IBM 1101-IT INFRASTRUCTURE LANDSCAPE

Chapter 1: IT Infrastructure Landscape

Define IT infrastructure and describe its components.
The term IT infrastructure is the combination of hardware, software, network resources and services
required for the existence, operation, and management of an enterprise information Technology
environment, it allows an organization to deliver IT solutions and services to its employees, partners,
and customers. 术语 IT 基础设施是企业信息技术环境的存在、运营和管理所需的硬件、软件、网络资源
和服务的组合，它允许组织向其员工、印刷商和客户提供 IT 解决方案和服务。

Importance of IT infrastructure Management

 Reduce the costs of a company.
 Ensuring the quality of the service
 Overcoming the operational risks.
 Better operational efficiency
 Increasing the company’s revenue.
Organization wide services provided by IT infrastructure
 Computing platforms providing computing services
 Telecommunications services
 Data management services
 Application software services
 Physical facilities management services
 IT management, education, and other services
IT structure components:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Services
4. Networking
5. Data management
IT Infrastructure Design, Development and Deployment
Various area of IT Infrastructure for an enterprise organization.
 Storage
 Data center
 Network infrastructure
 Security
 Virtualization
 Services-Application and Delivery

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Hardware
1. End User Devices
a. Personal Computer
b. Smart Phone
c. Printer
d. Scanner
e. Tablet
f. IP phone
2. Connecting Devices
a. Hubs
b. Switch
c. Multilayer Switch
d. Access point
e. Data Center Switch
3. Internetworking Devices
a. Router
b. Broadband Router
c. Video Enabled Router
4. Security Devices
a. Firewall
b. Radius Server
c. ASA

Software
1. System Software
a. Operating System
i. Windows, Linux, Mac, etc.
b. Network Operating System
i. Cisco Internetworking OS
2. Application Software
a. Word Processing
b. Spreadsheet
c. Web Application
d. Database software
e. Multimedia software
3. Programming Tools
a. A programming tool or software development tool is a computer program that software
developers use to create, debug, maintain, support other program and applications. 编程工
具或软件开发工具是软件开发人员用来创建、调试、维护、支持其他程序和应用程序的计
算机程序。
Services
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 1. End User Services
- OS maintenance, Application maintenance, Mail and collaboration software maintenance.
2. Data Services
- Backup, Recovery, Compression, encryption, etc.
3. Security Services
- Authentication. Authorization and Accounting
4. Server Services
- Server availability, performance and maintenance.
5. Network Services
- Availability, Performance, Security, Meet the Business Requirements, etc.
Networking
 Local Area Network topology (both Logical and Physical)
 Wide Area Network Connectivity
 Segmentation (both Logical and Physical)
 Mobility
 Scalability
 Non disruptive availability
Data Management
 Importance of Data Storage
 Storage Devices
 Types of Storage Technology
 Data Management
 Storage Area Network
1. ________________ is the combination of hardware, software, network resources and services
required for the existence, operation, and management of an enterprise IT environment.
A. IT solution
B. IT infrastructure
C. Platform
D. Data management
2. A ______________ or software development tool is a computer program that software
developers use to create, debug, maintain, support other programs and applications
A. data services
B. hardware
C. security
D. programming tool

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3. List the components of IT Infrastructure.
 Networking Components – Routers, switches, firewalls, wireless access points, cable, etc.
 Servers – Physical machines that host applications and services.
 Storage – Hard drives, solid state drives, tape drives, etc.
 Security – Anti-virus, intrusion detection, encryption, etc.
 Software – Operating systems, applications, and utilities.
 Data Centers – Physical locations that house IT infrastructure components.
 Telecommunications – Voice and data communication devices and services.
 Virtualization – Software that allows multiple operating systems and applications to run on the
same physical hardware.
 Cloud Computing – Services that provide storage and compute capabilities over the Internet.
 End-User Computing – Desktop PCs, laptops, mobile devices, etc.

Chapter 2: Storage
Importance of Data Storage
 Data storage providing the function of retaining information for future usage.
 Data storage is an important part of the system. Hardware and software must work together to
provide efficient and data storage.
 OS (Operating system) that store data allow for easier access
o Legal
o Availability
o Access
o Backup

First Level of Storage Facility

 Memory (RAM)
o CPU Registers
o Cache Memory
o Main Memory
o Secondary Memory

Magnetic Storage Media (Hard Disc)

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  The hard disk uses round, flat disks called platters, coated
on with a magnetic medium, designed to store information
as magnetic patterns. 圆形扁平磁盘称为盘片，上面涂有磁
性介质，旨在将信息存储为磁性图案
 The platters are stacked and mounted onto a spindle.
Driven by a special motor connected to the spindle the
platters rotate a very high speed. 盘片堆叠并安装在主轴上。
由连接到主轴的特殊电机驱动，盘片以非常高的速度旋转。
 Electromagnetic read/write heads are used to either write
onto or read information from a disk platter.
 The read/write are mounted on an arm, whose position is
controlled by an actuator. 安装在手臂上，其位置由执行器控制
 A logic board controls the drives activities and communicates with the connected computer
system. 逻辑板控制驱动器活动并与连接的计算机系统通信。
 A hard disk is a data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital
information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic
material. 硬盘是一种数据存储设备，它使用磁存储来存储和检索数字信息，使用一个或多个涂有
磁性材料的刚性快速旋转磁盘（盘片）

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5 1/4 A floppy disk, also called a floppy, diskette or just disk, is a type
of disk storage composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic
3 1/2
storage medium, seated in a rectangular plastic enclosure lined
with fabric that removes dust particles. 软盘，也称为软盘、软盘
或磁盘，是一种磁盘存储，由薄而灵活的磁性存储介质组成，位
于长方形塑料外壳内，外壳内衬织物，可去除灰尘颗粒
Floppy disks, initially as 8 -inch (200 mm) media and later in 5 ¼-inch (133mm) and 3 1/2 -inch
(90mm) sizes, were a universal form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s into the mid-
2000s.

Optical Storage Devices

1. Magneto-Mini Disc
2. Optical Disk
a. CD-ROM, 700MB
b. DVD, 4.7GB
c. Blu-Ray, 25GB-128GB
3. Optical Jukebox

Optical Storge Media

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1. CD-ROM
a. CD-ROM is short form of Compact Disc-Read Only Memory
b. CD-ROM comes pre-stamped by the manufacturer so it cannot be erased nor edited.
c. It has maximum capacity of 800MB.
2. DVD-ROM
a. DVD is an acronym of Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc, and it is used for
storing large data and video content.
b. DVD-ROM comes pre-stamped by the manufacturer so it cannot be erased nor edited.
c. It has maximum capacity of 4.7 Gb.
3. CD-R
a. CD-R and DVD-R are blank discs that is recordable once only.
b. Once the discs are recorded on, they become CD-ROM and DVD-ROM.
c. CD-R has maximum capacity of 800Mb and DVD-R has 4.7 Gb capacity.
4. CD-RW and DVD-RW
a. CD-RW and DVD-RW are Re-writable discs.
b. Data can be added or erased at any time.
5. DVD-RAM
a. DVD-RAM (DVD-Random Access Memory) is a disc, which specifies rewritable DVD-
RAM media.
b. DVD-RAM technology provides good data integrity, data retention and damage
protection.
c. With DVD-RAM, writing and reading of data can happen at the same time.
6. Blu-Ray
a. CDs and DVDs use red laser rays, whereas Blu-Ray uses blue laser ray. That is why the
name is Blu-Ray.
b. Blue rays are capable to reading data that are positioned very close to each other on the
disc surface. This provides high storage capacity.
c. Blu-Ray discs are rewritable and have capacities of 25GB, 50GB and 100GB.
7. Optical Tape
a. Optical tape is a medium for optical storage generally consisting of a long and narrow
strip of plastic onto which the patterns can be read back.
b. Stores data optically and used laser to read/write.
c. It is not affected by magnetic field.
d. Sequential access
8. Optical Jukebox
a. Manages the transfer of disks into and out of the computer’s disk drive as the demands
arises.
b. It is managed by a computer program which upon receiving a request for a specific bit of
data, locates the corresponding optical media.
c. The jukebox then takes physical media and inserts it into the computer drive for the data
retrieval.
d. After the disk is no longer needed, it is replaced back into storage.
9. 3D optical memory

