CHAPTER 17

SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

Questions

11. Living organisms need an external source of energy to carry out these processes. Green plants
use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water by
photosynthesis. In the human body, the energy released from the metabolism of glucose helps
drive the synthesis of proteins. For all processes combined, ∆Suniv must be greater than zero
(the second law).

12. Dispersion increases the entropy of the universe because the more widely something is
dispersed, the greater the disorder. We must do work to overcome this disorder. In terms of
the second law, it would be more advantageous to prevent contamination of the environment
rather than to clean it up later. As a substance disperses, we have a much larger area that must
be decontaminated.

13. As a process occurs, ∆Suniv will increase; ∆Suniv cannot decrease. Time, like ∆Suniv, only goes
in one direction.

14. This reaction is kinetically slow but thermodynamically favorable (∆G < 0). Thermodynam-
ics only tells us if a reaction can occur. To answer the question will it occur, one also needs to
consider the kinetics (speed of reaction). The ultraviolet light provides the activation energy
for this slow reaction to occur.

15. Possible arrangements for one molecule:

1 way 1 way

Both are equally probable.

Possible arrangements for two molecules:

1 way 2 ways, 1 way

most probable

655
656 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

Possible arrangement for three molecules:

1 way 3 ways 3 ways 1 way

equally most probable

16. ∆Ssurr = !∆H/T; heat flow (∆H) into or out of the system dictates ∆Ssurr. If heat flows into the
surroundings, the random motions of the surroundings increase, and the entropy of the sur-
roundings increases. The opposite is true when heat flows from the surroundings into the
system (an endothermic reaction). Although the driving force described here really results
from the change in entropy of the surroundings, it is often described in terms of energy.
Nature tends to seek the lowest possible energy.

17. Note that these substances are not in the solid state but are in the aqueous state; water
molecules are also present. There is an apparent increase in ordering when these ions are
placed in water as compared to the separated state. The hydrating water molecules must be in
a highly ordered arrangement when surrounding these anions.

18. ∆GE = !RT ln K = ∆HE ! T∆SE; HX(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + X−(aq) Ka reaction; the value of
Ka for HF is less than one, while the other hydrogen halide acids have Ka > 1. In terms of
∆GE, HF must have a positive ∆G orxn value, while the other HX acids have ∆G°rxn < 0. The
reason for the sign change in the Ka value, between HF versus HCl, HBr, and HI is entropy.
∆S for the dissociation of HF is very large and negative. There is a high degree of ordering
that occurs as the water molecules associate (hydrogen bond) with the small F− ions. The
entropy of hydration strongly opposes HF dissociating in water, so much so that it
overwhelms the favorable hydration energy making HF a weak acid.

19. One can determine ∆SE and ∆HE for the reaction using the standard entropies and standard
enthalpies of formation in Appendix 4; then use the equation ∆GE = ∆HE ! T∆SE. One can
also use the standard free energies of formation in Appendix 4. And finally, one can use
Hess’s law to calculate ∆GE. Here, reactions having known ∆GE values are manipulated to
determine ∆GE for a different reaction.

For temperatures other than 25EC, ∆GE is estimated using the ∆GE = ∆HE ! T∆SE equation.
The assumptions made are that the ∆HE and ∆SE values determined from Appendix 4 data are
temperature-independent. We use the same ∆HE and ∆SE values as determined when T =
25EC; then we plug in the new temperature in Kelvin into the equation to estimate ∆GE at the
new temperature.

20. The sign of ∆G tells us if a reaction is spontaneous or not at whatever concentrations are
present (at constant T and P). The magnitude of ∆G equals wmax. When ∆G < 0, the
magnitude tells us how much work, in theory, could be harnessed from the reaction. When
∆G > 0, the magnitude tells us the minimum amount of work that must be supplied to make
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 657

the reaction occur. ∆GE gives us the same information only when the concentrations for all
reactants and products are at standard conditions (1 atm for gases, 1 M for solute). These
conditions rarely occur.

∆GE = !RT ln K; from this equation, one can calculate K for a reaction if ∆GE is known at
that temperature. Therefore, ∆GE gives the equilibrium position for a reaction. To determine
K at a temperature other than 25EC, one needs to know ∆GE at that temperature. We assume
∆HE and ∆SE are temperature-independent and use the equation ∆GE = ∆HE - T∆SE to
estimate ∆GE at the different temperature. For K = 1, we want ∆GE = 0, which occurs when
∆HE = T∆SE. Again, assume ∆HE and ∆SE are temperature-independent; then solve for T
(= ∆HE/∆SE). At this temperature, K = 1 because ∆GE = 0. This only works for reactions
where the signs of ∆HE and ∆SE are the same (either both positive or both negative). When
the signs are opposite, K will always be greater than 1 (when ∆HE is negative and ∆SE is
positive) or K will always be less than 1 (when ∆HE is positive and ∆SE is negative). When
the signs of ∆HE and ∆SE are opposite, K can never equal 1.

21. The light source for the first reaction is necessary for kinetic reasons. The first reaction is
just too slow to occur unless a light source is available. The kinetics of a reaction are
independent of the thermodynamics of a reaction. Even though the first reaction is more
favorable thermodynamically (assuming standard conditions), it is unfavorable for kinetic
reasons. The second reaction has a negative ∆G° value and is a fast reaction, so the second
reaction occurs very quickly. When considering if a reaction will occur, thermodynamics and
kinetics must both be considered.

22. Using Le Chatelier's principle, a decrease in pressure (volume increases) will favor the side
with the greater number of particles. Thus 2 I(g) will be favored at low pressure.

Looking at ∆G: ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln (PI2 / PI 2 ); ln(PI2 / PI 2 ) > 0 when PI = PI 2 = 10 atm and

∆G is positive (not spontaneous). But at PI = PI 2 = 0.10 atm, the logarithm term is negative.
If |RT ln Q| > ∆G°, then ∆G becomes negative, and the reaction is spontaneous.

Exercises

Spontaneity, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Free Energy

23. a, b, and c; from our own experiences, salt water, colored water, and rust form without any
outside intervention. It takes an outside energy source to clean a bedroom, so this process is
not spontaneous.

24. c and d; it takes an outside energy source to build a house and to launch and keep a satellite in
orbit, so these processes are not spontaneous.

25. We draw all the possible arrangements of the two particles in the three levels.
658 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

2 kJ x x xx
1 kJ x xx x
0 kJ xx x x __

Total E = 0 kJ 1 kJ 2 kJ 2 kJ 3 kJ 4 kJ

The most likely total energy is 2 kJ.

26. 2 kJ AB B A B A_
1 kJ AB B A A B_
0 kJ AB A B A B _

ET = 0 kJ 2 kJ 4 kJ 1 kJ 1 kJ 2 kJ 2 kJ 3 kJ 3 kJ

The most likely total energy is 2 kJ.

27. a. H2 at 100°C and 0.5 atm; higher temperature and lower pressure means greater volume
and hence larger positional probability.

b. N2 at STP has the greater volume.

c. H2O(l) has a larger positional probability than H2O(s).

28. Of the three phases (solid, liquid, and gas), solids are most ordered (have the smallest
positional probability) and gases are most disordered (have the largest positional probability).
Thus a , b, and f (melting, sublimation, and boiling) involve an increase in the entropy of the
system since going from a solid to a liquid or from a solid to a gas or from a liquid to a gas
increases disorder (increases positional probability). For freezing (process c), a substance
goes from the more disordered liquid state to the more ordered solid state; hence, entropy
decreases. Process d (mixing) involves an increase in disorder (an increase in positional
probability), while separation (phase e) increases order (decreases positional probability). So,
of all the processes, a, b, d, and f result in an increase in the entropy of the system.

