CHAPTER

02
biological
classification
 Aristotle’s classification
• Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification
of organisms. - He classified plants into trees, shrubs & herbs and animals
into 2 groups- those with red blood & without red blood.

Linnaeus’s Twokingdom classification

• Linnaeus (1758) classified organisms into Two Kingdoms- Kingdom Plantae &
Kingdom Animalia. Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification: Prokaryotes
(Bacteria, cyanobacteria) and eukaryotes (fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms
& angiosperms) were included under ‘Plants’ based on the presence of cell wall
But they are widely differed in other characteristics.
• It included the unicellular and the multicellular organisms in same group.
E.g. Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed under algae. It did not
differentiate between the heterotrophic fungi and the autotrophic green plants.
Fungi have chitinous cell wall while the green plants have cellulosic cell wall.

Five Kingdom Classification

• It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
• It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
• This is based on cell structure, thallus organization, mode of nutrition,
reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.

Characteristics of the five kingdoms

Characters Monero Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellular
Present (Chitin & Present
Cell wall (polysaccharide + Present in some Abs ent
polysaccharides ) (Cellulos e)
amino acid)
Nuclear membrane Abs ent Present Present Present Present
Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
loos e tissue organ s ystem
Autotrophic (photos
ynthetic & chemos Autotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
Autotrophic
Mode of nutrition ynthetic) and (photos ynthetic) (saprophytic or (holozoic,
(photos ynthetic)
heterotrophic and heterotrophic parasitic) saprophytic etc.)
(saprophyte/paras ite)

• Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms.

• Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.
• They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow & deep oceans.
Many are parasites.
• Based on shape, bacteria are 4 types: Coccus (Spherical), Bacillus (Rod-shaped),
Vibrium (Comma-shaped) & Spirillum (Spiral).
• Some bacteria are autotrophic (synthesize food from inorganic substrates). Majority
are heterotrophs (they do not synthesize food but depend on other organisms or on
dead organic matter for food).

I. Archaebacteria
• They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
• Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for their survival in extreme conditions.
• Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals (cows, buffaloes etc).
They produce methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals

II. Eubacteria (‘true bacteria’)

• They have a rigid cell wall and a flagellum (if motile).
• They include Autotrophs (photosynthetic and chemosynthetic) and Heterotrophs.

a) Photosynthetic autotrophs (E.g. Cyanobacteria):

• They have chlorophyll a similar to green plants.
• Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
marine or terrestrial algae.
• The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.

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 • They often form blooms in polluted water bodies. - Some of them
fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells (heterocysts).
E.g., Nostoc & Anabaena.

b) Chemosynthetic autotrophs:
• They oxidize inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites & ammonia
and use the released energy for ATP production. - They help in recycling
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur. c. Heterotrophic
• They are the most abundant in nature
- The majority are important decomposers.

Impacts of Heterotrophic bacteria on human affairs:

• They are used to make curd from milk.
• Production of antibiotics.
• Fixing nitrogen in legume roots etc.
• Some are pathogens causing diseases. E.g. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus
and citrus canker.

Reproduction in Bacteria:
• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.
• Under unfavourable conditions, they produce
• They also reproduceby a sort of sexualreproduction (DNA transfer from
one bacterium to other).
Mycoplasmas are organisms without a cell wall. They are the smallest
living cells. They can survive without oxygen. Many are pathogenic in
animals and plants

2. KINGDOM PROTISTA
• It includes single cell eukaryotes
• The cell contains a well-defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
• Protists are primarily aquatic.
• It is a link with plants, animals and fungi.
• They reproduce asexually and sexually (cell fusion and zygote formation).
• Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dianoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds
and Protozoans.

I. Chrysophytes
• Found in fresh water and marine environments.
• Microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
• Diatoms: They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin overlapping shells,
which fit together as in a soap box. The cell wall deposit of diatoms over
billions of years in their habitat is known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is used in
polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

II. Dianoflagellates
• Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red based on the main pigments
present in their cells.
• The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
• Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely
in a furrow between the wall plates.
• Red dianoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid multiplication so that the
sea appears red (red tides). They release toxins that kill marine animals like fishes

III. Euglenoids
• Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
• Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle.
It makes their body flexible
• They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight. In the absence of sunlight,
they behave like heterotrophs by predating on smaller organisms.
• The pigments are identical to those in higher plants.
• E.g. Euglena.

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IV. Slime Moulds
• They are saprophytic protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium.
It may spread over several feet.
• Under unfavourable conditions, plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting
bodies bearing spores at their tips. Spores have true walls. They are highly
resistant and survive for many years. Spores are dispersed by air.

V. Protozoans
• They are heterotrophs (predators or parasites).
• They are the primitive relatives of animals.
• There are 4 major groups of protozoans:
a) Amoeboid protozoans: They live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.
They move and capture prey by putting out pseudopodia
(false feet). E.g. Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells
on their surface. Some of them are parasites. E.g. Entamoeba.
b) Flagellated protozoans: They are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella.
The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping sickness.
E.g. Trypanosoma.
c) Ciliated protozoans: They are aquatic, actively moving organisms using thousands
of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to outside. By the
movement of cilia, the water with food enters gullet.
E.g. Paramoecium.
d) Sporozoans: They have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
E.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite).

3. KINGDOM FUNGI PLASMOGAMY

Fusion of protoplasms
between two motile or Heterokaryotic
• It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. non-motile gametes stage

• Fungi are cosmopolitan.

• They grow in warm and humid places. Spore-producing
• E.g. bread mould, orange rots, mushroom, toadstools etc. structures KARYOGAMY
Fusion of two nuclei
• White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Spores
(n)
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Zygote
• Some fungi are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
(2n)

• Some unicellular fungi (e.g. yeast) are used to make bread and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals. E.g. wheat MEIOSIS
GERMINATION Zygote resulting
rust-causing Puccinia. GERMINATION in haploid spores

• Except yeasts, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of

thread-like structures called hyphae. Spores (n)
• The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.
These are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in hyphae.
• Fungal cell wall is made of chitin & polysaccharides. - Most fungi are
saprophytes (absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates).
Some are parasites.
• Some live as symbionts. E.g. Lichens (fungi+ algae), mycorrhiza
(fungi+ roots of higher plants)

Reproduction:
• Vegetative propagation: By fragmentation, fission & budding.
• Asexual reproduction: By spores such as conidia, sporangiospores and zoospores.
• Sexual reproduction: By oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. They are
produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
• The sexual cycle involves 3 steps:

a) Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.

b) Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei.
c) Meiosis in zygote to give haploid spores.
• When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating
types come together and fuse.
• In some fungi, the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid
cells (2n).
• In ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, a dikaryotic stage or dikaryophase
(n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs. Such a condition is called a dikaryon.
Later, parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
 • The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs,
leading to formation of haploid spores. Based on morphology of
mycelium, mode of spore formation & fruiting bodies,
Fungi are classified into different classes:
1. Phycomycetes 2. Ascomycetes
3. Basidiomycetes 4. Deuteromycetes

I. Phycomycetes (Lower Fungi)

• They occur in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp
places or as obligate parasites on plants.
• The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
• Asexual reproduction: By motile zoospores or by non- motile aplanospores.
These are produced in sporangium.
• Sexual reproduction: Zygospores are formed by fusion of two gametes.
These gametes are isogamous (similar in morphology) or anisogamous
or oogamous (dissimilar).
• E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus(bread mould) and Albugo (parasitic fungi on mustard).

II. Ascomycetes (sacfungi)

• They are unicellular (e.g., yeast, Sacharomyces) or multicellular (e.g., Penicillium).
• Mycelium is branched and septate.
• They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).
• Asexual reproduction: By conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium
called conidiophores. Conidia germinate to produce mycelium.
• Sexual reproduction: By ascospores produced endogenously in sac like asci
(sing. ascus). The asci are arranged to form fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
• E.g. Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. - Neurospora is used in biochemical
and genetic work.
• Morels & buffles are edible.

III. Basidiomycetes
• Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.
• They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
parasites (e.g., rusts and smuts).
• The mycelium is branched and septate.
• The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction
by fragmentation is common.
• The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy occurs by fusion of two
vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or geno types. The resultant
structure is dikaryotic which gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and
meiosis take place in basidium producing four basidiospores. Basidiospores
are exogenously produced on the basidium. Basidia are arranged in fruiting
bodies (basidiocarps).
• E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus)

IV. Deuteromycetes
• Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative
phases of these fungi are known.
• When the perfect (sexual) stages of these fungi were discovered they were
moved into other classes (often to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes).
• It is also possible that asexual and vegetative stage have been given one
name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another
(and placed under another class). When the linkages were established, the
fungi were correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
• They reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia).
• The mycelium is septate and branched.
• Some are saprophytes or parasites. Majority are decomposers of litter and
help in mineral cycling.
• E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

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 4. KINGDOM PLANTAE (PLANT KINGDOM)
• Plants are eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms with cellulosic cell wall.
• Some are partial heterotrophs (e.g. insectivorous plants like bladderwort & Venus flytrap) or
parasites (e.g. Cuscuta).
• Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
• Life cycle of plants has 2 phases: Diploid sporophytic & haploid gametophytic. These phases
alternate with each other. This is called alternation of generation.
• Among different plant groups, length of the haploid & diploid phases is varied. Also,
these phases are free living or dependent on oth

5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA (ANIMAL KINGDOM)

• Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms without cell wall.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or
fat. Their mode of nutrition is holozoic (by ingestion of food).
• They have a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and size.
• Higher forms show sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
• Most of them are capable of locomotion.
• The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological development.

VIRUSES, VIROIDS AND LICHEN

• In the five-kingdom classification, acellular organisms (viruses & viroids) and lichens
are not mentioned.
• Viruses are not truly ‘living’. So they are not included in five-kingdom classification.
• Viruses are non-cellular organisms having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites. - When they infect a cell, they take over the machinery of the
host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
• Louis Pasteur gave the name virus (means venom or poisonous fluid).
• D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) discovered virus. He recognized certain microbes that cause mosaic
disease of tobacco. They were smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-prooffilters.
• M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected tobacco plants cause infection
in healthy plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
• W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallized and crystals consist largely of proteins.
• A virus is a nucleoprotein, i.e., it has a protein coat (capsid) & genetic material (RNA or DNA).
• The genetic material is infectious.
• No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
• Generally, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA. Viruses that infect animals have either
single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria)
usually have double stranded DNA
• The capsid made of small subunits (capsomeres) protects nucleic acid. Capsomeres are arranged in
helical or polyhedral geometric form
• Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza & AIDS. In plants, the symptoms can
be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
• Viroid: It is an infectious agent with a free low molecular weight RNA and no protein coat. These are
smaller than viruses. It is discovered by T.O. Diener (1971). He found that it caused potato spindle tuber disease.

LICHENS
• Lichens are symbiotic associations (mutually useful associations) between algae & fungi.
• The algal component is called phycobiont (autotrophic) and fungal component is mycobiont (heterotrophic).
• Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
• Lichens are very good pollution indicators. They do not grow in polluted areas.

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 Protozoans Dinoflagellates
1ST PERSON TO USE
SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION
• Primitive relatives,
• Osmoregulation
• Marine,
• Photosynthetic
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION VIRUSES
ARISTOTLE types:- Amoeboid 2 flagellated
flagellated Non – Cellular
Bioluminescence
Plants Animals
Ciliated
sporozoans
Eg:- Gonyaulax(Red) 1. MONERA Eubacteria Archaebacteria Obligate parasite
Have infectious
Prokaryotic, Unicellular, (True Bacteria) (Ancient living tossils) genetic material
Trees Animals with Autotrophs, Heterotrophs, Genetic material –
Non – cellulosic cell wall, (i) Photosynthetic Autotrophs (i) Methanogens
red blood Slime Moulds Euglenoids RNA or DNA
Shrubs Nuclear membrane absent. (marshy areas)
Animals without Saprophytic, fresh water (ii) Chemosynthetic Autotrophs Bacteriophage - Virus that infects
Herbs red blood Highly resistance, Photosynthetic Myoplasm :- Pleomorphic, (ii) Halophiles (Salty areas) bacteria
In favourable (presence called PPLO (iii) Heterotrophic Bacteria
(iii) Thermoacidophiles Double stranded DNA
condition of sunlight), (Pleuro pneumonia like
Eg:- Cyanobacteria (Hot springs) - Head ( capsid)
2nd KINGDOM • Plasmodium, Heterotrophs / organism)
- Collar
• Smallest living cells. (blue green algae)
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM in Unfavourable absence Eg:- Streptococcus - Sheath
condition • Reproduction – has chlorophylla
LINNAEUS of sunlight, thermophilus - Tail fibers
• fruiting bodies eg:- Euglena Asexual and sexual
Virus cause mumps, small pox, etc.
Kingdom

Plantae Animalia 4. PLANTAE Bryophytes Angiosperms

PRIONS
•
•
Chrysophytes
• Eukaryotic, Multicellular,
Drawbacks:- Didn’t distinguish between • fresh water and Autotrophic, Cell Wall – cellulose • Cause infectious
• Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes marine
• Diatoms'chief''produ-
• Partially heterotrophs neurological discases
• Unicellular and Multicellular (Inuctivorous plants) • Similar in size to viruses
• Photosynthetic and Non – cers''in ocean Have abnormal folded
Photosynthetic organisms • Photosynthetic Complete Parasails (Cuscuta) Pteridophytes Gymnosperms protein
Golden algae & • Shows alteration of generation
(unicellular green
algae)
• Reproduction – Sexual
LICHENS
3rd KINGDOM Algae • Eg:- Herbs, shrubs and trees. Echinodermata - Starfish
CLASSIFICATUION SYSTEM
ERNST HAECKEL Symbiotic association
between algae and
2. PROTISTA Hemichrodata - Balanoglossus fungi
Living Organisms
• Eukaryotic, Unicellular, 5 KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION Algae component
phycobiont
Autotropic Heterotrophic, Very good pollution
movement by Cilia, Ctenophora- combjellies
indicators
Animalia Plantae Protista
flagella, pseudopodia
• Aquatic 3. FUNGI Fungi component
Mycobiont
• Reproduction – Asexual
Limitations :- Didn’t separate
• Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes - and sexual (Cell fusion
• Eukaryotic, Mostly multicellular
• Heterotrophs saprophytic cell wall –
5. ANIMALIA
• Placed unicellular and 5 and zygote formation) chitin, some torm Gukaryotic, Multicellular,
multicellular under Protista Phycomycetes VIROIDS
•
Aquatic, Moist and damp places. Heterotrophic, Cell
• Hyphal type:- (i) Coenocytichyphae, (Lower fungi) wall- Absent
Basidiomycetes (ii) Other with septae or cross walls
Acquatic on decaying Shows locomotion Infectious, low molecular
• Mode of Nutrition:-
(Mushrooms) (i) Saprophytic wood,moist & damp places High sensory & motor mechanism. weight RNA
lack protein coat
• In soil, logs and tree stumps (ii) Parasitic Reproduction – Reproduction – Sexual. Smaller than viruses
• Parasites. (eg – rust & smuts) (iii) Symbiotic Asexual (Zoospores Eg. Vertebrates,insects etc.
• Reproduction – Vegetative, Reproduction:- Vegetative or Aplanospores)
• Mating types and sex organs. Asexual and Sexual. eg:- Mucor, Rhizopus
Eg. Agaricus, Vstilago
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Fusion of protoplasms
between two motile or
Platyh elminthes- Fasciola
Hete ro karyoti c
non-motile gametes stage
Mollusca - Snail
Ascomycetes Deuteromycetes Annelida - Earthwarm
(Sac – fungi) (Imperfect fungi)
Spore-producing
structures KARYOGAMY
Fusion of two nuclei
Arthropoda - Grasshopper
Spores

Unicellular (yeast) and • Reproduction – vegetative and sexual (n) Zygote

Poritera - Sponge
ASEXUAL Mycelium
REPRODUCTION (2n)

Multicellular (Penicillium) • Are Decomposers, Saprophytes

Aschelminthes - Ascaris
and Parasites.
MEIOSIS

Asexual spores (Conidia) GERMINATION

GERMINATION Zygote resulting
in haploid spores

Sexual spores (Ascospores) Eg: Alternaria, Trichoderma

Eg. Aspergillus, Neurospora Spores (n)
Chordata - Amphioxus Cridaria- Jellyfish
1 Biological Classification

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2 Biological Classification

Biological Classification
Biological classification is the scientific procedure to classify the organisms into different groups on
the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing the groups in a hierarchy of categories.

KINGDOM SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

The earlier systems of classification of organisms were simple and based on one or two characters.
First scientific attempt for classification was performed by Aristotle in following manner:

(1) Two Kingdom Classification: It was given by Linnaeus.

Traditionally all the organisms of the world were divided into two
kingdoms -the animal kingdom (Animalia) and the plant kingdom
(Plantae). The major criterion of classification was the presence or
absence of cell wall. Other criterias were locomotion, mode of
nutrition, response to external stimuli etc.

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3 Biological Classification

Shortcomings of two-kingdom system of classification:

 This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicelled and
multicelled organisms, photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms.
 There are few organisms like Chlamydomonas, Euglena and the slime moulds which have
been claimed by both zoologists and botanists (organisms which share characteristics of both
animals and plants).
 Since there are certain organisms that do not fall naturally into either plant or animal
kingdom, it was proposed that a new kingdom is to be established to accommodate such
organisms.

(2) Three Kingdom Classification:

 Haeckel, a German zoologist (1866), suggested that a third kingdom Protista, be created to
include all unicellular microorganisms.
 This includes a wide variety of unicellular, mostly aquatic eukaryotes like -Fungi, Protozoa,
Algae, Bacteria and Slime moulds.
 Thus, he proposed three kingdoms, namely -Plantae, Protista and Animalia.

(3) Four Kingdom Classification:

 Copeland (1956) gave four kingdom of
classification and included Monera as fourth
kingdom.
 Copeland originally called it as kingdom
'Mychota'.
 It was called 'Monera' by Daugherty and Allen.
 Kingdom Monera includes all the prokaryotic
organisms i.e., eubacteria (including
cyanobacteria, formerly known as blue-green
algae) and archaebacteria.
 The actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria) are also included in this kingdom.

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4 Biological Classification

(4) Five Kingdom Classification:

 According to five-kingdom concept proposed by R.H. Whittaker.
 Whittaker (1969), the organisms are divided into five kingdoms
namely Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, on the basis of the
following criteria:
(a) Complexity of cell structure: prokaryotic vs eukaryotic organisation of
cells.
(b) Complexity of body organisation: unicellularity vs multicellularity;
simple multicellular forms to complex multicellular forms.
(c) Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic vs heterotrophic (parasitic or saprobic or ingestive
organisms). It was the major criteria of this classification system.
(d) Reproduction.
(e) Phylogenetic or evolutionary interrelations

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5 Biological Classification

Table 1: Comparative account of different characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

(5) Six Kingdom Classification:

 Carl Woese proposed six kingdom classification.
 These six kingdoms are Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
 He separated the archaebacteria from eubacteria on the basis of some major differences such
as the absence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the former and the occurrence of
branched chain lipids (a monolayer instead of a phospholipid bilayer) in the membrane.
 Based on the sequence of 16S ribosomal RNA genes, Woese found that the six kingdoms
naturally cluster into three main categories.
 He called these categories as domains of life.
 These domains are Bacteria, Archae and Eukarya and are believed to have originated from
common ancestor called progenote.

Three Domains of life

 Based on the sequence of 16 S ribosomal RNA genes, woese found that the six kingdoms
naturally cluster into three domains.
 These domains are Archae, Bacteria and Eukarya, and are believed to be originated from

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6 Biological Classification

common ancestor called Progenate. Domain is a category higher than kingdom.

KINGDOM: MONERA

 The Kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes.

 Monerans are the most primitive forms of life, originating from more ancient living stock
termed progenote.
 The kingdom Monera includes eubacteria and archaebacteria.
 Eubacteria includes Cyanobacteria, Actinomycetes, Mycoplasma, Rickettsiae, Chlamydiae and
Spirochaetes etc.
Classification of Monera
(1) In 4 kingdom system, a new kingdom was created to accommodate all prokaryotic organisms
i.e, eubacteria and archaebacteria. Copeland called it kingdom Mychota. It was called
'Monera' by Daugherty and Allen.

