximately 2000 cross
sections, within ±0.02 feet (±6 mm). For the 10% chance flood, 53 cross sections had difference
greater than ±0.02 feet (±6 mm). For those sections, 62.2% were caused by differences in
computation of critical depth and 34% resulted from propagation of the difference upstream.
For the 1% chance flood, 88 sections had elevation differences over ±0.02 feet (6 mm), of which
60.2% resulted from critical depth and 36.4% from the upstream propagation of downstream
differences. HEC-RAS uses 0.01 feet (3 mm) for the critical depth error criterion, while HEC-2
uses 2.5% of the depth of flow.

Table C- 1 Computed Water Surface Elevation Difference (HEC-RAS - HEC-2)

Difference (feet)
-0.02 -0.01 0.0 0.01 0.02 Total

10% Chance Flood 0.8% 11.2% 73.1% 11.2% 0.6%

96.9%

1% Chance Flood 2.0% 11.6% 70.1% 10.8% 1.3%

95.8%

C-2
 Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2

Testing Using HEC-RAS and HEC-2 Approach

The two methods for computing conveyance will produce different answers whenever portions
of the overbanks have ground sections with significant vertical slopes. In general, the HEC-RAS
default approach will provide a lower total conveyance for the same elevation and, therefore, a
higher computed water surface elevation. In order to test the significance of the two ways of
computing conveyance, comparisons were performed using the same 97 data sets. Water
surface profiles were computed for the 1% chance event using the two methods for computing
conveyance in HEC-RAS. The results confirmed that the HEC-RAS default approach will generally
produce a higher computed water surface elevation. Out of the 2048 cross section locations,
47.5% had computed water surface elevations within 0.10 feet (30.5 mm), 71% within 0.20 feet
(61 mm), 94.4% within 0.40 feet (122 mm), 99.4% within 1.0 feet (305 mm), and one cross
section had a difference of 2.75 feet (0.84 m). Because the differences tend to be in the same
direction, some effects can be attributed to propagation.

The results from these comparisons do not show which method is more accurate, they only
show differences. In general, it is felt that the HEC-RAS default method is more commensurate
with the Manning equation and the concept of separate flow elements. The default method in
HEC-RAS is also more consistent, in that the computed conveyance is based on the geometry,
and not on how many points are used in the cross section. Further research, with observed
water surface profiles, will be needed to make any final conclusions about the accuracy of the
two methods.

Critical Depth Calculations

During the water surface profile calculations, each of the two programs may need to calculate
critical depth at a cross section if any of the following conditions occur:

(1) The supercritical flow regime has been specified by the user.

(2) The calculation of critical depth has been requested by the user.

(3) The current cross section is an external boundary cross section and critical depth must
be determined to ensure the user-entered boundary condition is in the correct flow
regime.

(4) The Froude number check for a subcritical profile indicates that critical depth needs to
be determined to verify the flow regime of the computed water surface elevation.

(5) The program could not balance the energy equation within the specified tolerance
before reaching the maximum number of iterations.

The HEC-RAS program has two methods for calculating critical depth: a "parabolic" method and
a "secant" method. The HEC-2 program has one method, which is very similar to the HEC-RAS
“parabolic” method. The parabolic method is computationally faster, but it is only able to locate
a single minimum energy. For most cross sections there will only be one minimum on the total
energy curve; therefore, the parabolic method has been set as the default method for HEC-RAS
(the default method can be changed from the user interface). If the parabolic method is tried
C-3
Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2
and it does not converge, then the HEC-RAS program will automatically try the secant method.
The HEC-RAS version of the parabolic method calculates critical depth to a numerical accuracy of
0.01 feet, while HEC-2's version of the parabolic method calculates critical depth to a numerical
accuracy of 2.5 percent of the flow depth. This, in its self, can lead to small differences in the
calculation of critical depth between the two programs.

In certain situations it is possible to have more than one minimum on the total energy curve.
Multiple minimums are often associated with cross sections that have breaks in the total energy
curve. These breaks can occur due to very wide and flat overbanks, as well as cross sections
with levees and ineffective flow areas. When the parabolic method is used on a cross section
that has multiple minimums on the total energy curve, the method will converge on the first
minimum that it locates. This approach can lead to incorrect estimates of critical depth, in that
the returned value for critical depth may be the top of a levee or an ineffective flow elevation.
When this occurs in the HEC-RAS program, the software automatically switches to the secant
method. The HEC-RAS secant method is capable of finding up to three minimums on the energy
versus depth curve. Whenever more than one minimum energy is found, the program selects
the lowest valid minimum energy (a minimum energy at the top of a levee or ineffective flow
elevation is not considered a valid critical depth solution).

Given that HEC-RAS has the capability to find multiple critical depths, and detect possible invalid
answers, the final critical depth solutions between HEC-2 and HEC-RAS could be quite different.
In general the critical depth answer from the HEC-RAS program will always be more accurate
than HEC-2.

Bridge Hydraulic Computations

A vast amount of effort has been spent on the development of the new bridge routines used in
the HEC-RAS software. The bridge routines in HEC-RAS allow the modeler to analyze a bridge by
several different methods with the same bridge geometry. The model utilizes four user defined
cross sections in the computations of energy losses due to the structure. Cross sections are
automatically formulated inside the bridge on an as need basis by combining the bridge
geometry with the two cross sections that bound the structure.

The HEC-2 program requires the user to use one of two possible methods, the special bridge
routine or the normal bridge routine. The data requirements for the two methods are different,
and therefore the user must decide a prior which method to use.

Differences between the HEC-2 and HEC-RAS bridge routines will be addressed by discussing the
two HEC-2 bridge methodologies separately.

HEC-2 Special Bridge Methodology

The largest computational differences will be found when comparing the HEC-2 special bridge
routines to the equivalent HEC-RAS bridge methodologies. The following is a list of what is
different between the two programs:

C-4
 Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2
1. The HEC-2 special bridge routines use a trapezoidal approximation for
low flow calculations (Yarnell equation and class B flow check with the
momentum equation). The HEC-RAS program uses the actual bridge
opening geometry for all of the low flow methodologies.

2. Also for low flow, the HEC-2 program uses a single pier (of equivalent
width to the sum total width of all piers) placed in the middle of the
trapezoid. In the HEC-RAS software, all of the piers are defined
separately, and the hydraulic computations are performed by evaluating
the water surface and impact on each pier individually. While this is
more data for the user to enter, the results are much more physically
based.

3. For pressure flow calculations, HEC-2 requires the net flow area of the
bridge opening. The HEC-RAS software calculates the area of the bridge
opening from the bridge and cross section geometry. Because of the
potential error involved in calculating the bridge opening area by hand,
differences between the programs may occur for pressure flow
calculations.

4. The HEC-RAS software has two equations that can be used for pressure
flow. The first equation is for a fully submerged condition (i.e. when
both the upstream side and downstream side of the bridge is
submerged). The fully submerged equation is also used in HEC-2. A
second equation is available in HEC-RAS, which is automatically applied
when only the upstream side of the bridge is submerged. This equation
computes pressure flow as if the bridge opening were acting as a sluice
gate. The HEC-2 program only has the fully submerged pressure flow
equation. Therefore, when only the upstream side of the bridge is
submerged, the two programs will compute different answers for
pressure flow because they will be using different equations.

5. When using the HEC-2 special bridge routines, it is not necessary for the
user to specify low chord information in the bridge table (BT data). The
bridge table information is only used for weir flow in HEC-2. When HEC-
2 special bridge data is imported into HEC-RAS, the user must enter the
low chord information in order to define the bridge opening. This is due
to the fact that the trapezoidal approximation used in HEC-2 is not used
in HEC-RAS, and therefore the opening must be completely defined.