29. a. To boil a liquid requires heat. Hence this is an endothermic process. All endothermic
processes decrease the entropy of the surroundings (∆Ssurr is negative).

b. This is an exothermic process. Heat is released when gas molecules slow down enough to
form the solid. In exothermic processes, the entropy of the surroundings increases (∆Ssurr
is positive).

− ∆H − (−2221 kJ )
30. a. ∆Ssurr = = = 7.45 kJ/K = 7.45 × 103 J/K
T 298 K

− ∆H − 112 kJ
b. ∆Ssurr = = = !0.376 kJ/K = !376 J/K
T 298 K

31. ∆G = ∆H − T∆S; when ∆G is negative, then the process will be spontaneous.

CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 659

a. ∆G = ∆H ! T∆S = 25 × 103 J − (300. K)(5.0 J/K) = 24,000 J; not spontaneous

b. ∆G = 25,000 J ! (300. K)(100. J/K) = !5000 J; spontaneous

c. Without calculating ∆G, we know this reaction will be spontaneous at all temperatures.
∆H is negative and ∆S is positive (−T∆S < 0). ∆G will always be less than zero with
these sign combinations for ∆H and ∆S.

d. ∆G = −1.0 × 104 J ! (200. K)( −40. J/K) = !2000 J; spontaneous

32. ∆G = ∆H − T∆S; a process is spontaneous when ∆G < 0. For the following, assume ∆H and
∆S are temperature-independent.

a. When ∆H and ∆S are both negative, ∆G will be negative below a certain temperature
where the favorable ∆H term dominates. When ∆G = 0, then ∆H = T∆S. Solving for this
temperature:

∆H − 18,000 J
T= = = 3.0 × 102 K
∆S − 60. J / K
At T < 3.0 × 102 K, this process will be spontaneous (∆G < 0).

b. When ∆H and ∆S are both positive, ∆G will be negative above a certain temperature
where the favorable ∆S term dominates.

∆H 18,000 J
T= = = 3.0 × 102 K
∆S 60. J / K
At T > 3.0 × 102 K, this process will be spontaneous (∆G < 0).

c. When ∆H is positive and ∆S is negative, this process can never be spontaneous at any
temperature because ∆G can never be negative.

d. When ∆H is negative and ∆S is positive, this process is spontaneous at all temperatures

because ∆G will always be negative.

33. At the boiling point, ∆G = 0, so ∆H = T∆S.

∆H 27.5 kJ / mol
∆S = = = 8.93 × 10 −2 kJ/KCmol = 89.3 J/KCmol
T ( 273 + 35) K
∆H 58.51 × 103 J/mol
34. At the boiling point, ∆G = 0, so ∆H = T∆S. T = = = 629.7 K
∆S 92.92 J/K • mol

35. a. NH3(s) → NH3(l); ∆G = ∆H − T∆S = 5650 J/mol − 200. K (28.9 J/KCmol)

∆G = 5650 J/mol − 5780 J/mol = T = −130 J/mol

Yes, NH3 will melt because ∆G < 0 at this temperature.

660 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

∆H 5650 J/mol
b. At the melting point, ∆G = 0, so T = = = 196 K.
∆S 28.9 J/K • mol

36. At the boiling point, ∆Suniv = 0 because the system is at equilibrium.

∆Suniv = 0 = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr, ∆Ssys = −∆Ssurr

Because we are at the boiling point, ∆G = 0. So:

∆H 31.4 × 103 J/mol

∆H = T∆S, ∆S = = = 93.8 J/K • mol
T (273.2 + 61.7) K

∆Ssys = −∆Ssurr (at the boiling point). So:

∆Ssurr = −∆Ssys = −93.8 J/KCmol

Chemical Reactions: Entropy Changes and Free Energy

37. a. Decrease in positional probability; ∆S°(!)

b. Increase in positional probability; ∆S°(+)

c. Decrease in positional probability (∆n < 0); ∆S°(!)

d. Increase in positional probability (∆n > 0); ∆S°(+)

For c and d, concentrate on the gaseous products and reactants. When there are more gaseous
product molecules than gaseous reactant molecules (∆n > 0), then ∆S° will be positive
(positional probability increases). When ∆n is negative, then ∆S° is negative (positional
probability decreases).

38. a. Decrease in positional probability (∆n < 0); ∆S°(!)

b. Decrease in positional probability (∆n < 0); ∆S°(!)

c. Increase in positional probability; ∆S°(+)

d. Increase in positional probability; ∆S°(+)

39. a. Cgraphite(s); diamond has a more ordered structure (has a smaller positional probability)
than graphite.

b. C2H5OH(g); the gaseous state is more disordered (has a larger positional probability)
than the liquid state.

c. CO2(g); the gaseous state is more disordered (has a larger positional probability) than the
solid state.
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 661

40. a. He (10 K); S = 0 at 0 K

b. N2O; more complicated molecule, so has the larger positional probability.

c. NH3(l); the liquid state is more disordered (has a larger positional probability) than the
solid state.

41. a. 2 H2S(g) + SO2(g) → 3 Srhombic(s) + 2 H2O(g); because there are more molecules of
reactant gases than product molecules of gas (∆n = 2 − 3 < 0), ∆S° will be negative.

∆S° = ∑ n pSoproducts − ∑ n rSoreactants

∆S° = [3 mol Srhombic(s) (32 J/KCmol) + 2 mol H2O(g) (189 J/KCmol)]

− [2 mol H2S(g) (206 J/KCmol) + 1 mol SO2(g) (248 J/KCmol)]

∆S° = 474 J/K − 660. J/K = −186 J/K

b. 2 SO3(g) → 2 SO2(g) + O2(g); because ∆n of gases is positive (∆n = 3 − 2), ∆S° will be
positive.

∆S = 2 mol(248 J/KCmol) + 1 mol(205 J/KCmol) − [2 mol(257 J/KCmol)] = 187 J/K

c. Fe2O3(s) + 3 H2(g) → 2 Fe(s) + 3 H2O(g); because ∆n of gases = 0 (∆n = 3 − 3), we

can’t easily predict if ∆S° will be positive or negative.

∆S = 2 mol(27 J/KCmol) + 3 mol(189 J/KCmol) −

[1 mol(90. J/KCmol) + 3 mol (141 J/KCmol)] = 138 J/K

42. a. H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) → H2O(l); since ∆n of gases is negative, ∆S° will be negative.

∆S° = 1 mol H2O(l) (70. J/KCmol) −

[1 mol H2(g) (131 J/KCmol) + 1/2 mol O2(g) (205 J/KCmol)]

∆S° = 70. J/K − 234 J/K = −164 J/K

b. 2 CH3OH(g) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g); because ∆n of gases is positive, ∆S°

will be positive.

[2 mol (214 J/KCmol) + 4 mol (189 J/KCmol)] −

[2 mol (240. J/KCmol) + 3 mol (205 J/KCmol)] = 89 J/K

c. HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq); the gaseous state dominates predictions of ∆S°. Here, the
gaseous state is more disordered than the ions in solution, so ∆S° will be negative.

∆S° = 1 mol H+(0) + 1 mol Cl−(57 J/KCmol) − 1 mol HCl(187 J/KCmol) = −130. J/K
662 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

43. C2H2(g) + 4 F2(g) → 2 CF4(g) + H2(g); ∆S° = 2 SoCF4 + SoH 2 − [SoC 2 H 2 + 4SoF2 ]

−358 J/K = (2 mol) SoCF4 + 131 J/K − [201 J/K + 4(203 J/K)], SoCF4 = 262 J/KCmol

o o
44. CS2(g) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g); ∆S° = SCO + 2SSO − [3SOo + SCS
o
]
2 2 2 2
o o
−143 J/K = 214 J/K + 2(248 J/K) − 3(205 J/K) − (1 mol) SCS , SCS = 238 J/K•mol
2 2

45. a. Srhombic → Smonoclinic; this phase transition is spontaneous (∆G < 0) at temperatures above
95°C. ∆G = ∆H ! T∆S; for ∆G to be negative only above a certain temperature, then ∆H
is positive and ∆S is positive (see Table 17.5 of text).

b. Because ∆S is positive, Srhombic is the more ordered crystalline structure (has the smaller
positional probability).