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7 Biological Classification

(2) Actually, archaebacteria differ from eubacteria in many respects and resemble eukaryotes in
some ways.
(3) (i) Carl Woese separated the archaebacteria from eubacteria on the basis of some major
differences such as the absence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the former and the
occurrence of branched chain lipids (a monolayer instead of a phospholipid bilayer) in the
membrane.
(ii) Therefore, 6 kingdoms given by Carl Woese are
Kingdom-1 -Archaebacteria Kingdom-2 -Eubacteria
Kingdom-3 -Protista Kingdom-4 -Fungi
Kingdom-5 -Plantae Kingdom-6 -Animalia
Salient Features of Monera
1. These are unicellular, colonial, multicellular prokaryotic organisms without nuclear
membrane, nucleolus, chromatin and histone proteins.
2. Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan (exceptions are Archaebacteria and Mycoplasma).
3. Membrane bound organelles are absent.
4. Cyclosis is absent and ribosomes are of 70 S type .
5. Respiratory enzymes are found associated with plasma membrane.
6. Nucleoid or genophore or incipient nucleus or prochromosome is composed of naked DNA,
RNA and nonhistone proteins.
7. Reproduction by asexual method.
8. Cell division is amitotic type and lacks spindle formation.

Let us discuss various monerans in detail:

1. EUBACTERIA

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 Bacteria are cosmopolitan and occur in every habitat wherever living or dead organic matter
is present.
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria in rain water which had been allowed to stand
for many days and tartar scrapped from teeth.
 In 1695, he published his work "The Secrets of Nature".
 A.V. Leeuwenhoek termed these microorganisms as dierkens which was later translated as
animalcules by the Royal society.
 Term microbe for animalcules was coined by Se' dillot, but the term microorganism was
proposed by Pasteur.
Concept Builder
 Ehrenberg first of all coined the word 'bacteria'
 Louis Pasteur is considered father of modern microbiology. He introduced the term aerobic
and anaerobic for the life in the presence or absence of oxygen respectively.
 Robert Koch, a German doctor, demonstrated that the anthrax disease of sheep was caused
by bacteria. Koch had followed four experimental steps (Koch's postulates) which help to
establish a relationship between a microorganism and a disease.
 Smallest bacterium : Dialister pneumosintes
 Largest filamentous bacterium : Beggiatoa mirabilis

Shapes of Bacteria
 Bacteria occur in four basic forms or shapes.
 These are spherical (Cocci), rod shaped (Bacilli), Vibrio and Spiral.
 Though most bacterial species have cells that are of a fairly constant and characteristic shape,
some species are pleomorphic (i.e., these can exhibit a variety of shapes), e.g., Rhizobium
leguminosarum.

(a) Coccus: Spherical or nearly spherical, aflagellate, sub-divided into six groups on the basis of
cell arrangement:

 Monococcus -Only single cell represents the bacterium, e.g., Micrococcus luteus, M. roseus.
 Diplococcus -Cocci divide in one plane and remain attached in pairs, e.g., Meningococcus,
Gonococcus, Diplococcus pneumoniae.
 Streptococcus -Cocci remain attached to form chains of different lengths, e.g., Streptococcus

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lactis.
 Tetracoccus -Cocci divide in two planes at right angles to one another and form groups of
four, e.g., Tetracoccus, Neisseria.
 Staphylococcus -Cocci divide in several planes resulting in formation of irregular bunches of
cells, sometimes resembling a cluster of grapes, e.g., Staphylococcus aureus.
 Sarcinae -Cocci divide in 3 planes at right angles to one another and resemble cubical packets
of 8 or more cells forming three dimensional geometrical figures, e.g., Sarcina lutea.
(b) Bacillus: Rod-like forms, either singly or may be arranged differently. They are generally
flagellate. It is the most common of all the shapes. They are of following types:

(i) Monobacillus -The bacteria occur singly, e.g., Bacillus anthracis, Lactobacillus.
(ii) Diplobacillus -Bacteria are arranged in pairs. e.g., Bacillus subtilis
(iii)Streptobacillus -Bacteria form a chain of rods, e.g., Streptobacillus.
(iv) Palisade-like -If the cells are lined side by side like match sticks and at angles to one another.
e.g., Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
(c) Spiral bacteria: Coiled forms of bacteria exhibiting twists with one or more turns are called
spirilla, e.g., Spirillum volutans.

(d) Vibrio: Bacteria with less than one complete twist or turn are called vibrio. These resemble a
comma (,) in appearance, e.g., Vibrio cholerae.

(e) Stalked bacteria: The body of bacterium possesses a stalk, e.g., Caulobacter.
(f) Budding bacteria: The body is swollen at places, e.g., Rhodomicrobium.

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Bacterial Cell Structure

Bacterial cell structure is very simple although they are very complex in behaviour. They show the
most extensive metabolic diversity. Electron microscope can only reveal the detailed structure of
bacterial cell. It consists of following structures:

1. Glycocalyx:
(i) It is outermost part of cell envelope (Glycocalyx, cell wall, plasma membrane)
(ii)Represented by either slime layer or capsule
(a) Slime layer is composed of dextran, dextrin and lavan sugars and protect the cell against
desiccation and loss of nutrients.
(b) Capsule is made up of polysaccharides and D-glutamic acid. It provides gummy or sticky
character and virulent property to the cell.
2. Cell wall:
 It is present outside the cell membrane and is a rigid structure.
 Due to its rigidity, it protects the internal structures of the cell and provides shape to the cell.
 However, its main function is to prevent the cell from expanding and bursting because most
bacteria live in hypotonic environments, and are likely to take in much water and eventually
burst.
 The cell walls of almost all the eubacteria (true bacteria) are made up of peptidoglycan, also
called murein or mucopeptide.
 It is found only in prokaryotes.
 As the name suggests, the peptidoglycan consists of two components-a peptide portion
which is composed of amino acids connected by peptide linkages, and a glycan or sugar
portion.
 The glycan portion, which forms the backbone of peptidoglycan, is composed of alternating
units of amino sugars N-acetyl-glucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) joined
together by -1, 4 linkages.
 The peptidoglycan chains are laterally linked by short chains of four amino acids which are
attached to N-acetylmuramic acid residues.
 The four amino acids of this tetrapeptide are D-alanine, L-alanine, D-glutamic acid and L-

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Iysine (in Gram +ve bacteria) or diaminopimelic acid (in Gram -ve bacteria).
 The tetrapeptide chains are also interlinked by a peptide bridge between the carboxyl group
of an amino acid in one tetrapeptide chain and amino group of an amino acid in another
tetrapeptide chain.
 The cross linkages can occur between tetrapeptides in different chains, as well as between
adjacent tetrapeptide chains. As a result, peptidoglycan forms a rigid, multilayered sheet.
 Another component, teichoic acid, an acidic polymer consisting of a carbohydrate (e.g.,
glucose), phosphate and an alcohol is found in cell walls of Gram +ve bacteria.
 Teichoic acid has several functions such as binding metals, acting as receptor sites for some
viruses and maintaining cells at low pH to prevent degradation of cell walls by self-produced
enzymes.
 The walls of Gram-positive bacteria contain very little amount of lipids.
 The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria are much more complex.
 The peptidoglycan layer is very thin making up only 10% or less of the cell wall.
 However, the most interesting feature is the presence of an outer membrane that covers a
thin underlying layer of peptidoglycan.
 The outer membrane is a bilayered structure consisting chiefly of phospholipids, proteins and
lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
 The outer membrane serves as a barrier to prevent the escape of important enzymes from
the space (periplasmic space) between the cytoplasmic membrane and the outer membrane.
 It also prevents the entry of various chemicals that could damage the cell.
 It acts as main surface antigen in cell wall.
 However, permeability of outer membrane to nutrients is provided by proteins called porins
which form channels in the membrane through which substances of hydrophilic nature and
low molecular weight can diffuse.
 Christian Gram (1884) developed a staining method for bacteria, using Gram stain (crystal
violet).
 On the basis of stainability with Gram Stain, bacteria are classified into two groups; Gram
positive and Gram negative.
3. Surface Appendages: These include flagella and fimbriae (or pili).
(a) Flagella are long, fine, wavy, filamentous appendages that protrude through the cell wall,
responsible for the motility of bacteria. These are much thinner than the flagella or cilia of
eukaryotes.
 Structure of Flagella: The entire flagellar apparatus is made up of three distinct regions: basal
body, hook and filament.
 Basal body: It is most complex portion of flagellum and has four rings (L, P, S and M), only two
rings S and M are present in gram +ve bacteria. L and P rings in cell wall constitute distal set,
while S and M rings are present in plasma membrane, forming proximal set.
 Hook: Made up of different protein units.
 Filament: Bacterial flagella are made up of identical spherical subunits of a protein called
flagellin. Longitudinal chains of flagellin molecules run longitudinally around each other to
form a wavy helical or rope-like structure. Therefore, a cross section of the flagellum reveals a
number of flagellin molecules around a central space.
Concept Builder
Depending upon the presence or absence, number and position, following types of flagellar arrangements are observed
among bacteria :
 Atrichous: Flagella absent, e.g., Pasteurella, Lactobacillus.
 Monotrichous: Only one flagellum attached at one pole of the organism, e.g.,Thiobacillus, Vibrio.
 Amphitrichous: One flagellum at both ends, e.g., Nitrosomonas.
 Cephalotrichous: Two or more flagella attached at one end, e.g., Pseudomonas fluorescence.

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 Lophotrichous: Two or more flagella attached at both ends, e.g., Spirillum volutans.
 Peritrichous: Flagella distributed all over the surface of the cell, e.g., Escherichia coli, Clostridium tetani.

(b) Pili and fimbriae are hollow, non helical, filamentous appendages projecting from the walls of
Gram-negative bacteria. These are thinner and shorter and more in number than the flagella.
These are made up of specific proteins called pilin.
There are different types of pili which serve different functions. One type, known as type I pili,
(somatic pili) play a major role in infection by facilitating the attachment of bacterial cell to
the host cell. Another type, termed sex pili, serve as portals of genetic material from donor to
recipient cell during conjugation.
Differences between Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria
1. They retain the blue colour of Gram stain even after 1. They get stained blue with Gram stain initially but lose
washing with alcohol it after washing with alcohol

2. The cell wall is 150-200 Å thick. The cell wall is not 2. The cell is 75-120 Å thick. Cell wall is covered by
covered by lipopolysaccharide layer, i.e., it is a single lipopolysaccharide layer, i.e. , it is a double layer.
layer.
3. Cell wall is more rigid due to high percentage (80%) of 3. Cell wall is less rigid due to low percentage (3-12%) of
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
4. Muramic acid content 70-95% 4. Muramic acid content 5-20%
5. Lipid content is low, i.e. ,2-4% 5. Lipid content is high, i.e. , 20-30%
6. Phospholipid absent in cell wall 6. Present
7. Teichoic acid present 7. Absent
8. Fewer amino acids in cell wall 8. Several types of amino acids in cell wall
9. Diaminopimelic acid (DAPA) is absent in the cell wall, 9. DAPA present in cell wall in place of L-Lysine
instead L-Lysine is present
10. Wall is more sensitive to antibiotics such as penicillin 10. Wall is-not sensitive to penicillin
11. Wall is resistant to alkalies and insoluble in 1% KOH
solution 11. Wall is sensitive to alkalies and soulble in 1% KOH
12. Mostly noncapsulated solution
13. Protoplast is produced by the reaction with lysozyme 12. Mostly capsulated
Other Structures 13. Sphaeroplast is formed by the reaction with lysozyme
14. Mesosomes are very common (LPS remains unaffected)
15. Pili usually absent
16. Flagellationless common 14. Mesosomes are rare
17. Basal body of flagellum has 2 rings (S, M) only 15. Pili very common
18. Only few forms are pathogenic and may produce 16. Flagellation very common
exotoxins 17. It has four rings (L, P, S and M)
e.g. Bacillus, Clostridium, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, 18. More forms are pathogenic and may produce
Leuconostoc, Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium endotoxins
e.g. E. coli, Salmonella, Acetobacter, Azotobacter,
Vibrio, Agrobacterium, Shigella, Xanthomonas
4. Protoplast: Cell wall encloses the protoplast, the living matter. It includes (i) Cell membrane
(ii) Cytoplasm, (iii) Nucleoid and may have plasmid and episome.
(i) Cell membrane:
 It lies inner to the cell wall, actually representing the outermost layer of the protoplast.
 It is living and semipermeable, controlling the movements of various dissolved substances in
and out of the cells.
 Functionally, the cell membrane of bacteria resembles mitochondria of eukaryotic cells as
respiratory ETS enzymes and succinate dehydrogenase (Kreb's Cycle) are associated with the
membrane.

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 The cell membrane gets invaginated and folded to form a structure called mesosome
(chondroid) in some bacteria, particularly the Gram positive bacteria.
 These may be central or peripheral in position and they are supposed to play a role in
replication of DNA during cell division, as these are often attached to the nuclear body.
 Besides, these increase the surface area of absorption and help in septa formation during
binary fission.
(ii) Cytoplasm:
 It is homogenous colloidal mass of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, minerals
and water.
 It does not show streaming movements.
 It lacks sap vacuoles and gas vacuoles (may be present in some bacteria which live in aquatic
condition).
 Typical membrane bound organelles of eukaryotic cells like endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, golgi complex and plastids are absent.
 The cytoplasm appears granular due to the presence of ribosomes.
 However, these are 70S type in bacteria as compared to 80S type in eukaryotes.
 Ribosomes lie scattered freely in the cytoplasm, but sometimes may form a small chain of 4-6
ribosomes attached to mRNA constituting polyribosome or polysome.
 Various non-living inclusions like glycogen particles, fat bodies, volutin granules
(polymetaphosphate -source of energy) and lipid molecules acting as food reserve lie
dispersed in the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm is usually colourless, lacking pigments.
 However, in photosynthetic bacteria, the cytoplasm contains pigments like
bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin.
 The pigments either lie dispersed in the cytoplasm or present in membrane bound spherical
vesicles called chromatophores.
 These pigments are capable of entrapping solar energy for photosynthesis.
(iii) Nucleoid (Prochromosome, Genophore, Incipient nucleus) –
 Bacterial cell lacks a well-organized nucleus.
 It consists of a long double stranded DNA molecule repeatedly folded with the help of RNA to
form a circular ring.
 DNA has no free ends and not associated with histone proteins (polyamines present). Circular
DNA ring, without histones is often termed bacterial chromosome.
Plasmid (Minichromosome) :
 Term plasmid was given by Lederberg and Hays.
 These are small, extrachromosomal, non-essential, circular, double stranded, free naked DNA
molecules.
 The genes present on them have no vital role in survival and growth of bacteria.
 These perform autonomous replication.
 If plasmids temporarily integrate with bacterial chromosome, then they are called episomes.
Concept Builder
Types of plasmids :
(a) F-Plasmid: It forms sex pilus and is responsible for process of conjugation or fertility factor transfer.
(b) R-Plasmid: These plasmids have resistance gene (Resistance Transfer Factor, RTF) for antibiotics like penicillin,
tetracycline.
(c) Col-Plasmid: Genes of this plasmid are responsible for production of colicins (bacteriocin) for killing other
bacteria.
(d) Ti Plasmid: From Agrobacterium tumefaciens, used in genetic engineering
(e) Degradative plasmid of Pseudomonas putida (superbug) helps to decompose hydrocarbons of petroleum in oil
spills.

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5. Bacterial Life Processes

Discussion of bacterial life processes revolves around the study of the prominent metabolic
activities like respiration and nutrition.
(A) Respiration: On the basis of mode of respiration, the bacteria are divided into two main
groups: i.e., aerobes and anaerobes. Each group is further of two types i.e. strict or obligate
and facultative.
(a) Obligate or strict aerobes: These bacteria can live only in presence of oxygen as they possess
the enzyme system for aerobic respiration only. In the absence of oxygen, they cannot respire
and thus, die, e.g., Bacillus subtilis.
(b) Facultative anaerobes: They normally respire aerobically. However, they are capable of
switching over to anaerobic mode to get energy for their survival, if sufficient oxygen to
sustain aerobic respiration is not available in the environment, e.g., Pseudomonas.
(c) Obligate or strict anaerobes: These bacteria respire anaerobically only. The growth of such
bacteria will certainly be slower as anaerobic respiration liberates much less amount of
energy as compared to aerobic respiration. They lack enzymes necessary for carrying out
aerobic respiration e.g., Clostridium botulinum.
(d) Facultative aerobes: They normally respire anaerobically, but are capable of respiring
aerobically as well, if oxygen is available. Most of the photosynthetic bacteria are facultative
aerobes e.g., photosynthetic bacteria Chlorobium.
Concept Builder
(i) Aerotolerant anaerobes: Bacteria that continue to perform anaerobic respiration even in the presence of
oxygen, e.g., Lactic acid bacteria.
(ii) Anaerotolerant aerobes: Aerobic bacteria continue to perform aerobic respiration even in absence of free
oxygen by using oxygen of oxidised salts, e.g., Denitrifying bacteria.

(B) Nutrition:
 Nutrition in bacteria is of two types i.e. autotrophic and heterotrophic.
 Bacteria having autotrophic mode of nutrition may be photoautotrophs and
chemoautotrophs, carrying out photosynthesis and chemosynthesis, respectively.

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(I) Autotrophic Nutrition

(i) Photoautotrophic bacteria:
 These bacteria are capable of entrapping solar energy and utilizing it for the synthesis of
complex food materials due to the presence of pigments like bacteriochlorophyll
(bacteriopurpurin) and bacterioviridin.
 Purple sulpher bacteria (e.g., Thiospirillum) and green sulpher bacteria (Chlorobium limicola)
are the most familiar examples containing pigment bacteriochlorophyll, bacteriopurpurin and
bacterioviridin respectively.
 Bacterial photosynthesis, however, differs from photosynthesis of higher plants in not
liberating oxygen.
 This type of photosynthesis, characteristic of bacteria, is termed as anoxygenic.
 Normal photosynthesis, occurring in higher plants, is termed as oxygenic.
 In bacterial photosynthesis water is not the source of electron that acts as reducing power to
convert CO2 into glucose.
 The bacteria obtain reducing power from various compounds such as hydrogen sulphide,
thiosulphate or even some organic compounds.
 No oxygen is evolved as it does not involve splitting of water.
 Hydrogen released by various compounds mentioned above is picked up by NAD+ which gets
reduced to NADH2 acting as reducing power.
 NADH2 alongwith ATP, produced generally by entrapping solar energy are used to reduce CO 2
to glucose.

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 Simple equation for anoxygenic photosynthesis may be written as follows :

CO2 + H 2S ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Solar energy
→ Sugar + (Sulphur or other oxidised compound) + H2O + energy
(or any other enzymes
compound acting
as e – donor)

 Most of the photosynthetic bacteria are anaerobes (facultative aerobes).

(ii) Chemoautotrophic Bacteria:

 Bacteria belonging to this category obtain energy for the synthesis of food by oxidising certain
inorganic substances like ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, ferrous ions etc.
 Thus, they do not utilise light as energy source.
 The chemical energy thus obtained, is trapped in ATP molecules.
 This energy is then used in carbon assimilation with the help of hydrogen from some source other
than water, e.g., hydrogen bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, sulphur bacteria, etc.
 They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron, sulphur.
(a) Hydrogen bacteria. These bacteria oxidise hydrogen in the presence of oxygen, e.g.,
Hydrogenomonas.
(b) Nitrifying bacteria obtain energy by oxidizing ammonia into nitrate, oxidation of ammonia occurs in 2
steps. Each step is carried out by a specialised group of bacteria.
• In the first step, ammonia is oxidised into nitrites by the species of the genus Nitrosomonas and
Nitrococcus.
• In the second step, the nitrite is converted into nitrate. This is brought about by species of the genus
Nitrobacter and Nitrocystis which use this energy for chemosynthesis.
(c) Sulpher bacteria. These bacteria obtain energy either by the oxidation of elemental sulphur or
oxidation of H2S.
• Oxidation of elemental sulpher. Sulpher bacteria (Thiobacillus thioxidans) oxidise elemental sulpher
to sulphuric acid and utilise energy produced in this process. These bacteria can survive even in
extreme acidic environment.
• Oxidation of H2S to S. Some bacteria like Beggiatoa use the energy from oxidation of H2S and store
the sulphur so produced in the form of granules.
(d) Iron bacteria. These bacteria (e.g., Ferrobacillus, Leptothrix) inhabit water which contain iron
compounds. These bacteria convert ferrous ions to ferric form. The ferric ion is deposited as insoluble
ferric hydroxide. The energy so released, is utilised in the assimilation of CO2.
(e) Methane bacteria. Methanomonas, is one example which oxidises methane to carbon dioxide.
(II) Heterotrophic bacteria:
 These bacteria are most abundant in nature and are incapable of synthesizing their own food from
simple raw materials.
 They obtain nourishment either from dead and decaying organic matter or directly from a living host.
 All heterotrophic bacteria are segregated into three main categories, i.e., saprophytic, symbiotic and
parasitic forms.
Vibrio cholerae
Rhizobium

(i) Saprophytic bacteria:

 They are free living bacteria, obtaining nourishment from organicSaremains
lmonella tsuch
yphi as dead
animals, animal excreta, fallen leaves, decaying vegetables, fruits, bread and other products
of animal and plant origin.
 These bacteria secrete digestive enzymes into the substrate and the complex insoluble
Substances are converted into simple soluble compounds like water, hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia, CO2 etc.