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 a. The term given to any form of optical data storage in which information can be recorded
and read with three-dimensional resolution.
b. Potential to provide petabyte-level mass storage on DVD-sized discs.
c. Data recording and read back are achieved by focusing lasers within the medium.
d. Some kind of nonlinearly is required to ensure that these other data points do not interfere
with the addressing of the desired point.
Solid State Memory
1. Drives
a. HDD= Hard Disk Drive; SSD= Solid State Drive
b. Solid state drives do not contain any moving parts like the magnetic disc drives.
c. Types of Solid-state Memory
i. Flash Memory Cards
ii. Thumb Drives
iii. USB Flash Drives
iv. Memory Stick
v. Secure Digital Cards
d. Disadvantages
i. High price when compared to standard hard disk drives
ii. Capacity-Mostly most notebook manufacturers offer a 64 GB SSD drive.
iii. Limited write cycles
iv. Slow random write speed
e. Advantages
i. Low voltage
ii. Less power consumption
iii. Less heat
iv. Longer battery life
v. No noise
vi. No moving parts
vii. Less prone to failure
viii. Very fast read speed
2. Portable devices
a. Compact Disk Flash memory
b. Secure Digital Memory Card
c. Memory Stick
d. USB Flash Drive
Magnetic Storage Devices
 Wire recording
 Floppy Disk
 Magnetic tap
 Zip Drive
 Drum memory
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Solid State Memory Devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts.
Hard Disk Interfaces-ATA
 AT Attachment: ATA (also known as IDE (Integrate Drive Electronics) is a disk drive
implementation that integrates the controller on the disk drive itself.
 ATA is used to connect hard disk drive, CD-ROM drives and similar peripherals (hardware).
 It uses 40 Pin connector with the minimum speed of 3.3 Mbps and maximum speed of 300Mbps.
 Maximum cable length is 18 inches.
 MBPS= Megabyte
 Mbps=Megabits

SATA
 Serial ATA (SATA) creates a point-to-point connection between the device and the controller.
 Hot-swappable-replacing the hardware or components without shutting down the PC
 Can have as many as eight SATA devices.
 Thinner cables resulting in the better airflow and cable control in the PC.
 Maximum cable length of 39.4 inches compared to 18 inches for PATA (P=Parallel) cables.
RAID or Disk Array
 RAID (redundant array of independent disks) is a data storage virtualization technology that
combines multiple physical disks into a single logical unit for the purposes of data redundancy or
performance improvement or both.
 RAID has levels and it is referred by number. The three most common levels in the consumer
and small-office markets are RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5.
 However, you’ll encounter numerous other options too, including levels 6, 10, 5+1.
RAID Functions
 Striping
o It is the process in which consecutive logical bytes of data is stored per blocks in the
consecutive physical disks which forms the array.
 Mirroring
o It is the process in which the data is written to the same block on two or more physical
disks in the array.
 Parity Calculation
o If there are N number of disks in the RAID array, N-1 consecutive blocks are used for
storing data blocks and the Nth block is used for storing the parity.
RAID 0 (Stripping)
 RAID 0 is also called as Data Striping.
 It requires a minimum of two Hard Disk drives.

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  The advantages of RAID 0 is the increase in performance due to the parallelism in the read and
write process.
 RAID 0 does not provide redundancy.
 It is very useful for applications such as Video editing, 3D animation design and applications
required high bandwidth.
 The total disk capacity on a RAID 0 system is the sum of the sum of the total capacity of two
hard disk drives.
 If we use two 80 GB hard disk drives, our disk system will have 160 GB capacity.
RAID 1 (Mirroring)
 RAID 1 is also called as Data Mirroring.
 It requires a minimum two or more Hard Disk drives.
 The advantages of RAID 1 is the increase in performance due to the parallel read operation from
several disks.
 Advantages: Data Reliability
 Disadvantages:
o Cost is more due to redundant disks
o The performance is degraded due to the multiple writes.
 Since the second disk drive is a backup disk, the total disk capacity on a RAID 1 system is the
first disk drive only.
 If you have two 80 GB hard disk drives configured as RAID 1, the total disk capacity will be 160
GB.
RAID 0+1 (stripe + mirror)
 It is the combination of RAID 0 and RAID 1.
 The stripping operation is carried out first and then Mirroring.
 Minimum number of Hard Disks should be four.
 Since the second disk drive is a backup disk, the total disk capacity on a RAID 1 system is the
capacity of the first disk drive only.
 If you have four 80 GB hard disk drives configured as RAID 0+1, the total disk capacity will be
160GB.
RAID 5
 Raid 5 got parity bit.
 The most common RAID configuration for business servers.
 With RAID 5, data and parity are striped across two or more disks.
 Parity computations are used in RAID drive arrays for fault tolerance by calculating the data in
two drives and storing the results on a third.
 If a disk gets an error fail, data is recreated from this distributed data and parity block seamlessly
and automatically.
 Advantage:

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 o Fault tolerant 故障容许度 and good read performance
 Disadvantage:
o Cost is slightly increased.
NVRAM
 Non-volatile random-access memory is a random-access memory that retains its information
when power is turned off (non-volatile).
Storage Network Technology
 Storage networking is the process of linking storage devices together and connecting to other IT
networks.
 It provides a centralized repository for data that can be accessed by users and uses high-speed
connections to provide fast performance.
 Storage Area Networking (SAN) link multiple storage devices and provides block-level storage
using efficient storage techniques.
 The interface technologies used in storage networking include Fiber Channel (FC), iSCSI and
serial-attached SCSI (SAS)
 Advantages:
o Improved performance, reliability and availability
o Make it easier to back up data for disaster recovery purpose
 Used in parallel to storage management technologies like storage resource management software,
virtualization and compression.
Data and data policy
 Computer data storage, often called storage or memory is a technology consisting of computer
components and recording media used to retain digital data .
 Types of data storage
o Data Backup (Copy)
o Data Archive (Move)
Data Archive (Move) (move a folder from one place to another place it is not copy paste its some like
“cut” in computer)
 An archive is a collection of historical records that are kept for long-term retention and used for
future reference. Typically, archives contain data that is not actively used.
 Data archiving removes the data from the active system, thus speeding up response times and
enabling faster processing times. So, a system performance will be more productive.

Challenges for archiving

 One key business challenge for archiving is the need to comply with laws and regulations.
Failures to comply with laws and regulations are typically subject for large fines.

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  The legally required retention period for archived data is an eternity compared to how quickly
technical, corporate, and social changes take place. The long retention periods challenge archive
systems due to technology change.
 The rapid growth of data combined with long retention 长期保留 periods creates another
challenge to archive systems: costs. These costs apply not only to procurement 采购 but also to
the operating costs of long periods of archiving.
Data storage policy
As a guide to developing a data storage policy, the following steps are commonly used for any
organization. However, each entity differs from organization to organization.
 Establish a data storage budget.
 Access data availability requirements
 Measure security levels
 Access legal and governmental requirements
 Implement data policy corporate wide.
Data Backup
Backup applications have offered several types of backup operations. The most common backup types
are a
 Full backup
 Incremental backup
 Differential backup
Full backup
 Full backup is a starting point to understand other backup types.
 Generally, it makes a copy of all data from the selected partition or hard disk to the destination
storage.
 Each full backup consists if a previous full backup and new data that appeared so far.
 Advantages:
o Restore is the fastest.
o The entire backed data is stored in a single file (better storage management)
 Disadvantages:
o Backing up is the slowest compared to other backup types.
o The storage space requirements are the highest. Considering how cheap storage devices
are now, this is a low impact disadvantage.
Differential backup
 The differential backup takes a copy of all items that were changed since the last full backup.
 For example, a full backup was performed on Sunday. Next, on Monday a differential backup
job takes a copy of items that were changed or added since Sunday. On Tuesday, the job takes a