46. P4(s,α) → P4(s,β)

a. At T < −76.9°C, this reaction is spontaneous, and the sign of ∆G is (−). At −76.9°C, ∆G
= 0, and above −76.9 °C, the sign of ∆G is (+). This is consistent with ∆H (−) and ∆S (−).

b. Because the sign of ∆S is negative, the β form has the more ordered structure (has the
smaller positional probability).

47. a. When a bond is formed, energy is released, so ∆H is negative. There are more reactant
molecules of gas than product molecules of gas (∆n < 0), so ∆S will be negative.

b. ∆G = ∆H ! T∆S; for this reaction to be spontaneous (∆G < 0), the favorable enthalpy
term must dominate. The reaction will be spontaneous at low temperatures (at a
temperature below some number), where the ∆H term dominates.

48. Because there are more product gas molecules than reactant gas molecules (∆n > 0), ∆S will
be positive. From the signs of ∆H and ∆S, this reaction is spontaneous at all temperatures. It
will cost money to heat the reaction mixture. Because there is no thermodynamic reason to do
this, the purpose of the elevated temperature must be to increase the rate of the reaction, that
is, kinetic reasons.

49. a. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

_________________________________________________________

∆H of !75 kJ/mol 0 !393.5 !242

∆G of !51 kJ/mol 0 !394 !229 Data from Appendix 4

S° 186 J/KCmol 205 214 189
__________________________________________________________
∆H° = ∑ n p ∆H of, products − ∑ n r ∆H of, reactants ; ∆S° = ∑ n pSoproducts − ∑ n rSoreactants
∆H° = 2 mol(!242 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(!393.5 kJ/mol) ! [1 mol(!75 kJ/mol)] = !803 kJ
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 663

∆S° = 2 mol(189 J/K·mol) + 1 mol(214 J/KCmol)

! [1 mol(186 J/KCmol) + 2 mol(205 J/KCmol)] = !4 J/K

There are two ways to get ∆G°. We can use ∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° (be careful of units):
∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = -803 × 103 J ! (298 K)( !4 J/K) = !8.018 × 105 J = !802 kJ

or we can use ∆G of values, where ∆G° = ∑ n p ∆G of , products − ∑ n r ∆G of, reactants :

∆G° = 2 mol(!229 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(!394 kJ/mol) ! [1 mol(!51 kJ/mol)]
∆G° = !801 kJ (Answers are the same within round off error.)
b. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) → C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)
______________________________________________________
∆H of !393.5 kJ/mol !286 !1275 0
S° 214 J/KCmol 70. 212 205
______________________________________________________
∆H° = !1275 ! [6(!286) + 6(!393.5)] = 2802 kJ

∆S° = 6(205) + 212 ! [6(214) + 6(70.)] = !262 J/K

∆G° = 2802 kJ ! (298 K)( !0.262 kJ/K) = 2880. kJ

c. P4O10(s) + 6 H2O(l) → 4 H3PO4(s)

_____________________________________________
∆H of !2984 !286 !1279
(kJ/mol)
S° 229 70. 110.
(J/KCmol)
_____________________________________________
∆H° = 4 mol(!1279 kJ/mol) ! [1 mol(!2984 kJ/mol) + 6 mol(!286 kJ/mol)] = !416 kJ

∆S° = 4(110.) ! [229 + 6(70.)] = !209 J/K

∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = !416 kJ ! (298 K)( !0.209 kJ/K) = !354 kJ

d. HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)

___________________________________________
∆H of !92 !46 !314
(kJ/mol)
S° (J/KCmol) 187 193 96
____________________________________________________________________

∆H° = !314 ! [!92 ! 46] = !176 kJ; ∆S° = 96 ! [187 + 193] = !284 J/K

∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = !176 kJ ! (298 K)( !0.284 kJ/K) = !91 kJ

664 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

50. a. ∆H° = 2(!46 kJ) = !92 kJ; ∆S° = 2(193 J/K) ! [3(131 J/K) + 192 J/K] = !199 J/K

∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = !92 kJ ! 298 K(!0.199 kJ/K) = !33 kJ

b. ∆G° is negative, so this reaction is spontaneous at standard conditions.

∆H o − 92 kJ
c. ∆G° = 0 when T = = = 460 K
∆S o
− 0.199 kJ / K
At T < 460 K and standard pressures (1 atm), the favorable ∆H° term dominates, and the
reaction is spontaneous (∆G° < 0).

51. ∆G° = !58.03 kJ ! (298 K)( !0.1766 kJ/K) = !5.40 kJ

∆H o − 58.03 kJ
∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°, T = = = 328.6 K
∆S o
− 0.1766 kJ / K

∆G° is negative below 328.6 K, where the favorable ∆H° term dominates.

52. H2O(l) → H2O(g); ∆G° = 0 at the boiling point of water at 1 atm and 100.EC.
∆H o 40.6 × 103 J / mol
∆H° = T∆S°, ∆S° = = = 109 J/KCmol
T 373 K
At 90.EC: ∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = 40.6 kJ/mol – (363 K)(0.109 kJ/KCmol) = 1.0 kJ/mol

As expected, ∆G° > 0 at temperatures below the boiling point of water at 1 atm (process is
nonspontaneous).

At 110.EC: ∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S° = 40.6 kJ/mol – (383 K)(0.109 J/KCmol) = !1.1 kJ/mol

When ∆G° < 0, the boiling of water is spontaneous at 1 atm, and T > 100.EC (as expected).

53. CH4(g) → 2 H2(g) + C(s) ∆G° = !(!51 kJ)

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) ∆G° = !474 kJ)
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆G° = !394 kJ
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + CO2(g) ∆G° = !817 kJ

54. 6 C(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) ∆G° = 6(!394 kJ)

3 H2(g) + 3/2 O2(g) → 3 H2O(l) ∆G° = 3(!237 kJ)
6 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) → C6H6(l) + 15/2 O2(g) ∆G° = !1/2 (!6399 kJ)
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

6 C(s) + 3 H2(g) → C6H6(l) ∆G° = 125 kJ

55. ∆G° = ∑ n p ∆G of , products − ∑ n r ∆G of, reactants , !374 kJ = !1105 kJ ! ∆G of , SF4

∆G of , SF4 = !731 kJ/mol

CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 665

56. !5490. kJ = 8(!394 kJ) + 10(!237 kJ) ! 2 ∆G fo, C 4 H10 , ∆G fo, C 4 H10 = !16 kJ/mol

57. a. ∆G° = 2 mol(0) + 3 mol(−229 kJ/mol) − [1 mol(−740. kJ/mol) + 3 mol(0)] = 53 kJ

b. Because ∆G° is positive, this reaction is not spontaneous at standard conditions and
298 K.
∆H o − ∆G o 100. kJ − 53 kJ
c. ∆G° = ∆H° − T∆S°, ∆S° = = = 0.16 kJ/K
T 298 K

We need to solve for the temperature when ∆G° = 0:

∆H o 100. kJ
∆G° = 0 = ∆H° − T∆S°, ∆H° = T∆S°, T = o
= = 630 K
∆S 0.16 kJ/K

This reaction will be spontaneous (∆G < 0) at T > 630 K, where the favorable entropy
term will dominate.