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 Some of the simpler substances are absorbed and assimilated by the bacteria, whereas the
others are added to the soil and atmosphere to complete the nature's material cycle.
 Anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins is termed fermentation and putrefaction
respectively.
 Aerobic breakdown of organic compounds is called decay.
(ii) Symbiotic bacteria:
 They are mainly Gram-negative type.
 A familiar example of symbiotic bacteria is Rhizobium leguminosarum, associated with roots
of leguminous plants.
 They are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen as ammonia, inside the nodule only and not
in free state.
 However, some bacteria like Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, Klebsiella are free living, aerobic and
capable of nitrogen fixation in free state, enriching the soil.
 Clostridium pasteurianum is anaerobic N2 fixing bacteria.
(iii) Parasitic bacteria:
 These bacteria draw nourishment and obtain special organic compounds required for growth
from living organisms, either plants or animals, called hosts.
 The disease-causing bacteria are termed pathogenic and the ones not causing any disease are
termed as non-pathogenic.

6. Reproduction
Bacteria reproduce mainly by asexual method and also show sexual recombination (True
sexual reproduction is absent).
A. Asexual Reproduction:
 Bacteria produce several types of asexual spores like, sporangiospores, oidia, conidia and
endospores. However, the most common mode of asexual reproduction is binary fission.
 Under favourable conditions of nutrient availability, moisture and temperature, daughter
cells may repeat binary fission many times and may forms a large population.
 Fortunately, such a rapid rate is seldom achieved.
 The process gradually slows down and ultimately stops because of:
(i) Shortage of space.
(ii) Lack of nutrient availability.
(iii) Accumulation of waste products (making environmental conditions unfavourable for growth).
(iv) Development of bacteriophages, destroying bacteria.

(a) Binary Fission:

 It is the most common method under favourable conditions
of temperature, moisture and availability of nutrients.
 Mature bacterial cell divides into two daughter cells.
 In this process the cell division is amitotic type i.e., not
involving the spindle formation.
(b) Endospores:
 Cells of certain bacteria, e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium etc. form thick-walled, highly resistant
bodies within the cell, called endospores.

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 One bacterial cell normally produces only a single endospore.

 The endospores may be spherical or oval in shape and are terminal or central in position.
 Anticoagulant nature of endospore is due to the presence of Ca-dipicolinic acid in cortex layer
of wall.
B. Sexual Recombination (Genetic Recombination) :
 The bacteria exhibit a primitive form of sexual reproduction which differs from eukaryotic
sexual reproduction because there is no gamete formation and fusion.
 However, the essential feature of sexual reproduction, i.e., exchange of genetic material does
take place and is called genetic recombination.
 Three methods are known by which genetic recombination is achieved by bacteria.
 In the order of their discovery, these are transformation, conjugation and transduction.
(a) Transformation:
 Griffith (1928) worked on the effect of Diplococcus or Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria on
mice and discovered the process of transformation.
 In transformation, the donor and recipient do not come in contact.
 The donor cell releases a piece of DNA which is actively taken up by the recipient cell from the
solution.
 This ability to pick up DNA from the solution is called competence.
 Two strains of D. pneumoniae are :
Capsulated or S-III (Virulent strain) and Non-capsulated or R-II (non-virulent strain).
 Four steps were performed in experiment:
(i) S-III bacteria ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Injected into
→ Healthy mice ⎯⎯
→ Mice died.
(ii) R-II bacteria ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Injected into
→ Healthy mice ⎯⎯→ Mice survived.
(iii) S-III bacteria ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Injected into
→ Healthy mice ⎯⎯
→ Mice survived.
(Heat killed)

(iv) R-II (living) + S-III (heat killed) bacteria ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

Injected into
→ Healthy mice ⎯⎯
→ Mice died.
(But R-II is not virulent and S-III lost its virulent capacity upon heating).
 Griffith concluded that 'something' passed from heat killed S-III to R-II bacteria, so that non
virulent strain changed or transformed into virulent bacterial strain.
 Avery, Macleod and McCarty (1948) repeated this experiment using various enzymes and
proved that the transformation principle is DNA of heat killed S-III strain.
 They proved that DNA is a genetic material.

(b) Conjugation:
 Lederberg and Tatum (1946) demonstrated in E. coli that during conjugation, one cell
containing F-plasmid acts as donor (F+ or male) cell and the other lacking F-plasmid as
recipient (F– or female) cell.

 The plasmid contains fertility factor or F gene which produces protrusions termed sex pili.

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 These help the donor F+ cell in attaching to the recipient cell.

 The plasmid replicates and a replica is transferred to recipient cell, changing it into F+.
 Often the plasmid integrates with bacterial chromosome, converting it into Hfr (High
frequency of recombination) cell or super male and a part or whole of bacterial chromosome
is transferred to recipient cell through-conjugation tube.
 Such association of episome with the endogenote increases the efficiency of genetic transfer.
 The number of genes transferred depends upon the time for which the two cells remain
joined together.
 When F-conjugates with super male, the frequency of recombination increases by 1000 times,
that is why it is called as Hfr (super male).

(c) Transduction:
 During transduction, a small double stranded piece of DNA is transferred from donor to
recipient by a bacteriophage.
 This mode of genetic recombination in bacteria was first demonstrated by Zinder and
Lederberg (1952) while working with Salmonella typhimurlum.
 Some viruses have the ability to integrate their DNA with bacterial DNA, which is replicated at
the same time as the host DNA and is passed from one bacterial generation to the next.
 Such bacteria carrying phage (viral) DNA with their own DNA are called lysogenic bacteria.
 Occasionally, the phage DNA becomes active and codes for the production of new virus
particles.
 A number of phage particles are synthesised followed by the destruction of the host cell and
release of phage particles.
 Upon release, the phage particles attack sensitive bacterial cells, multiply and release more
phage particles.
 However, sometimes faulty deatchment of phage DNA from bacterial DNA results in the
incorporation of a small amount of bacterial DNA into the phage DNA.
 Subsequent infection of another bacterium with this aberrant phage called transducing
phage, introduces the piece of foreign bacterial DNA into the recipient's chromosomes,
producing a genetic change.
Types of transductions:
 The ability of the bacteriophage to carry the genetic material from any region of bacterial
DNA is called generalised transduction, e.g., T4-phage.

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 On the other hand, there are bacteriophages such as lambda phage () of E coli which can
carry only a specific region of the bacterial DNA to a recipient.
 This is called specialised transduction (or restricted transduction).
 Sometimes, the DNA brought by the phage does not integrate with the genome of the
recipient bacterium and is lost after one or two generations.
 Such a transduction is called abortive transduction.

7. Economic Importance of Bacteria

Bacteria play significant role in day-to-day activities of human beings.
A. Beneficial activities
(a) Role in agriculture
(i) Decay and decomposition of organic matter :
 They bring about decay and decomposition of dead remains of plants and animals.
 These are the most important for mineral cycling to occur.
(ii) Sewage disposal:
 The bacteria decompose the organic matter present in the sewage, converting into simpler
inorganic substances.
 The inorganic substances thus formed, being soluble, pass out through filter alongwith water
which is highly useful for irrigation purposes, e.g., Clostridium, E. coli.
(iii) Nitrogen cycle:
 The proteins present in dead remains of living organisms are converted into amino acids by
different types of saprophytic bacteria.
 Amino acids are converted into ammonia by ammonifying bacteria (Bacillus vulgaris, B.
ramosus).
 Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium salts first into nitrites (Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus)
which are subsequently converted into nitrates (Nitrobacter).
 In presence of denitrifying bacteria (Pseudomonas denitrificans), nitrates and nitrites of soil
are converted to gaseous nitrogen.
(iv) Nitrogen fixation:
 It is the biological process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrogenous
compounds by nitrogen fixing bacteria.
 These bacteria are of 2 types :
(a) Free living
(b) Symbiotic
(a) Free living bacteria are Azotobacter and Beijerinckia (aerobic) & Clostridium (anaerobic).
(b) Common symbiotic bacteria are Rhizobium leguminosarum and Xanthomonas. These
convert nitrogen into ammonia which is directly converted into amino acids by plants.
(v) Manure preparation:
 Saprotrophic bacteria help in preparation of farmyard manure by converting farm refuse,
dung and other organic wastes into humus.

(b) Role in Industry:

 Man has utilized the metabolic activities of bacteria in preparation of a number of industrial
products as listed below :
(i) Butter milk and sour cream
(ii) Yoghurt
(iii) Cheese
(iv) Vinegar
(v) Retting of fibres : Retting is a controlled microbial decomposition for separation of fibres.

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The tissues are immersed in water tanks where anaerobic butyric acid bacteria dissolve the
pectin of middle lamella of cells, thus, separating the fibres. Clostridium perfringens and
Pseudomonas fluorescence are useful in this process.
(vi) Curing of leaves: To improve the flavour and taste in tea, using Micrococcus candidans and in
tobacco leaves by Bacillus megatherium.
(vii) Single cell proteins (SCP): Like -Methylophilus methylotropus and Rhodopseudomonas
capsulata.

(c) Role in Medicine:

 Bacteria have been used extensively in preparation of antibiotics, vaccines, serums and
vitamins.
(i) Antibiotics :
 The term antibiotic was given by Waksman, who discovered streptomycin.
 These are the organic substances produced by microorganisms which inhibit the growth of
other organisms (mostly pathogens) but do not affect the growth of organisms secreting
these.
 The first commercial antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Flemming (1959) from a fungus
called Penicillium.
Some antibiotics of eubacterial origin:
(a) Bacitracin ........................... Bacillus licheniformis
(b) Polymixin ........................... Bacillus polymyxa
(c) Gramicidin ........................... B. brevis
(d) Subtilin ........................... B. subtilis
(ii) Vaccine production
 Vaccines and serums against typhoid, cholera, TB, pertussis, tetanus and diphtheria are made
with the help of bacteria or their toxins e.g., DPT (against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus),
TI(against tetanus), BCG (Bacille of Calmette-Guerin against TB), DT (against diphtheria and
tetanus).
(iii) Vitamins :
 Escherichia coli present in human intestine produces large quantities of B-complex vitamins
and vitamin K. Bacteria are utilized in industrial production of a number of vitamins like
riboflavin from Clostridium butylicum, Cobalamine (B12) from Bacillus megatherium and
Pseudomonas denitrificans.
(iv) Pollution control :
 Pseudomonas putida degrades petroleum wastes.
 Flavobacterium can decompose 2, 4-D. DDT can be decomposed by Acetobacter aerogens.
 Ganga's water contains Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus that maintains purity of its water.
(v) Poly--hydroxybutyrate is used to produce biodegradable plastic.

B. Harmful activities
(i) Spoilage of food: Saprophytic bacteria cause decay of vegetables, fruit, meat, bread and
other foods, making these unfit for human consumption. Some bacteria even produce strong
toxins in the infected food stuffs which cause food poisoning when consumed.
(ii) Deterioration of Domestic Articles: Some saprophytic bacteria like Cellulomonas, Spirochaete
cytophaga cause deterioration of domestic articles of daily use such as leather, woolen,
canvas articles etc.
(iii) Denitrification of Soils: Denitrifying bacteria like Thiobacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus
denitrificans and Pseudomonas convert nitrates and nitrites present in the soil into gaseous
nitrogen, thus depleting the soil nitrogen, thereby decreasing soil fertility.

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(iv) Desulphurification: Desulphovibrio desulphuricans.

(v) Diseases: Common disease of humans, animals and plants are listed below respectively –
S.No. Name of causal organism Name of the human diseases
1. Clostridium botulinum Botulism
2. Vibrio cholerae Cholera
3. Corynebacterium diphtheriae Diphtheria
4. Salmonella typhimurium Staphylococcus aureus Food poisoning
5. Clostridium perfringens Gangrene
6. Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Salmonella schottmulleri Gonorrhoea
7. Mycobacterium leprae (Hensen 's bacillus) Leprosy
8. Neisseria meningitidis Meningitis
9. Yersinia pestis Plague
10. Diplococcus pneumoniae Pneumonia
11. Treponema pallidum Syphilis
12. Clostridium tetani Tetanus
13. Streptococcus pyrogenes Tonsilitis
14. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
15. Salmonella typhosa / typhi Typhoid
16. Bordetella pertussis / Hemophilous pertussis Whooping cough
17. Salmonella typhimurium Enteric fever (paratyphoid)
S.No. Name of causal organism Name of the plant diseases
1. Pseudomonas solanacearum Potato wilt
2. Xanthomonas citri Citrus canker
3. Agrobacterium tumefaciens Crown gall
4. Erwinia amylovora Fire blight of apple
5. Xanthomonas oryzae Bacterial blight of rice
6. Xanthomonas malvacearum Angular leaf spot of Gossypium
7. Pseudomonas rubrilineans Red stripe of sugarcane
8. Erwinia cartovora Soft rot of carrot
9. Corynebacterium tritici Tundu(bacterial rot) of wheat
10. Xanthomonas campestris Black rot of cabbage
11. Streptomyces scabies Potato scab

II. CYANOBACTERIA
 Cyanobacteria are Gram negative photosynthetic prokaryotes, being the most primitive organisms to
have oxygenic photosynthesis.
 They added oxygen to the atmosphere, which is indispensible for the existence of aerobic forms of
living organisms.
 They are also known as BGA (Blue green algae) and are classified variously under cyanophyceae or
myxophyceae.
Occurrence
 They are mainly fresh water forms, though few are marine.
 Red sea is named so because of abundant occurrence of a cyanobacterium Trichodesmium
erythraeum, which imparts red colouration to water.
 They occur in symbiotic association with almost every group of eukaryotes i.e. green algae, fungi,
bryophytes like mosses and Anthoceros, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms, sponge, shrimps,
mammals etc.
 Anabaena azollae is associated with Azolla, an aquatic fern.
 Anabaena cycadeae is associated with coralloid roots of Cycas.
 In many lichens (symbiotic association of algae and fungi), the algal partner may be a cyanobacterium.

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 When they live endozoically in protozoans they are called cyanelle.

Structural Organization
 These may be unicelled or multicelled. The latter
may be filamentous or colonial.
 Filamentous form consists of one or more cellular
strands, called trichomes, surrounded by
mucilagenous sheath.
 Cyanobacteria are characterised by the absence of
flagellum throughout life cycle.

Nostoc

Cell Structure
 The cell structure in cyanobacteria is typically prokaryotic.
 The cell lacks a well-defined nucleus and the chromatin material is centrally located,
resembling the bacterial chromosome.
 The cell wall is 4 layered and is invariably covered by mucilagenous sheath, composed largely
of mucopeptides.
 Protoplasm in cyanobacterial cell can be distinctly divided into two parts the centroplasm and
chromoplasm.
 The central colourless centroplasm contains the chromatin material.
 The peripheral protoplasm is coloured or pigmented because of the presence of thylakoids,
called as chromoplasm.
 The protoplast lacks membrane-bound organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies,
mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids and contains 70S ribosomes.
 Similar to the mesosome of bacteria, a group of coiled membrane called lamellasome is
found which connects nucleoid to the cell membrane.
 It helps in respiration and replication of DNA.
 The cell membrane lack sterols. The sap vacuoles are absent.
 Instead, the cell may contain gas filled vacuoles which help to regulate the buoyancy of the
organism in water.
 The characteristic feature of cyanobacterium cell is the presence of a system of
photosynthetic lamellae called thylakoids.
 The characteristic photosynthetic pigments present in the thylakoids are chlorophyll a and
phycobilins i.e., phycocyanin (blue coloured), phycoerythrin (red coloured) and
allophycocyanin (light blue coloured).
The cyanobacterial cell contains reserve food material in the following forms

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(i) Cyanophycean granules (Protein)

(ii) -granule (Fat droprets)
(iii) Cyano-or myxophycean starch or -granule (Similar to glycogen but negative to iodine
test)
(iv) Volutin body (Reserve phosphate)
(v) Polyhedral body (Rubisco rich)

Metabolism
 They are the most self-dependent organisms, because most of these are capable of
converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium compounds besides utilizing atmospheric
CO2 for synthesis of organic food during photosynthesis.
 Biological nitrogen fixation is an anaerobic process as nitrogenase enzyme required for the
process acts efficiently in the absence of oxygen.
 Nitrogen fixation under anaerobic conditions occurs mainly in large, specialized cells called
heterocysts as in Nostoc.
 Heterocyst has terminal pores which at maturity develops a polar granule.
 Thickened cell wall of these cells is impermeable to oxygen so this creates anaerobic
environment in the cell even under aerobic conditions.
 Besides this, heterocysts also lack PS II activities and CO2 fixation is done only by vegetative
cells.
 Oxygen is not evolved due to absence of PSII.
 However, PSI remains active in heterocyst which generates ATP required to fix nitrogen.
 Besides N2 fixation heterocyst promotes fragmentation.
 This property of nitrogen fixation, most of the BGA enrich the soil by releasing nitrogenous
compounds in the surroundings.

Reproduction
 Cyanobacteria reproduce asexually. Typical sexual reproduction is absent.
 Asexual reproduction occurs by following methods :
(i) Binary fission: It occurs in unicellular forms. The daughter cells formed by amitotic division
separate immediately after the division.
(ii) Fragmentation: It occurs in filamentous forms. The filament breaks up into short pieces or
fragments which grow to form new filaments.
(iii) Heterocysts : Under special conditions, the heterocysts germinate to form new filaments.
(iv) Hormogonia: Due to the formation of biconcave, mucilage filled dead cells called necridia, in
between living cells of trichome, the filament breaks into hormogonia.
(v) Akinetes: Vegetative cells are transformed into thick walled akinetes due to the deposition of

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food material followed by the thickening of wall. On the arrival of favourable conditions, they
germinate to form new filaments.

Importance of Cyanobacteria
(i) They are the most ancient organisms having oxygenic photosynthesis and thus, played a
significant role in the evolution of aerobic forms of life.
(ii) They convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium compounds and excess of these
compounds is excreted out, enriching the soil. The death and decay of these also increase the
soil fertility, particularly the nitrogen content of the soil. Tolypothrix and Aulosira fix N2 non-
symbiotically in rice fields .
Cyanobacteria like Nostoc and Anabaena have been used for reclaiming usar soils. As they can
live in damp or aquatic habitat, they enrich the root environment in any wetland condition as
in rice fields.
(iii) Cyanobacteria are associated in symbiotic relationship with almost every group of plants.
They benefit the partner by providing nitrogenous compounds because of their capability of
nitrogen fixation.
(iv) Some cyanobacteria serve as food to several aquatic animals. Spirulina is edible, non-toxic,
fast growing cyanobacterium. It is cultivated in tanks as source of protein rich animal food
(SCP).
(v) Extract of Lyngbya is used for the manufacture of antibiotic.
(vi) Some cyanobacteria like Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena flos-aquae, Aphanizomenon flos-
aquae are known to cause algal blooms in water bodies. These also secrete toxins into the
surroundings, which are harmful to aquatic animals and even to human beings. Water from
such sources is harmful and may even prove fatal for organisms drinking it. They also deplete
the oxygen from the water reservoir and thereby, cause large scale death of the fishes and
other aquatic animals.