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 copy only of the data changed since Sunday, etc. The cycle is repeated until the next full backup
is performed.
 Pros:
o The process is much quicker than a full backup since it only takes a copy of what was
changed.
o The backup copy itself takes far less storage space than when a full copy is created each
day.
Cons:
o The size of the data difference’s part grows with each cycle is long (the full backup is
performed once a month and the differential is taken every day), at the ed of it the size of
the archive might bee quite big and the process itself pretty lengthy.
Incremental Backup
 The main difference is that the incremental backup takes a copy of items changed or added since
the last incremental backup job.
 For example, the full backup was performed, as before, on Sunday. On Monday, the incremental
job kicks in and takes a snapshot of all data that was changed since Sunday. On Tuesday, the job
takes a copy of all changes since Monday, on Wednesday it backs up everything changes since
Tuesday and so on.
 Pros:
o The backup process is even faster than the differential job.
o Each iteration of the backup job copies just the data that was changed and only a small
amount of storage is required each time.
 Cons:
o The backup software requires all iterations of the incremental backup for data restoration.
If one of the pieces is missing- the restore is impossible.
o The restore process might take some time as the software needs to rebuild data from
separate incremental pieces and also the last full backup piece too.

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Chapter 3: Big Data & Data Retrieval & Storage Area Network
Big data
 Big data is a collection of data from traditional and digital sources inside and outside your
company that represents a source for ongoing discovery and analysis.
 Big data is a term applied to data sets whose size or type is beyond the ability of traditional
relational databases to capture, manage, and process the data with low-latency.
Big data analytics
 Big data analytics is the process of collecting, organizing and analyzing large sets of data (called
big data) to discover patterns and other useful information.
 Big data analytics can help organizations to better understand the information contained within
the data.
 It will also help identify the data that is most important to the business and future business
decisions.
Demand of Data Scientist
 According to the current survey report, a shortfall of about 140,000 to 190,000 individuals
with analytical expertise is projected by 2018.
 The survey also predicts a need for an additional 1.5 million managers.
Big data and key technologies
1. Predictive analytics: It is a Big Data solution that allow firms to discover, evaluate, optimize, and
deploy predictive models to improve business performance or mitigate risk.
2. NoSQL databases: key-value, document, and graph databases.
3. Stream analytics: software that can filter, aggregate, enrich, and analyze a high throughput of
data from multiple disparate live data sources and in any data format. (Real-Time)
4. In-memory data fabric : provides low-latency access and processing of large quantities of data by
distributing data across the dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), Flash, or SSD of a
distributed computer system.
5. Distributed file stores: a computer network where data is stored on more than one node, often in
a replicated fashion, for redundancy and performance.
6. Data virtualization: a technology that delivers information from various data sources, including
big data sources such as Hadoop and distributed data stores in real-time and near-real time.
7. Data integration: tools for data orchestration across solutions such as Amazon Elastic
MapReduce (EMR), Apache Hive, Apache Pig, Apache Spark, MapReduce, Couchbase,
Hadoop, and MongoDB.
8. Data preparation: software that eases the burden of sourcing, shaping, cleansing, and sharing
diverse and messy data sets to accelerate data’s usefulness for analytics.
9. Data quality: products that conduct data cleansing and enrichment on large, high-velocity data
sets, using parallel operations on distributed data stores and databases.

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 10. Search and knowledge discovery: tools and technologies to support self-service extraction of
information and new insights from large repositories of unstructured and structured data that
resides in multiple sources such as file systems, databases, streams, APIs, and other platforms
and applications.
Information Retrieval
It is the task of collecting details of resources of information, which are relevant to the information
needed, from a group of resources of information. The searches can be made considering full-text as the
base or content-based indexing.
Information retrieval can be grouped mainly into four stages:
 Identifying the precise subject to search.
 Locating search subject in a directory which directs the searcher to the related documents.
 Locating the above documents.
 Identifying where the above information is located in the documents.
Data Retrieval modes
1. Multimedia mode
 Use the Internet where data is accessed by placing search query on a website.
2. Documented mode:
 It normally provides hard copy of data on papers & documents.
3. Verbal mode:
 It is the easy and a spontaneous retrieval mode and this requires any known language.
Key issues involved in data retrieval
 Security
 Searching
 Indexing
 Retention
Network Storage
A storage device which is directly attached to a network is known as Network Attached Storage (NAS).
Network-attached storage (NAS) provides the files access service to a heterogeneous group of clients.
NAS is specialized for serving files either by its hardware, software, or configuration.
Network File System (NFS) and Common Internet File System (CIFS) are two standards commonly
used to access the network storage. Network Attached Storage shares files over the network and not
storage device over the network.

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Direct Attached Storage (DAS) topology Vs Network Attached Storage (NAS) topology

Here the storage is attached directly to Here storage devices that serve data directly
servers. It is also called as captive storage over a network called Network Attached
or server attached storage or direct Storage or NAS devices are far easier to
attached storage (DAS) connect and manage.

Cloud Storage
 Cloud storage is a simple and scalable way to store, access and share data over the Internet.
 Cloud storage providers own and maintain the network-connected hardware and software, while
you provision and use what you need via a web application.
 Using cloud storage eliminates the acquisition and management costs of buying and maintaining
your own storage infrastructure.
 Cloud provides increased agility, provides global scale and delivers “anywhere”, “anytime”
access to data.
Benefits of Cloud Storage
 Easy implementation
o Cloud hosting allows business to retain the same applications and business processes
without having to deal with the backend technicalities. Readily manageable by Internet, a
cloud infrastructure can be accessed by enterprises easily and quickly.
 Accessibility
o Access your data anywhere, anytime. An Internet cloud infrastructure maximizes
enterprise productivity and efficiency by ensuring your application is always accessible
This allows for easy collaboration and sharing among users in multiple locations.
 No hardware required
o Since everything will be hosted in the cloud, a physical storage center is no longer
needed. However, a backup could be worth looking into in the event of a disaster that
could leave your company’s productivity.

 Cost per head

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 o Overhead technology costs are kept at a minimum with cloud hosting services, enabling
businesses to use the extra time and resources for improving the company infrastructure.
 Flexibility for growth
o The cloud is easily scalable so companies can add or subtract resources based on their
needs. As companies grow, their system will grow with them.
 Efficient recovery
o Cloud computing delivers faster and more accurate retrievals of applications and data.
With less downtime, it is the most efficient recovery plan.
Type of cloud computing
1. Public
a. Scalable
b. Reliable
c. Inexpensive
d. Location Independent
2. Private
a. Scalable
b. Secure
c. Flexible
d. Greater control
3. Hybrid
a. Scalable
b. Secure
c. Flexible
d. Cost effective
Cloud service

Characteristics of Cloud
 On-demand self service
o A consumer can
unilaterally
provision
computing
capabilities,
such as server
time and
network storage,
as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.
 Broad network access

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 o Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms
that promote use by heterogenous thin or thick client platforms.
 Resource pooling
o The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a
multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned
and reassigned according to consumer demand.
 Rapid elasticity
o Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically to
scale outward and inward commensurate with demand.
 Measured service
o Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering
capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service.
Storage Area Network
SAN is a high-speed network of storage devices that also connects those storage devices with servers. It
provides block-level storage that can be accessed by the applications running on any networked servers.
SAN storage devices can include tape libraries and disk-based devices, like RAID hardware.
Functions of a Storage Area Network
 A high-speed network of a storage devices
 Connects the storage devices with servers
 Can be accessed by applications on networked servers
 Particularly helpful in backup and disaster recovery
 Uses networking protocols to span longer distances geographically
 SAN can also simplify some management tasks
 Offers flexibility, availability and performance
Zoning
Zoning is the allocation of resources for the devices load balancing and for allowing access to data oly
for certain users.
Zoning is similar to the File System
Zoning is used to minimize the risk of data corruption and minimizing the sread of virus and Trojans.
Hard Zoning
 Hardware zoning is based on the physical fabric port number
 It has aa low effect on the performance of the routing process
 The whole zoning configuration can become unusable when the device is connected to a
different port.