58. a. ∆G° = 2(!270. kJ) ! 2(!502 kJ) = 464 kJ

b. Because ∆G° is positive, this reaction is not spontaneous at standard conditions at

298 K.

c. ∆G° = ∆H° ! T∆S°, ∆H° = ∆G° + T∆S° = 464 kJ + 298 K(0.179 kJ/K) = 517 kJ

We need to solve for the temperature when ∆G° = 0:

∆H o 517 kJ
∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°, T = o
= = 2890 K
∆S 0.179 kJ / K
This reaction will be spontaneous at standard conditions (∆G° < 0) when T > 2890 K.
Here the favorable entropy term will dominate.

Free Energy: Pressure Dependence and Equilibrium

PNO 2 × PO 2
59. ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln Q; for this reaction: ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln
PNO × PO3

∆G° = 1 mol(52 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(0) ! [1 mol(87 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(163 kJ/mol)] = !198 kJ

8.3145 J/K • mol (1.00 × 10 −7 ) (1.00 × 10 −3 )

∆G = !198 kJ + (298 K ) ln
1000 J/kJ (1.00 × 10 −6 ) (1.00 × 10 −6 )

∆G = !198 kJ + 9.69 kJ = !188 kJ

60. ∆G° = 3(0) + 2(!229) ! [2(-34) + 1(!300.)] = !90. kJ

666 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

PH2 O (8.3145) (298) ⎡ (0.030) 2 ⎤

∆G = ∆G° + RT ln 2
= !90. kJ + kJ ⎢ln −4 ⎥
PH2 S × PSO 2 1000 ⎣ (1.0 × 10 ) (0.010) ⎦
2

∆G = !90. kJ + 39.7 kJ = !50. kJ

PN 2O 4
61. ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln Q = ∆G° + RT ln 2
PNO 2

∆G° = 1 mol(98 kJ/mol) ! 2 mol(52 kJ/mol) = !6 kJ

a. These are standard conditions, so ∆G = ∆G° because Q = 1 and ln Q = 0. Because ∆G° is

negative, the forward reaction is spontaneous. The reaction shifts right to reach equili-
brium.

0.50
b. ∆G = !6 × 103 J + 8.3145 J/KCmol (298 K) ln
(0.21) 2

∆G = !6 × 103 J + 6.0 × 103 J = 0

Because ∆G = 0, this reaction is at equilibrium (no shift).

1.6
c. ∆G = !6 × 103 J + 8.3145 J/KCmol (298 K) ln
(0.29) 2

∆G = !6 × 103 J + 7.3 × 103 J = 1.3 × 103 J = 1 × 103 J

Because ∆G is positive, the reverse reaction is spontaneous, and the reaction shifts to the
left to reach equilibrium.

2
PNH
62. a. ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln 3
; ∆G° = 2 ∆G of , NH 3 = 2(!17) = !34 kJ
PN 2 × PH2 2

(8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K) (50.) 2

∆G = !34 kJ + ln
1000 J/kJ (200.) (200.)3

∆G = !34 kJ ! 33 kJ = !67 kJ

(8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K) (200.) 2

b. ∆G = !34 kJ ln
1000 J/kJ (200.) (600.)3

∆G = !34 kJ ! 34.4 kJ = !68 kJ

63. NO(g) + O3(g) ⇌ NO2(g) + O2(g); ∆G° = Σn p ∆G of, products − Σn r ∆G of, reactants
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 667

∆G° = 1 mol(52 kJ/mol) − [1 mol(87 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(163 kJ/mol)] = −198 kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − (−1.98 × 105 J ) ⎤
∆G° = −RT ln K, K = exp = exp ⎢ ⎥ = e
79.912
= 5.07 × 1034
RT ⎣⎢ 8.3145 J/K • mol(298 K) ⎦⎥
Note: When determining exponents, we will round off after the calculation is complete. This
helps eliminate excessive round off error.

64. ∆G° = 2 mol(−229 kJ/mol) − [2 mol(−34 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(−300. kJ/mol)] = −90. kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − (−9.0 × 10 4 J ) ⎤
K = exp = exp ⎢ ⎥ =e
36.32
= 5.9 × 1015
RT ⎣⎢ 8.3145 J/K • mol(298 K) ⎦⎥
Because there is a decrease in the number of moles of gaseous particles, ∆S° is negative.
Because ∆G° is negative, ∆H° must be negative. The reaction will be spontaneous at low
temperatures (the favorable ∆H° term dominates at low temperatures).

65. At 25.0°C: ∆G° = ∆H° − T∆S° = −58.03 × 103 J/mol − (298.2 K)(−176.6 J/KCmol)
= −5.37 × 103 J/mol
− ∆G o ⎡ − (−5.37 × 103 J / mol) ⎤
∆G° = −RT ln K, ln K = = exp ⎢ ⎥ = 2.166
RT ⎢⎣ (8.3145 J/K • mol) (298.2 K) ⎥⎦
K = e2.166 = 8.72

At 100.0°C: ∆G° = −58.03 × 103 J/mol − (373.2 K)(−176.6 J/KCmol) = 7.88 × 103 J/mol

− (7.88 × 103 J/mol)

ln K = = −2.540, K = e-2.540 = 0.0789
(8.3145 J/K • mol) (373.2 K)
Note: When determining exponents, we will round off after the calculation is complete. This
helps eliminate excessive round off error.

66. a. ∆G° = 3(191.2) − 78.2 = 495.4 kJ; ∆H° = 3(241.3) − 132.8 = 591.1 kJ

∆H o − ∆G o 591.1 kJ − 495.4 kJ
∆S° = = = 0.321 kJ/K = 321 J/K
T 298 K
− ∆G o − 495,400 J
b. ∆G° = −RT ln K, ln K = = = −199.942
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol(298 K)
K = e−199.942 = 1.47 × 10−87

c. Assuming ∆H° and ∆S° are temperature-independent:

o
∆G 3000 = 591.1 kJ − 3000. K(0.321 kJ/K) = −372 kJ

− (−372,000 J)
ln K = = 14.914, K = e14.914 = 3.00 × 106
8.3145 J/K • mol(3000. K)
668 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

67. When reactions are added together, the equilibrium constants are multiplied together to
determine the K value for the final reaction.

H2(g) +O2(g) ⇌ H2O2(g) K = 2.3 × 106

H2O(g) ⇌ H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) K = (1.8 × 1037)−1/2
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

H2O(g) + 1/2O2(g) ⇌ H2O2(g) K = 2.3 × 106(1.8 × 10−37) −1/2 = 5.4 × 10 −13

∆G° = −RT ln K = −8.3145 J/KCmol (600. K) ln(5.4 × 10 −13 ) = 1.4 × 105 J/mol = 140 kJ/mol

68. a. ∆H of (kJ/mol) S° (J/KCmol)

NH3(g) −46 193

O2(g) 0 205
NO(g) 90. 211
H2O(g) −242 189
NO2(g) 34 240.
HNO3(l) −174 156
H2O(l) −286 70.

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

∆H° = 6(−242) + 4(90.) − [4(−46)] = −908 kJ

∆S° = 4(211) + 6(189) − [4(193) + 5(205)] = 181 J/K

∆G° = −908 kJ − 298 K (0.181 kJ/K) = −962 kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − (−962 × 103 J) ⎤
∆G° = − RT ln K, ln K = = ⎢ ⎥ = 388
RT ⎣⎢ 8.3145 J/K • mol × 298 K ⎦⎥
ln K = 2.303 log K, log K = 168, K = 10168 (an extremely large number)

2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2(g)

∆H° = 2(34) − [2(90.)] = −112 kJ; ∆S° = 2(240.) − [2(211) + (205)] = −147 J/K

∆G° = −112 kJ − (298 K)( −0.147 kJ/K) = −68 kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − (−68,000 J) ⎤
K = exp = exp ⎢ ⎥= e
27.44
= 8.3 × 1011
RT ⎣ 8.3145 J/K • mol (298 K) ⎦
Note: When determining exponents, we will round off after the calculation is complete.