III. MYCOPLASMA
 E. Nocard and E.R. Roux (1898)-two French Scientists, discovered these organisms from
pleural fluid of cattles suffering from pleuropneumonia.
 These are pleomorphic and were called PPLO (Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms) or Jokers of
plant kingdom.
 This organism was later on given the name Asterococcus mycoides by Borrel et al. (1910).
 Nowak (1929) placed Asterococcus mycoides under the genus Mycoplasma.
 All such organisms are now called Mycoplasma, or MLO's (Mollicutes like organisms).
 These are sometimes placed in a separate class called Mollicuta.
 Mycoplasma infects animals (e.g., dog, sheep, mice and man) and plants (e.g., potato, corn,
brinjal etc.).
 They are generally found in soil, sewage water, plants and animals.
Structure:
 These are unicellular, simplest free-living prokaryotes.
 They do not have cell wall so they are highly pleomorphic and can assume various shapes like
spherical, granular, filamentous, coccoid etc.
 Cell membrane is the outermost limiting layer.
 It is trilamellar unit membrane structure.
 In culture, colonies of mycoplasma show a characteristic fried egg appearance with an opaque central
area and translucent peripheral zone.
 The cells are generally non motile, but a few are gliding type.

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 The protoplasmic matrix contains ribosomes (70S type), fatty acid substances and proteins.
 Organized nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, plastids, mitochondria, golgi bodies, Iysosomes, centrioles,
flagella, etc. are absent.
 Mycoplasma has both RNA and DNA.
 RNA is single stranded, present in both ribosomes and cytoplasm and DNA is double stranded, long
coiled thread extending almost throughout the cell.
 Enzymes are present freely in the cytoplasm as well as associated with the plasma membrane.
 Replicating disc assist in replication and separation of the genetic material.

Nature of Mycoplasma:
 Mycoplasma can pass through bacteriological filters and lack cell wall.
 This shows that they are not bacteria.
 Since they can multiply in abiotic medium having sterols, so they are not considered as virus.
 Due to similarities with bacteria, they are said to be "Bacteria with their coats off".
 Mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
 Some are saprophytic, but mostly they are parasitic.
 They are parasitic, because they are unable to synthesize required growth factors, e.g., M.
gallisepticum (0.3 to 0.5 µm, smallest prokaryote).
 They can survive without oxygen.
Sensitivity to Antibiotics:
 Mycoplasma are Gram negative, insensitive to penicillin but
sensitive to streptomycin, erythromycin, chloramphenicol
(metabolic inhibitors) etc.,
 They are insensitive to penicillin because they are wall less
and penicillin interferes in the synthesis of peptidoglycan, a
component of cell wall of bacteria.
 Reproduction - Much is not known about reproduction of
Mycoplasma but they mainly reproduce by means of
elementary bodies.
Mycoplasma
IV. ARCHAEBACTERIA
 They are believed to have evolved immediately after the origin of life on earth, as even now these are
living under extremely adverse conditions such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).

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 Very few other organisms can survive under such environmental conditions. So these are
termed as "living fossils".
 These possess introns in DNA, their ribosomal proteins are highly acidic, these prokaryotes
possess histone proteins different from that of eukaryotes.
 These being the most primitive and ancient most bacteria.
 Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this
feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
 The cell wall in archaebacteria contains proteins and non-cellulosic polysaccharides.
 It lacks peptidoglycan, the characteristic cell wall material in bacteria and cyanobacteria.
 It consists of glycoprotein, pseudomurein and non cellulosic polysaccharide.
 Pseudomurein is like bacterial peptidoglycan, but contain N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
instead of NAM and lacks D-Amino acid.
 The cell membrane contains branched chain lipids (phytanyl side chains) which decreases
membrane fluidity.
 This chemical composition of the cell membrane enables these organisms to withstand
extremes of temperature and pH.
 Archaebacteria are divided into three groups· methanogens, halophiles and
thermoacidophiles.
(a) Methanogens:
 They are obligate anaerobes occurring in marshy habitats.
 They are capable of converting CO2, methanol and formic acid (HCOOH) into methane and
hence the name methanogens.
 This property is exploited commercially in the production of fuel gas and methane in gobar
gas plants (biogas fermenters).
 Some of the methanogens live in rumen of herbivorous animals like buffalo, cow etc.
(ruminants).
 These microorganisms assist in fermentation of cellulose in such animals, e.g.,
Methanococcus, Methanobacterium, Methanosarcina, Methanospirillum.
(b) Halophiles:
 They are aerobic chemoheterotrophic coccoid forms and are Gram negative. They occur in
high salt concentration medium like sea, salt lake, brines, marshes, salted field etc.
 In high light intensity a reddish pigment bacteriorhodopsin develops in their membrane to
trap sun light to produce ATP, but they cannot use this ATP in food synthesis.
 Sap vacuoles are absent in halophiles, hence, they cannot get plasmolysed in high salt
concentration.
 They maintain a high osmotic concentration of KCl in their cells.
 These bacteria get lysed if NaCl level falls below 10%, e.g., Halococcus, Halobacterium.
 These can grow well in a medium containing 25-30% of NaCl.
(c) Thermoacidophiles:
 They are capable of tolerating high temperature as well as high acidity and hence, the name
thermoacidophiles.
 They often live in hot-water springs where the temperature is as high as 80°C and the pH as
low as 2.
 They oxidise sulphur to sulphuric acid under aerobic conditions and the energy obtained in
this reaction is utilized for the synthesis of organic food.
 The medium becomes highly acidic due to the production of sulphuric acid. Under anaerobic
conditions sulphur is reduced to H2S, e.g., Thermoplasma, Thermoproteus, Thermococcus.
Hence, these are chemosynthetic in nature.

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V. ACTINOMYCETES (Ray Fungi)

(1) These are branched, filamentous bacteria and
are considered as intermediate form between
bacteria and fungi, e.g., Nocardia,
Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Frankia,
Streptomyces.
(2) These filaments form radiating colonies in
cultures so are also called mycelial bacteria.
(3) Cell wall contains peptidoglycan and is Gram
positive in nature. It contains mycolic acid.
(4) They are facultative anaerobic, saprophytic,
non-motile and are important decomposers of
dead organic matter.
(5) They reproduce commonly by conidia,
sporangiospore, oidia and fragmentation.
(6) They are acid fast in nature.

KINGDOM: PROTISTA

All unicellular eukaryotes, irrespective of their mode of nutrition, are included in the kingdom
Protista in Whittaker's system. The term protista was coined by Ernst Haeckel. This kingdom forms a

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link between kingdom Monera on one hand and other three kingdoms i.e. , Plantae, Fungi and
Animalia on the other hand. Protistans are ancestors of all multicellular eukaryotes (plants, fungi and
animals).

Kingdom Protista includes

General Characteristics of Protista

1. Unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. Some are colonial without much cellular differentiation.
Organisation at tissue level is absent.
2. Mostly aquatic organisms.
3. Cell structure is eukaryotic type having all kinds of membrane bound organelles and 80 S
cytoplasmic ribosomes and cells may possess cellulosic cell wall.
4. Flagella and cilia have (9+2) pattern of microtubule organization consisting of tubulin protein.
5. Movement by pseudopodia, flagella or cilia where ciliary mode is fastest.
6. Mode of nutrition may be photosynthetic (holophytic), holozoic (ingestive), saprobic or
parasitic (absorptive). Some have mixotrophic nutrition (photosynthetic and saprobic) as in
Euglena.
7. Reproduction occurs by asexual and sexual means.
8. Life cycle is of 2 types-(i) Showing zygotic meiosis (ii) Showing gametic meiosis.
9. These are decomposers, photosynthetic or parasites. Parasitic protists may cause diseases
like dysentery, malaria, sleeping sickness etc.

Photosynthetic protists and Slime moulds are described below:

(1) Photosynthetic Protists
These are popularly called protistan algae. Protistan algae constitute the major portion of the
phytoplanktons.
A. Diatoms
Diatoms are golden brown photosynthetic protists and are called Chrysophytes (including
both diatoms and desmids). They are both aquatic and terrestrial. Some are marine. They
support much of marine life. Their important characters are
 These are microscopic organisms possessing varying colours.

 They are basically unicellular, but may form pseudofilament and colonies, lacking flagella
except in the reproductive stage. They may be free floating (phytoplanktonic) due to
presence of light weight lipids.
 The cellulosic cell wall is impregnated with silica to form transparent siliceous shell, known as

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frustule. Depending upon the symmetry, diatoms may be pennate type, having bilateral
symmetry (e.g., Navicula) and centric type, having radial symmetry (e.g., Melosira).
 The cell wall is characteristic, made up of two halves; one half covering the other (epitheca
over hypotheca) resembling a soap box.
 The cell wall encloses the peripheral layer of cytoplasm (primordial utricle) surrounding a large
central vacuole.
 Nucleus lies in the central vacuole, suspended with the help of cytoplasmic strands.
 Mode of nutrition is holophytic (photoautotrophic), photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll c, -carotene and special carotenoids containing fucoxanthin; xanthophylls like
diatoxanthin, diadinoxanthin.
 The reserve food is oil and a polysaccharide called leucosin (chrysolaminarin), volutin granules are also
present.
 They are responsible for almost 50% of the total organic matter synthesized in the biosphere.
 Movement occurs by mucilage propulsion.
 They mainly undergo asexual reproduction. The common mode of asexual reproduction is binary
fission.
 During binary fission, one half of the cell wall is retained by each of the daughter cells formed. The
other half of the cell wall is secreted afresh.
 Resting spores are called statospores (centric diatoms).
 They reproduce sexually as well. Sexual reproduction varies from isogamy to oogamy. It involves
gametic meiosis as diatoms are generally diploid (diplontic life cycle).

B. Dinoflagellates
 Dinoflagellates are golden brown photosynthetic protists, belonging to class Dinophyceae
(Pyrrophyta). They are mainly marine, though few are fresh water forms.
 They may appear red, yellow, green, brown or blue depending upon the main pigment present in cell.

General characters:
 Unicellular, motile, biflagellate, golden brown photosynthetic protists (some are non-motile,
amoeboid, palmelloid or filamentous).
 They are mostly marine, some are found in fresh water.
 The body is enclosed by a rigid coat called theca or lorica consisting of 2 to many articulated or
sculptured plates of cellulose and pectin , hence are also called armoured dinoflagellates.
 Theca has generally two grooves i.e., longitudinal called sulcus and transverse called cingulum or
annulus or girdle.
 Flagella are heterokont (different). One is longitudinal and other is transverse. The flagella pass out
through the pores in the lorica and lie in the grooves. The transverse flagellum lies in the circular
groove and the longitudinal flagellum in the longitudinal groove. The longitudinal flagellum is narrow,
smooth directed posteriorly and the transverse flagellum is ribbon like.
Both are oriented at right angle to each other producing spinning movements. Therefore, these
protists are also called 'whirling whips'.
 Most of the species have brown, green or yellow chromatophores with chlorophyll a, c, -carotene,

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xanthophyll (e.g., Peridinin). Plastids are generally surrounded by 3-membrane envelope and contain
3-thylakoid lamellae. They are autotrophic or photosynthetic (Ceratium), a few are saprobic or
parasitic.
 Reserve food is carbohydrate and oils.
 Nucleus is relatively larger in size, has condensed chromosomes even in interphase, chromosomes do
not have histone. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus remain present even during cell division. This
organisation is called Mesokaryon (Dodge, 1966).
 A non-contractile vacuole called pusule is present near the flagellar base. It may have one or more
vesicle and takes part in floatation and osmoregulation.
 Some dinoflagellates possess trichocysts and cnidoblasts like those of coelentrates.
 Reproduction is commonly asexual and occurs through cell division.
 Isogamous and anisogamous sexual reproduction is reported from some dinoflagellates
e.g., Ceratium.
 Life cycle involves zygotic meiosis (Ceratium, Gymnodinium). Gametic meiosis occurs in Noctiluca.

C. Euglenoid (Euglena-like)
It is a group of chlorophyllous and non chlorophyllous flagellate protists. Largest genera being Euglena
amongst them.
 Euglenoids are unicellular, flagellate protists found in water or damp soil. Majority of them are fresh
water organisms found in stagnant water.
 Body is spindle shaped with blunt anterior end and pointed posterior end.
 Cell wall is absent but a covering periplast or pellicle is present which is proteinaceous (elastic) in
structure.
 Locomotory organs are flagella.
 The cell bears a single long tinsel type flagellum (stichonematic) arising at the anterior end. Actually,
there are two flagella but one of these is reduced. The longer flagellum has two branches at the base
each having its own basal granule. In the area of union of two flagella is present a photosensitive
paraflagellar body.
 Myonemes are oblique but parallely arranged strips in pellicle. Euglenoids perform creeping
movement of contraction and expansion with the help of myonemes which is called metaboly or
euglenoid movement.
 The apical end of the cell bears an invagination with three distinct parts, i.e., mouth (cytostome), canal
(gullet or cytopharynx) and reservoir. It helps in the ingestion of solid food particles.
 Stigma or an eye spot is attached to the membrane of the reservoir at the level of paraflagellar body
and along with it seems to be involved in perception of light stimulus. It contains photosensitive red-
orange pigment called astaxanthin.

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32 Biological Classification

 A contractile vacuole occurs in the anterior end of the cell just below the reservoir, meant for
osmoregulation and excretion.
 Single large nucleus lies near the centre of the protoplast.
 Nutrition in Euglena viridis is photoautotrophic. However, it is capable of getting nourishment
from dead and decaying organic matter in the substrate by secreting digestive enzymes
(saprophytic nutrition) in the absence of light. This dual mode of nutrition is termed as
mixotrophic. Holozoic nutrition is absent in Euglena. Some forms are holozoic (Paranema) or
saprobic (Rhabdomonas).
 Photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, xanthophyll and -carotene.
 Reserve food material is paramylon, stored in cytoplasm in the form of paramylum granules.
They are chemically  1,3-glucans.
 Under favourable conditions, they mainly reproduce by longitudinal binary fission. During
unfavourable conditions, palmella stage and cysts are formed for perennation. Sexual
reproduction is not known to occur in euglenoids, e.g., Euglena and Paranema.

(2) Slime moulds or consumer-decomposer protists

They were included in class myxomycetes of fungi in two-kingdom classification. They were
called mycetozoa by DeBary as they are closely related to animals. Mycologists include them
in gymnomycota. Because of their nature they are called protistan fungi.

Slime Mould Sporangia in Slime Moulds

General characteristics of the slime moulds are :

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 They are usually free-living, creeping over debris like fallen leaves and rotting logs of wood.
 They have naked protoplast, not covered by any cell wall in vegetative stage.
 They lack chlorophyll and have saprobic or phagotrophic mode of nutrition.
 During life cycle they are amoeboid and non-cellulosic, but spores have cellulosic wall so that
their vegetative phase resembles with animals while reproductive phase resembles with
plants.
 Amoeboid plasmodial stage resembles protozoa and spore forming nature is like fungi.
 Spores are extremely resistant and survive for many years, even under adverse conditions.
The spores are dispersed by air currents.
 Reproduction is both asexual and sexual. This group is represented by two separate types of
organisms i.e. acellular and cellular.

A. Acellular or Plasmodial slime moulds

General characters:
 Slimy masses found on decaying leaves and lumber.
 Somatic body is free living, multinucleate, naked, diploid mass called Plasmodium. Movement
occurs by means of pseudopodia.
 During unfavourable conditions, entire plasmodium forms many fructifications/fruting bodies
(polycentric). The fruiting body is called sporocarp which contains a stalk having a
sporangium at its tip. The wall of sporangium is called peridium.

 Sporangium has an intricate network of cytoplasmic threads called capillitium.

 DiploId protoplast forms haploid spores by meiosis.
 Spore wall is double, outer wall is spiny and sculptured.
 On germination, spores produce biflagellate swarm cells or non-motile myxamoebae which
act as gametes.
 Sexual reproduction is isogamous.
 Diploid zygote directly forms the plasmodium which becomes multinucleate by repeated
mitotic divisions of the diploid nucleus.
 Chief mode of nutrition is saprotrophic.
 Vegetative reproduction is by fission .
e.g., Physarum, Physarella, Fuligo, Dictydium, Lycogala.

B. Cellular slime moulds or communal slime moulds

General characters:
 Wall less, uninucleate myxamoebae present. Complete absence of flagellated cells during life

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cycle.
 Formation of pseudoplasmodium stage as a result of chemotactic movement of myxamoebae
due to release of cAMP and acrasin.

 Sporangia are naked.

 Spores have cellulosic wall.
 Sexual reproduction is anisogamous.
 Common cellular slime mould, Dictyostelium, is a colonial form in which hundreds of
uninucleate, haploid amoeboid cells are aggregated without any fusion to form a colony.
 The colony gives the appearance of single multinucleate mass of protoplasm and thus, called
pseudoplasmodium.
 Under exhausted food supply and stimulation by cAMP and chemical acrasin, many cells
come close together by chemotactic movement during the formation of pseudoplasmodium.
 Pseudoplasmodium exhibits primitive form of multicellularity and division of labour.
 So these are also called as communal slime moulds.
 On these basis cellular slime moulds are regarded as advanced protists and primitive fungi.
 During unfavourable conditions, the myxamoebae may form a cyst called microcyst for
perennation and dispersal.
 Under dry conditions, the pseudoplasmodium produces stalked sporocarp, which may be
branched or unbranched, each branch bearing single sporangium terminally (monocentric).
 Sporangium is wall less. Within the sporangium, amoeboid cells become rounded to secrete a
spore wall around.
 On the approach of favourable conditions, spores are liberated.
 Each spore germinates by rupturing cellulosic wall to form myxamoeba and the myxamoebae
may live independently, multiply by repeated mitotic divisions or get aggregated to form
pseudoplasmodium.
 Sexual reproduction is anisogamous type. During sexual reproduction, a number of
myxamoebae form a clump.
 One of the myxamoeba becomes larger and engulfs the surrounding smaller myxamoebae.
 The plasmogamy occurs and the fused protoplast secretes a thick wall around to form
macrocyst.
 In the macrocyst, karyogamy occurs and it thus, becomes zygote.
 It is followed by meiosis and several mitotic divisions to form a large number of haploid
myxamoebae, which are released by rupture of macrocyst wall.
e.g., Dictyostelium, Polysphondylium.

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KINGDOM: FUNGI

Penicillium
Yeast Puccinia

 This kingdom contains achlorophyllous, eukaryotic, heterotrophic, spore producing, thalloid

organisms. The study of fungi is called mycology.
 Pier Antonio Micheli is considered as father or founder of mycology.
 Mycologist H.A. de Bary is the father of modern mycology.
 The father of Indian mycology is E.J. Butler.

General Characters
 They are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They are
mostly terrestrial. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
 They may grow on tree bark, dung, wood, burnt wood and keratinous material (e.g., hair,
horns) and are called corticolous (bark), coprophilous
(cow dung), epixylic (wood), xylophilous (burnt wood)
and keratinophilous (keratin) respectively.
 The body is haploid (n) and thalloid, i.e., not
differentiated into root, stem and leaves. They are
multicellular (except Yeast and Synchytrium).
 The fungal body is made up of thread like elongated
tubular structures, called hyphae. These cris-cross with one
another to form a network known as mycelium.
 The hyphae may be aseptate and multinucleate. Such a hypha is termed
coenocytic. In most of the fungi, the mycelium is septate.

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 The septum, however, is not complete, but has a pore through which continuity of the cytoplasm of
the adjoining cells is maintained.
 The septum may have simple central pore as in ascomycetes, but in higher fungi (class
basidiomycetes), the septum is dolipore septum, in which central pore possesses a barrel shaped
inflation.
 In septate mycelium, individual cell may contain single nucleus (monokaryotic -feature of primary
mycelium) or an intermediate phase of two nuclei (dikaryotic -feature of secondary mycelium).
 The cell wall of the hyphae is made up of chitin or fungal cellulose, which is a polysaccharide
containing nitrogenous compound and it is basically made up of acetylglucosamine.
 In some fungi, the cell wall is made up of cellulose (e.g., Phytophthora, Pythium and other
oomycetes). Reserve food material is stored in the form of oil and glycogen.
 Cells have unicisternal golgi bodies.
 Mitosis in somatic cells is Karyochorisis type (mitosis with intranuclear spindle formation).
 Nutrition is heterotrophic which includes saprophytes, parasites and symbionts.
 In most of the fungi, there are two distinct phases in the life cycle, the vegetative or assimilative
phase and the reproductive phase.
 In vegetative phase, fungus is microscopic hidden in the substratum and is hardly visible to the naked
eyes.
 The fungus enters into reproductive phase after attaining maturity in the vegetative phase.
 In unicellular yeasts, the same cell performs both assimilative and reproductive functions.
 Such type of fungal bodies in which entire cell gets transformed into reproductive structures are
known as holocarpic.
 Fungal body is termed eucarpic in which a part of mycelium is used up in the development of
reproductive structures.