6. When entering bridge table (BT records) information in the HEC-2

special bridge method, the user had to enter stations that followed
along the ground in the left overbank, then across the bridge deck/road
embankment; and then along the ground of the right overbank. This
was necessary in order for the left and right overbank area to be used in
the weir flow calculations. In HEC-RAS this is not necessary. The bridge
deck/roadway information only needs to reflect the additional blocked
C-5
Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2
out area that is not part of the ground. HEC-RAS will automatically
merge the ground information and the high chord data of the bridge
deck/roadway.

HEC-2 Normal Bridge Methodology

In general, when importing HEC-2 normal bridge data into HEC-RAS there should not be any
problems. The program automatically selects the energy-based methods for low flow and high
flow conditions, which is equivalent to the normal bridge method. The following is a list of
possible differences that can occur.

1. In HEC-2 pier information is either entered as part of the bridge table

(BT data) or the ground information (GR data). If the user stays with the
energy based methods in HEC-RAS the results should be about the
same. If the user wishes to use either the Momentum or Yarnell
methods for low flow, they must first delete the pier information from
the BT or GR data, and then re-enter it as separate pier information in
HEC-RAS. If this is not done, HEC-RAS will not know about the pier
information, and will therefore incorrectly calculate the losses with
either the Momentum or Yarnell methods.

2. The HEC-2 Normal bridge method utilizes six cross sections. HEC-RAS
uses only four cross sections in the vicinity of the bridge. The two cross
sections inside the bridge are automatically formulated from the cross
sections outside the bridge and the bridge geometry. In general, it is
common for HEC-2 users to repeat cross sections through the bridge
opening (i.e. the cross sections used inside the bridge were a repeat of
the downstream section). If however, the HEC-2 user entered
completely different cross sections inside the bridge than outside, the
HEC-RAS software will add two additional cross sections just outside of
the bridge, in order to get the correct geometry inside of the bridge.
This however gives the HEC-RAS data set two more cross-sections than
the original HEC-2 data set. The two cross sections are placed at zero
distance from the bridge, but could still cause some additional losses
due to contraction and expansion of flow. The user may want to make
some adjustments to the data when this happens.

3. In HEC-2 the stationing of the bridge table (BT Records) had to match
stations on the ground (GR data). This is not required in HEC-RAS. The
stationing of the data that makes up a bridge (ground, deck/roadway,
piers, and abutments) does not have to match in any way, HEC-RAS will
interpolate any points that it needs.

C-6
 Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2

Culvert Hydraulic Computations

The culvert routines in HEC-RAS and HEC-2 were adapted from the Federal Highway
Administrations Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts publication, HDS No. 5 (FHWA, 1985). The
following is a list of the differences between the two programs.

1. HEC-2 can only perform culvert calculations for box and circular culvert
shapes. HEC-RAS can handle the following shapes: box; circular pipe;
semi-circle; arch; pipe arch, vertical ellipse; horizontal ellipse; low
profile arch; high profile arch; and ConSpan.

2. HEC-RAS also has the ability to mix the culvert shapes, sizes, and all
other parameters at any single culvert crossing. In HEC-2 the user is
limited to the same shape and size barrels.

3. HEC-RAS has the ability to use two roughness coefficients inside the
culvert barrel (one for the top and sides, and one for the bottom). This
allows for better modeling of culverts that have a natural bottom, or
culverts that were designed for fish passage.

4. HEC-RAS allows the user to fill in a portion of a culvert. This allows

users to model culverts that are buried.

Floodway Encroachment Calculations

The floodway encroachment capabilities in HEC-RAS were adapted from those found in HEC-2.
For the most part, encroachment methods 1-3 in HEC-RAS are the same as methods 1-3 in HEC-
2. The following is a list of the differences between the two programs.

1. HEC-RAS has an additional capability of allowing the user to specify a

left and right encroachment offset. While in general the encroachments
can go all the way up to the main channel bank stations, the offset
establishes an additional buffer zone around the main channel bank
stations for limiting the encroachments. The offset is applicable to
methods 2-5 in HEC-RAS.

2. The logic of method 4 in HEC-RAS is the same as method 4 in HEC-2.

The only difference is that the HEC-RAS method 4 will locate the final
encroachment to an accuracy of 0.01 feet, while the HEC-2 method 4
uses a parabolic interpolation method between the existing cross
section points. Since conveyance is non-linear with respect to the
horizontal stationing, the interpolation in HEC-2 does not always find
the encroachment station as accurately as HEC-RAS.

3. Method 5 in HEC-RAS is a combination of HEC-2's methods 5 and 6. The

HEC-RAS method five can be used to optimize for a change in water

C-7
Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2
surface (HEC-2 method 5); a change in energy (HEC-2 method 6); or
both parameters at the same time (new feature).

4. At bridges and culverts, the default in HEC-RAS is to perform the

encroachment, while in HEC-2 the default was not to perform the
encroachment. Both programs have the ability to turn encroachments
at bridges and culverts on or off.

5. At bridges where the energy based modeling approach is being used

(similar to HEC-2's normal bridge method), HEC-RAS will calculate the
encroachment for each of the cross sections through the bridge
individually. HEC-2 will take the encroachments calculated at the
downstream side of the bridge and fix those encroachment stations the
whole way through the bridge.

6. In HEC-2, if the user specifies a fixed set of encroachments on the X3

record, this would override anything on the ET record. In HEC-RAS,
when the data is imported the X3 record encroachment is converted
into a blocked obstruction. Therefore any additional encroachment
information found on the ET record will be used in addition to the
blocked obstruction.

New Computational Features in HEC-RAS

1. HEC-RAS can perform sub-critical, supercritical, or mixed flow regime
calculations all in a single execution of the program. The cross section
order does not have to be reversed (as in HEC-2), the user simply
presses a single button to select the computational flow regime. When
in a mixed flow regime mode, HEC-RAS can also locate hydraulic jumps.

2. HEC-RAS has the ability to perform multiple bridge and/or culvert

openings at the same road crossing.

3. At bridges, the user has the ability to use a momentum-based solution

for class A, B, and C low flow. In HEC-2 the momentum equation was
used for class B and C flow, and requires the trapezoidal approximation.
The HEC-RAS momentum solution also takes into account friction and
weight forces that HEC-2 does not.

4. HEC-RAS can model single reaches, dendritic stream systems, or fully

looped network systems. HEC-2 can only do single reaches and a
limited number of tributaries (up two three stream orders).

5. At stream junctions, HEC-RAS has the ability to perform the calculations

with either an energy-based method or a momentum based method.
HEC-2 only has the energy based method.

C-8
 Appendix C Computational Difference Between HEC-RAS and HEC-2
6. HEC-RAS has the following new cross section properties not found in
HEC-2: blocked ineffective flow areas; normal ineffective flow areas can
be located at any station (in HEC-2 they are limited to the main channel
bank stations); blocked obstructions; and specification of levees.

7. In HEC-RAS the user can enter up to 500 points in a cross section. HEC-2
has a limit of 100.

8. HEC-RAS has the ability to perform geometric cross section

interpolation. HEC-2 interpolation is based on a ratio of the current
cross section and a linear elevation adjustment.

9. HEC-RAS has an improved flow distribution calculation routine. The

new routine can subdivide the main channel as well as the overbanks,
and the user has control over how many subdivisions are used. The
HEC-2 flow distribution option is limited to the overbank areas and
breaks at existing coordinate points.