3 NO2(g) + H2O(l) → 2 HNO3(l) + NO(g)

∆H° = 2(−174) + (90.) − [3(34) + (−286)] = −74 kJ

∆S° = 2(156) + (211) − [3(240.) + (70.)] = −267 J/K

CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 669

∆G° = −74 kJ − (298 K)( −0.267 kJ/K) = 6 kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − 6000 J ⎤
K = exp = exp ⎢ −2.4
⎥ = e = 9 × 10
−2
RT ⎣ 8.3145 J/K • mol (298 K) ⎦

b. ∆G° = −RT ln K; T = 825°C = (825 + 273) K = 1098 K; we must determine ∆G°

at 1098 K.

o
∆G1098 = ∆H° − T∆S° = −908 kJ − (1098 K)(0.181 kJ/K) = −1107 kJ

− ∆G o ⎡ − (−1.107 × 106 J) ⎤
K = exp = exp ⎢ ⎥ = e
121.258
= 4.589 × 1052
RT ⎢⎣ 8.3145 J/K • mol (1098 K) ⎥⎦

c. There is no thermodynamic reason for the elevated temperature because ∆H° is negative
and ∆S° is positive. Thus the purpose for the high temperature must be to increase the
rate of the reaction.
2
PNF (0.48) 2
69. K= 3
= = 4.4 × 104
PN 2 × PF32 0.021(0.063) 3

o
∆G 800 = −RT ln K = −8.3145 J/KCmol (800. K) ln (4.4 × 104) = −7.1 × 104 J/mol =
−71 kJ/mol

70. 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g); ∆G° = 2(−371 kJ) − [2(−300. kJ)] = −142 kJ

− ∆G o − (−142.000 J)
∆G° = −RT ln K, ln K = = = 57.311
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol (298 K)

K = e57.311 = 7.76 × 1024

2
PSO (2.0) 2
K = 7.76 × 10 = 24
2
3
= 2
, PSO 2 = 1.0 × 10 −12 atm
PSO 2
× PO 2 PSO 2 × (0.50)

From the negative value of ∆G°, this reaction is spontaneous at standard conditions. There
are more molecules of reactant gases than product gases, so ∆S° will be negative
(unfavorable). Therefore, this reaction must be exothermic (∆H° < 0). When ∆H° and ∆S°
are both negative, the reaction will be spontaneous at relatively low temperatures where the
favorable ∆H° term dominates.

− ∆H o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ∆So
71. The equation ln K = ⎜ ⎟+ is in the form of a straight line equation
R ⎝T⎠ R
(y = mx + b). A graph of ln K versus 1/T will yield a straight line with slope = m = !∆H°/R
and a y intercept = b = ∆S°/R.
670 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

From the plot:

∆y 0 − 40.
slope = = = −1.3 × 104 K
∆x 3.0 × 10 −3 K −1 − 0

−1.3 × 104 K = −∆H°/R, ∆H° = 1.3 × 104 K × 8.3145 J/KCmol = 1.1 × 105 J/mol

y intercept = 40. = ∆S°/R, ∆S° = 40. × 8.3145 J/KCmol = 330 J/KCmol

As seen here, when ∆H° is positive, the slope of the ln K versus 1/T plot is negative. When
∆H° is negative as in an exothermic process, then the slope of the ln K versus 1/T plot will be
positive (slope = −∆H°/R).

72. The ln K versus 1/T plot gives a straight line with slope = !∆HE/R and y intercept = ∆SE/R.

1.352 × 104 K = !∆HE/R, ∆HE = !(8.3145 J/KCmol) (1.352 × 104 K)

∆HE = !1.124 × 105 J/mol = !112.4 kJ/mol

!14.51 = ∆SE/R, ∆SE = (!14.51)(8.3145 J/KCmol) = !120.6 J/KCmol

Note that the signs for ∆H° and ∆S° make sense. When a bond forms, ∆H° < 0 and ∆S° < 0.

Connecting to Biochemistry

73. It appears that the sum of the two processes has no net change. This is not so. By the second
law of thermodynamics, ∆Suniv must have increased even though it looks as if we have gone
through a cyclic process.

74. The introduction of mistakes is an effect of entropy. The purpose of redundant information is
to provide a control to check the "correctness" of the transmitted information.

75. CH4(g) + CO2(g) → CH3CO2H(l)

∆H° = −484 − [−75 + (−393.5)] = −16 kJ; ∆S° = 160. − (186 + 214) = −240. J/K

∆G° = ∆H° − T∆S° = −16 kJ − (298 K)(−0.240 kJ/K) = 56 kJ

At standard concentrations, where ∆G = ∆G°, this reaction is spontaneous only at

temperatures below T = ∆H°/∆S° = 67 K (where the favorable ∆H° term will dominate,
giving a negative ∆G° value). This is not practical. Substances will be in condensed phases
and rates will be very slow at this extremely low temperature.

CH3OH(g) + CO(g) → CH3CO2H(l)

∆H° = −484 − [−110.5 + (−201)] = −173 kJ; ∆S° = 160. − (198 + 240.) = −278 J/K

∆G° = −173 kJ − (298 K)(−0.278 kJ/K) = −90. kJ

CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 671

This reaction also has a favorable enthalpy and an unfavorable entropy term. This reaction is
spontaneous at temperatures below T = ∆H°/∆S° = 622 K (assuming standard con-
centrations). The reaction of CH3OH and CO will be preferred at standard conditions. It is
spontaneous at high enough temperatures that the rates of reaction should be reasonable.

76. C2H5OH(l) → C2H5OH(g); at the boiling point, ∆G = 0 and ∆Suniv = 0. For the vaporization
process, ∆S is a positive value, whereas ∆H is a negative value. To calculate ∆Ssys, we will
determine ∆Ssurr from ∆H and the temperature; then ∆Ssys = !∆Ssurr for a system at equili-
brium.

− ∆H 38.7 × 103 J/mol

∆Ssurr = = = !110. J/KCmol
T 351 K

∆Ssys = !∆Ssurr = !(!110.) = 110. J/KCmol

77. HgbO2 → Hgb + O2 ∆G° = − (−70 kJ)

Hgb + CO → HgbCO ∆G° = −80 kJ
_________________________________________
HgbO2 + CO → HgbCO + O2 ∆G° = −10 kJ

⎛ − ∆G o ⎞ ⎡ − (−10 × 103 J) ⎤
∆G° = −RT ln K, K = exp ⎜ ⎟ = exp ⎢ ⎥ = 60
⎜ RT ⎟ ⎢ (8.3145 J/K • mol)(298 K) ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠ ⎣

⎛ [K + ] ⎞
78. K+(blood) ⇌ K+(muscle) ∆G° = 0; ∆G = RT ln ⎜⎜ + m ⎟ ; ∆G = wmax
⎟
⎝ [ K ]b ⎠

8.3145 J ⎛ 0.15 ⎞ 3
∆G = (310. K) ln ⎜ ⎟ , ∆G = 8.8 × 10 J/mol = 8.8 kJ/mol
K mol ⎝ 0.0050 ⎠

At least 8.8 kJ of work must be applied to transport 1 mol K+.

Other ions will have to be transported in order to maintain electroneutrality. Either anions
must be transported into the cells, or cations (Na+) in the cell must be transported to the
blood. The latter is what happens: [Na+] in blood is greater than [Na+] in cells as a result of
this pumping.