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  Server A is restricted to see only storage devices that are zoned to port 1, port 4 and port 5.
 Server B is also zoned so that it can see only from port 2 to port 6.
 Server C is zoned so that it can see both ports 6 and 7, even though port 6 is also a member of
another zone
 A single port can belong to multiple zones.
Soft Zoning

 In the soft zoning in which the device assignments can be changed to accommodate variations in
demand on the different servers in the network
 Hard zoning is a zoning mechanism for blacking communication between devices that are not
members of the same zone where as Soft zoning is a method of zoning that limits information
about devices or depends on a device’s own access restriction to limit communication with other
devices.

Chapter 4: Storage Virtualization & Server Virtualization

Virtualization
 In computing, virtualization means to create a virtual of a device or resource, such as a server
storage device, network or oven an operating system where the framework divides the resource
into one or more execution environments.

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  A simple as partitioning a hard drive is considered virtualization because you take one drive and
partition it to create two separate hard drives.
 Devices, applications and human users are able to interact with the resource as if it were a real
single logical resource.
 The technique of splitting one physical resource into multiple virtual resources is called
virtualization
 Virtualization is the creation of many virtual systems with a single physical system.
Advantages of Virtualization
 Infrastructure simplification
 Total cost of ownership
 Environmental issues
 Improved responsiveness
 Business resiliency
Types of Virtualizations
 Server virtualization
o Server virtualization creates multiple virtual servers within a single physical server.
 Storage virtualization
o Storage virtualization used I enterprise environments is essentially the amalgamation of
physical storage.
 Network virtualization
o Network virtualization usually involves the splitting of available bandwidth into separate
smaller channels.
Types of virtualizations
1. Storage virtualization
2. Server virtualization
3. Operating System virtualization
4. Network virtualization
5. Application virtualization

Storage Virtualization
 Storage virtualization is the pooling of physical storage from multiple network storage devices
into what appears to be a single storage device that is managed from a central console.
 Storage virtualization has been used over the years to solve many of the challenges in scaling and
managing large amounts of storage, a challenge that has only increased as the amount of data
increases exponentially.
 Virtualization can be used to improve scalability, redundancy, performance and economics.
 Two primary types of storage virtualization

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 o Block virtualization
o Block virtualization refers to the abstraction (separation) of logical storage (partition)
from physical storage so that it may be accessed without regard to physical storage or
heterogenous structure.
o This separation allows the administrators of the storage system greater flexibility to
manage storage for end users.
o File virtualization
o File virtualization eliminates the dependencies between the data accessed at the file level
and the location where the files are physically stored.
o This provides opportunities to optimize storage use and server consolidation and to
perform non-disruptive file migrations.
Advantages of Storage Virtualization
 Improvised storage management in an IT environment
 Better availability with automated management
 Better storage utilization
 Less energy usage
 Increase in loading and backup speed
 Cost effective, no need to purchase additional software and hardware
Disadvantages of Storage Virtualization
 Storage virtualization uses a network system which is more complicated
 Failure in any one of the systems fails the entire setup.
 The entire network is compromised of any server is infected or breached.

7 layer of Virtualization model

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Server Virtualization
 Server virtualization creates multiple virtual servers within a single physical server.
 These virtual servers are independent working environments that use virtual resources.
Hypervisor
 Hypervisor are software or firmware components that can virtualize system resources.
 Hypervisor technology allows multiple operating systems to run on a single hardware at the same
time.
 The virtual server is also commonly referred to as the virtual machine (VM)
 The governing of the virtual machines on the physical server is handled by the Virtual Machine
Manager (VMM).

Types of Hypervisors
Hypervisors are often divided between Type 1 and Type 2 hypervisors.

Type 1 hypervisor runs directly on the Type 2 hypervisor runs over the operating

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 physical hardware, without out system using virtual PC or virtual box.
intermediate operating system.

Features of Hypervisors
 Operating system and workload can be consolidated into one server, reducing the cost of
operations and hardware.
 Multiple operating systems can be run on a single hardware at the same time, each running
applications as per requirements.
 Dynamically assigning of resources is possible from virtual resource to the physical resource
through methods like dispatching and paging.
 Workload is managed with ease in a single server to improve the performance, system use and
price.
I/O virtualization
 With traditional I/O, every server has
o Multiple I/O adopters-Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC)s
o Multiple Ethernet cables per server
o Multiple switch ports per server
EXP: If you have 6 connections per server and 100 servers, you are talking about 600 connections.
I/O Virtualization (IOV) is to take a single cable (or two if you want redundancy) and consolidate all the
network and SAN connections onto that single, high-speed cable.
There is a huge reduction in network and storage cabling. It helps us to save money on network and
Fiber Channel switches as well as time spent managing and troubleshooting all that cabling.
Virtual Machines
 A virtual machine is a program that acts as a virtual computer. It runs on your current operating
system-the “hosts” operating system and provides virtual hardware to “guests” operating system.
 The virtual Machine (VM) are generally created within the virtualization layer like hypervisor,
which runs over the operating system. The operating system which are running virtual
environment are not aware of the virtual platform.
Virtual Machine Types

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 System Virtual Machine is also called as Process virtual machine is also called as
hardware virtualization. application virtual machine or MRE
Virtual machine was mainly focused on (Managed Runtime Environment).
making multiple operating systems run in It provides environment which is platform
a single computer allowing time sharing independent, irrespective of the hardware
over a single operating system. and the operating system.

Partitioning
 Partitioning is to physically divide the server into several smaller servers with dedicated
resources.
 This gave the ability to dedicate a physical computer to a virtual machine.
Why Partition?
 A server solution needs to support the demand when server workloads scale up dramatically.
This is where hardware partitioning comes into the picture.
 Hardware partitioning creates multiple isolated hardware partitions on a single server. Each
hardware partition runs a separate instance of an OS and has processor, memory and I/O host
bridge resources assigned to it by a service processor.
 A partition manager communicates with the service processor to help you manage hardware
partition configurations.
Types of Partition
 Building block
o A collection of system resources, such as CPUs, memory, and I/O connections.
 Physical Partition
o One or more building blocks linked together by a high-speed
interconnect. Eg hard drive, solid state drive
 Logical Partition
o A subset of logical resources that are capable of supporting an operating system. Eg.
Memory, processors by its own
 Dedicated processor partition

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 o A logical partition whose CPU resources are dedicated to the logical partition along with
the memory and I/O slots. CPU idle time cannot be used by other logical partitions. Eg.
Are not available for sharing.
 Shared processor partition
o Using Micro-Partitioning technology, physical processors are divided into virtual
processors that are shared in a pool between one or more logical partitions. EG. Available
for sharing.
Server Deployment
 Server Deployment is a technology for network-based installation of the operating
system.
 The operating system deployment is necessary for
o Provisioning the OS for desktops for new employees.
o Redeploying the OS of corrupt systems for troubleshooting
o Periodically redeploying the OS.