Reproduction in Fungi
 Fungi reproduce by all the three modes, i.e., vegetative, asexual and sexual.

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1. Vegetative reproduction: It occurs by the following methods:

(a) Fragmentation: The mycelium breaks up into two or more fragments due to mechanical
injury, decay or some other reasons. Each fragment grows into independent mycelium.
(b) Fission: Here, simple splitting of vegetative cells into two daughter cells takes place by simple
constriction.
(c) Budding: Some fungi like yeast produce small outgrowths, i.e., buds from their vegetative
body. Eventually, the buds are cut off from parent cell and mature to form new individuals.
2. Asexual reproduction:
 It occurs through spores.
 These are single celled specialized structures which separate from the organism, get
dispersed and germinate to produce new mycelium after falling on suitable substrate.
 The spores produced during asexual reproduction in fungi are formed by mitotic division and
are thus termed, mitospores.

 The various means of asexual reproduction are as follows :

(a) Zoospore:
 Many fungi, especially aquatic members produce these types of spores.
 Zoospore may be uniflagellate, e.g., Synchytrium or biflagellate, e.g., Saprolegnia, Pythium
and are naked uninucleate structures formed in zoosporangia.
 They germinate to give rise to new mycelium.
 Biflagellate zoospores are of two kinds (e.g., Saprolegnia) pear shaped or pyriform with 2

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38 Biological Classification

flagella placed at anterior end (primary zoospore) and kidney shaped or bean shaped,
bearing two laterally inserted flagella (secondary zoospore).
 This phenomenon of having two types of zoospores is called diplanetism.
(b) Sporangiospore:
 Sporangiospores are thin-walled non-motile
spores produced endogenously in a
sporangium during favourable conditions,
which after liberation give rise to new
mycelium, e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor.
(c) Conidia:
 Conidia are non motile, thin walled exogenous
spores produced at the tips of erect hyphae
called conidiophore.
 They are arranged in chains upon the
conidiophore, e.g., Aspergillus and Penicillium.
(d) Chlamydospore:
 In some fungi the hyphae under unfavourable
conditions, forms thick-walled resting resistant
spores which later get separated from each
other.
 They may be terminal or intercalary.
 They may remain viable for several years.
 On return to favourable conditions, they
germinate to give rise to new individuals.
 Thus, chlamydospores are structures for perennation also, e.g., Rhizopus.
(e) Oidia:
 Non-motile thin walled spores developing under sugar rich conditions in medium.
 Their budding condition is called torula stage.

3. Sexual reproduction:
 Sexual reproduction is reduced in fungi and takes place by two fusing gametes.

It includes 3 stages :
(a) Plasmogamy:
 There is union between two haploid protoplasts which results in bringing the fusing nuclei of
different parents close together.
 In some fungi, plasmogamy is immediately followed by karyogamy.
 However, in Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, an intermediate dikaryotic (n + n) condition
occurs. This phase is called dikaryophase.
(b) Karyogamy: The two haploid nuclei which come together in plasmogamy fuse and thus, a
diploid zygote is produced.

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39 Biological Classification

(c) Meiosis: Reduction division takes place in the zygote thus, reducing the number of
chromosomes to half.

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40 Biological Classification

Plasmogamy occurs by the following methods:

(a) Planogametic copulation / Gametic fusion:
 This is the simplest form of sexual reproduction.
 In this process, fusion of two gametes of opposite sex or strains takes place.
 One or both of the fusing gametes are motile.
 It results in the formation of a diploid zygote, e.g., Allomyces.
 This process is usually of three types: Isogamy, Anisogamy, Oogamy.

(b) Gametangial contact:

 In this process two gametangia come in contact with one another.
 A fertilization tube is developed to facilitate the migration of entire contents of male
gametangium into the female gametangium.
 Both the gametangia never fuse together losing their identity, e.g., Pythium, Albugo

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41 Biological Classification

(Oomycetes).

(b) Gametangial contact, (c) Gametangial copulation

Different modes of plasmogamy in fungi

(c) Gametangial copulation:

 In this process, direct fusion of entire contents of two gametangia is accomplished by
dissolution of their common walls resulting in the formation of a single cell, in which
protoplasts of two gametangia fuse, e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus (Zygomycetes).
(d) Spermatization:
 Some fungi produce many minute, spore like, single-celled structures called spermatia (non
motile male gametes) on spermatiophores (hyphae).
 These structures are transferred through agencies like water, wind and insects to special
female receptive, hyphae (Basidiomycetes).
 The contents migrate into receptive structure.
 Thus, dikaryotic condition is established, e.g., Puccinia.
(e) Somatogamy :
 This takes place in most of the higher true fungi, where formation of gametes is absent.
 In such fungi, direct fusion of somatic hyphal cells occur to establish dikaryophase, e.g.,
Agaricus.

Classification of Fungi
 A number of criteria are used for classifying fungi.
 Morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for the
classification of this kingdom.
 A common systematic presentation is given below :

I. Oomycetes : The algal fungi

 Hyphal wall contains cellulose and other glucans in many members.
 The mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate and aseptate).
 Asexual reproduction involves the formation of spore containing sacs or sporangia. In aquatic
forms, the sporangia produce zoospores.

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 Zoospores generally have two laterally inserted flagella with heterokont condition, in which
one flagellum is smooth (whiplash) while the other is of tinsel type (having fine surface
outgrowths called mastigonemes).
 Sexual reproduction is by planogametic fusion or gametangial contact.
 The product of sexual reproduction and site of meiosis is oospore.

II. Zygomycetes: The conjugation fungi

 It is class of terrestrial fungi which are mostly saprotrophic and rarely parasitic.
 Hyphal wall contains chitin or fungal cellulose.
 The mycelium is coenocytic (multinucleate, aseptate) like the one found in Oomycetes.
 Motile cells (zoospores or planogametes) are absent.
 Mitospores are non motile. They are called sporangiospores as the spores are formed inside
sporangia that are borne at the tips of special hyphae called sporangiophores.
 Sexual reproduction occurs through gametangial copulation or conjugation. Because of it,
zygomycetes are also called conjugation fungi.
 The gametes are commonly multinucleate and are called coenogametes.
 Sexual reproduction produces a resting diploid spore called zygospore. Because of the
presence of zygospore, the group of fungi is called zygomycetes. Zygospore differs from
oospore in that, for its formation a distinct food laden, non motile, large female gamete is not
produced.
 Zygospore is the site of meiosis and does not give rise to new mycelium directly. Instead it
produces a new sporangium called germ sporangium (previously called zygosporangium).
Germ sporangium forms meiospores called germ spores.
 Sometimes, gametangia fail to fuse. Gametangia become surrounded by a thick wall resulting
in formation of azygospore (parthenogenetically produced zygospore).

Life Cycle of Rhizopus

 Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus, commonly found on dead organic matter rich in
carbohydrates.
 Mycelium is made up of white narrow thread like hyphae growing on the surface of
substratum.
 Two types of vegetative hypha (Rhizoidal and Stoloniferous) arise from definite points called
hold fast / apparent nodes.
 Third hypha is asexual, called Sporangiophore and fourth type is sexual hypha called
zygophore.
 The absorptive hyphae are called rhizoidal hyphae which penetrate into the substratum.
 The hyphae appeared over the surface of substratum are in the form of stolons.
 From the nodes of stolons arise branched rhizoidal hyphae on the under surface and a group
of aerial structures called sporangiophore (asexual hypha) from the upper surface of
'apparent nodes'.
 The apical portion of each sporangiophore ends into a swollen structure called sporangium
which is filled with spores.
 The hyphae are coenocytic, aseptate and branched. It has many nuclei, oil drops, glycogen
bodies and vacuoles in the cytoplasm.
 The reproduction in Rhizopus is vegetative, asexual and sexual.
1. Vegetative reproduction: This takes place by fragmentation of hyphae.
2. Asexual reproduction :

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43 Biological Classification

 Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of non-motile spores inside a sporangium.
 The tip of aerial hypha swells in which cytoplasm migrates with nuclei.
 The tip swells considerably and the nuclei divide repeatedly.
 The contents of the young swollen tip differentiate into a central zone called columellaplasm
mainly filled with vacuolated cytoplasm surrounded by a peripheral zone called
sporangioplasm containing dense cytoplasm and many nuclei.
 Vacuoles ultimately form a continuous vacuolated layer by fusing laterally one after the other
and ultimately develop into a dome shaped septum known as columella (sterile part).
 In the meantime, cleavage of sporangioplasm takes place resulting into innumerable, small 2-
10 nucleate portions which round up, become invested with spore membranes, and develop
into nonflagellate spores, the sporangiospores.
 These are formed under most favourable conditions. Thus, the sporangium is large, globose
and contains many spores.
 Spores are dispersed by bursting of the thin wall of the sporangium due to pressure that is set
up in the columella.
 Other two asexual spores are oidia and chlamydospores (formed under unfavourable
conditions).
 The spores on germination produce a germ tube giving rise to new mycelium.
3. Sexual Reproduction :
 Sexual reproduction in Rhizopus takes place by the formation of two multinucleate
gametangia.
 Both the gametangia are similar externally but are different physiologically i.e. they are of (+)
and (-) type.
 It is called heterothallism (This was discovered by Blakeslee in Rhizopus stolonifei ).
 Another species called Rhizopus sexualis is a homothallic species.
 When two mycelia of opposite strains, (+) behaving as male and (-) behaving as female
respectively, come near one another, under influence of a chemical called trisporic acid, this
stimulates the formation of special sub-aerial hypha called zygophores.
 This hypha produces small outgrowths, called progametangia.
 Their apical ends are swollen and filled with multinucleate protoplasm.
 This apical portion of these progametangia, comes in contact with one another.
 A septum is laid down, separating the terminal portion which is now termed gametangium.
The remaining part of progametangia is called suspensor.
 The multinucleate undifferentiated protoplast of each gametangium is termed as
coenogamete.
 As the gametangia mature, the separating wall dissolves from the middle to outward and
intermingling of the contents of two gametangia takes place (Gametangial copulation).
 Nuclear pairing and fusion of one (+) and another (-) nuclei gives rise to a large number of
diploid nuclei.
 The young zygospore lying within the parent gametangial wall enlarges considerably and
secretes several layers of thick wall (5 layered, 2 layered exosporium and 3 layered
endosporium) around it.
 The zygospore matures it breaks up the original gametangial wall into small pieces that fall
apart exposing the outer thick, spiny and black exosporium.

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44 Biological Classification

 Meiosis occurs at the time of germination of zygospore.

 The zygote germinates after rest period.
 On germination, the exosporium cracks and endosporium produces a germsporangiophore
(promycelium) that terminally develops a germ sporangium (zygosporangium) which bears
large number of spores.
 The meiosis produces 4 haploid nuclei where only one remain functional.
 This divides repeatedly to produce coenocytic mycelium with many haploid nuclei.
 Occasionally, failure of gametangial copulation results in parthenogenetic development of
zygospore, which are called azygospores (parthenospores).

III. Ascomycetes: The sac fungi

 The mycelium consists of septate hyphae. (Yeasts are an exception in that they are basically
unicellular).
 They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).
 The septa possess central pores called septal pores. The pores allow communication and
transport between adjacent cens.
 Cell wall contains chitin.
 Motile structures do not occur in the life cycle.
 In majority of ascomycetes, the common mode of asexual reproduction is through the
formation of conidia . Conidia are borne on branched or unbranched hyphae called
conidiophores , e.g., Penicillium, Aspergillus.
 Female sex organ is called ascogonium.
 Plasmogamy occurs by means of -
(i) Gametangial contact (e.g., pyronema)
(ii) Conjugation (e.g., Yeast)
(iii) Spermatization (e.g., Ascobolus)
(iv) Somatogamy (e.g., Peziza)
(v) Autogamy (e.g., Morchella).
 Karyogamy is delayed after plasmogamy. A new transitional phase appears in the life cycle. It
is called dikaryophase. The cells of dikaryophase are called dikaryotic cells. Each such cell
possesses two different nuclei (Dikaryon). This forms a shorter phase of life cycle.
 Once a cell becomes dikaryotic, it transfers the nucleus to other cells by the crozier method
(method of dikaryotization) to make them dikaryotic.
 Some dikaryotic cells function as ascus mother cells. This converts the cells into asci (singular
ascus). Ascus is a sporangial sac peculiar to Ascomycetes. Ascus is the site of karyogamy and
meiosis. 4 to 8 haploid meiospores named ascospores are produced endogenously in each

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45 Biological Classification

ascus. In most of the cases, half the number of ascospores belong to one mating type(+) while
the other half belong to the second mating type (-).
 Ascospores may be arranged linearly (Neurospora) or unorderly (yeast).
 The asci may occur freely or get aggregated into specific fructifications called ascocarps.
Ascocarps are of many types : cup-like (apothecium, e.g., Peziza), flask-shaped (perithecium,
e.g., Neurospora, Claviceps) , elongated with a slit (hysterothecium), closed (cleistothecium ,
e.g., Penicillium) cushion like, chambered (Ascostroma, e.g., Pleospora). The fructifications of
some ascomycetes are edible, e.g., morels, truffles.

Life cycle events of (A) Yeast and (B) Penicillium are described below:
(A) Yeast
 Yeasts are a group of non mycelial or pseudomycelial ascomycetes which multiply asexually
by budding or fission and where asci are not organised into ascocarps.
 These are facultative aerobes.
 Depending upon the mode of asexual reproduction, yeasts are of three types -budding yeast
(e.g., Saccharomyces), fission yeast (e.g., Schizosaccharomyces) and helobial yeast (both
budding and fission, e.g., Saccharomycoides).
 Yeasts in which ascus formation is known are named as true yeasts.
 Related forms which resemble yeasts in main characterstics, but where ascus formation is not
reported, are called false yeasts, e.g., Candida, Mycoderma, Geotrichum, Cryptococcus (false
yeasts belong to deuteromycetes).

Life cycle of Yeast

 It is a saprophytic fungus found on substratum which is rich in sugars, e.g., sugarcane juice,
fruits (banana, plums, grapes), milk etc.
Structure:
 This is a circular or elliptical, unicellular, colourless fungi not having a typical mycelium.
 Their cell wall contains mannans, glucans, lipids, proteins and chitin.
 Protoplasm of yeast can be differentiated into two regions.
 Outer region called ectoplasm in the form a thin layer and endoplasm which is granular.
 The protoplasm has stored foods in the form of glycogen bodies and volutin granules and fats.
 Mitochondria and ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm.

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46 Biological Classification

Structure of a yeast cell

1. Vegetative Reproduction : Yeast reproduces vegetatively either by Transverse wall fission or

by budding. Depending on this character, they are grouped as fission yeast
(Schizosaccharomyces) and budding yeast (Saccharomyces).

(a) By fission:
 During reproduction by fission the parent cell elongates, the nucleus divides into two
daughter nuclei and gradually a transverse partition wall is laid down somewhat near the
middle, starting from periphery to the centre dividing the mother cell into daughter cells.
 The two daughter cells so formed, may remain together for sometime and begin to divide
again or they may separate soon and then divide.
(b) By budding:
 Budding yeasts are rather common than the fission yeast. At the commencement of budding
a small portion of the cell wall, usually near the end, softens.
 The protoplast of the mother cell covered by a thin membrane bulges out in the form of a
bud which ultimately develops into a daughter cell.
 Meanwhile, the nucleus of the mother cell divides mitotically, (according to some, the
division is amitotic).
 One of the two daughter nuclei migrates into the enlarging bud.
 The bud grows until it attains the size of the mother cell.
 The daughter cell then becomes separated from the mother cell and the process may be
repeated indefinitely.

Budding in yeast

 Under conditions of rapid growth, the daughter

cell also starts producing buds before being
detached from the mother cell and the process
may be repeated several times, giving rise to

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47 Biological Classification

chains or groups of yeast cells.

 This results in the formation of branched or unbranched pseudomycelium. The cells in chains
of pseudomycelium are loosely joined together.
 Sooner or 'A later, however, the chains break into their constituent cells.

2. Sexual Reproduction:
 It takes place by the union of two cells (more often similar in size).
 The copulating pair of cells may be vegetative cells or ascospores.
 Yeasts may be homothallic or heterothallic and stages of fusion are extremely variable.
 Three life cycle patterns are distinguishable among yeasts. These are :
(a) Haplontic life cycle: This is exhibited by Schizosaccharomyces octosporus (fission yeast).
(b) Diplontic life cycle: This is exhibited by Saccharomycoides ludwigii (Helobial yeast).
(c) Diplohaplontic life cycle: This is exhibited by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Budding yeast).

(B) Penicillium
Important characters
 Facultative parasite and saprophytic fungi.
 Mycelium is branched septate, with simple septal pore and each cell is uni or multinucleate
depending upon the species.
 Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia.
 Conidiophores are often branched.
 The first branch level is called rami and second or ultimate branches are called metulae
having bottle shaped sterigmata.
 Each sterigmata produces a chain of conidia.
 The conidia in chain are arranged in basipetal order.
 Each conidium is uninucleate, non motile, two layered, dispersed by air and germinates to
form new mycelium.
 Sexual reproduction: It exhibits dikaryophase and produces ascocarp.
 The ascocarp is cleistothecium type.
 Each ascus has 8 ascospores.
 Ascospore germinates to form new mycelium.

IV. Basidiomycetes: The Club Fungi

 They are the most advanced and most commonly seen fungi. Their fructifications are often
large and conspicuous, e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, puff balls, bracket fungi etc.
 Basidiomycetes are among the best decomposers of wood. They are able to decompose both
cellulose and lignin. Lignin is not metabolised by most other fungi and even bacteria.
Ganoderma species causes decay of wood even on standing trees.
 Motile structures or cells are absent.
 Mycelia are of two types, primary and secondary. Primary mycelium contains monokaryotic
cells and is short lived.
 Monokaryotic phase or primary mycelium may multiply by oidia, conidia-like spores and
pycniospores.
 Secondary mycelium is long lived and dominant phase of life cycle. It is represented as
dikaryophase. It consists of profusely branched septate hyphae.
 Septa possess dolipores or central pores with barrel-shaped outgrowths (except rusts and

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smuts).
 Handle like outgrowths are found on the sides of septa. They are called clamp connections.
Clamp connections are meant for proper distribution of dikaryons at the time of cell division.

 Secondary mycelium can perennate in the soil or wood by means of sclerotia or rhizomorphs.
 Dikaryophase or secondary myceium may multiply by different types of spores chlamydo-
spores, aecidiospores, uredospores, teleutospores etc.
 There is often differentiation of two mating types (+) and (-) in thallus.
 Sexual reproduction does not involve sex organs. Instead fusion occurs between
basidiospores and other monokaryotic spores, between a spore or spermatium and a hypha
or between two hyphal cells of primary mycelia.
 Karyogamy and meiosis occur in club-shaped structures known as basidia (singular -
basidium). The name of the class is based after them.
 A basidium commonly produces four meiospores or basidiospores exogenously at the tips of
fine outgrowths called sterigmata or directly on the basidium.
 The fungi may or may not produce fructifications called basidiocarps. The basidiocarps vary
from microscopic forms to large macroscopic structures. Some puff balls and brackets can be
over 50 cm in diameter.

Life History of a Mushroom

 Agaricus campestris is the common field mushroom which has edible basidiocarp. The fungus
is saprotrophic.
 The vegetative or assimilative part of mycelium is subterranean. It is found in moist humus

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rich soil of open fields, grassland, piles of straw or within rotting togs.
 The mycelium multiplies by fragmentation; occasionally by oidia and chlamydospores.
 Life cycle of mushroom contains two types of mycelia, primary and secondary. Sex organs do
not differentiate.
 Primary mycelium is short lived. It consists of septate hyphae having monokaryotic cells. The
mycelia are heterothallic.
 The hyphae of two mating types come in contact and show somatogamy. However, only
plasmogamy occurs at this time.
 It gives rise to a dikaryotic cell that grows, divides and produces a long-lived and extensive
dikaryotic or secondary mycelium.
 The hyphae of secondary mycelium show clamp connections and dolipore septa. Its celis
possess two haploid nuclei instead of single diploid nucleus.

 Under favourable conditions, hyphae of secondary mycelium collect at places and give rise to
rounded or pyriform compact masses of hyphae called buttons.
 The buttons enlarge and produce aerial fructifications or basidiocarps.
 The latter are popularly termed as mushrooms. In contrast the secondary mycelium, from
which mushrooms develop, is known as spawn.
 The basidiocarps or mushrooms often lie in rings. The latter are called as fairy rings, its
diameter increases centrifugally every year.