C-9
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

APPENDIX D

Computation of the WSPRO Discharge

Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
This appendix documents how the effective flow length and discharge coefficient are computed
for the WSPRO bridge hydraulics methodology in HEC-RAS. The effective flow length is used in
the computation of friction losses from the cross section just upstream of the bridge (section 3)
to the approach cross section (section 4). The coefficient of discharge is used in the expansion
loss equation from sections 1 to 2. The information in this appendix was extracted directly from
the Federal Highway Administrations Research Report entitled: “Bridge Waterways Analysis
Model” (FHWA, 1986).

Effective Flow Length

Since friction losses are directly proportional to flow length, it becomes imperative to obtain the
best possible estimate of flow length, especially for those cases where the friction loss is a
significant component of the energy balance between two sections. For minor degrees of
constriction, a straight line distance between cross sections is usually adequate. However, for
more significant constrictions, this straight-line distance is representative of only that portion of
the flow that is generally in direct line with the opening. Flow further away from the opening
must flow not only downstream, but also across the valley to get to the opening, thus traveling
much farther than the straight-line distance.

Schneider et al. (USGS, 1977) tabulated average streamline lengths for various approach section
locations and various degrees of constriction. These results are not directly applicable in this
model because they are derived for symmetric constrictions in channel reaches having uniform,
homogeneous flow conveyance characteristics. Even if the exact-solution algorithms were
developed for non-symmetric, non-homogeneous conditions, the computer resource
requirements for an exact solution are too great to warrant inclusion in the model. Therefore, a
simplified computational technique was developed and incorporated into the model to compute
average streamline length.

Schneider et al., defined the optimum location of the approach section as:

b
Lopt = φ (D-1)
π (1 − m′)
Where Lopt is the distance, in ft, between the approach section and the upstream face of the
bridge opening, b is the bridge-opening width, and m' is the geometric contraction ratio
computed by:

D-1
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
b
m′ = 1 − (D-2)
B
Where B is the top width, in ft, of the approach section flow area. The Φ term in equation D-1 is
computed by:

1  8 3  1   1
φ= ln  2 + 8 − − ε   8 + 8ε 2 − 3ε −  − ln  ε −  (D-3)
2  ε ε  ε   ε

Where ε is computed by:

ε = 1 + δ + δ 2 + 2δ (D-4)

With δ computed as:

2
δ = (D-5)
 b  
tan 2 1 − π
 2 B  

Lopt is located in a zone of nearly one-dimensional flow, thus satisfying the basic requirements of
the one-dimensional energy equation.

The simplified computational technique varies depending upon the relative magnitudes of Lopt
and b. To introduce the technique, discussion is limited to the ideal situation of a symmetric
constriction with uniform, homogeneous conveyance. For such conditions only one-half of the
valley cross-section is required. This one-half section is divided into ten equal conveyance
stream tubes between edge of water and the centerline at both the Lopt location and the
upstream face of the bridge. Equal-conveyance stream tubes are equivalent to equal-flow
stream tubes for one-dimensional flow. Figure D-1 illustrates a case with a small geometric
contraction ratio. Lopt is less than b for lesser degrees of constriction. Since Lopt is located in a
zone of nearly one-dimensional flow, the streamlines are essentially parallel between the
approach section and the Lopt location. Between Lopt and the bridge opening the
corresponding flow division points are connected with straight lines. The effective flow length
used by the model is the average length of the ten equal-flow stream tubes computed by:

D-2
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-1 Definition sketch of assumed streamlines for relatively low degree of contraction.

D-3
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

1  10 (S + S11 )
Lav =  ∑
10  i = 2
Si + 1
2 

(D-5)

Where i indicates the streamline number and s is the individual streamline length. Although the
straight-line pattern is a gross simplification of the actual curvilinear streamlines, the computed
Lav values are less than 2 percent smaller than the exact solution for small geometric
contraction ratios.

Figure D-2 illustrates a relatively high degree of geometric contraction. Simply connecting the
flow division points of the Lopt and bridge sections does not result in representative lengths for
those streamlines furthest away from the opening.

Therefore, a parabola is computed by the equation:

 b
y 2 = 2b  x +  (D-6)
 2
This parabola has its focus at the edge of water and its axis in the plane of the upstream face of
the bridge. Positive x and y distances are measured from the edge of water towards the stream
centerline and upstream from the plane of the bridge, respectively. For portions of the section
where Lopt is upstream from this parabola, the parallel streamlines are projected to the
parabola and then a straight line connects this projected point with the corresponding flow
division point in the bridge opening. Flow division points of the Lopt section at or downstream
from the parabola are connected directly to their corresponding flow division point for the
bridge opening. Only the distances between the approach and the cross section just upstream
of the bridge opening are used to compute Lav with equation D-5. This process generally
produces results that are within 5 percent of the exact solution. For very severe constrictions
(i.e., m' = 0.95), the differences are closer to 10 percent.

The non-uniform conveyance distribution in the approach reach is represented by defining the
stream tubes on a conveyance basis. The model determines the horizontal stationing of 19
interior flow division points that subdivide both the Lopt and bridge sections into 20 tubes of
equal conveyance. Asymmetric constrictions with nonuniform conveyances are analyzed by
treating each half of the reach on either side of the conveyance midpoints separately, then
averaging the results. Lav for each side provides the conveyance-weighted average streamline
length. Figure D-3 illustrates a typical asymmetric, nonuniform conveyance situation.

D-4
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-2 Definition sketch of assumed streamlines for relatively high degrees of
contraction.

D-5
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-3 Assumed flow pattern for a nonsymmetric constriction with

nonhomogenous roughness distribution

D-6
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Coefficient of Discharge
The coefficient of discharge, as defined by Matthai and used in this model, is a function of
bridge geometry and flow characteristics. Matthai's report presents detailed instructions for
computing the coefficient of discharge for the four most common types of bridge openings. It is
not practical to reproduce that entire report herein, but the following paragraphs summarize
the procedures as adapted to this model. All of the key figures from Matthai's report, the
tabular values and equations used to determine the coefficient of discharge, and a discussion of
the minor modifications made to Matthai's procedures are presented in this appendix. Bridge
openings are classified as one of four different types depending upon characteristics of
embankment and abutment geometry. Regardless of opening type, the first step is to
determine a base coefficient of discharge, C', which is a function of (1) a channel contraction
ratio and (2) a ratio of flow length through the bridge, L, to the bridge-opening width, b. The
channel contraction ratio is

Kq
m = 1− (D-7)
K1

Where Kq is the conveyance of a portion of the approach section (based on projecting the bridge
opening width up to the approach section) and K1 is the total conveyance of the approach
section. The definition of the L and b terms for the length ratio depends upon the opening type.
The definition sketches below define these terms for each opening type. The final coefficient of
discharge, C, is computed by multiplying C' by a series of adjustment factors to account for
variations in geometry and flow from the base conditions used to derive C'. The number of
parameters for which adjustment factors are required depends partially upon the opening type.
Following is a summary description of the opening types and the adjustment factors that are
unique to each:

● Type 1 openings have vertical embankments and vertical abutments with or without
wingwalls. The discharge coefficient is adjusted for the Froude number (kF) and also for
wingwall width (kw) if wingwalls are present or for entrance rounding (kr) if there are no
wingwalls.

● Type 2 openings have sloping embankments and vertical abutments and do not have
wingwalls. The discharge coefficient is adjusted on the basis of the average depth of flow at the
abutments (ky).

● Type 3 openings have sloping embankments with spillthrough abutments. The

discharge coefficient is adjusted on the basis of entrance geometry (kx).

● Type 4 openings have sloping embankments, vertical abutments, and wingwalls. The
discharge coefficient is adjusted depending upon the wingwall angle (kθ).