Types of Deployment
 Manual Deployment
o The operating system is deployed using the image that is created. The deployment
configurations are set in the deployment templates.
 Event Driven Deployment
o Event-Driven deployment is suitable in cases where the operating system needs to
multiple systems simultaneously by controlling the bandwidth during deployment
process.
 Scheduled Deployment
o Scheduled Deployment is where the OS is deployed to multiple systems for which MAC
address is known.
 Custom Deployment
o In the Custom Deployment process, the administrator creates a set of deployment
template meeting the organization needs and assigns a name to each template and the user
initiates the deployment.
 Standalone Deployment
o Standalone Deployment is a process of deployment on computers that are not a part of
the network.
Virtual Server Deployment
 Installing IIS (Internet Information Service)
o The World Wide Web service component of the IIS must be installed to manage the
virtual server.
 Installing Virtual Server

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 o A single physical computer can be used for both the Virtual Server service and the
Administrator website components or multiple computers can be used for both the
services.
 Adding a virtual machine
o A virtual machine is added for each f the guest operating system.
 Adding guest operating system
o Guest operating system is added to the virtual machine which is created and performing
the post setup activities on the virtual machines like running Sysprep (System
Preparation) Microsoft's System Preparation tool intended to duplicate, test and deliver
new installations for the Windows operating system based on an established installation.
It is a command-line tool that can be run manually or through a script.
Server Management Console
 It provides centralized administration and management of process in distributed networks.
 It is used to view and manage virtually all the features and tools affecting the server productivity.
 It is a one stop management console for checking the overall health of all the server roles and
features in the server.
Functions of Server Management Console
 Server roles and features installed on the server can be viewed and modified.
 Services can be started or stopped to perform the management tasks associated with the
operational life cycle of the server and also for managing local user accounts.
 Identifying critical events, determining the server status and to analyze and troubleshooting
configuration failures.
 Role services, installing and removing the roles and features using Windows command line.
Server Availability
 Server Availability is defined as a level of service provided by applications, services and
systems.
 Highly available systems will have minimum downline.
 Various operating systems offer clustering, advanced fault tolerance and file system
recoverability features for high availability.
Server Availability
1. Cluster
 Server Clusters. A server cluster is a group of independent servers and working together as a
single system to provide high availability of services for clients.
 When a failure occurs on one computer in a cluster, resources are redirected and the workload is
redistributed to another computer in the cluster.
 Server clusters are used to ensure that users have constant access to important server-based
resources.
2. Network Load Balancing

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  Network Load Balancing (NLB) improves the scalability and availability of internet server
programs.
 NLB is to provide high availability for web server programs and also to scale up the server
performance.
 NLB combines the resources of multiple computers into a single cluster to deliver performance
and reliability by distributing the incoming network traffic.
3. High Performance Computing
 High performance computing clusters spreads the computational tasks among multiple nodes.
HPC clusters require communication between the cluster servers.
 HPC clusters take the advantage of parallel processing available with multiple nodes which act
as a single computational entity.
 These are widely used in science, medical and academic communities.
 Grid computing clusters (also distributed computing): Grid computing clusters are identical to
the High-Performance Computing except that the nodes do not function as a single
computational entity.
 Tasks are sent to nodes which perform the work independently from the rest of the cluster.
4. 99.999
 In the business world, Service Level Agreement states the guaranteed level of availability.
 Availability is measured in uptime. Most of the IT service providers offer 99.999% uptime.
 When the IT industry refers to “five nines” availability, this translates into 5.26 minutes of
downtime of a year.
 The downtime per year for various level of availability is given in a table.
Server Availability concepts and Techniques
 The requirements for components to be made highly available are:
i. Reliable basic hardware
ii. Software quality
iii. System management tools
iv. Support and maintenance services
Server Workloads
The various server workloads are:
i. Memory Workload
a. Program or instructions require memory to store data and perform intermediate
computations.
ii. CPU Workload
a. The number of instructions that is executed by the processor during a given period is
indicates by the CPU workload.
iii. I/O Workload
a. The number of inputs got by a server and the number of outputs produces by the server
over a particular duration of time.
iv. Database Workload
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 a. The workload of a database is analyzed by the determination of the number of queries
executed by the database over a given period of time.

Chapter 5: System Overview & Operating System & Directory Server Concepts
Server
 A server is a high-powered computer that manages resources and provides services to the end
devices connected to a network with the helpful of specialized software.
 Strictly speaking, the server is the software that handles a task and the powerful hardware that
support this software is also usually called a server because server software coordinating a
network of hundreds, or thousands of clients requires hardware much more robust than ordinary
consumer use.
 Server are often dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks.
 On multiprocessing operating systems, however a single computer can execute several programs
at once.
 A server in this case could refer to the program that is managing resources rather than the
computer itself.
Server Types
1. Servers are classified based on their purpose and function. The following are some examples.
2. File Server: a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files.
3. Database service: a computer system that processes database quarries.
4. Web servers: a computer that deliver Web pages.
5. Proxy server: a server that sits between a client application, such as a Web browser, and a real
server.

1. Tower Server
 A tower server is a computer that is built in an upright cabinet that stands alone.

Advantages:
 Easier cooling because the overall component density is fairly low.
 Scalability, because an unlimited number of servers can be added to an existing network.
Disadvantages:
 A set of tower servers is bulkier and heavier.
 Cabling for a large set of tower servers can be complicated.

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  A group of several air-cooled tower severs in a single location can be noisy.

2. Rack server
 A rack server or a rack-mounted server is designed to be installed in a framework called a rack.
Advantages:
 A single rack can contain multiple servers stacked one above the other and thus minimizing the
required floor space.
 The rack server configuration also simplifies cabling among network components.
Disadvantages:
 A special cooling system is necessary to prevent excessive heat buildup.
Blade Server
 A blade server is thin, modular electronic circuit boards, known as server blades.
 Each blade is a server, often dedicated to a single application.
 The blades contain processors, memory, integrated network controllers, an optional Fiber
Channel host bus adaptor (HBA) and other input/output (IO) ports.
 Advantages:
o Quick and easy installation
o Cost is relatively low as compared to rack-type servers having the same processor and
memory.
o Operation costs are relatively lower than rack-type servers.
o Needs smaller place than Rack/Tower form factor servers.
o It is preferred for virtualization and consolidation choices and integration simplicity.
o It provides a dense server area and flexibility and avoids cable tangle.
o Being unrivalled due to full-redundant component and flexible structure in business
continuity field.
o Lower power consumption and coming cost as compared to rack/tower form factor
servers.
 Disadvantages
o Limited disc area
o Rack type server cards cannot be used, limited PCI card support.

Blades
Blades come in two varieties: Blade servers and Option blades.
1. A blade server is an independent server that contains one or more processors and associated
memory, disk storage, and network controllers. It runs its own operating system and applications.
It plugs into a midplane or backplane to share common infrastructure components.

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 2. Option blades can be blade servers. They provide additional features, such as controllers for
external input sharable by /output (I/O) or disk arrays, power supplies and so on.
Enterprise Server
An enterprise server is a computer containing programs that collectively serve the needs of an enterprise
rather than a single user, department, or specialized application.
Examples:
 IBM's iSeries systems
 Sun Microsystems’ computers with Solaris of Linux systems
 Hewlett-Packard (HP) systems, the upper end of Windows 2000 systems.
High Performance Server
 High Performance computer systems are the most powerful and flexible research instruments
today.
 It is used in various fields like Astronomy, climatology, weather forecasting, quantum chemistry,
computational medicine, high energy physics and many other areas.
 Over the past years, the HPC cluster has disrupted the supercomputing market. Typical HPC
systems can deliver industry-leading, cost-effective performance.
Operating System
 Operating System is the collection of software to manage computer hardware resources and to
provide common services for computer programs.
 Operating System is the essential component of the system software in a computer system.
 Operating system is required for the functioning of the application programs.
 Operating System interacts with users through a set of defined commands.
Components of Operating System
1. Hardware: The physical part of computer including underlying electronics.
2. Kernel: Communicates between the hardware and software of a computer and manages how
hardware resources are used to meet software requirements.
3. Shell: The user interface that allows users to request specific tasks from the computer. These
requests can be made either through the CLI or GUI interfaces.
Operating System Features
 Multi-User operating system is one which allows two or more users to run programs at the same
time.
 Multitasking is an operating system which allows more than one program to run concurrently.
 Multiprocessing is an operating system which supports running a program on more than one
CPU.
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  Multithreading is an operating system which allows different parts of a single program to
run concurrently.
Tasks of Operating System
 Process Management: Processor management is responsible for ensuring that each process and
application receives the required processor’s time for its functioning and using as many
processor cycles as possible.
 Memory Management: The various memories in the system must be properly used so that each
process can run effectively.
 Device management: A driver is a program which is used to control the path between the
operating system and the hardware on the computer’s mother board.
 File management: It is also known as file system, is the system which the operating system uses
to organize and to keep track of the files.
Types of Operating System
 Time Sharing OS: Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time.
 Distributed OS: Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users.
 Network OS: A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
 Real Time OS: Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor, or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control
device in a dedicated application.
Directory Server and Directory Service
 Directory Server provides a central repository for storing and managing information.
 Almost any kind of information can be stored, from identity profiles and access privileges to
information about application and network resources, printers, network devices and
manufactured parts. Information stored in Directory
 Directory Server provides the foundation for the new generation of e-business applications and
Web services.
 A directory service is a customizable information store that functions as a single point from
which users can locate resources and services distributed throughout the network.
Characteristics of Directory Services
 Hierarchical naming model
 Extended search capability
 Distributed information model