8.8 kJ 1 mol ATP

+
× = 0.29 mol ATP
mol K 30.5 kJ

⎡ − (−30,500 J) ⎤ 5
79. a. ∆G° = −RT ln K, K = exp ⎢ ⎥ = 2.22 × 10
⎣ 8.3145 J/K • mol × 298 K ⎦
b. C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) → 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)

∆G° = 6 mol(−394 kJ/mol) + 6 mol(−237 kJ/mol) − 1 mol(−911 kJ/mol) = −2875 kJ

672 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

2875 kJ 1 mol ATP

× = 94.3 mol ATP; 94.3 molecules ATP/molecule glucose
mol glucose 30.5 kJ

This is an overstatement. The assumption that all the free energy goes into this reaction
is false. Actually, only 38 moles of ATP are produced by metabolism of 1 mole of
glucose.
c. From Exercise 17.78, ∆G = 8.8 kJ in order to transport 1.0 mol K+ from the blood to the
muscle cells.
1 mol ATP
8.8 kJ × = 0.29 mol ATP
30.5 kJ

− ∆G o − 14,000 J
80. a. ln K = = = −5.65, K = e−5.65 = 3.5 × 10−3
RT (8.3145 J/K • mol)(298 K)

b. Glutamic acid + NH3 → Glutamine + H2O ∆G° = 14 kJ

ATP + H2O → ADP + H2PO4− ∆G° = −30.5 kJ
___________________________________________________________________________
Glutamic acid + ATP + NH3 → Glutamine + ADP + H2PO4− ∆G° = 14 − 30.5 = −17 kJ
− ∆G o − ( −17,000 J)
ln K = = = 6.86, K = e6.86 = 9.5 × 102
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol(298 K)

81. Enthalpy is not favorable, so ∆S must provide the driving force for the change. Thus ∆S is
positive. There is an increase in positional probability, so the original enzyme has the more
ordered structure (has the smaller positional probability).

82. ∆G = ∆H − T∆S; for the reaction, we break a P−O and O−H bond and form a P−O and O−H
bond, so ∆H ≈ 0. ∆S for this process is negative because positional probability decreases (the
dinucleotide has a more ordered structure). Thus ∆G > 0, and the reaction is not spon-
taneous.

Nucleic acids must form for life to exist. From the simple analysis, it looks as if life can’t
exist, an obviously incorrect assumption. A cell is not an isolated system. There is an
external source of energy to drive the reactions. A photosynthetic plant uses sunlight, and
animals use the carbohydrates produced by plants as sources of energy. When all processes
are combined, ∆Suniv must be greater than zero for the formation of nucleic acids, as is
dictated by the second law of thermodynamics.

Additional Exercises
83. From Appendix 4, SE = 198 J/K•mol for CO(g) and SE = 27 J/K•mol for Fe(s).

Let S ol = SEfor Fe(CO)5(l) and S og = SE for Fe(CO)5(g).

∆SE = !677 J/K = 1 mol(S ol ) – [1 mol (27 J/K•mol) + 5 mol(198 J/ K•mol]

S ol = 340. J/K•mol
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 673

∆SE = 107 J/K = 1 mol (S og ) – 1 mol (340. J/KCmol)

S og = SE for Fe(CO)5(g) = 447 J/K•mol

84. When an ionic solid dissolves, one would expect the disorder of the system to increase, so
∆Ssys is positive. Because temperature increased as the solid dissolved, this is an exothermic
process, and ∆Ssurr is positive (∆Ssurr = !∆H/T). Because the solid did dissolve, the dissolving
process is spontaneous, so ∆Suniv is positive.

85. ∆S will be negative because 2 mol of gaseous reactants form 1 mol of gaseous product. For
∆G to be negative, ∆H must be negative (exothermic). For exothermic reactions, K decreases
as T increases. Therefore, the ratio of the partial pressure of PCl5 to the partial pressure of
PCl3 will decrease when T is raised.

∆H vap 8.20 × 103 J / mol

86. At boiling point, ∆G = 0 so ∆S = ; for methane: ∆S =
T 112 K
= 73.2 J/molCK
28.9 × 103 J/mol
For hexane: ∆S = = 84.5 J/mol•K.
342 K

nRT 1.00 mol (0.08206) (112 K ) nRT

Vmet = = = 9.19 L; Vhex = = R(342 K) = 28.1 L
P 1.00 atm P

Hexane has the larger molar volume at the boiling point, so hexane should have the larger
entropy. As the volume of a gas increases, positional disorder increases.

87. solid I → solid II; equilibrium occurs when ∆G = 0.

− 743.1 J/mol
∆G = ∆H ! T∆S, ∆H = T∆S, T = ∆H/∆S = = 43.7 K = !229.5°C
− 17.0 J/K • mol

88. a. ∆G° = !RT ln K = !(8.3145 J/K•mol)(298 K) ln 0.090 = 6.0 × 103 J/mol = 6.0 kJ/mol

b. H‒O‒H + Cl‒O‒Cl → 2 H‒O‒Cl

On each side of the reaction there are 2 H‒O bonds and 2 O‒Cl bonds. Both sides have
the same number and type of bonds. Thus ∆H ≈ ∆H° ≈ 0.

∆H o − ∆G o 0 − 6.0 × 103 J
c. ∆G° = ∆H°! T∆S°, ∆S° = = = !20. J/K
T 298 K

d. For H2O(g), ∆H of = !242 kJ/mol and S° = 189 J/KCmol.

∆H° = 0 = 2 ∆H of , HOCl ! [1 mol(!242 kJ/mol) + 1 mol(80.3 J/K/mol)], ∆H of , HOCl

= !81 kJ/mol
674 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

!20. J/K = 2 SoHOCl ! [1 mol(189 J/KCmol) + 1 mol(266.1 J/K·mol)], SoHOCl

= 218 J/K•mol

o
e. Assuming ∆H° and ∆S° are T-independent: ∆ G 500 = 0 ! (500. K)(!20. J/K) = 1.0 × 104 J

⎛ − ∆G o ⎞ ⎡ 4 ⎤
∆G° = !RT ln K, K = exp⎜ ⎟ = exp ⎢ − 1.0 × 10 ⎥ = e −2.41 = 0.090
⎜ RT ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎣⎢ (8.3145)(500.) ⎦⎥

2
PHOCl
f. ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln ; from part a, ∆G° = 6.0 kJ/mol.
PH 2O × PCl 2O

We should express all partial pressures in atm. However, we perform the pressure
conversion the same number of times in the numerator and denominator, so the factors of
760 torr/atm will all cancel. Thus we can use the pressures in units of torr.

6.0 kJ/mol + (8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K) ⎡ (0.10) 2 ⎤

∆G = ln ⎢ ⎥ = 6.0 ! 20. = !14 kJ/mol
1000 J/kJ ⎣⎢ (18) (2.0) ⎦⎥

89. Ba(NO3)2(s) ⇌ Ba2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) K = Ksp; ∆G° = !561 + 2(!109) ! (!797) = 18 kJ

− ∆G o − 18,000 J
∆G° = !RT ln Ksp, ln Ksp = = = !7.26, Ksp = e −7.26
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol (298 K)
= 7.0 × 10 −4
[H + ][F − ]
90. HF(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + F−(aq); ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln
[HF]

∆G° = !RT ln K = ! (8.3145 J/KCmol)(298 K) ln(7.2 × 10 −4 ) = 1.8 × 104 J/mol

a. The concentrations are all at standard conditions, so ∆G = ∆G = 1.8 × 104 J/mol

(Q = 1.0 and ln Q = 0). Because ∆G° is positive, the reaction shifts left to reach
equilibrium.

(2.7 × 10 −2 ) 2
b. ∆G = 1.8 × 104 J/mol + (8.3145 J/KCmol)(298 K) ln
0.98
∆G = 1.8 × 104 J/mol ! 1.8 × 104 J/mol = 0

∆G = 0, so the reaction is at equilibrium (no shift).