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 Each basidiocarp or mushroom is cream to pinkish brown in colour and consists of two parts,
stipe and pileus.
 The stipe or stalk is fleshy. It is slightly swollen at the base.
 Pileus is umbrella-like cap of the mushroom. In the button stage, the pileus is connected to
stipe by membrane called veil or velum.
 It ruptures during growth of pileus. However, its remains can be seen on the upper part of
stipe as annulus.
 The pileus is circular in outline. Its upper surface is more or less convex. The under surface is
flat or concave.
 It bears 300-600 radiating rows of vertical plates named gills (lamellae).
 The two sides of vertically placed gills are lined by thousands of club-shaped basidia
alongwith sterile paraphyses.
 The two, together constitute the fertile layer or hymenium of the gill. Hymenium is
subtended by compact subhymenium.
 The centre consists of interwoven hyphae called trama. Each basidium functions as the site
for both karyogamy and meiosis. The two nuclei fuse to form a short-lived diploid synkaryon.
 The latter, then divides meiotically giving rise to four haploid nuclei, two of (+) strain and two
of (-) strain. The free end of the basidium now develops four peg-like outgrowths called
sterigmata.
 Each sterigmata bears an ovoid pinkish-purple meiospore termed as basidiospore. A droplet
appears at the tip of sterigmata which creates tension and hanging basidiospores are carried
away by air currents.
 The basidiospores are liberated successively for several days. After falling on a suitable
substratum, each basidiospore germinates to produce monokaryotic primary mycelium.

Life Cycle of Puccinia graminis tritici

 P. graminis tritici is a macrocyclic (producing many dikaryotic spores), Heteroecious (requires
more than one host i.e., primary host -wheat, secondary or alternate host -barberry).
 It produces uredospores and teliospores on the wheat plant, basidiospores in soil and
pycniospores and aeciospores on barberry.
 It causes black or stem rust of wheat. Hence, we describe the various stages of life cycle on
the basis of the host.

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A. Stage of life cycle on wheat (primary host)

(i) Uredia and uredospores :
 The dikaryotic aeciospores germinate on the leaves of wheat on both the surfaces and may
also germinate on the stem.
 They form the dikaryotic mycelium.
 The germ tube protrudes out which swells up to form an elongated appressorium near the
stomata.
 A peg like outgrowth now arises from the appressorium and penetrates the stomata. It
ramifies repeatedly to form a mass of mycelium this mycelium forms the uredospore.
 As a result, some pressure is exerted on the epidermis which bursts exposing the uredospore.
These clusters of uredospores have been variously referred to as uredosori or urediopustules.
 A uredospore is reddish-brown, unicelled, oval or globose, stalked, dikaryotic spore. Its wall is
three layered, the outer being somewhat spiny.
 The uredial stage multiplies through the uredospores which germinate on fresh wheat plants
(due to the red colour of spores this stage is called red rust stage).
(ii) Telia and teliospores (black rust stage) :
 Towards the end of the season, the dikaryotic mycelium of the uredosorus begins to produce
teliospores (or teleutospores) in the same sorus.
 They are dark brown or black, stalked, thick walled, bi-celled spores. The upper cell is
pointed, both the cells are binucleate.
 The pustules containing teliospores are called as tella or teleutosori.
 The teliospores also exert pressure on the epidermis which bursts open, exposing the spores.
 It is at this stage the symptoms develop in stem also, so the disease is named black stem rust
of wheat.
 Karyogamy occurs inside each cell of teliospore and as a result they become diploid.
 The teliospores cannot infect fresh wheat plants. They germinate in soil to form the
basidiospores.

(iii) Basidia and basidiospores:

 The two cells of the teliospores now act as hypobasidium. They germinate in soil and form a
tube called promycelium.
 The diploid nucleus migrates into epibasidium and then undergoes meiosis to form four
haploid nuclei each of them develops as a basidiospore on the sterigmata.
 Of these, two basidiospores belong to +ve strain and two to -ve strain.
 These spores are not capable to infect a wheat plant. Each spore is unicelled, monokaryotic
and unstalked.
 These can infect the barberry plant (Berberis vulgaris) which is the secondary or alternate
host occurring on the hills in India.

B. Stage of life cycle on barberry

(i) Spermatia or pycniospores:
 The basidiospores of both the strains (+ and -) can germinate on upper surface of barberry
leaf.
 They produce haplophase or primary mycelium of the respective strains which grows through
the intercellular spaces.
 Soon the mycelium forms a palisade like mat which organises like a flask shaped structure
near the upper epidermis called as spermogonia or pycnidium.

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 They open by a single pore called ostiole.

 The spermogonium is lined by palisade Ilike uninucleate cells called spermatiophores.
 From the tips of spermatiophores are pinched off a large number of uninucleate cells called
pycniospores or spermatia.
 Besides, some sterile hyphae also arises which grow out through the ostiole.
 They are called as periphysis.
 In addition to these, some thin walled hyphae are also given out which become more
elongated.
 They are called as flexuous hyphae or receptive hyphae.
 While the spermatia function as the male cells, the flexuous hyphae behave as the female
hypha.
 The pycniospores or spermatia protrude out of the ostiole in a nectar.
 The insects feeding on this nectar transfer the spermatia from one spermogonium to the
other.
 Spermatization is brought about when spermatia of one strain come in contact with the
trichogyne of flexuous hyphae of the other strain.
 The nucleus of pycniospore or spermatium passes into the flexuous hyphae, thus bringing
about dikaryotization.
(ii) Aecia and aeciospore :
 An aecium or aeciosorus is produced on the lower surface of barberry leaves. It arises just
beneath pycnium. The dikaryotized mycelium aggregates sub-epidermally.
 This gives rise to a group of elongated dikaryotized cells which function as aecial mother cell.
The mother cells differentiate a row of binucleate cells.
 The alternate binucleate cells enlarge and they are identified as aeciospores. The alternate
cell remaining small is disjunctor or sterile cell.
 The sterile wall of the aecial cup called peridium or pseudoperianth presses the lower
epidermis which eventually bursts open. Thus, the aeciospores are set free.
 The aeciospores are polyhedral or ovate, binucleate, unicelled and double layered. The
outer thick wall is called exine and the inner as intine.
 They are set free in spring. They cannot infect the barberry bushes. These are carried from
hills to the plains where they infect wheat plants. They germinate on the leaf surface from a
germ tube which enters the host through stomata.

Schematic representation of life cycle of wheat rust

V. Deuteromycetes: (The Fungi Imperfecti)

 Deuteromycetes is an artificial class (form class) of fungi which has been created to include all
those fungi in which sexual stage (or perfect stage) is not known (absent or not reported) .
 The mycelium is septate and branched. Coenocytic forms are not known.
 Asexual reproduction often occurs by conidia.
 Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of Deuteromycetes were discovered they were
often moved to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes but most members of Deuteromycetes are
actually related to ascomycetes.

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 Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are decomposers
of litter and help in mineral cycling.

Common names of some fungi:

Fungus/Group Common names
Rhizopus Black/Bread mould
Morchella Morels (sponge mushroom)
Saccharomyces Yeasts (sugar fungus)
Phallus Stink horns
Hydnum Tooth fungi (Hedge hog fungi)
Agaricus Gill fungi (Mushroom)
Ganoderma, Polyporus Wood / Bracket / Shelf fungi
Aspergillus and Penicillium Pigmented moulds
Aspergillus Laboratory mould
Aspergillus flavus Guinea pig of plant kingdom
Mucor mucedo Dung mould
Penicillium Blue/green mould
Peziza Cup fungi
Lycoperdon, Clavatia Puff balls
Cyathus Bird's nest fungus
Clavaria Coral fungi
Amanita Toad stool
Tremella Jelly fungi/Trembling fungi
Pleurotus ostreatus Oyster mushroom
Agaricus bisporus Button mushroom
Neurospora crassa Drosophila of plant kingdom

MYCORRHIZA (FUNGAL ROOTS)

 The mutually beneficial or symbiotic association of a fungus with the roots of higher plants is
termed mycorrhiza. Mycorrhizal roots differ in shape from normal roots and often show a
wooly covering. These roots lack root cap and root hairs.
 A fungus may get associated with roots of a number of plants and a particular plant may form
association with a number of fungi. Depending upon the location of the fungus, the
mycorrhiza is of two types, i.e., ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza.

 In ectomycorrhiza, the fungal hyphae are mainly external, forming a wooly covering on
external surface of root and forms network of mycelium (Hartig net) in the intercellular
spaces of the cortex. Fungal partner is commonly basidiomycetes, e.g., Pinus roots
 In endomycorrhiza, the fungal hyphae enter the tissue of the root, spreading intercellularlly
and intracellularly.

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 The fungus is able to break the cell wall in a limited way and is restricted to cortical region of
the root. Some hyphae send small projections into cortical cells without destroying them.
 Such fungi are termed VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza), e.g., Orchid roots.

Ectomycorrhiza on Pinus roots

 Mycorrhizal association is a symbiotic relationship as both the partners are mutually
beneficial to each other. The fungal partner obtains nourishment from the cortical cells of the
root and depends upon the plant for shelter.
 The root cells excrete sugars and other soluble gradients which are used by fungal hyphae
spreading in intercellular spaces. The hyphae may get nourishment from the cells directly and
also by sending small projections into cortical cells.
 The fungus seems to be essential for the growth of the plant having mycorrhiza.
 The plant also gets benefit from the association as the fungal hyphae spreading in soil
substantially increases the surface area of absorption, thereby enabling the plant to get
enhanced supply of water, nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals from the soil.
 Orchids seldom occur without mycorrhiza. Certain forest trees like pines, birches show
stunted growth if their roots are not associated with fungus.

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LICHENS

 Lichens are dual (composite) organisms or entities which

contain a permanent association of a fungal partner or
mycobiont and an algal partner or phycobiont.
 Mycobiont is dominant partner and mostly belongs to
ascomycetes (Ascolichens -, e.g., Graphis, CIadonia,
Parmelia, Usnea, etc.) or sometimes basidiomycetes
(Basidiolichens - e.g., Corella, Cora, etc.).
 Phycobiont is mostly a member of Chlorophyceae (e.g.,
Chlorella, Trebouxia, Protococcus, Palmella, etc.) or can
be a BGA (e.g., Nostoc, Chlorococcus, Scytonema, etc.).
 The term lichen was coined by Theophrastus (370 -285 B.C.), also called Father of Botany.
 Lichens often grow in most inhospitable and uninhabited places like barren rocks (saxicolous),
soil (terricolous), icy tundra or alpines, sand dunes, roofs, walls, wood (Iignicolous), tree bark
(corticolous), leaves, etc.
 They commonly live under humid and exposed conditions but can tolerate extreme
desiccation. However, lichens, cannot tolerate air pollution, especially due to sulphur
dioxide (so are considered indicators of SO2 pollution).
 Lichens are perennial. Their growth is slow. Lichens have greyish, yellowish, greenish, orange,
dark brown or blackish colouration.
Structure :
 Based upon external morphology, the lichens are of three types :
(i) Crustose. Crust like, closely appressed to the substratum and attached to it at several places,
e.g., Graphis, Lecanora, Rhizocarpon.
(ii) Foliose: The body of the lichen is flat, broad, lobed and leaf-like, which is attached to the
substratum at one or a few places with the help of rhizoid like structures called rhizines, e.g.,
Parmelia, Peltigera.
(iii) Fruticose : The lichen is branched like a bush and attached to the substratum by means of a
disc, e.g., CIadonia, Usnea, Evernia, Bryonia.

Forms of Lichens

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 The bulk of lichen body is formed by fungal partner called mycobiont. It includes the surface,
medulla (or interior) and rhizines (attaching devices).
 The algal partner or phycobiont constitutes hardly 5% of the lichens body.
 It is generally restricted to a narrow zone (algal zone) below the surface.
Relationship :
 The fungus performs following functions:
(i) Body structure and covering (ii) Anchoring (iii) Absorption of water and minerals. It can
absorb water from wet air (atmosphere), dew and rain. Minerals are picked up both from
substratum and atmosphere. Special chemicals are excreted by the fungal partner of the
lichen to dissolve minerals from the substratum. (iv) Sex organs and fruitifications are of
fungal origin.
 The major function of alga is photosynthesis.
 The cyanobacterial alga additionally takes part in nitrogen fixation. The alga picks up water
and mineral salts from the fungus while the fungus obtains part of the food manufactured by
the alga.
 Therefore, in a lichen the association between alga and fungus is that of mutual benefit
(mutualism) popularly called symbiosis.
 However, at times the fungus is found to (i) send haustoria into algal cells (ii) induce alga to
secrete organic substances and (iii) prevent alga to develop pectic covering. Therefore, some
workers believe that the fungus is a controlled parasite over the alga. The phenomenon is
called helotism.

V.S. of lichen showing an isidium and algal zone

 Reproduction: Lichens multiply by four methods:
(i) Progressive death and decay resulting in the separation of a lichen thallus into two or more
parts.
(ii) Fragmentation caused by mechanical injury, due to wind or animal bites.
(iii) Isidia are superficial outgrowths of the lichens which are primarily meant for increasing
surface area and photosynthetic activity. At time, they are broken off. Each isidium is capable
of forming a new lichen because it has a core of a few algal cells surrounded by a sheath of
fungal hyphae.
(iv) Soredia. These are most efficient means of asexual reproduction. They are microscopic
lichen propagules which are produced in large numbers inside sori called pustules. Soredia
are dispersed by air currents. After falling on a suitable substratum each soredium gives rise
to a lichen, because it has a few algal cells surrounded incompletely by a weft of fungus.

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VIRUS
Term virus was coined by Pasteur.
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. They are intermediate between living and non
living entities.
Non living nature of virus
 Lacking protoplast.
 Ability to get crystallized, e.g., TMV, poliomyelitis virus.
 Inability to live independent of a living cell. (Lack functional autonomy)
 High specific gravity which is found only in non living objects
 Absence of respiration.
 Absence of energy storing system.
 Absence of growth and division.
Living nature of virus
 Being formed of organic macromolecules.
 Presence of genetic material.
 Ability to multiply.
 Occurrence of mutations.
 Occurrence of certain enzymes like, neuraminidase (first discovered), transcriptase and
lysozyme in certain viruses.
 Infectivity and host specificity.
 Viruses can be 'killed' by autoclaving and ultraviolet rays.
 They take over biosynthetic machinery of the host cell and produce chemicals required for
their multiplication.
 Viruses are responsible for a number of infectious disease like common cold, epidemic
influenza, chicken pox, mumps, poliomyelitis, rabies, herpes, AIDS, SARS etc.

Structural Components of Viruses

(i) Envelope is the outer thin loose covering composed of proteins (from virus), lipids and
carbohydrates (both from host). It has smaller subunits known as peplomers, e.g., Herpes
virus, HIV, Vaccinia virus etc. If it is not present the virus is said to be naked.
(ii) Capsid : It is the outer protein coat made up of subunits called capsomeres, their number is
virus specific. These possess antigenic properties.
(iii) Nucleoid : Viruses contain either DNA or RNA. No virus contains both DNA and RNA.
(a) DNA containing viruses are called deoxyviruses.
These are of two types:
(i) Double stranded DNA (dsDNA) virus, e.g., Pox virus, Cauliflower mosaic virus.
(ii) Single stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus, e.g., Coliphage  ×174, M 13 phage.
(b) RNA containing viruses or riboviruses are of two types.
(i) Double stranded RNA (ds RNA) virus, e.g., Reo virus, Wound Tumour Virus.

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(ii) Single stranded RNA (ss RNA) virus, e.g., TMV, Influenza virus, Foot and Mouth disease virus,
Retroviruses (HIV).
Classification of Virus
Holmes (1948) has divided viruses into three groups on the basis of specific hosts.
(a) Phytophagineae are plant viruses. They generally have ssRNA, e.g., TMV, Potato Mosaic
Virus, Yellow Vein Mosaic virus, Cauliflower Mosaic virus.
(b) Zoophagineae are animal viruses. They commonly have ssRNA or dsRNA or dsDNA. e.g.,
Poliomyelitis virus, Influenza viruses, Small pox virus, Mumps virus, Rabies virus.
(c) Phagineae attack lower organisms
(i) Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses and they usually possess dsDNA, e.g., T2, T4, lambda ()
phage.
(ii) Coliphages are viruses of E.coli, e.g., Coliphage fd.
(iii) Cyanophages attack blue green algae, e.g., LPP-1, SM-1 .
(iv) Phycophages attack algae.
(v) Mycophages attack fungi.
(vi) Zymophages attack yeast.

Reproduction
It is of two main types: Phagic and Pinocytic
(a) Phagic Reproduction : It is further of two types :
(i) Lytic cycle : Occurs in virulent phages, e.g., T4 bacteriophages.
(ii) Lysogenic cycle : Occurs in temperate viruses such as  phage.
(b) Pinocytic Reproduction: It is found in viruses like TMV, HIV, Hepatitis B etc., in which whole of
virus particle enters host cell except envelope (if present).

Structural details of some viruses

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(1) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is elongated rod like, 3000 Å long, 180 Å in diameter with
molecular weight Protein 39.4 × 106 dalton. 2130 capsomeres are arranged helically to form
the capsid. RNA strand is helical. ssRNA consists of 6400 nucleotides. Thus, the ratio of
nucleotides : capsomeres = 3 : 1

(2) Pox virus / variola is the causal agent of small pox. These are among the largest of animal
viruses, are rectangular (brick shaped), 300 × 230 nm in size. Genome is dumbell shaped with
central core of dsDNA. The core has two enzymes RNA polymerase and ATP
phosphohydrolase.
(3) AIDS virus consists of single stranded RNA. It has 2 copies of ssRNA. Outer cover has 5 layers,
i.e., outer most glycoprotein, followed by double lipid layer and the innermost has two
protein layers.

(5) T4 Bacteriophage has a tadpole like structure with polyhedral head connected to a helical tail
(binal). The head consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. Nucleic acid
is double stranded DNA. Tail is proteinaceous tube-like, core surrounded by sheath. At one
end, tube is joined to the head by thin collar. At the other end, it has a hexagonal base plate
with six small tail pins and six tail fibres which help in attachment of the phage to the host
cell.

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 Sub Viral Agents: These are viruses which lack one of the essential component, e.g., viroids,
virusoids, prions

(1) Viroids (L. virus -poison, eidos -diminutive)

 They are the smallest self replicating particles which were discovered by Diener (1971).
Viroids are infectious RNA particles which are devoid of protein coat.
 They are obligate parasites. Molecular weight of a viroid is low.
 The RNA is tightly folded to form circular or linear structures. Viroids are known to cause
diseases (some 20) in plants only, e.g., Potato spindle tuber disease (PSTD), Chrysanthemum
stunt and Citrus exocortis.
(2) Virusoids
 Discovered by Randle et. al., these are RNA viruses but inside the capsid of other larger virus.
They replicate within the host and do not cause any infection.
(3) Prions

Discovered by Alper et al.

Proteinaceous infectious particles, causing certain diseases like
(i) Kuru disease (laughing death disease in humans)
(ii) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or Mad cow disease)
(iii) Scrapie disease in sheep
(iv) Creutz Feldt Jakob disease
Table 5 : Viral diseases of Plants
Disease Causal agent
Tobacco mosaic Tobacco Mosaic virus
Cucumber mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus
Bunchy top of Banana Banana bunchy top virus
Sugarcane mosaic Sugarcane (or Saccharum) Virus I

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Name of the disease Causal Virus

Common cold Rhinoviruses
Influenza Influenza virus
German measles (Rubella) Rubella virus
Measles Measles virus
Poliomyelitis Polio virus
Small pox Variola virus
Yeilow fever Arbovirus
 Animal viral diseases -Foot and mouth disease, Rinderpest, Ranikhet, Bird flu etc.

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Small pox

Mumps

Herpes Influenza

AIDS

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SUMMARY
1. Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis of
simple morphological characters.
2. Linnaeus later classified all living organisms into two kingdoms -Plantae and Animalia.
3. Whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom classificatlon -Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia. The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure, body
organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationship out of which
mode of nutrition was most important.
4. In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera.
5. Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution.
6. These organisms show the most extensive metabolic diversity, although they have a simple
structure.
7. Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition.
8. Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates,
Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.
9. Protists have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They reproduce both
asexually and sexually.
10. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity in structures and habitat.
11. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
12. They show asexual and sexual reproduction.
13. Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four classes under
this kingdom.
14. The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae, bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included in this group.
15. The life cycle of plants exhibit alternation of generations-gametophytic and sporophytic
generations.
16. The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the
Kingdom Animalia. The mode of nutrition of these organisms is holozoic.
17. They reproduce mostly by the sexual mode.
18. Some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are not included in the
five kingdom system of classification.