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  Shared network access
 Replicated data.
 Data store optimized for reads.
 Extensible schema

Overview of LDAP
 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is an Internet Protocol (Open) Standard based on
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol stack.
 LDAP is developed based on DAP (Directory Access Protocol) that uses X.500 protocol. Eg:
X.500 is the most common directory-management protocol.
 X.500 is very complex, and it is using OSI protocol (Open Systems
Interconnection) protocols stack whereas LDAP is very simple and light weight.
 LDAP is based on the client server.
 LDAP stores data that is organized in the form of tree much like Unix file system.
 LDAP uses simplified set of encoding.
 LDAP uses string to represent data
LDAP client and server interaction
1. The client establishes a session with an LDAP server. This is known as binding to the server.
The client specifies the host name or IP address and TCP/IP port number where the LDAP server
is listening.
2. The client can provide a username and a password to authenticate with the server, or the client
can establish an anonymous session with default access rights. The client and server can also
establish a session that uses stronger security methods such as encryption of data.
3. The client then performs operations on directory data. LDAP offers both read and update
capabilities. This allows directory information to be managed as well as queried. LDAP also
supports searching the directory for data meeting arbitrary user-specified criteria. A user can
specify what part of the directory to search and what information to return. A search filter that
uses Boolean conditions specifies what directory data matches the search.
4. When the client is finished making requests, it closes the session with the server. This is also
known as unbinding.
LDAP Models

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  LDAP has four models.
 Information Model
 Naming Model
 Functional Model
 Security Model
LDAP – Information Model
 Basic unit of information in the directory is called as an entry
 Data is represented in an LDAP system as a hierarchy of objects, each of which is called an
entry. The resulting tree structure is called a Directory Information Tree (DIT).
 Type of values which can be stored is specified by the syntax
 LDAP Attribute syntaxes are bin, ces, cis, tel, dn, Generalized Time, Postal Address
 The type of objects to be stored in the directory is defined by the Schemas
 There are special attributes called object Class in each directory.
 Data is represented in an LDAP system as a hierarchy of objects, each of which is called an
entry. The resulting tree structure is called a Directory Information Tree (DIT). The top of
the tree is commonly called the root.
 Each entry in the tree has one parent entry (object) and zero or more child entries (objects).
Each child entry (object) is a sibling of its parent's other child entries.
 Each entry is composed of one or more object Classes. Object classes contain zero or more
attributes. Attributes have names and typically contain data.
 The characteristics of object Classes and their attributes are described by ASN.1 definitions.
Directory Information Tree
1. Each Entry (1) is composed of one or more object Classes (2).
2. Each object Class (2) has a name and is a container for attributed its definition identifies the
attributes it may or must contain.
3. Each Attribute (3) has a name, contains data, andis a number of one or more object Class(es) (2).
4. When the DIT is populated, each entry will be uniquely identified (relative to its parent entry) in
the hierarchy by the data it contains (in its attributes which are contained in its object
Classes(es)).
LDAP -Naming model
 A directory is best viewed as a hierarchical tree.
 It is comparable to a computer file system with folders and files.
 The diagram shows the tree structure of an organization, example.com.

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LDAP Directory Information Tree - 1
 The directories are viewed as a tree, like a computer's file system and it is called the Directory
Information Tree (DIT).
 Each entry in a directory is called an object. These objects are of two types, containers and
leaves.
 A container is like a folder: it contains other containers or leaves.
 A leaf is simply an object at the end of a tree.
 A tree cannot contain any arbitrary set of containers and leaves.
 It must match the schema defined for the directory. Using a common scheme, the organization
example.com has the simplified DIT.
LDAP Directory Information Tree – 2
 The example.com DIT contains several abbreviations specific to the scheme being used. They
all stand for different elements of the organization:
 dc – domain component. Each element of the Internet domain name of the company
is given individually.
 ou – organizational unit. The company is divided into its individual organizations.
 cn – common name. The common name a person. The leaf objects under this
container describe elements of this person.
 In this example
 'dc=example,dc=com', 'ou=Marketing', and 'cn=Sally Stevens' are all examples of
container objects.
 Leaf objects include 'telephoneNumber=3452211' and 'roomNumber=T55'.
LDAP – Functional Model
 The information model and the naming model describe the elements and the structure of the
directory, respectively. The functional model describes the operations that can be performed on
the directory. 功能模型描述了可以对目录执行的操作。

 There are three types of operations:

 Interrogation operations 讯问操作: search, compare (Query)

 Update operations: add, delete, modify DN, modify

 Authentication and control operations 认证和控制操作: bind, unbind, abandon 绑定、

解除绑定、放弃

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Functional Model _ Query 询问

 There are two interrogation operations: "search" and "compare. “两个询问操作：“搜索”和

“比较”。Search looks up a part of the directory for entries matching a condition specified by
a client filter. 搜索在目录的一部分中查找与客户端过滤器指定的条件匹配的条目。

 The search operation allows to specify the starting point within the DIT, how deep within the
DIT to search, what attributes an entry must have to be considered a match and what attributes to
return for matched entries. 搜索操作允许指定 DIT 中的起点、DIT 中要搜索的深度、条目的
哪些属性必须被视为匹配以及为匹配的条目返回哪些属性。

 Compare does the same thing as search in that it searches the directory to find a match to an
entry. However, it does not return any element, reporting only "true" if it found any entry and
"false" if it did not. 它不返回任何元素，如果找到任何条目则仅报告“true”，如果没有则报
告“false”。

Functional Model – Update

 The LDAP protocol has four update operations: "add," "delete," "modify DN," and “modify."
LDAP 协议有四种更新操作：“添加”、“删除”、“修改 DN”和“修改”。

 The "add" operation simply adds a new entry to the directory. “添加” 操作只是向目录添加一
个新条目。

 The "delete" operation deletes an entry. “删除” 操作删除条目。

 The "modify DN" operation modifies an entry. “修改 DN” 操作修改条目。

 The "modify" operation modifies or deletes one or more attributes of an entry. “修改” 操作修
改或删除条目的一个或多个属性。

Functional Model – Authentication

 LDAP has two authentication operations ("bind" and "unbind") and one control operation
("abandon"). LDAP 有两种认证操作（ “绑定”和“解除绑定”）和一种控制操作（“放
弃”）。

 The "bind" operation allows a user to connect to a directory server. This is an authentication
operation because the user delivers user ID and user Password. The server controls the user
credentials and gives access or returns an error code. “绑定” 操作允许用户连接到目录服务器。
这是一个认证操作，因为用户提供了用户 ID 和用户密码。 服务器控制用户凭据并提供访
问权限或返回错误代码。

 "Unbind" finishes the connection. “解除绑定” 完成连接。

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  The "abandon" operation interrupts the connection between client and server “放弃” 操作中断
了客户端和服务器之间的连接

Security Model
 LDAP security covers the following four aspects:

 Authentication 认证

 Integrity 诚信

 Confidentiality 保密

 Authorization 授权

Chapter 6: Introduction to Networking & IP addressing & Network Devices-Switch & Virtual
LAN
 A computer network consists of a collection of computers, printers and other equipment that are
connected using communication media so that they can communicate and share information with
each other.
 The computers or other hardware can be geographically located anywhere.