(1.0 × 10 −5 ) 2
c. ∆G = 1.8 × 104 J/mol + 8.3145(298 K) ln = !1.1 × 104 J/mol; shifts right
1.0 × 10 −5
7.2 × 10 −4 (0.27)
d. ∆G = 1.8 × 104 + 8.3145(298) ln = 1.8 × 104 ! 1.8 × 104 = 0;
0.27
at equilibrium
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 675

1.0 × 10 −3 (0.67)
e. ∆G = 1.8 × 104 + 8.3145(298) ln = 2 × 103 J/mol; shifts left
0.52

91. ∆S is more favorable (less negative) for reaction 2 than for reaction 1, resulting in K2 > K1.
In reaction 1, seven particles in solution are forming one particle in solution. In reaction 2,
four particles are forming one, which results in a smaller decrease in positional probability
than for reaction 1.

92. A graph of ln K versus 1/T will yield a straight line with slope equal to −∆H°/R and y
intercept equal to ∆S°/R.

Temp (°C) T (K) 1000/T (K−1) Kw ln Kw

0 273 3.66 1.14 × 10 −15 !34.408
25 298 3.36 1.00 × 10 −14 !32.236
35 308 3.25 2.09 × 10 −14 !31.499
40. 313 3.19 2.92 × 10 −14 !31.165
50. 323 3.10 5.47 × 10 −14 !30.537

⎛1⎞
The straight-line equation (from a calculator) is ln K = !6.91 × 103 ⎜ ⎟ − 9.09.
⎝T⎠
o
− ∆H
Slope = !6.91 × 103 K = , ∆H° = ! (!6.91 × 103 K × 8.3145 J/KCmol)
R
= 5.75 × 104 J/mol

∆So
y intercept = !9.09 = , ∆S° = !9.09 × 8.3145 J/KCmol = !75.6 J/KCmol
R

93. ∆G° = !RT ln K; when K = 1.00, ∆G° = 0 since ln 1.00 = 0. ∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°
676 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

∆H° = 3(!242 kJ) ! [-826 kJ] = 100. kJ; ∆S° = [2(27 J/K) + 3(189 J/K)] !
[90. J/K + 3(131 J/K)] = 138 J/K
∆H o 100. kJ
∆H° = T∆S°, T = o
= = 725 K
∆S 0.138 kJ/K

94. C2H4(g) + H2O(g) → CH3CH2OH(l)

∆H° = −278 − (52 − 242) = −88 kJ; ∆S° = 161 − (219 + 189) = −247 J/K

∆H o − 88 × 103 J
When ∆G° = 0, ∆H° = T∆S°, so T = = = 360 K.
∆So − 247 J/K

At standard concentrations, ∆G = ∆G°, so the reaction will be spontaneous when ∆G° < 0.
Since the signs of ∆H° and ∆S° are both negative, this reaction will be spontaneous at
temperatures below 360 K (where the favorable ∆H° term will dominate).

C2H6(g) + H2O(g) → CH3CH2OH(l) + H2(g)

∆H° = −278 − (−84.7 − 242) = 49 kJ; ∆S° = 131 + 161 − (229.5 + 189) = −127 J/K

This reaction can never be spontaneous at standard conditions because of the signs of ∆H°
and ∆S°.

Thus the reaction C2H4(g) + H2O(g) → C2H5OH(l) would be preferred at standard conditions.

Challenge Problems

95. a. Vessel 1: At 0°C, this system is at equilibrium, so ∆Suniv = 0 and ∆S = ∆Ssurr. Because
the vessel is perfectly insulated, q = 0, so ∆Ssurr = 0 = ∆Ssys.

b. Vessel 2: The presence of salt in water lowers the freezing point of water to a tem-
perature below 0°C. In vessel 2, the conversion of ice into water will be spontaneous at
0°C, so ∆Suniv > 0. Because the vessel is perfectly insulated, ∆Ssurr = 0. Therefore, ∆Ssys
must be positive (∆S > 0) in order for ∆Suniv to be positive.

96. The liquid water will evaporate at first and eventually an equilibrium will be reached
(physical equilibrium).

C Because evaporation is an endothermic process, ∆H is positive.

C Because H2O(g) is more disordered (greater positional probability), ∆S is positive.
C The water will become cooler (the higher energy water molecules leave), thus ∆Twater will
be negative.
C The vessel is insulated (q = 0), so ∆Ssurr = 0.
C Because the process occurs, it is spontaneous, so ∆Suniv is positive.
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 677

97. 3 O2(g) ⇌ 2 O3(g); ∆H° = 2(143 kJ) = 286 kJ; ∆G° = 2(163 kJ) = 326 kJ

− ∆G o − 326 × 103 J
ln K = = = !131.573, K = e −131.573 = 7.22 × 10 −58
RT (8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K)

We need the value of K at 230. K. From Section 17.8 of the text:

− ∆G o ∆So
ln K = +
RT R

For two sets of K and T:

− ∆H o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ∆S − ∆H o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ∆So
ln K1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ; ln K2 = ⎜ ⎟ +
R ⎝ T1 ⎠ R R ⎜⎝ T2 ⎟⎠ R

Subtracting the first expression from the second:

∆H o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ K ∆H o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ln K2 ! ln K1 = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ or ln 2 = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎠ K1 R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎟⎠

Let K2 = 7.22 × 10 −58 , T2 = 298 K; K1 = K230, T1 = 230. K; ∆H° = 286 × 103 J

7.22 × 10 −58 286 × 103 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞

ln = ⎜ − ⎟ = 34.13
K 230 8.3145 ⎝ 230. 298 ⎠

7.22 × 10 −58
= e34.13 = 6.6 × 1014, K230 = 1.1 × 10 −72
K 230

PO2 3 PO2 3
K230 = 1.1 × 10 −72 = = , PO3 = 3.3 × 10 −41 atm
PO3 3 (1.0 × 10 −3 atm) 3

The volume occupied by one molecule of ozone is:

nRT (1/6.022 × 10 23 mol)(0.08206 L atm/K • mol)(230. K)

V = = − 41
= 9.5 × 1017 L
P (3.3 × 10 atm)

Equilibrium is probably not maintained under these conditions. When only two ozone
molecules are in a volume of 9.5 × 1017 L, the reaction is not at equilibrium. Under these
conditions, Q > K, and the reaction shifts left. But with only 2 ozone molecules in this huge
volume, it is extremely unlikely that they will collide with each other. At these conditions, the
concentration of ozone is not large enough to maintain equilibrium.

98. Arrangement I and V: S = k ln W; W = 1; S = k ln 1 = 0

Arrangement II and IV: W = 4; S = k ln 4 = 1.38 × 10 −23 J/K ln 4, S = 1.91 × 10 −23 J/K
Arrangement III: W = 6; S = k ln 6 = 2.47 × 10 −23 J/K
678 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

99. a. From the plot, the activation energy of the reverse reaction is Ea + (!∆G°) = Ea ! ∆G°
(∆G° is a negative number as drawn in the diagram).
⎛ − Ea ⎞
A exp ⎜ ⎟
⎛ − Ea ⎞ ⎡ − ( E a − ∆G ) ⎤ k f
o
⎝ RT ⎠
kf = A exp ⎜ ⎟ and kr = A exp ⎢ ⎥, =
⎝ RT ⎠ ⎣⎢ RT ⎥⎦ k r ⎡ − (E a − ∆G o ) ⎤
A exp ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ RT ⎥⎦

kf ⎡− E ( E − ∆G o ) ⎤ ⎛ − ∆G o ⎞
If the A factors are equal: = exp ⎢ a + a ⎥ = exp ⎜ ⎟
kr ⎜ RT ⎟
⎢⎣ RT RT ⎥⎦ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ − ∆G o ⎞ k
From ∆G° = !RT ln K, K = exp ⎜⎜ ⎟ ; because K and f are both equal to the
⎟
⎝ RT ⎠ kr
same expression, K = kf/kr.

b. A catalyst will lower the activation energy for both the forward and reverse reactions (but
not change ∆G°). Therefore, a catalyst must increase the rate of both the forward and
reverse reactions.