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64 Biological Classification

EXERCISE – 1
SECTION – A
Q.1 Two kingdom system classification was given by
(1) Linnaeus (2) John Ray (3) Copeland (4) Whittaker
Q.2 Which kingdom was introduced in 4 kingdom classification and who proposed it?
(1) Protista and Copeland (2) Plantae and linnaeus
(3) Monera and Whittaker (4) Monera and Copeland
Q.3 Which of the following is the major group in Monera?
(1) Eubacteria (2) Cyanobacteria (3) Archaebacteria (4) All of these
Q.4 Term bacteria was given by
(1) Koch (2) Pasteur (3) Ehrenberg (4) Stanley
Q.5 70S ribosomes, chromatophores, circular DNA, mesosomes are found in
(1) All eukaryotes (2) All prokaryotes
(3) Some prokaryotes (4) Some eukaryotes and some prokaryotes
Q.6 A bacterium that bears flagella all over the surface is called
(1) Lophotrichous (2) Cephalotrichous (3) Peritrichous (4) Amphitrichous
Q.7 A distinct lipo-polysaccharide layer is found in
(1) Gram (+) bacteria (2) Gram (-) bacteria (3) All bacteria (4) Mycoplasma
Q.8 In bacteria, the respiratory enzymes are situated in the
(1) Cytoplasm (2) Cell membrane (3) Ribosomes (4) Mitochondria
Q.9 Cell wall in Gram positive bacteria is composed of
(1) Lipid and protein (2) Murein (3) Proteins only (4) Cellulose and pectin
Q.10 One of the following is a filamentous bacteria
(1) Pseudomonas (2) Clostridium (3) Actinomyces (4) Azotobacter
Q.11 Pili represent
(1) Extra chromosomal genetic elements (2) Protoplasmic outgrowths of donor cells
(3) Small flagella (4) Special bacterial cilia
Q.12 Plasmids represent
(1) A group of monerans (2) Small parasitic organisms
(3) Genetic elements (4) Extra chromosomal genetic elements
Q.13 The resting spores produced by bacteria in unfavourable conditions are called
(1) Oidia (2) Endospores (3) Exospores (4) Chlamydospores
Q.14 Conjugation in bacteria was discovered by
(1) Beadle and Tatum (2) Zinder and Lederberg
(3) Griffith (4) Lederberg and Tatum
Q.15 Genophore is the name of
(1) DNA of eukaryoles (2) DNA of bacteria
(3) Genes of Drosophila (4) Genes of Neurospora
Q.16 There is no alternation of generation in Escherichia coli because of the absence of
(1) Syngamy (2) Reduction division
(3) Conjugation (4) Both (1) & (2)
Q.17 The following bacterium is associated with denitrification
(1) Azotobacter (2) Rhodospirillum (3) Pseudomonas (4) Rhizobium
Q.18 Bacteria which can survive in the absence of oxygen are known as
(1) Obligate anaerobes (2) Facultative anaerobes
(3) Obligate aerobes (4) Facultative aerobes
Q.19 Streptomycin is produced by
(1) Streptomyces venezuelae (2) Streptomyces griseus
(3) Streptomyces arythreus (4) Streptomyces aureofaciens
Q.20 Food poisoning is caused by
(1) Clostridium tetani (2) Clostridium botulinum
(3) Salmonella typhi (4) Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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65 Biological Classification

Q.21 Rhizobium is
(1) Symbiotic and Gram negative bacterium (2) Symbiotic and Gram positive bacterium
(3) Free living nitrogen fixing bacterium (4) Parasitic and nitrogen fixing bacteria
Q.22 Syphilis is caused by
(1) Neisseria gonorrhoeae (2) Treponema pallidum
(3) Hemophilous pertusis (4) Pasteurella pestis
Q.23 Jacob and Wollman coined the term
(1) Plasmid (2) Episome (3) Circular DNA (4) Chromosome
Q.24 Branched chain lipids occur in the cell membranes of
(1) Archaebacteria (2) Mycoplasma (3) Actinomycetes (4) Streptomyces
Q.25 Monerans producing conidia for reproduction belong to
(1) Eubacteria (2) Archaebacteria (3) Actinomycetes (4) Mycoplasma
Q.26 Smallest known moneran lacking cell wall are
(1) Spirochaete (2) Mycoplasma (3) Cyanobacteria (4) Archaebacteria
Q.27 Cyanobacteria do not possess
(1) Gene recombinations (2) Flagella
(3) Plasmids (4) Lamellasomes
Q.28 Heterocyst present in Nostoc is specialised for
(1) Fragmentation (2) Nitrogen fixation (3) Storage (4) Photosynthesis
Q.29 'Contagium vivum fluidium (i.e., living fluid infectant) term has been given by
(1) Mayer (2) lvanowsky (3) Beijerinck (4) Bawden and Pirie
Q.30 Anaerobic monerans which are endosymbiotically associated with cattles rumen are
(1) Bacillus (2) Methanobacterium
(3) Halococcus (4) Thermoacidophiles
Q.31 Gange's water purity is maintained by
(1) Bdellovibrio (2) Clostridium (3) Ferrobaciflus (4) Tolypothrix
Q.32 Bivalved siliceous shell or frustule occur in
(1) Diatoms (3) Zooflagellates (2) Radiolarians (4) Archaebacteria
Q.33 Diatomaceous earth is due to
(1) Silicon (2) Zinc (3) Phosphorus (4) Calcium
Q.34 Reserve food in Euglena is
(1) Paramylum (2) Starch (3) Glycogen (4) Mannitol
Q.35 Special type of red pigment present in the eye-spot of Euglena and Crustacea is called
(1) Phycoerythrin (2) Astaxanthin (3) carotene (4) Xanthphyll
Q.36 Mixotrophic nutrition occurs in
(1) Paramecium (2) Euglena (3) Plasmodium (4) Amoeba
Q.37 The structure formed in the life cycle of cellular slime-mould due to chemotactic movement is
(1) Pseudoplasmodium (2) Swarm cells
(3) Macrocyst (4) Capillitia
Q.38 Myxamoeba are formed in the life cycle of
(1) Physarum (3) Entamoeba (2) Amoeba (4) Diatoms
Q.39 De Bary considered slime moulds to be closely related to animals and called them
(1) Protozoa (3) Mycetozoa (2) Metazoa (4) Mycotina
Q.40 De Bary was a leading
(1) Phycologist (3) Bryologist (2) Mycologist (4) Pteridologist
Q.41 Asexual spores of fungi (thallophytes) are commonly known as
(1) Oospores (2) Mitospores (3) Meiospores (4) Zygospores
Q.42 Oidia resemble yeasts in
(1) Fermentation (2) Budding (3) Unicellular nalure (4) All of these
Q.43 Which one of the following shows haplodiplontic life cycle with four ascospores in the ascus?
(1) Budding yeast (2) Fission yeast (3) Helobial yeast (4) False yeast
Q.44 Gametangial copulation (conjugation) is common in
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Zygomycetes (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Deuleromyceles
Q.45 Molile sperms (or motile sperm cells) are absent in

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66 Biological Classification

(1) Rhizopus (2) Funarla (3) Fem (4) Cycas

Q.46 If the thallus of an organism like a fungus is entirely converted into one or more reproductive structures it is
called as
(1) Eucarpic (2) Holocarpic (3) Holozoic (4) Hornothallic
Q.47 Subterranean masses of hyphae which pass the unfavourable periods in donnant stage are known as
(1) Sclerotia (2) Mycelium (3) Rhizomorph (4) Puff balls
Q.48 Asexual reproduction by aplanospore formation is the feature of
(1) Sac fungi (2) Fungi impertect (3) Conjugating fungi (4) Club fungi
Q.49 Haploid sexual spore produced exogenously is
(1) Ascospore (2) Oospcre (3) Basidiospore (4) Zygospore
Q.50 White rust of crucifers is caused by
(1) Albugo candida (2) Sclerospora
(3) Phytophthora infestans (4) Pythium debaryanum
Q.51 Coenocytic mycelium occurs in
(1) Zygomycetes (2) Phycomycetes (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) Deuteromycetes
Q.52 Ascomycetes are known as
(1) Club fungi (2) Sac fungi (3) Fungi imperfecti (4) Fission fungi
Q.53 One of the following is helobial yeast
(1) Saccharomyces (2) Schizosaccharomyces
(3) Saccharomycokies (4) Schizomycetes
Q.54 One of the following is a true yeast
(1) Canedida (2) Myoodenna (3) Cryptococcus (4) Saccharomyces
Q.55 Fungi differs from bacteria in
(1) Mode of nutrition (2) Having NAG in cell wall
(3) Flagella structure (4) Reserve food material as glycogen
Q.56 Penicillin is obtained from
(1) Penicillium griseofulvum (2) Penicillium chrysogenum
(3) Penicillium camemberti (4) Penicillium roqueforti
Q.57 Branched conidiophores are found in
(1) Penicillium (2) Rhizopus (3) Uslifago (4) Saccharomyces
Q.58 Fruiting body in Aspergillus (or Penicillium) is known as
(1) Cleistothecium (2) Apothecium (3) Perithecium (4) Hysterothecium
Q.59 A mushroom having hallucinating properties similar to LS.D. is
(1) Morchella (2) Psaliota (3) Psilocybe (4) Armillaria
Q.60 Powdery mildew of cereals is due to
(1) Puccinia graminis (2) Claviceps purpurea
(3) Ustilago tritici (4) Erysiphe graminicola
Q.61 Ergot is a product of
(1) Rhizopus (2) Claviceps purpurea
(3) Aspergillus (4) Sclerospora
Q.62 The famous Irish famine is related to a disease of potato known as
(1) Late blight of potato (2) Early blight of potato
(3) Dry rot of potato (4) Potato scab
Q.63 A fungus, which grows on rotting wood, is
(1) Rhizopus (2) Pythium (3) Peziza (4) Aspergilfus
Q.64 A dolipore septum is a characteristic feature of
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Zygomycetes
Q.65 Fertile layer of gills is known as
(1) Hymenium (2) Trama (3) Paraphyses (4) Basidia
Q.66 An edible part at mushroom is
(1) Primary mycelium (2) Secondary mycelium
(3) Rhizomorph (4) Basidiocarp
Q.67 Pioneer work on wheat rust was done by
(1) Mundkur (2) Tutsane (3) KG. Mehta (4) Subramaniam
Q.68 The soredium is a reproductive structure of
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Zygomycetes (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Lichens

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67 Biological Classification

Q.69 Symptom not seen in plants due to viruses is

(1) Mosaic formation (2) Leaf rolling and curling
(3) Yellowing, vein clearing (4) Root knot
Q.70 Viroids were discovered by
(1) Alper (2) Randle (3) Diener (4) lvanowsky

Section – B
Q.1 Five kingdom system of classification is mainly based on
(1) Complexity of cell structure (2) Mode of nutrition
(3) Complexity of body organisation (4) Ecological role
Q.2 Bacteria are considered primitive organisms because they
(1) Possess incipient nucleus
(2) Are small, microscopic plants, which are not seen by the naked eyes
(3) Cause serious diseases to human being, domesticated animals and crop plants
(4) Produce endospores which are very resistant to adverse conditions
Q.3 The part of the bacterial chromosome that is homologous to a genome fragment transferred from the donor to
the recipient cell in the formation of a merozygote is known as
(1) Exogenote (2) Endogenote (3) Dysgenic (4) Eugenic
Q.4 Broad spectrum antibiotic is that which
(1) Acts on both pathogens and hosts
(2) Acts on all bacteria and viruses
(3) Acts on a variety of pathogenic microorganisms
(4) Is effective in very small amounts
Q.5 A cyanelle is
(1) A BGA associated with human intestine (2) A BGA associated with protists
(3) A free living BGA (4) Any symbiotic BGA
Q.6 Bacterial cell divides every one minute. It takes 15 minutes a cup to be one-fourth full. How much time will it
take to fill the cup?
(1) 30 minutes (2) 45 minutes (3) 60 minutes (4) 17 minutes
Q.7 Highly resistance nature of endospore is due to the presence of
(1) Dipicolinic acid and peptidoglycan in spore coat
(2) Peptidoglycan in exosporium
(3) Dipicolinic acid and Ca in cortex
(4) Dipicolinic acid and Ca in cell membrane
Q.8 Find the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Streptomycin (i) Streptomyces griseus
b. Terramycin (ii) S. venezuelae
c. Chloramphenicol (iii) S. rimosus
d. Bacitracin (IV) Bacillus licheniformis
(1) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv) (2) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
(3) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv) (4) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
Q.9 The photosynthetic protists are
(1) Diatoms, euglenoids and slime moulds (2) Sacrodines, dinoflagellates and diatoms
(3) Euglenoids, diatoms and dinoflagellates (4) Ciliates, zooflagellates and dinoflagellates
Q.10 Sea water glows during night mainly due to occurrence of
(1) Gonyaulax (2) Euglena (3) Noctiluca (4) Cyetoletta
Q.11 Rejuvenescent spore of diatom is
(1) Haploid and exospore (2) Diploid and statospore
(3) Haploid and statospore (4) Diploid and auxospore
Q.12 Leucosin (Chrysolaminarin) is a carbohydrate which is stored as reserve food in case of
(1) Diatom (2) Euglena (3) Dinoflagellates (4) Paramecium
Q.13 Flagellation in Euglena is
(1) Uniflagellation and stichonematic (2) Isakon! and whiplash type
(3) Heterokont and whiplash type (4) Heterokont and stichonematic
Q.14 Paraflagellar body of Euglena helps in

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68 Biological Classification

(1) Locomotion (2) Photoreception (3) Reproduction (4) Osmoregulation

Q.15 Difference between a red sea and red tide is
(1) Red tide takes place in red sea
(2) Associated with a cyanobacteria and protist respectively
(3) One is by virus and other by bacteria
(4) Associated with Rhodophyceae and diatoms respectively
Q.16 Find the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Gill fungi (i) Salmon disease
b. Cup fungi (ii) Trama
c. Black mould (iii) Penicillin
d. Blue I green mould (iv) Zygophore
(v) Apothecium
(1) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(v) (2) a(ii), b(v), c(iv), d(i)
(3) a(ii), b(v), c(iv), d(iii) (4) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
Q.17 Select incorrectly matched pair
(1) Mucor mucedo – Coprophilous (2) Albugo candida – Facultative parasite
(3) Agaricus bisporus – Edible basidiocarp (4) Puccinia graminis – Heteroecious fungi
Q.18 When two host species are required for completion of a parasitic fungus life cycle, this condition is described as
(1) Autoecious (2) Heteroecious (3) Autotrophic (4) Heterokaryotic
Q.19 The most common chlorophycobiont in a lichen is
(1) Chlorella (2) Trebouxia (3) Gonium (4) Chlamydomonas
Q.20 Viruses possess all the following properties, except
(1) They are non-cellular organisms
(2) Possess both DNA and RNA
(3) Capsid protects nucleic acid
(4) Have inert crystalline structure outside living cells
Q.21 Select correct match w.r.t. Whittaker' system of classification
(1) Monera : Unicellular and multicellular, osmotrophs, producers and decomposers, true cellulosic cell wall
(2) Protista : Unicellular, eukaryotic, photoautotrophs and chemoautolrophs
(3) Fungi : Multicellular/loose tissue , eukaryotic, osmotrophs, chitinous wall
(4) Animalia : Multicellular, eukaryotic, organ or organ system, holozoic, no saprobic
Q.22 Read the given features carefully and select incorrect set of features for a respective member.
a. LPS layer present b. Diazotroph c. Peritrichous d. Sewage disposal
e. Obligate anaerobes f. Chemoautotrophs g. L-Lysine absent h. Aerobic
(1) Clostridium - a, c, d , e (2) Rhizobium - a, b, c
(3) Azotobacter - a, b, g, h (4) Methanogens - e, f, a, g
Q.23 Endospores formed by certain bacteria are actually the means for
(1) Reproduction (2) Perennation (3) Bioluminescence (4) Red snow formation
Q.24 Pyrrophytes ·are similar to Euglenophytes but differ from chrysophytes in
(1) Mode of nutrition
(2) Motility and nature of flagella
(3) Presence of primary photosynthetic pigments
(4) Occurrence and cell wall composition
Q.25 Consider the following statements and select correct set of features W.r.t. the life cycle of Physarum
a. Haploid vegetative stage as myxamoebae
b. Diploid vegetative stage as plasmodium
c. Holocarplc and polycentric
d. Holocarpic and monocentric
e. Sporeic meiosis
f. Isogamous sexual reproduction
g. Anisogamous sexual reproduction with zygotic meiosis

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69 Biological Classification

(1) a, c, g (2) b, c, g (3) b, d, e, f (4) b, c, e, f

Q.26 Mycelium with compact mass of hyphae as pseudo parenchymatous structure can be observed in the
(1) Fructification stage of slime moulds
(2) Gill of mushroom
(3) Asexual stage of bread mould
(4) Uredia stage of rust fungi
Q.27 Which one of the following combination of characters is correct for the given fungal group?
(1) Algal fungi : Coenocylic, cellulosic wall, zoospore, zygospore, dikaryophase present
(2) Conjugating fungi : Septate mycelium, chitinous wall, sporangiospore, shorter (n + n) phase
(3) Sac fungi : Septate mycelium, Ascogonium, Crozier stage, meiospores as ascospores, shorter dikaryophase
(4) Club fungi : Shorter primary mycelium stage, No sex organs , dominant dikaryophase, zygosporic
meiosis
Q.28 Read the statements carefully
a. Hartig net is the network of intracellular mycelium of Boletus
b. Ectomycorrhiza forms ten percent of total mycorrhiza
c. Fungal partner of VAM belongs to zygomycetes or phycomycetes
(1) Only a & c are correct (2) Only b & c are correct
(3) Only c is correct (4) All are correct
Q.29 Identify A, Band C given below

(1) A - DNA virus - Cauliflower mosaic virus

B - RNA virus - Pox virus
C - Relerovirus - HIV
(2) A - RNAvirus - T.M.V
B - DNA virus - T4 bacteriophage
C - Retero virus - HIV
(3) A - RNA virus - Hepatitis B virus
B - Reterovirus - T.M.V
C - DNA virus -  × 174
(4) A - Reterovirus - Hepatitis B virus
B - RNA virus - T4 bacterophage
C - DNA virus - Pox virus
Q.30 Read the following statements carefully and identify correct statements w.r.t. Lichens
a. The association cannot tolerate air pollution, especially due to sulphur dioxide
b. lichens are annuals and their growth is slow
c. The fungal partner shows controiled parasitism
d. Soredia are most efficient means of asexual reproduction
e. Orchids seldom occur without this association
f. Foliose lichens are pioneers of succession on bare rock
(1) c, d, F (2) a, c, d, f (3) a, b, e (4) a, c, d

ANSWER KEY

Section–A
Q.1 1 Q.2 4 Q.3 1 Q.4 3 Q.5 3 Q.6 3 Q.7 2
Q.8 2 Q.9 2 Q.10 3 Q.11 2 Q.12 4 Q.13 2 Q.14 4
Q.15 2 Q.16 4 Q.17 3 Q.18 2 Q.19 2 Q.20 2 Q.21 1

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70 Biological Classification

Q.22 2 Q.23 2 Q.24 1 Q.25 3 Q.26 2 Q.27 2 Q.28 2

Q.29 3 Q.30 2 Q.31 1 Q.32 1 Q.33 1 Q.34 1 Q.35 2
Q.36 2 Q.37 1 Q.38 1 Q.39 3 Q.40 2 Q.41 2 Q.42 4
Q.43 1 Q.44 2 Q.45 1 Q.46 2 Q.47 3 Q.48 3 Q.49 3
Q.50 1 Q.51 3 Q.52 2 Q.53 3 Q.54 4 Q.55 3 Q.56 2
Q.57 1 Q.58 1 Q.59 3 Q.60 4 Q.61 2 Q.62 1 Q.63 3
Q.64 3 Q.65 1 Q.66 4 Q.67 3 Q.68 4 Q.69 4 Q.70 3