D-7
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
In addition to the above adjustment factors, which are dependent upon opening type, there are
adjustment factors for piers or piles (kj) and spur dikes (ka, kb, kd) that may be applied to all
opening types. The relationships used to compute all of the above adjustment factors are shown
below.

Figures D-4 through D-7 are definition sketches of the four types of openings for which Matthai
defined the coefficient of discharge. Figures D-8 through D-18 are the relationships defining the
base coefficient of discharge and the factors used to adjust for nonstandard conditions. Except
for type 1 openings, different curves are required for different embankment slopes. Most of
these relationships are incorporated into HEC-RAS in the form of digitized values. The digitized
values are shown in tabular form at the end of this appendix. Table D-1 cross-references the
figures and tables pertaining to the base coefficient of discharge. Table D-2 cross-references
those figures and tables pertaining to the various adjustment factors.

Generally each of the relationships are incorporated into HEC-RAS in the form of three arrays.
Two one-dimensional arrays contain values of the two independent variables (the abscissa of
the relationship and the family of curves), and a two-dimensional array contains the
corresponding values of the dependent variable. Exceptions to this form of representation are
discussed in the following paragraphs.

The type 1 opening Froude number adjustment (fig. D.8(b)) is adequately expressed in equation
form as:

k F = 0.9 + 0.2 F ( for 0.0 ≤ F ≤ 0.5) (D-8)

and

k F = 0.82 + 0.36 F ( for F > 0.5) (D-9)

Where F is the Froude number with an arbitrary upper limit of F = 1.2 for the adjustment. The
average depth adjustment for a type 3 opening with 2 to 1 embankment slope is determined by
the following equations:

k y = 1.00 + 0.3 y ( for 0.0 ≤ y ≤ 0.20) (D-10)

and

k y = 1.02 ± 0.2 y ( for y > 0.2) (D-11)

y a + yb
where y = with y = 0.30 as an upper Limit.
2b

The type 4 opening wing wall adjustment factor, kθ, is computed using slopes of the family of
curves (figs. D.15 and D.16). The equation for specified m-values is:
D-8
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

kθ = 1.0 + (WW − 30) Skθ (D-12)

Where WW is the wing wall angle and Skθ is the appropriate slope from tables D.16 or D.18. kθ
is obtained by interpolation for intermediate m-values.

Certain adjustments presented by Matthai were not incorporated into the WSPR0 bridge
methodology. The skew adjustment was omitted because WSPR0 always computes the flow
area normal to the flow for skewed bridge openings. An adjustment for submerged flow was
also omitted because the FHWA methodology is used to compute pressure flow when girders
are significantly submerged. The Froude number adjustment for type 4 openings with 2 to 1
embankment slope was intentionally omitted for reasons of consistency. There is no similar
adjustment for type 4 openings with 1 to 1 embankment slopes, and the adjustment is rather
minor. Matthai also applied an adjustment for eccentricity, which is a measure of unequal
conveyances on left and right overbanks of the approach section. This factor was not included in
WSPR0 on the bases that (1) it is a very minor adjustment, and (2) the effective flow length
accounts for conveyance distribution.

D-9
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-4 Definition sketch of type 2 opening, sloping embankments without wing
walls (after Matthai)

D-10
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-5 Definition sketch of type 2 opening, sloping embankments without wing
walls (after Matthai)

D-11
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-6 Definition sketch of type 3 opening, sloping embankments and sloping
abutments (spill through) (after Matthai)

D-12
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-7 Definition sketch of type 4 opening, sloping embankments and vertical
abutments with wing walls (after Matthai)

D-13
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-1 Cross-reference of Figures and Tables pertaining to the base coefficient of discharge.

Type Embankment Figure Table

Opening Slope No. No.
1 D-8 D-3

1 to 1 D-10 D-6
2
2 to 1 D-11 D-8
1 to 1 D-12 D-10
3 1 2 to 1 D-13 D-12
2 to 1 D-14 D-14
1 to 1 D-15 D-15
4
2 to 1 D-16 D-17

Table D-2 Cross-reference of Figures and Tables pertaining to adjustment factors

Type Embankment Adjustment Figure Table

Opening Slope Factor For: No. No.
Entrance Rounding D-8 D-4
1 Wingwalls D-9 D-5
Froude Number Eqn. Eqn.
1 to 1 Average Depth D-10 D-7
2
2 to 1 A D-11 D-9

1 to 1 Entrance Geometry D-12 D-11

3 1 2 to 1 A D-13 D-13
2 to 1 A Eqn. Eqn.
1 to 1 Wingwalls D-15 D-16
4
2 to 1 A D-16 D-18

Piers or Piles D-17 D-19, D-20

All
Spur Dikes D-18 D-21

D-14
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-8 Coefficients for type 1 openings (after Matthai)

D-15
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-9 Wingwall adjustment factors for type 1 openings (after Matthai).

D-16
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D- 10 Coefficients for type 2 openings, embankment slope 1 to 1 (after

Matthai)

D-17
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-11 Coefficients for type 2 openings, embankment slope 2 to 1 (after Matthai).

D-18
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-12 Coefficients for type 3 openings, embankment slope 1 to 1 (after

Matthai)

D-19
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

D-20
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
Figure D-13 Coefficients for type 3 openings, embankment slope 1-1/2 to 1 (after
Matthai).

Figure D- 14 Coefficients for type 3 openings, embankment slope 2 to 1 (after

Matthai)

D-21
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D- 15 Coefficients for type 4 openings, embankment slope 1 to 1 (after

Matthai)

D-22
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-16 Coefficients for type 4 openings, embankment slope 2 to 1 (after

Matthai)

D-23
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-17 Adjustment factors for piers or piles, all opening types (after Matthai)

D-24
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Figure D-18 Adjustment factors for spur dikes, all opening types (after Matthai)

D-25
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-3 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 1 opening, with or without wing walls

0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0

0.0 1.00 0.83 0.745 0.70 0.67 0.67
0.2 1.00 0.92 0.81 0.74 0.685 0.685
0.4 1.00 0.95 0.86 0.755 0.71 0.71
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.965 0.89 0.82 0.735 0.735
0.8 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.855 0.77 0.765
1.0 1.00 0.98 0.935 0.885 0.80 0.795
1.5 1.00 0.985 0.95 0.91 0.845 0.835
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.955 0.92 0.87 0.86
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D-4 Variation of adjustment factor, kr, for type 1 opening with entrance rounding
r/b

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.14

0.1 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07
0.2 1.04 1.08 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.11
m 0.4 1.03 1.05 1.09 1.12 1.14 1.15 1.16
0.6 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.15 1.17 1.18
0.8 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.18 1.20
1.0 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.18 1.22
r/b is the ratio of entrance rounding to bridge-opening width.

m is the channel contraction ratio.

D-26
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-5 Variation of adjustment factor, k0, for type 1 opening with wing walls (fig. D-9).
w/b

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.14

0.1 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02
0.2 1.01 1.025 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04
m 0.4 1.01 1.025 1.04 1.06 1.06 1.06 1.06
0.6 1.01 1.025 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.07
0.8 1.01 1.025 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.09
1.0 1.01 1.025 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10

(a) 30o wing walls

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.14

0.1 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02
0.2 1.01 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.05
m 0.4 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.09
0.6 1.03 1.06 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.12
0.8 1.03 1.06 1.11 1.13 1.15 1.15 1.15
1.0 1.03 1.06 1.11 1.13 1.15 1.16 1.17

(b) 45o wing walls

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.14

0.1 1.02 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

0.2 1.04 1.07 1.09 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
m 0.4 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.18 1.18 1.18 1.18
0.6 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.26
0.8 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.22 1.26 1.28 1.29
1.0 1.04 1.09 1.15 1.22 1.26 1.28 1.32
o
(c) 60 wingwalls

w/b is the ratio of wing wall width to bridge-opening width.