Advantages of Network
1. Resource Sharing
a. Hardware (computing resources disks, printers)
b. Software (application software)
2. Information Sharing
a. Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
b. Search Capability (WWW)
3. Communication
a. Email
b. Message broadcast
4. Remote computing
5. Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Types of Networks
1. Personal area network (PAN)
2. Local area network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
4. Wide area network (WAN)

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  Personal area network (PAN) refers to the interconnection of information technology devices or
gadgets within the environment of an individual user (typically within meters or 33 feet)
 Local area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most often, a
LAN is confirmed to a single room, building or a group of buildings. (Mostly small geographical
area).
 Metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but spans an entire
city or campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs. Thus, MANs are larger than
LANs but similar than wide area networks (WAN).
 A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunication network that is used for connecting
computers and covers a wide geographical area. WANs often contain a few smaller networks
(LANs, MANs, etc)
Network Topology
 The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are
connected.
 A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data
transmissions.
 There are several different types of network topologies including bus, star, ring, mesh, tree, and
hybrid.
Physical Topology
 Topology diagrams are mandatory for anyone working with a network. A topology diagram
provides a visual map of how the network is connected.
 Physical topology diagram: Identifies the physical location of intermediary devices, configured
ports, and cable installation.
Logical Topology
 Logical topology diagram: Identifies devices, ports, and the IP addressing scheme.
Bus topology
1. Features
a. All computers are attached to a single continuous cable that is terminated at both ends.
b. Only one computer can transmit at a time and data is transmitted only in one direction.
2. Advantages
a. It is suitable for only small networks
b. It is cost effective.
c. The cable required is least compared to other topology
d. Can be understood easily
e. By joining two cables together, it can be expanded easily
3. Disadvantages
a. If the cable fails, then the entire network fails
b. Cable is limited to fixed length (100 Meters)

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 c. It is slower than the ring topology
d. The performance of the network decreases as the number of nodes in network increases.
Tree topology
1. Features
a. It is similar to bus topology, and it contains multiple nodes and branches.
b. It is ideal if the workstations are located in groups.
c. Used in Wide Area Network
2. Advantages
a. This is the extension of bus and star topologies.
b. Node expansion is possible and are very easy
c. Managing and maintaining is easy.
d. Error detection can be done easily.
3. Disadvantages
a. Cost is more
b. If more nodes are added then maintenance becomes difficult
c. Heavily cabled
d. If the central hub fails, then the network fails.
Star topology
1. Features
a. A star topology is designed with each device connected directly to a central hub or
switch.
b. It can be used with the optical fiber, twisted pair or coaxial cable.
c. A hub acts as a repeater for flow of data.
2. Advantages
a. Hub can be upgraded easily
b. Easy to setup and modify
c. The performance is fast with few nodes and will have low network traffic.
d. Easy to troubleshoot
e. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
3. Disadvantages
a. Cost of installation is high
b. Performance is based on the hub’s capacity
c. Expensive to use
d. If the hub fails, then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
Ring topology
1. Features
a. It is called ring topology because if forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
b. Transmission is unidirectional. For bidirectional, another ring can be added.

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 c. Data is transferred in a sequential manner.
2. Advantages
a. Installation and expansion cost is less
b. Performance of network is not affected by high traffic or by addin more number of nodes.
3. Disadvantages
a. Troubleshooting is difficult
b. Adding or deleting the system disturbs the network activity
c. Failure or one system disturbs the whole network.
Mesh Network
1. Features
a. All the network nodes are connected to each other with point-to-point link.
b. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link a devices
c. It is robust
2. Advantages
a. Each connection can carry its own data load.
b. Faults are diagnosed easily.
c. It is robust.
d. Provides security and privacy.
3. Disadvantages
a. The cost of the cabling is high.
b. Bulk wiring is required.
c. Installation and configuration is difficult.
Hybrid topology
1. Features
a. It is a combination of two or more topologies. Connecting these different topologies will
result in hybrid topology.
2. Advantages
a. Reliable
b. Scalable
c. Flexible
d. Effective
3. Disadvantages
a. Complexity of Design
b. Costly Hub
c. Costly Infrastructure
IP address
 An IP address, short for Internet Protocol address, is an identifying host (computers, printers,
etc.) on a network.
 Having an IP address allows a device to communicate with other devices over an IP-based
network.

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  IP address works in the network layer.
IPv4 Addressing Format
 IPv4 Addresses consist of a string of 32 bits.
 It is divided into four sections called octets.
 Each octet contains 8 bits (or 1 byte) separates with a dot.
IPv4 Address Structure
 IPv4 addresses are classified into 5 classes.
 Class-A ranges from 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0
 Class-B ranges from 128.0.0.0 to 191.0.0.0
 Class-C ranges from 192.0.0.0 to 223.0.0.0
 Class-D ranges from 224.0.0.0 to 239.0.0.0
 Class-E ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 254.0.0.0

Primary address classes

A Class A,B and C are known as primary address classes.
Class-A Network Host Host Host
Class-B Network Network Host Host
Class-C Network Network Network Host

 Class-A network uses 24-bit host number

 Class-B network uses 16-bit host number
 Class-C network uses 8-bit host number
Class A address
Network Host Host Host
The first bit of the first byte should be “0” for class network.
0xxx xxx Host Host Host
So the network address range is 0000 0000 to 0111 111. That is 1 to 127. However, 127.0.0.0 is reserved
for special purpose, the actual range of class-A network is 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0
Class B address
Network Network Host Host
The first two bit of the first byte should be “10” for class network
10xx xxxx Network Host Host
So the network address range is 1000 0000 to 1011 111.
The actual range of class-B network is 128.0.0.0 to 191.0.0.0

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Class C address
Network Network Network Host
The first three bits of the first byte should be “110” for class network.
110x xxxx Network Network Host
So the network address range is 1100 0000 to 1101 111.
The actual range of class-C network is 192.0.0.0 to 223.0.0.0
Private IP address
 The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) reserves the following IP address blocks for
use as private IP addresses.
 10.0.0.0 to 255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 These addresses can be used within the organization, and they are routable through the Internet.
Reserved IP addresses
 The IP address range 127.0.0.0-127.255.255.255 is reserved for loopback, i.e., a Host’s address,
also known as localhost address.
 In case a host is not able to acquire an IP address from the DHCP server and the host can assign
itself an IP address from a range of reserved Link-local addresses. Link local address ranges
from 169.254.0.0—169.254.255.255
Layer-2 Switch
 A layer 2 switch is a network device that works on the data link layer.
 It uses MAC (media access control address) addresses to make forwarding decisions
 A Layer-2 switches is used to connect and end user devices.
 It can also be referred to as a multiport bridge.
 Switch maintains MAC address table to make the frame forwarding decision.
Layer-2 Switch Address Forwarding
 PC-D sending another frame to PC-A. the MAC address table already contains PC-A’s MAC
address, so it sends the frame only out port 1.
 The MAC address table content aging time is 300 seconds and after that entry is removed.
Router
 In packet-switched networks such as the internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software
on a computer, that determines the best way for a packet to be forwarded to the destination.
 A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly LANs or WANs or a LAN and its
ISP’s (Internet Service Protocol) network.
Function of Router
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  Routers connect multiple LAN segments and multiple networks.
 Routers maintain routing table to forward packets to the destination network.
 Provide security
 Quality of service
Routing
 Routing is the act of finding a path from source network to destination network. To find the best
path, algorithms are requires.
 Routing contains three elements:
o Routing protocols-the things that allow information to be gathered and distributed
o Routing algorithms, to determine paths
o Routing Table-the best paths are stored in routing databases.
Types of Routing:
1. Static Routing
a. Static routing is the manual configuration for a selected network destination.
b. It is managed by the network administrator.
c. It is suitable for scenarios where the network parameters and environment are expected to
remain constant.
d. It does not create any overhead for routers.
e. It is not appropriate for a larger network.
f. Administrator should know the complete topology to configure the static route.
2. Dynamic Routing
a. In Dynamic Routing, Routing Protocols running in routers continuously exchange
network status updates between each other as broadcast or multicast.
b. The purpose of dynamic routing protocols includes:
i. Discovery of remote networks
ii. Maintaining up-to-date routing information
iii. Choosing the best path to destination networks.
iv. Ability to find a best new path if the current path is no longer available.
3. Default Routing
a. A default router is also known as the gateway of last resort.
b. It is special type of static route.
c. A default route specifies a path to the unknown destination.
d. Default Route is the network route used by a route when there is no other known route
exists for a given destination.
What is VLAN?
 A virtual LAN (VLAN) is any broadcast domain that is partitioned and isolated in a computer
network at the data link layer.
 VLANs define broadcast domains in a Layer 2 network. Broadcast domain is a set of all devices
that will receive broadcast frames originating from any device within the set.