Section – B
Q.1 2 Q.2 1 Q.3 2 Q.4 3 Q.5 2 Q.6 4 Q.7 3
Q.8 1 Q.9 3 Q.10 2 Q.11 4 Q.12 1 Q.13 4 Q.14 2
Q.15 2 Q.16 3 Q.17 2 Q.18 2 Q.19 2 Q.20 2 Q.21 3
Q.22 1 Q.23 2 Q.24 2 Q.25 4 Q.26 2 Q.27 3 Q.28 2
Q.29 2 Q.30 4

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71 Biological Classification

EXERCISE – 2 Previous Year's Questions

Q.1 The five kingdom classification was given by : [HP PMT 2006]
(1) Whittaker (1969) (2) Linnaeus (1758)
(3) Copeland (1966) (4) Haeckel (1866)
Q.2 Which one of the following is common to multicellular fungi, filamentous algae and protonema of mosses?
(1) Members of kingdom Plantae (2) Mode of Nutrition
(3) Multiplication by fragmentation (4) Diplontic life cycle
Q.3 The two bacteria found to be very useful in genetic engineering experiments are :
[AIPMT 2006]
(1) Nitrosomonas and Klebsiella (2) Escherichia and Agrobacterium
(3) Nitrobacter and Azotobacter (4) Rhizobium and Diplococcus
Q.4 The bacterium (Clostridium botulinum) that causes botulism is : [AIPMT 2006]
(1) an obligate aerobe (2) a fecultative anaerobe
(3) an obligate anaerobe (4) a fecultative aerobe
Q.5 Curing of ten leaves is brought about by the activity of : [AIPMT 2006]
(1) fungi (2) bacteria (3) micorrhizae (4) viruses
Q.6 In prokaryotes, chromatophores are : [AIIMS 2006]
(1) specialized granules responsible for colouration of cells.
(2) structures responsible for organizing the shape of the organism.
(3) inclusion bodies lying free inside the cells for carrying out various metabolic activities.
(4) internal membrane systems that may beocme extensive and complex in phtosythesis bacteria.
Q.7 Which one of the following statements about mycoplasma is wrong? [AIPMT 2007]
(1) They are pleomophic (2) They are sensitive to penicillin
(3) They cause diseases in plants (4) They are called PPLO
Q.8 Thermococcus, Methanococcus and Methanobacterium exemplify : [AIPMT 2008]
(1) archaebacteria that contain protein homologous to eukaryotic core histones.
(2) archaebacteria that lack any histones resembling those found in eukaryotes but whose DNA is negatively supercoiled.
(3) bacteria whose DNA is relaxed or positively supercoiled but which have a cytoskeleton as
well as mitochondria.
(4) bacteria that contain a cytoskeleton and ribosomes.
Q.9 Bacterial leaf blight of rice is caused by a species of : [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Xanthomonas (2) Pseudomonas (3) Alternaria (4) Erwinia
Q.10 Total parasites belongs to protozoan group [CPMT 2001]
(1) Sporozoa (2) Ciliata (3) Sarcodina (4) Zooflagellata
Q.11 Beedle and Tatum gave 'one gene and one enzyme' hypothesis while working on
[AIPMT 2007]
(1) Salmonelly typhimurium (2) Neurospora crassa
(3) Eschericlia coli (4) Diplococcus pneumoniae
Q.12 Which of the following pair belongs to basidiomycetes? [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Puffballs and Claviceps (2) Morchella and mushrooms
(3) Peziza and stink horns (4) Bird's nest fungi and puffballs
Q.13 'Ergot of rye' is caused by [AIPMT 2007]
(1) Claviceps purpurea (2) Sclerospora graminicola
(3) Cannabis sativa (4) Algae and fungi
Q.14 Cellulose is a major component of cell walls of [AIPMT 2008]
(1) Pythium (2) Xanthomonas (3) Pseudomonas (4) Saccharomyces
Q.15 Trichoderma harziahum has proved a useful microorganism for [AIPMT 2008]
(1) bioremediation of contaminated soils
(2) reclamation of wastelands
(3) gene transfer in higher plants
(4) biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens
Q.16 Which one is the wrong pairing for the disease and its causal organism? [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Loose smut of wheat – Ustilago nuda
(2) Root know of vegetables – Meloidogyne sp

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72 Biological Classification

(3) Late blight of potato – Alternaria solani

(4) Black rust of wheat – Puccinia graminis
Q.17 Which one of the following has haplontic life cycle? [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Ustilago (2) Wheat (3) Funaria (4) Polytrichum
Q.18 Yeast is used in the production of : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Lipase and pectinase (2) Bread and beer
(3) Cheese and butter (4) Citric acid and lactic acid
Q.19 Which one of the following microbes forms symbiotic association with plants and helps them in their nutrition?
(1) Aspergillus (2) Glomus (3) Trichodrma (4) Azoiobacter
Q.20 Which statement is wrong for viruses ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) All of them have helical symmetry.
(2) They have ability to synthesize nucleic acids and proteins
(3) Antibiotic have no effect on them.
(4) All are parasites.
Q.21 There exist a close association between the alga and fungus within a lichen. The fungus :
[AIPMT 2005]
(1) fixes the atmospheric nitrogen for the alga
(2) provides protection, anchorage and absorption for the alga
(3) provides food for the alga
(4) release oxygen for the alga
Q.22 Which of the following fungus can cause diseases in humans? [CMC Ludhiana 2006]
(1) Penicillium (2) Ustilago (3) Puccinia (4) Smut
Q.23 Red rot of sugarcane and white rust of radish are respectively caused by [Kerla PMT 2005]
(1) Albugo candida and Cerospora (2) Colletotrichum and Fusarium
(3) Pythium and Phytopthora (4) Colletotrichum and Albugo candida
Q.24 The fungi in which sexual reproduction is absent or is under abnormal conditions is
[Pb.PMT 2006]
(1) phycomycetes (2) asomycetes (3) basidiomycetes (4) deuteromycetes
Q.25 Edible part of mushroom is [CPMT 2003]
(1) basidiocarp (2) primary mucelium
(3) secondary mycelium (4) tertiary mycelium
Q.26 VAM stands for [PIMS–AICET 2006]
(1) Vascular Arbuscular Mycorrihizae (2) Vesicle Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
(3) Veremicular Arbuscular Mycorrihizae (4) Vacuolar Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
Q.27 Ascomycetes are [GGSIPU 2006]
(1) club fungi (2) algal fungi (3) pin moulds (4) sac fungi
Q.28 Genus Aspergillus and Claviceps belongs to [BVP Pune 2006]
(1) phycomycetes (2) ascomycetes (3) basidiomycetes (4) deuteromycetes
Q.29 Among rust, smut and mushroom all the three [AIIMS 2006]
(1) all pathogens (2) are saprobes (3) bear ascocarbs (4) bear basidiocarps
Q.30 In the following table identify the correct matching of the crop, its disease and the corresponding pathogen [
Crop - Disease Pathogen
(1) Citrus Canker A. Pseudomonas rubrilineans
(2) Potato Late Blight B. Fusarium udum
(3) Root know C. Meoidogyn injection
(4) Pigeon pee See gall D. Phytophthora infestans
Q.31 Cell wall of fungi consists of [AMU 2007]
(1) cellulose (2) hemicellulose (3) chitin (4) both a and c
Q.32 Asperigillus niger is used for the manufacture of [Manipal PMT 2007]
(1) citric acid and gluconic acid (2) HCl and HNO3
(3) fumaric and malic acid (4) succinic and fumaric acid
Q.33 An organism with eukaryotic multicellular nature obtains its nutrition through its cell wall. It should be placed
under [Manipal PMT 2007]
(1) Mycota (2) Plantae (3) Animalia (4) Monera
Q.34 The toxins released by plants to save themselves from fungal attack are [BHU 2007]

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73 Biological Classification

(1) phytotoxins (2) phytoalexins (3) calmodulins (4) aquaporins

Q.35 LSD is extracted from [Manipal PMT 2007]
(1) Claviceps (2) Cannabis (3) Agaricus (4) Amanita
Q.36 The pathoens for leaf spot disease in Arachis hypogea is [KCET 2007]
(1) Fusarium (2) Cercosporia (3) Alternaria (4) Heminthosphorium
Q.37 Which of these is follose lichen [Pb. PMT 2008]
(1) Cladonia (2) Graphs (3) Parmeia (4) Lecanora
Q.38 The athlete's foot disease in humans is caused due to [AMU 2009]
(1) bacteria (2) fungi (3) virus (4) none of the above
Q.39 Sexual reproduction in fungi may occur by means of [AMU 2009]
(1) sporangiospore, oospore and ascospore
(2) zoospore, oospore and ascospore
(3) sporangiospore, ascospore and basidiospore
(4) oospore, ascospore, basidiospore
Q.40 Lichens growing on tree bark are called
(1) Lignicolour (2) Terricolous (3) Corticolous (4) Saxicolous
Q.41 Common mycobionts and phycobionts of lichen body are respectively
(1) Ascomycetes, Chlorophyceae (2) Ascomycetes, Cyanophyceae
(3) Basidiomycetes, Chlorophyceae (4) Basidiomycetes, Cyanophyceae
Q.42 Foliose lichhens are attached to the substratum at one or few places with the help of
(1) Branched, multicellular rhizoids (2) Holdfast
(3) Rhizines (4) Rhizomorph
Q.43 Specialised structure in the thallus of lichen for nitrogen fixation and retaining moisture is
(1) Cyphellae (2) Isidia (3) Cephalodia (4) Soredia
Q.44 Which of the following feature is not related with virus ?
(1) Infectivity and host specificity (2) Presence of genetic material
(3) Occurrence of certain enzymes (4) Presence of respiration
Q.45 Most of the viruses are/ have
(1) Enveloped nucleo-protein structure (2) Non-enveloped nucleo-protein structure
(3) Infectious protein particles (4) Double stranded DNA as well as dsRNA
Q.46 Infectious RNA particles without protein coat
(1) Have high molecular weight (2) Were discovered by Alper
(3) Known to cause disease in plants only (4) More than one option is correct
Q.47 Pigment-containing membranous extensions in some cyanobacteria are : [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Basal bodies (2) Pneumatophores (3) Chromatophores (4) Heterocysts
Q.48 Select the wrong statement: [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Anisogametes differ either in structure, function or behaviour
(2) In Oomycetes female gamete is smaller and motile, while male gamete is larger and non -
motile
(3) Chlamydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy and Fucus shows oogamy
(4) Isogametes are similar in structure, function and behaviour
Q.49 Read the following statements (A-E) and answer the question which follows them.
(A) In liverworts, mosses, and ferns gametophytes are free-living
(B) Gymnosperms and some ferns are heterosporous.
(C) Sexual reproduction in Fucus, Volvox and Albugo is oogamous
(D) The sporophyte in liverworts is more elaborate than that in mosses
(E) Both, Pinus and Marchantia are dioecious
How many of the above statements are correct? [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Two (2) Three (3) Four (4) One
Q.50 Which of the following are likely to be present in deep sea water? [AIPMT 2013]
(1) Eubacteria (2) Blue-green algae
(3) Saprophytic fungi (4) Archaebacteria
Q.51 The motile bacteria are able to move by : [AIPMT 2014]
(1) cilia (2) pili (3) fimbriae (4) flagella
Q.52 A location with luxuriant growth of lichens on the trees indicates that the: [AIPMT 2014]
(1) location is highly polluted (2) location is not polluted
(3) trees are very healthy (4) trees are heavily infested

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74 Biological Classification

Q.53 Five kingdom system of classification sugested by R.H. Whittaker is not based on :
[AIPMT 2014]
(1) Mode of nutrition
(2) Complexity of body orgnisation
(3) Presence of absence of a well defined nucleus.
(4) Mode of reproduction.
Q.54 Archaebacteria differ from eubacteria in : [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Cell shape (2) Mode of reproduction
(1) Cell membrane structure (4) Mode of nutrition
Q.55 Viruses have : [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Single chromosome (2) Both DNA and RNA
(3) DNA enclosed in a protein coat (4) Prokaryotic nucleus
Q.56 Which one of the following fungi contains hallucinogens? [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Neurospora sp. (2) Ustilago sp.
(3) Morchella esculenta (4) Amanita muscaria
Q.57 Which of the following shows coiled RNA strand and capsomeres? [AIPMT 2014]
(1) Measles virus (2) Retrovirus (3) Poliovirus (4) Tobacco mosaic virus
Q.58 Which one of the following is not an inclusion body found in prokaryotes ? [AIPMT 2015]
(1) Cyanophycean granule (2) Glycogen granule
(3) Polysome (4) Phosphate granule
Q.59 One of the major components of cell wall of most fungi is : [AIPMT 2016]
(1) Hemicelluloses (2) Chitin (3) Peptidoglycan (4) Cellulose
Q.60 Which one of the following statements is wrong ? [AIPMT 2016]
(1) Phycomycetes are also called algal fungi.
(2) Cyanobacteria are also called blue-green algae.
(3) Golden algae are also called desmids.
(4) Eubacteria are also called false bacteria.
Q.61 Chrysophytes, Euglenoids, Dinoflagellates and slime moulds are included in the kingdom:
[AIPMT 2016]
(1) Animalia (2) Monera (3) Protista (4) Fungi
Q.62 Which one of the following is wrong for fungi? [AIPMT 2016]
(1) They are both unicellular and multicellular.
(2) They are eukaryotic.
(3) All fungi possess a purely cellulosic cell wall.
(4) They are heterotrophic
Q.63 Methanogens belong to [AIPMT 2016]
(1) Slime moulds (2) Eubacteria (3) Archaebacteria (4) Dinoflagellates
Q.64 Select the wrong statement. [AIPMT 2016]
(1) Diatoms are microscopic and float passively in water.
(2) The walls of diatoms are easily destructible.
(3) 'Diatomaceous earth' is formed by the cell walls of diatoms.
(4) Diatoms are chief producers in the oceans.
Q.65 An example of colonial alga is [AIPMT 2017]
(1) Chlorella (2) Volvox (3) Ulothrix (4) Spirogyra
Q.66 Select the mismatch : [AIPMT 2017]
(1) Frankia - Alnus (2) Rhodospirillum - Mycorrhiza
(3) Anabaena - nitrogen fixer (4) Rhizobium - Alfalfa
Q.67 Which of the following components provides sticky character to the bacterial cell ?
[AIPMT 2017]
(1) Cell wall (2) Nuclear membrane
(3) plasma membrane (4) Glycocalyx
Q.68 Life cycle of Ectocarpus and fucus respectively are : [AIPMT 2017]
(1) Haplontic, Diplontic (2) Diplontic, Haplodiplontic
(3) Haplodiplontic, Diplontic (4) Haplodiplontic, Haplontic
Q.69 Which of the following is the correct scientific name of wheat derived by binominal nomenclature?
(1) Triticum Vulgare (2) Triticum aestivum (3) Oryza sativa (4) Zea mays

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75 Biological Classification

Q.70 Yeast is not included in protozoans but in fungi because [AIIMS 2016]
(1) it has chlorophyll
(2) it shows saprotrophic mode of nutrition
(3) it has eukaryotic organization
(4) cell wall is made up of cellulose and reserve food materials as starch.
Q.71 Identify the labeled part in the given figure and select the correct option. [AIIMS 2016]

(1) A - Heterocyst ; B - Mucilaginous sheath

(2) A - Mucilaginous; B - Heterocyst
(3) A - Heterocyst ; B - Capsid
(4) A - Pseudopoida ; B - Mucilaginous sheath
Q.72 Assertion : In Pleuraobrachia, eight comb like ciliary plates called comb plates are present on the body that help
in locomotion. [AIIMS 2016]
Reason : Pleurobrachia reproduces sexually and its life cycle includes cydippid larva.
(1) If both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(4) If both assertion and reason are false.
Q.73 Assertion : TMV is a virus which causes mosaic disease. [AIIMS 2017]
Reason : TMV has RNA as genetic material.
(1) If both assertion and reason are true and reason is the correct explanation of assertion.
(2) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of assertion.
(3) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(4) If both assertion and reason are false.
Q.74 Fungi are filamentous with the exception of "X" which is unicellular. Identify X.
[AIIMS 2017]
(1) Yeast (2) Albugo (3) Mucor (4) Lichen
Q.75 Which of the following statements is not correct for viruses? [AIIMS 2017]
(1) Viruses are obligate parasites.
(2) Viruses can multiply only when they are inside the living cells.
(3) Viruses cannot pass through bacterial filters.
(4) Viruses are made up of protein and DNA or RNA (never both DNA and RNA).
Q.76 Which of the following statements regarding cyanobacteria is incorrect? [AIIMS 2017]
(1) It is also called blue green algae.
(2) They are chemosynthetic autotrophs.
(3) It forms blooms in polluted water bodies.
(4) It is unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial bacteria.

ANSWER KEY

Q.1 1 Q.2 3 Q.3 2 Q.4 3 Q.5 2 Q.6 4 Q.7 2

Q.8 1 Q.9 Q.10 1 Q.11 2 Q.12 4 Q.13 1 Q.14 1
Q.15 4 Q.16 3 Q.17 1 Q.18 2 Q.19 2 Q.20 1 Q.21 2
Q.22 1 Q.23 5 Q.24 4 Q.25 1 Q.26 1 Q.27 4 Q.28 2
Q.29 4 Q.30 2 Q.31 4 Q.32 1 Q.33 1 Q.34 2 Q.35 1
Q.36 2 Q.37 3 Q.38 2 Q.39 4 Q.40 3 Q.41 1 Q.42 3
Q.43 3 Q.44 4 Q.45 2 Q.46 3 Q.47 3 Q.48 2 Q.49 2
Q.50 4 Q.51 4 Q.52 2 Q.53 3 Q.54 3 Q.55 3 Q.56 4
Q.57 4 Q.58 3 Q.59 2 Q.60 4 Q.61 3 Q.62 3 Q.63 3

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76 Biological Classification

Q.64 2 Q.65 2 Q.66 2 Q.67 4 Q.68 3 Q.69 2 Q.70 2

Q.71 1 Q.72 2 Q.73 1 Q.74 1 Q.75 3 Q.76 2

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77 Biological Classification

EXERCISE – 3 AIIMS Special Questions

Assertion–Reason Type Questions

In the following questions, a statement of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason (R).
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion, then mark (1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
Q.1 A : Cellular slime moulds have the characters of both plants and animals.
R : Reproductive phase is animal like and vegetative phase is plant like.
Q.2 A : Outer membrane is present in Rhizobium.
R : Outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharides.
Q.3 A : Lichens do not grow in polluted area having SO2.
R : Lichens secrete carbonic acid and oxalic acid on barren rocks.
Q.4 A : Secondary mycelium of Agaricus is binuclealed.
R : Secondary mycelium is formed by somatogamy of primary mycelium.
Q.5 A : CypheUae help to retain moisture in lichens.
R : It contains large number of hyaline cells.
Q.6 A : Unicellular eukaryoles are included in Monera.
R : Unicellular eukaryotes have 70S cytoribosomes.
Q.7 A : Lamellasome connects nucleoid to cell membrane.
R : Lamellasome is present in oxyphotobacteria.
Q.8 A : Pseudomonas fluorescense is cephalotrichous bacteria.
R : It is helpful in retting of fibres.
Q.9 A : MLOs are pleomorphic and non-motile monerans.
R : They are resistant to antibiotics like penicillin.
Q.10 A : Gram positive bacteria detect and respond to chemicals by lipopolysaccharides.
R : They have high amount of porins and lipidS which act as antigen.
Q.11 A : Holophytic protistans are important phytoplanktons and they contribute 80% of the total photosynthesis.
R : They lack chemosynthetic nutrition and utilize non sulphur organic compound as the source of electron and
proton in carbon assimilation.
Q.12 A : Sexual spores in pink mould are meiospores produced endogenously.
R : They develop flask shaped fruiting txx:ty in sexual life cycle.
Q.13 A : Azotodesmic lichens are biofertilisers enriching nitrogen contents in soil.
R : This ability is due to the presence of heterocystous blue-green algae as phycobiont component.
Q.14 A : Viroids are not included in five kingdom system.
R : They are acellular.
Q.15 A : Viruses which infect animals generally possess ssRNA or dsRNA or dsDNA.
R : Phytophagineae generally contain dsDNA.

ANSWER KEY

Q.1 (3) Q.2 (2) Q.3 (2) Q.4 (1) Q.5 (4) Q.6 (4) Q.7 (2)
Q.8 (2) Q.9 (2) Q.10 (4) Q.11 (3) Q.12 (2) Q.13 (1) Q.14 (1)
Q.15 (3)

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