D-27
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-6 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 2 opening, embankment slope 1 to 1
m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 1.00 0.92 0.845 0.805 0.755 0.745
0.2 1.00 0.955 0.88 0.83 0.775 0.765
0.4 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.85 0.795 0.79
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.975 0.925 0.87 0.81 0.805
0.8 1.00 0.98 0.94 0.895 0.835 0.825
1.0 1.00 0.985 0.95 0.91 0.855 0.845
1.5 1.00 0.988 0.96 0.93 0.885 0.88
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.965 0.94 0.905 0.90
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D-7 Variation of adjustment factor, ky, for type 2 opening, embankment slope
1 to 1

(see fig. D-10).

m
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0
ya + yb 0.03 1.00 0.94 0.895 0.86 0.86
----- 0.05 1.00 0.97 0.93 0.88 0.88
2b 0.07 1.00 0.985 0.955 0.91 0.91
0.10 1.00 0.995 0.98 0.94 0.94
0.15 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.98
m is the channel contraction ratio.

(ya + yb)/2b is the ratio of average depth at the abutments to bridge-opening width.

D-28
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-8 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 2 opening, embankment slope 2 to 1

(see fig. D-10)

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0

0.0 1.00 0.965 0.915 0.86 0.79 0.78

0.2 1.00 0.97 0.925 0.87 0.80 0.79

0.4 1.00 0.98 0.935 0.89 0.81 0.80
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.99 0.95 0.90 0.83 0.82
0.8 1.00 0.995 0.96 0.91 0.845 0.83
1.0 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.925 0.855 0.84
1.5 1.00 1.00 0.975 0.94 0.89 0.875
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.905 0.895
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D-9 Variation of adjustment factor, ky, for type 2 opening, embankment slope 2 to 1

(see fig. D-11)

m
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0
0.03 1.00 0.935 0.89 0.88 0.88
0.05 1.00 0.965 0.925 0.91 0.91
ya+yb
0.07 1.00 0.975 0.95 0.945 0.945
-----
0.10 1.00 0.985 0.97 0.97 0.97
2b
0.15 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
m is the channel contraction ratio

(ya + yb)/2b is the ratio of average depth at the abutments to bridge-opening width.

D-29
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-10 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 3 opening, embankment slope1 to 1

(see fig. D-12)

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 1.00 0.85 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.69
0.2 1.00 0.91 0.79 0.745 0.71 0.71
0.4 1.00 0.945 0.83 0.775 0.74 0.735
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.97 0.87 0.81 0.765 0.76
0.8 1.00 0.985 0.91 0.85 0.795 0.79
1.0 1.00 0.995 0.945 0.88 0.82 0.81
1.5 1.00 1.00 0.96 0.91 0.86 0.85
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.925 0.88 0.875
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D-11 Variation of adjustment factor, ky, for type 3 opening, embankment slope 1 to 1.
(see fig. D-12).

x/b
0.00 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25
0.0 1.00 1.09 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.14
L/b 0.2 1.00 1.11 1.155 1.16 1.16 1.16
0.5 1.00 1.135 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.20
x/b is the ratio of "unwetted" abutment length to bridge-opening width.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

D-30
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-12 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 3 opening, embankment slope 1-1/2 to 1

(see fig. D-13).

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 1.00 0.885 0.76 0.715 0.70 0.70
0.2 1.00 0.92 0.80 0.75 0.725 0.72
0.4 1.00 0.945 0.84 0.78 0.75 0.745
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.97 0.88 0.815 0.77 0.765
0.8 1.00 0.99 0.915 0.85 0.805 0.80
1.0 1.00 1.00 0.945 0.88 0.83 0.825
1.5 1.00 1.00 0.955 0.905 0.87 0.87
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.965 0.92 0.885 0.885
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D- 13 Variation of adjustment factor, kx, for type 3 opening, embankment slope 1-1/2 to 1

(see fig. D-13).

x/b
0.00 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.25
0.0 1.00 1.055 1.085 1.09 1.095 1.10
L/b 0.2 1.00 1.065 1.10 1.105 1.11 1.115
0.5 1.00 1.08 1.11 1.12 1.125 1.13
x/b is the ratio of "unwetted" abutment length to bridge-opening width.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

D-31
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-14 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 3 opening, embankment slope 2 to 1

(see fig. D-14).

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 1.00 0.90 0.78 0.72 0.70 0.70
0.2 1.00 0.92 0.81 0.755 0.72 0.72
0.4 1.00 0.94 0.845 0.785 0.75 0.75
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.96 0.875 0.81 0.78 0.78
0.8 1.00 0.985 0.91 0.845 0.81 0.81
1.0 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.87 0.845 0.84
1.5 1.00 1.00 0.95 0.905 0.875 0.87
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.895 0.89
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

Table D- 15 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 4 opening, embankment slope 1 to 1

(see fig. D-15)

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.99 0.85 0.755 0.715 0.695 0.69
0.2 1.00 0.90 0.815 0.775 0.735 0.73
0.4 1.00 0.955 0.885 0.83 0.775 0.77
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.985 0.935 0.875 0.815 0.81
0.8 1.00 0.99 0.955 0.91 0.84 0.835
1.0 1.00 1.00 0.965 0.925 0.855 0.85
1.5 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.89 0.885
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.975 0.95 0.905 0.90
m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width.

D-32
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

m
Skθ
0.1 0.00057
0.2 0.001
0.4 0.002
0.6 0.00343
0.8 0.00413
1.0 0.00483

Table D- 16 Slopes of family of curves for determining adjustment factor, k0, for wing wall

Angle for type 4 openings, embankment slope 1 to 1 (see fig. D-15).

Table D-17 Base coefficient of discharge, C’, for type 4 opening, embankment slope 2 to 1

(see fig. D-16).

m
0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
0.0 1.00 0.93 0.80 0.705 0.67 0.67
0.2 1.00 0.95 0.855 0.765 0.725 0.725
0.4 1.00 0.97 0.895 0.815 0.78 0.78
L/b 0.6 1.00 0.985 0.925 0.845 0.805 0.805
0.8 1.00 0.99 0.94 0.87 0.825 0.825
1.0 1.00 0.995 0.95 0.89 0.85 0.85
1.5 1.00 0.995 0.965 0.91 0.88 0.88
2.0 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.925 0.89 0.89

m is the channel contraction ratio.

L/b is the ratio of flow length to bridge-opening width

D-33
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
Table D-18 Slopes of family of curves for determining adjustment factor, k0, for wing wall

Angle for type 4 openings, embankment slope 2 to 1 (see fig. D-16).

m
Skθ

0.1 0.00243
0.2 0.00283
0.4 0.00373
0.6 0.00467
0.8 0.00557
1.0 0.00667

Table D-19 Adjustment factor, ki for piers (see fig. D-17).

0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00

0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.05 0.978 0.979 0.985 0.991 1.00
j 0.10 0.955 0.957 0.967 0.98 1.00
0.15 0.93 0.933 0.948 0.968 1.00
0.20 0.903 0.907 0.928 0.956 1.00

D-34
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Table D-20 Adjustment factor, kj, for piles (see fig. 17).