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Physical LAN segment
 Each group of users are connected with separate LAN segment without individual switch.
 Both LAN segments are connected through router to establish communication between groups.
Logical LAN Segment (VLAN)
 Logical LAN Segment is commonly known as VLAN.
 A single switch is logically segmented into two switches.
 Each logical segment is assigned with ports as per requirement.
Advantages of VLAN
 Performance
o To reduce the traffic
 Simplified administration
o Reconfiguration is not necessary.
 Security
o Used for controlling broadcast domains, restrict access, set up firewalls.
 Cost
o Reduce cost where eliminate the need for the expensive routers.
 Formation of Virtual Workgroups.
o Can be set up to contain multicast and broadcast within the group.

Types of VLANs
Static VLANs
In Static VLAN, the network administrator creates a VLAN and then assigns switch ports to the VLAN.
Static VLANs are also called port-based LANs. The association with the VLAN does not change until
the administrator changes the port assignment. End-user devices become the members of VLAN based
on the physical switch port to which they are connected.
Dynamic VLANs
Ina dynamic VLAN, the switch automatically assigns the port to a VLAN using information from the
user device like MAC address, IP address etc. When a device is connected to a switch port the switch
queries a database to establish VLAN membership. A network administrator must configure VLAN
database of a VLAN Membership Policy Server (VMPS).

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Chapter 7: Database & Application and New Technology

Database Terminology
 A computer cannot process data unless it is organized in special ways:
o Characters (e.g., $, #, and?)
o Fields
o Records
o Files
o Databases
Fields
 A field contains an item of data, that is a character or group of characters that are related.
 For instance, a grouping of related text characters such as “John Smith” makes up a name in the
name field.
Records
 A record is composed of a group of related fields. From the table below the record is made up of
multiple fields e.g.: First name, Last name, Date of birth, Address and Class.
 A s another way of saying it, a record contains a collection of attributes related to an entity such
as person or product.
Database File
 A database file is defined as a collection of related records. A database file is sometimes called a
table.
 A file may be composed of a complete list of individuals on a mailing list, including their
addresses and telephone numbers.
Introduction to DBMS
 DBMSs are commonly used to manage:
o Member ship and subscription mailing lists
o Accounting and bookkeeping information
o The data obtained from scientific research.
o Customer information
o Inventory information
o Personal records
o Library information
o DBMS and File Management Systems

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Advantages of DBMS
1. Improved availability-DBMS is that the same information can be made available to different
users.
2. Minimized redundancy. The data in a DBMS is more concise because, as a rule, the information
in it appears just once. This reduces data redundancy.
3. Accuracy – Accurate, consistent, and up-to-date data is a sign of data integrity. DBMS’s faster
data integrity because updates and changes to the data only must be made in one place.
4. Program and file consistency – Using a DBMS, file formats and system programs are
standardized. This makes the data files easier to maintain because the same rules and guidelines
apply across all types of data.
5. User-friendly – Data is easier to access and manipulate with a DBMS than without it. In most
cases DBMS also reduce the reliance of individual users on computer specialists to meet their
data needs.
6. Improved security – DBMS allow multiple users to access the same data resources.

Disadvantages of DBMS
There are basically two major downsides to using DBMSs. One of these s cost, and the other threat to
data security.
 Cost Implementing a DBMS system can be expensive and time-consuming, especially in large
organizations. Training requirements alone can be quite costly.
 Security: Even with safeguards in place, it may be possible for some unauthorized users to access
the database. In general, database access is an all or nothing proposition. Once an unauthorized
user gets into database, they have access to all the files, not just a few.
Types of DBMS
There are four structural types of database management systems:
1. Hierarchical
2. Network
3. Relational
4. Object-oriented
Hierarchical Database
 Data is represented by a tree structure.
 Cannot handle Many-Many relations.
 Anomalies in insert, delete and update operations.

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Network Database
 Data is represented by records and pointers.
 Address Many-Many relations
 Insert, delete, update operations possible.
Relational Databases
 Relational database management systems, where all data are kept in tables or relations.
 More flexible & easy to use.
 Almost any item of data can be accessed more quickly than the other models.
 This is what is referred to as Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
Object oriented database
 Able to handle many new data types, including graphics, photographs, audio, and video, object-
oriented databases represent a significant advance over their other database cousins.
 Object-oriented databases use small, reusable chunks of software called object-oriented database.
 Each object consists of two elements:
 A piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text or graphics)
 The instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data.
Database Security
 It is usually the responsibility of a database administrator to determine the different access
privileges for different user of the system.
 Most user will be allowed to view and retrieved some types of data and not others.
 Some user allowed to view data in database, while others who re qualified will be allowed to
view and make changes to data in database.
 The purpose of determining who has access, is to protect the data from unauthorized use and
sabotage.

Data Recovery
 Complex forms of computer hardware and software, there is always possibility of failure.
 It becomes crucial for data administration to have system recovery features in lace to be able to
recover database contents that are damaged or lost when problem occur.

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Data Mining
 Data mining is the process of extracting and discovering patterns in large data sets involving
methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems.
Data Warehousing
 Data warehousing is the secure electronic storage of information by a business or other
organization.
 The goal of data warehousing is to create a trove of historical data that can be retrieved and
analyzed to provide useful insight into the organization’s operations.
Data Marts
 A data mart is a subset oof a date warehouse focused on a particular line of business, department,
or subject area.
 Data marts make specific data available to a defined group of users, which allows those users to
quickly access critical insights without wasting time searching through an entire data warehouse.
 For example, many companies may have a data mart that aligns with a specific department in the
business, such as finance, sales, or marketing.
Emerging Technologies
 Emerging technology is a term generally used to describe a new technology, but it may also refer
to the continuing development of an existing technology.
 Can have slightly different when used in different areas, such as media, business, science, or
education.
Cloud Technology
 Cloud computing technology give users access to storage, files, software, and servers through
their internet-connected devices: copters, smartphones, tablets, and wearables.
 Cloud computing providers store and process data in a location that’s separate from end users.
Blockchain Technology
 Blockchain is a system of recording information in a way that makes it difficult or impossible to
change, hack, or cheat the system.
 A blockchain is essential a digital ledger of transactions that is duplicated and distributed across
the entire network of computer systems on the blockchain.
Internet of Things
The term IoT, or Internet of Things, refers to the collective network of connected devices and the
technology that facilitates communication between devices and the cloud, as well as between the devices
themselves.
Data Science

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  Data Science is the field of applying, visualizing, managing, and storing data to create insights.
 These insights help the companies to make powerful data-driven decisions. Data Science
requires the usage of both unstructured and structured data.
Big Data
 Big Data is data that contains greater variety, arriving in increasing volumes and with more
velocity. This is also known as the three Vs.
 Put simply, big data is larger, more complex data sets, especially from new data sources.
The three Vs of big data
 Volume – The amount of data matters. With big data, you’ll have to process high volumes of
low-density unstructured data. This can be data of unknown value such as Twitter data feeds,
clickstreams in web page or a mobile app, or sensor-enabled equipment. For some organizations,
this might be tens of terabytes if data. For others, it may be hundreds of petabytes.
 Velocity – Velocity is the fast rate at which data is received and (perhaps) acted on. Normally,
the highest velocity of data streams directly into memory versus being written to disk. Some
internets enabled smart products operate in real time or near real time and will require real-time
evaluation and action.
 Variety-Variety refers to the many types of data that are available. Traditional data types were
structured and fit neatly in relational database. With the rise of big data, data comes in new
unstructured data types. Unstructured and semi structured data types, audio. And video, require
additional preprocessing to derive meaning and support metadata.

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