0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00

0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.973 0.976 0.984 0.99 1.00
L/b 0.50 0.933 0.94 0.96 0.976 1.00
1.00 0.88 0.888 0.92 0.953 1.00
2.00 0.76 0.772 0.84 0.905 1.00

(a) k j for piles when j = 0.10

j
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
.76 1.00 0.902 0.81 0.71 0.615 0.52
k j for .80 1.00 0.92 0.841 0.761 0.684 0.605
j=.1 .90 1.00 0.961 0.921 0.88 0.842 0.802
1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

(b) k j for piles when j  0.10

D-35
Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length

Ld/b
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.5

0.2 1.00 1.23 1.32 1.37 1.41 1.42

m 0.4 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.35 1.39 1.40
0.6 1.00 1.16 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.36
0.8 1.00 1.11 1.20 1.25 1.29 1.30

(a) Kd for elliptical dike length

Ld/b
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.5

0.2 1.00 0.96 0.935 0.92 0.91 0.905

m 0.4 1.00 0.968 0.95 0.935 0.93 0.925
0.6 1.00 0.976 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.935
0.8 1.00 0.984 0.973 0.965 0.955 0.95

(b) Ka for elliptical dike angularity

Ld/b
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.5
0.2 1.00 1.09 1.18 1.25 1.27 1.27
m 0.4 1.00 1.08 1.16 1.22 1.24 1.24
0.6 1.00 1.07 1.14 1.18 1.21 1.21
0.8 1.00 1.06 1.12 1.16 1.18 1.18

(c) Kd for straight dike length

Ld/b_d
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.8

0.2 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.06 1.10 1.00

m 0.4 1.00 0.97 0.98 1.04 1.08 1.00

D-36
 Appendix D Computational of the WSPRO Discharge Coefficient and Effective Flow Length
0.6 1.00 0.94 0.94 1.00 1.05 1.00
0.8 1.00 0.89 0.88 0.945 1.01 1.00

(d) Kb for straight dike offset

Table D-21 Adjustment factors for spur dikes (see fig. D-18).

D-37
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

APPENDIX E

Sediment Transport Functions – Sample

Calculations
The following sample calculations were the basis for the algorithms used in the HEC-
RAS sediment transport functions. They were computed for a single grain size, however
they were adapted in the code to account for multiple grain sizes.

Ackers-White Sediment Transport Function

by Ackers-White (ASCE Jour. Of Hyd, Nov 1973)
Input Parameters
Temperature, F T = 55 Average Velocity, ft/s V = 2

Kinetic viscosity, ft2/s ν = 0.00001315 Discharge, ft3/s Q = 5000

Depth, ft D = 10 Unit Weight water, lb/ft3 γ w = 62.385

Slope S = 0.001 Overall d50, ft d50 = 0.00232

Median Particle Diamter, ft dsi = 0.00232

Specific Gravity of Sediment, s = 2.65

Constants
Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2
Solution
*note: Ackers-White required the use of d35 as the representative grain size for
computations in their original paper. In the HEC-RAS approach, the median grain size
will be used as per the 1993 update. The overall d50 is used for the hiding factor
computations.
Hiding Factor from Profitt and Sutherland has been added for this procedure, but will be
included as an option in HEC-RAS.
Computations are updated as per Acker's correction in Institution of Civil Engineers
Water Maritime and Energy, Dec 1993.

Dimensionless grain diameter,

E-1
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
1

d gr = d si  g ⋅ (s − 1)  3
 ν2 
 

d gr = 15.655

Shear velocity u

u star = g ⋅ D ⋅ S u star = 0.567

Sediment size-related transition exponent n,

1 if d gr ≤ 1
n = (1 − .056 ⋅ log(d gr )) if 1 < d gr ≤ 60 n = 0.331
0 if d gr > 60

Initial motion parameter A,

 0.23 
 + 0 . 14  if d ≤ 60
A =  d gr  gr
A = 0.198
 
0.17 otherwise

Sediment mobility number Fgr,

α = 10 (assumed value used in HEC6 and SAM) α = 10

1− n
 
 
u star
n
 V 
Fgr = ⋅  Fgr = 0.422
g ⋅ d si ⋅ (s − 1)   D 
 
 32 ⋅ log α ⋅ d 
  si 

Hiding Factor HF,

Shield’s Mobility Parameter ,

2
u star
θ= θ = 2.612
g ⋅ (s − 1)d 50

E-2
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

1.1 if θ ≤ 0.04
(2.3 − 30 ⋅ θ ) if 0.04 < θ ≤ 0.045
dRatio = dRatio = 0.45
(1.4 − 10 ⋅ θ ) if 0.045 < θ ≤ 0.095
0.45 otherwise

dAdjust = d 50 ⋅ dRatio dAdjust = 1.044 x 10-3

d si
HFRatio = HFRatio = 2.222
dAdjust

1.30 if HFRatio ≥ 3.7

HF = (0.53 ⋅ log(HFRatio) + 1) if 0.075 ≤ HFRatio < 3.7 HF = 1.184
0.40 otherwise

Adjust Sediment Mobility Number for Hiding Factor

Fgr = HF ⋅ Fgr Fgr = 0.5

Check for too fine sediment based on Fgr and A,

Fgr
Check = Check = 2.522
A

Sediment transport function exponent m,

 
 6.83 + 1.67  if d gr ≤ 60

m =  d gr  m = 2.106

1.78 otherwise

Check for too fine sediment based on m,

0 if m > 6
Check = Check = 2.522
Check otherwise

Sediment transport function coefficient C,

E-3
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
( ) ( ( ))
2.79⋅log d gr − 0.98 log d gr 2 −3.46
if d gr ≤ 60
C=
10 C = 0.0298
0.025 otherwise

Transport parameter Ggr,

m
 Fgr 
G gr = C ⋅  − 1 G gr = 0.072
 A 

Sediment flux X, in parts per million by fluid weight,

G gr sd si
X = n X = 6.741 x 10-5
u 
D star 
 V 

Sediment Discharge, lb/s

G = γ wQX G = 21.027

Sediment Discharge, tons/day

Gs =
86400
⋅G Gs = 908
2000

Check to make sure particle diameter and mobility functions are not too low,

if Check > 1
Gs =
Gs
Gs = 908
0 otherwise

E-4
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

Engelund Hansen Sediment Transport Function

by Vanoni (1975), and Raudkivi (1976)

Input Parameters

Temperature, F T = 55 Average Velocity, ft/s V = 5.46

Kinematic viscosity, ft2/s ν = 0.00001315

Depth, ft D = 22.9 Unit Weight water, lb/ft3 γ w = 62.385

Slope S = 0.0001

Median Particle Diamter, ft dsi = 0.00232 Channel Width, ft B = 40

Specific Gravity of Sediment, s = 2.65

Constants

Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2

Solution
Bed level shear stress 
o,

τ = γ w ⋅ D ⋅ S τ  = 0.143

Fall diameter df,

df =
(− 69.07 ⋅ dsi + 1.0755 ⋅ d si + 0.000007
2
) if d si ≤ 0.00591
d f = 2.13 × 10 −3
(0.1086 ⋅ dsi )
0.6462
otherwise

E-5
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
Sediment discharge lb/s,

3
 τ 2
g s = 0.05 ⋅ γ w ⋅ s ⋅ V 2 ⋅
df
⋅  ⋅B g s = 32.82
g ⋅ (s − 1)  (γ w ⋅ s − γ w ) ⋅ d f 

Sediment discharge ton/day,

Gs = gs ⋅
86400
Gs = 1418
2000

E-6
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

Laursen-Copeland Sediment Transport Function

by Copeland (from SAM code, 1996)

Input Parameters
Temperature, F T = 55 Average Velocity, ft/s V = 5.46

Kinematic viscosity, ft2/s ν = 0.00001315 Discharge, ft3/s Q = 5000

Depth, ft D = 22.90 Unit Weight water, lb/ft3

γ w = 62.385

Slope S = 0.0001 84% Particle diameter, ft d84 =

0.00294

Median Particle Diamter, ft dsi = 0.00232

Specific Gravity of Sediment s = 2.65

Constants
Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2

Solution
*Note: the difference between the final result presented here and the result in SAM is
due to
the method for determining fall velocity. Rubey is used here, whereas SAM
computes a
value based on a drag coefficient determined from Reynolds number. Calculation
routine taken from SAM.
Because the grain distribution is reduced to standard grade sizes representing each
present
grade class, the d84 will equal the standard grade size, dsi, in this procedure.

d 84 = d si

Grain-related hydraulic radius R

E-7
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
3
1
0.0472 ⋅ V 2 ⋅ (3.5 ⋅ d 84 ) 4
R' = 3
R' = 14.189
(g ⋅ S) 4

R’ = 15.248

u*' = g ⋅ R'⋅S u*' = 0.222

V   R' 
FNRP =  '  − 3.28 − 5.75 ⋅ log 
 u*   d 84 

FNRP = 5.195 × 10 −4

E-8
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

V + 5 ⋅ u*'
DFNRP = DFNRP = 0.972
2.0 ⋅ u*' ⋅ R'

FNRP
RPRI 2 = R '+ RPRI 2 = 15.249
DFNRP

∆R = RPRI 2 − R ' ∆R = 5.345 × 10 −4

R' if ∆R ≤ 0.001
R' =
RPRI 2 otherwise

R ' = 15.248

Grain-related bed shear stress τ ' b ,

τ ' b = R'⋅γ w ⋅ S τ ' b = 0.095

τb = D ⋅γ w ⋅ S τ b = 0.143

τ 'b if τ ' b < τ b

τ 'b = τ ' b = 0.095
τb otherwise

τ 'b ⋅g u*' = 0.222

u*' =
γw

1.16667
d 
RRP =  si  RRP = 2.187 × 10 −5
 R 

E-9
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

∗
Dimensionless bed shear stress τ b ,

τ 'b
τ b* =
γ w ⋅ (s − 1) ⋅ d si

τ b* = 0.398

Shield’s parameter for course grains θ * ,

θ * = 0.647 ⋅ τ b* + 0.0064

0.02 if θ * < 0.02

θ =
*
θ * = 0.264
θ *
otherwise

Critical shear stress, τ cr

τ cr =
[θ *
⋅ γ w ⋅ (s − 1) ⋅ d si ] if τ b* ≤ 0.05
τ cr = 9.315 × 10 −3
[0.039 ⋅ γ w ⋅ (s − 1) ⋅ d si ] otherwise

Shear stress mobility parameter TFP,

τ' b
TFP = −1 TFP = 9.214
τ cr

Fall velocity ω ,

Use Rubey’s equation, Vanoni p. 169

E-10
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

2 36 ⋅ ν 2 36 ⋅ ν 2
F1 = + − F1 = 0.725
3 g ⋅ d si 3 ⋅ (s − 1) g ⋅ d si 3 ⋅ (s − 1)

ω = F1 ⋅ (s − 1) ⋅ g ⋅ d si ω = 0.255

Particle velocity ratio SF,

u*'
SF = SF = 0.870
ω

Particle velocity ratio parameter Ψ ,

[7.04 ⋅10 15
⋅ (SF )
22.99
]
if SF ≤ 0.225
Ψ = (40.0 ⋅ SF ) if 0.225 < SF ≤ 1.0 Ψ = 34.804
(40 ⋅ SF 1.843
) if SF > 1.0

Sediment transport Gs, tons/day

G s = 0.432 ⋅ γ w ⋅ Q ⋅ RRP ⋅ TFP ⋅ Ψ Gs = 945

E-11
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
Meyer-Peter Muller Sediment Transport Function
by Vanoni (1975), and Schlichting’s Boundary Layer Theory, 1968

Input Parameters
Temperature, F T = 55 Average Velocity, ft/s V = 5.46

Kinematic viscosity, ft2/s ν = 0.00001315 Discharge, ft3/s Q = 5000

Depth, ft D = 22.9 Unit Weight water, lb/ft3 γw = 62.385

Slope S = 0.0001 Overall d50, ft d90 = 0.00306

Median Particle Diamter, ft dsi = 0.00232 Channel Width, ft B = 40

Specific Gravity of Sediment, s = 2.65

Constants

Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2

Solution

Shear velocity u,

u* = g ⋅ D ⋅ S u* = 0.272

Shear Reynold’s number, Rs,

u* ⋅ d 90 Rs = 63.189
Rs =
ν
Schlichting’s B coefficient, Bcoeff

E-12
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

(5.5 + 2.5 ⋅ ln(Rs )) if R s ≤ 5

0.297918 + 24.8666 ⋅ log(Rs ) − 22.9885 ⋅ (log(Rs ))2 ...
BCoeff =   if 5 < R s ≤ 70
 + 8.5199 ⋅ (log(Rs )) − 1.10752 ⋅ (log(Rs ))
3 4

8.5 otherwise

Friction factor due to sand grains f’,

2
 
 
 2.82843 
f '=   f’ = 9.565 X 10-3
 BCoeff − 3.75 + 2.5 ⋅ ln 2 ⋅ D  
  d 
  90  

Nikaradse roughness ratio RKR,

f' V
RKR = ⋅ RKR = 0.695
8 g⋅D⋅S

Sediment discharge lb/s,

3
 2
 
 (RKR )2 ⋅ γ w ⋅ D ⋅ S − 0.047 ⋅ (γ w ⋅ s − γ w ) ⋅ d si 
3

gs =  1 2  ⋅B g s = 7.073
 γ  γ ⋅ s −γw 
3 3 
 0.25 ⋅  w  ⋅  w  
  g   γw ⋅s  

Sediment discharge ton/day,

86400
Gs = gs ⋅ Gs = 306
2000

E-13
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
Toffaleti Sediment Transport Function
by Vanoni, for single grain size
Input Parameters
Slope, S = 0.0001 Temperature, F T = 55

Hydraulic Radius, ft R = 10.68 viscosity, ft2/s

ν = 0.00001315

Width, ft B = 40 Median Particle Size, ft dsi = 0.00232

Velocity, ft/s V = 5.46 65% finer Particle

Size, ft d65 = 0.00257

Fraction of Total Sediment pi = 1

Unit Weight of Water, lb/ft3 γ w = 62.385

Constants

Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2

Solution

Nikaradse Roughness Value, using d65, as per Einstein, 1950, p.

k s = d 65 k s = 2.57 × 10 −3

Grain-related shear velocity as per Einstein, 1950, p. 10

Guess u '*try = 0.199 Assume hydraulically rough grain first.

2
u '*try
r' = r’ = 12.298
g⋅S

E-14
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

V
u '* =
  
 5.75 ⋅ log12.27 ⋅ r '  
  k s  
 
Check u '* = 0.199

Check for hydraulically rough or smooth grains…

Guess u '*try = 0.169

2
u '*try
r' = r’ = 8.87
g⋅S

11.6 ⋅ v
δ '= δ ' = 9.026 × 10 −4
u '*try

ks ks
Check = Check = 2.847 = 2.847
δ' δ'

V
if Check < 5 Smooth
  r '⋅u '*try 
u '* =  5.75 ⋅ log 3.67 ⋅  
ν 
  
u '* otherwise Rough

Check u '* =0.169

E-15
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

Check for Transitional regime

ks
Φ= Φ = 2.847 Φ = 3.416
δ'

x = 1.14 from figure 2.97, Vanoni, page 196

V
if 0.1 < Φ < 10
 r '⋅x 
u '* = 5.75 ⋅ log12.27 ⋅ 
 k s 
u '* otherwise

11.6 ⋅ v ks
δ '= Φ= Φ = 3.416
u '* δ'
E-16
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

u '* = 0.203

****Note: Einstein’s method for determining u’* was compared with Toffaleti’s graphical
approach.
Results showed that the two methods are in acceptable agreement, with differences on
the order
of less than 3%. Einstein’s approach was selected for its established reputation and its
relative
simplicity.
Toffaleti coefficients, A and k4,

(10 ⋅ν )
1
5 3
A factor = Afactor = 0.54
10 ⋅ u '*

(9.5987 ⋅ A factor
−1.5445
) if A factor ≤ 0.5
(39.079 ⋅ A factor
0.481
) if 0.5 < A factor ≤ 0.66
A = (221.85 ⋅ A ) if 0.66 < A factor ≤ 0.72
4.660
factor A = 29.065
48 if 0.72 < A factor ≤ 1.3
(22.594 ⋅ A factor
2.872
) if A factor > 1.3

(10 )
1
⋅ν 3
5
k 4 Factor = ⋅ 105 ⋅ S ⋅ d 65 K4Factor = 0.014
10 ⋅ u '*

(1.0) if k 4Facotr ≤ 0.25

(
k 4 = 5.315 ⋅ k 4 Factor 1.205 ) if 0.25 〈 k 4Factor ≤ 0.35
(0.510 ⋅ k 4 Factor
−1.028
) if k 4Factor 〉 0.35
k4 = 1

Ak 4 = A ⋅ k 4

Check for too low values for the product Ak4,

E-17
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

16 if Ak 4 〈 16
Ak 4 = Ak4 = 29.065
Ak 4 if Ak 4 ≥ 16

More Coefficients,

TT = 1.10 ⋅ (0.051 + 0.00009 ⋅ T ) TT = 0.062

n V = 0.1198 + 0.00048 ⋅ T nV = 0.146

c z = 260.67 − 0.667 ⋅ T cZ = 223.985

Fall Velocity for Medium Sand from Toffaleti Tables at 55 degrees F,

wi = 0.340

zi =
wi ⋅V zi = 7.76
cz ⋅ R ⋅S

(1.5 ⋅ nV ) if z i < n V
zi = 7.76
zi =
zi otherwise

Empirical Relationship for gssLi,

g ssLi =
0.600 ⋅ p i
5 5
g ssLi = 6.473
 TT ⋅ Ak 4  3  d si 3
  ⋅  
   0.00058 
2
V

g ssLi
Mi = Mi = 2.948 X 10-10
 R  1+ nV −0.756⋅ zi

− (2 ⋅ d si ) V
1+ n −0.756⋅ zi
  
  11.24  
 1 + nV − 0.756 ⋅ zi 
 
 
Concentration,

Mi
C Li = CLi = 1.425 X 10-18
43.2 ⋅ pi ⋅ (1 + nV ) ⋅ V ⋅ R 0.756⋅zi −nV

Check for unrealistically high concentration and adjust Mi if necessary,

E-18
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
−0.756⋅ zi
 2 ⋅ d si  C 2 d = 75.536
C2 d = C Li ⋅  
 R 

C Li if C 2d < 100
100
C Li = −0.756⋅ zi
if C 2d ≥ 100 CLi = 1.425 X 10-18
 2 ⋅ d si 
 
 R 

[
M i = C Li ⋅ 43.2 ⋅ pi ⋅ (1 + nV ) ⋅ V ⋅ R 0.756⋅zi −nV ] Mi = 2.948 X
-10
10
Bed Load Transport,

g sbi = M i ⋅ (2 ⋅ d si )
(1+ nV −0.756 zi )
g sbi = 30.555
Lower Layer Transport,

  R  (1+ nV −0.756⋅zi ) (1+ n −0.756⋅zi ) 

  − (2 ⋅ d si ) V 
= Mi ⋅  g ssLi = 6.473
11.24  
g ssLi
 1 + nV − 0.756 ⋅ zi 
 
 
Middle Layer Transport,

 R 
0.244⋅z i  R 1+ n V − zi  R 1+ n V − z i 
  ⋅   −  
 11.24   2.5   11.24  
g ssMi = M i ⋅ gssMi = 5.674 X
1+ n V − zi
10-1
Upper Layer Transport,

 R 
0.244⋅z i
 R 
0.5⋅z i  R  V
1+ n −1.5⋅z i 
  ⋅  ⋅ R (1+ n V −1.5⋅z i ) −   
 11.24   2.5    2.5  
g ssUi = M i ⋅ gssUi = 1.72 X
1 + n V − 1. 5 ⋅ z i
10-15
Total Transport per Unit Width,

g si = g sbi + g ssLi + g ssMi + g ssUi g si = 37.027

Total Transport,
G = g si ⋅ B G = 1481 tons/day

E-19
Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations
Yang Sediment Transport Function
by Yang, from ASCE Journal of Hydraulics, Oct 1973, Dec 1984
Input Parameters

Temperature, F T = 55 Average Velocity, ft/s V = 5.46

Kinematic viscosity, ft2/s ν = 0.00001315 Discharge, ft3/s Q = 5000

Hydraulic Radius, ft R = 10.68 Unit Weight water, lb/ft3 γ w = 62.385

Slope, S = 0.0001

Meidan Particle Diamter, ft dsi = 0.00232

Specific Gravity of Sediment s = 2.65

Constants

Acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 g = 32.2

Solution

Shear Velocity, ft/s,

u* = g ⋅ R ⋅ S u * = 0.185

Particle Fall Velocity, ft/s,

Use Rubey’s equation, Vanoni p. 169

2 36 ⋅ν 2 36 ⋅ν 2
F1 = + −
3 g ⋅ d si 3 ⋅ (s − 1) g ⋅ d si ⋅ (s − 1)
3

F1 = 0.725

ω = F1 ⋅ (s − 1) ⋅ g ⋅ d si ω = 0.255
Shear Reynold’s Number,

u* ⋅ d si Rs = 32.717
Rs =
ν
Critical Velocity, ft/s,

E-20
 Appendix E Sediment Transport Functions-Sample Calculations

 
 
 2.5 
ω ⋅ + 0.66  if 0 < R s < 70 Vcr = 0.606
Vcr = u ⋅d 
 log * si  − 0.06 
  ν  
(ω ⋅ 2.05) if R s ≥ 70
Log of Concentration,

  ω ⋅ d si  u  
5.435 − 0.286 ⋅ log  − 0.457 ⋅ log * ... 
  ν  ω   if d si < 0.00656 Sand
  ω
 ⋅ d si  u    V ⋅ S Vcr ⋅ S 
+ 1.799 − 0.409 ⋅ log  − 0.314 ⋅ log *   ⋅ log − 
   ν   ω   ω ω 
log C t =
  ω ⋅ d si   u  
 6.681 − 0.633 ⋅ log  − 4.816 ⋅ log *  ... 
  ν   ω  
   if d si ≥ 0.00656 Gravel
+  2.784 − 0.305 ⋅ log ω ⋅ d si  − 0.282 ⋅ log u *   ⋅ log V ⋅ S − Vcr ⋅ S 

   ν   ω 

 ω ω 

log Ct = 1.853
Concentration, ppm

C t = 10 log Ct Ct = 71.284
Sediment Discharge, lb/s

γ w ⋅ Q ⋅ Ct
G= G = 22.235
1000000

Sediment Discharge, tons/day

86400
Gs = ⋅G Gs = 961
2000

E-21