100. At equilibrium:
⎛ 1.10 × 1013 molecules ⎞ ⎛ 0.08206 L atm ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟ (298 K)
⎜ 6.022 × 10 23
molecules/mol ⎟⎜ K mol
nRT ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
PH 2 = =
V 1.00 L

PH 2 = 4.47 × 10 −10 atm

The pressure of H2 decreased from 1.00 atm to 4.47 × 10 −10 atm. Essentially all of the H2 and
Br2 has reacted. Therefore, PHBr = 2.00 atm because there is a 2:1 mole ratio between HBr and
H2 in the balanced equation. Because we began with equal moles of H2 and Br2, we will have
equal moles of H2 and Br2 at equilibrium. Therefore, PH 2 = PBr2 = 4.47 × 10 −10 atm.

2
PHBr (2.00) 2
K= = = 2.00 × 1019; assumptions good.
PH 2 × PBr2 (4.47 × 10 −10 ) 2

∆G° = !RT ln K = ! (8.3145 J/KCmol)(298 K) ln (2.00 × 1019) = !1.10 × 105 J/mol

∆H o − ∆G o − 103,800 J/mol − (−1.0 × 105 J/mol)

∆S° = = = 20 J/KCmol
T 298 K

101. a. ∆G° = G oB − G oA = 11,718 ! 8996 = 2722 J

⎛ − ∆G o ⎞ ⎡ − 2722 J ⎤
K = exp ⎜⎜ ⎟ = exp ⎢
⎟ ⎥ = 0.333
⎝ RT ⎠ ⎣ (8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K) ⎦
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 679

b. When Q = 1.00 > K, the reaction shifts left. Let x = atm of B(g), which reacts to reach
equilibrium.
A(g) ⇌ B(g)

Initial 1.00 atm 1.00 atm

Equil. 1.00 + x 1.00 ! x

PB 1.00 − x
K= = = 0.333, 1.00 ! x = 0.333 + (0.333)x, x = 0.50 atm
PA 1.00 + x

PB = 1.00 ! 0.50 = 0.50 atm; PA = 1.00 + 0.50 = 1.50 atm

c. ∆G = ∆G° + RT ln Q = ∆G° + RT ln(PB/PA)

∆G = 2722 J + (8.3145)(298) ln (0.50/1.50) = 2722 J ! 2722 J = 0 (carrying extra

sig. figs.)

− ∆H o ∆So
102. From Exercise 71, ln K = + . For K at two temperatures T1 and T2, the
RT R
K ∆H o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
equation can be manipulated to give (see Exercise 71): ln 2 = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
K1 R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 3.25 × 10 −2 ⎞ ∆H o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟= ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8.84 ⎠ 8.3145 J/K • mol ⎝ 298 K 348 K ⎠

!5.61 = (5.8 ×10-5 mol/J)(∆H°), ∆H° = !9.7 × 104 J/mol

For K = 8.84 at T = 25°C:

− (−9.7 × 10 4 J/mol) ∆So ∆So

ln 8.84 = + , = !37
(8.3145 J/K • mol)(298 K) 8.3145 J/K • mol 8.3145

∆S° = !310 J/KCmol

We get the same value for ∆S° using K = 3.25 × 10 −2 at T = 348 K data.

∆G° = !RT ln K; when K = 1.00, then ∆G° = 0 since ln 1.00 = 0. Assuming ∆H° and ∆S°
do not depend on temperature:

∆H o − 9.7 × 10 4 J/mol
∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°, ∆H° = T∆S°, T = = = 310 K
∆So − 310 J/K • mol

103. K = PCO 2 ; to ensure Ag2CO3 from decomposing, PCO 2 should be greater than K.
680 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

∆H o ∆So
From Exercise 71, ln K = + . For two conditions of K and T, the equation is:
RT R
K ∆H o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ln 2 = ⎜⎜ + ⎟
K1 R ⎝ T1 T2 ⎟⎠

Let T1 = 25°C = 298 K, K1 = 6.23 × 10 −3 torr; T2 = 110.°C = 383 K, K2 = ?

K2 79.14 × 103 J/mol ⎛ 1 1 ⎞

ln = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
6.23 × 10 −3
torr 8.3145 J/K • mol ⎝ 298 K 383 K ⎟⎠

K2 K2
ln −3
= 7.1, −3
= e7.1 = 1.2 × 103, K2 = 7.5 torr
6.23 × 10 6.23 × 10

To prevent decomposition of Ag2CO3, the partial pressure of CO2 should be greater than 7.5
torr.

104. From the problem, χ CL 6 H 6 = χ CCl

L
4
= 0.500. We need the pure vapor pressures (Po) in order to
calculate the vapor pressure of the solution. Using the thermodynamic data:

C6H6(l) ⇌ C6H6(g) K = PC6 H 6 = PCo6 H 6 at 25°C

∆G orxn = ∆G of , C6 H 6 ( g ) − ∆G of , C6 H 6 ( l ) = 129.66 kJ/mol ! 124.50 kJ/mol = 5.16 kJ/mol

− ∆G o − 5.16 × 103 J/mol

∆G° = !RT ln K, ln K = = exp = !2.08
RT (8.3145 J/K • mol) (298 K)

K = PCo6 H 6 = e −2.08 = 0.125 atm

For CCl4: ∆G orxn = ∆G of , CCl 4 ( g ) − ∆G of , CCl 4 ( l ) = !60.59 kJ/mol ! (!65.21 kJ/mol)

= 4.62 kJ/mol

⎛ − ∆G o ⎞ ⎛ − 4620 J/mol ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ RT ⎟ = exp ⎜⎜ 8.3145 J/K • mol × 298 K ⎟⎟ = 0.155 atm
o
K = PCCl 4
= exp
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

PC6 H 6 = χ CL 6 H 6 PCo6 H 6 = 0.500(0.125 atm) = 0.0625 atm; PCCl

o
4
= 0.500(0.155 atm)
= 0.0775 atm
PC6 H 6 0.0625 atm 0.0625
χ CV6 H 6 = = = = 0.446
Ptot 0.0625 atm + 0.0775 atm 0.1400

V
χ CCl 4
= 1.000 ! 0.446 = 0.554
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 681

105. Use the thermodynamic data to calculate the boiling point of the solvent.
∆H 33.90 × 103 J/mol
At boiling point: ∆G = 0 = ∆H ! T∆S, T = = = 353.3 K
∆S 95.95 J/K • mol
2 .1
∆T = Kbm, (355.4 K !353.3 K) = 2.5 K kg/mol(m), m = = 0.84 mol/kg
2 .5
0.879 g 1 kg
Mass solvent = 150. mL × × = 0.132 kg
mL 1000 g

0.84 mol solute 142 g

Mass solute = 0.132 kg solvent × × = 15.7 g = 16 g solute
kg solvent mol

106. ∆Ssurr = !∆H/T = !qP/T

q = heat loss by hot water = moles × molar heat capacity × ∆T

1 mol H 2 O 75.4 J
q = 1.00 × 103 g H2O × × × (298.2 – 363.2) = !2.72 × 105 J
18.02 g K mol

− (−2.72 ×105 J )
∆Ssurr = = 912 J/K
298.2 K

[H + ][X − ]
107. HX ⇌ H+ + X− Ka =
[HX]
Initial 0.10 M ~0 0
Equil. 0.10 – x x x
(1.5 × 10 −6 ) 2
From problem, x = [H+] = 10 −5.83 = 1.5 × 10 −6 ; Ka = = 2.3 × 10 −11
0.10 − 1.5 × 10 −6

∆GE = !RT ln K = !8.3145 J/KCmol(298 K) ln(2.3 × 10 −11 ) = 6.1 × 104 J/mol = 61 kJ/mol

108. NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) K = Ksp = [Na+][Cl−]

∆GE = [(!262 kJ) + (!131 kJ)] – (!384 kJ) = !9 kJ = !9000 J

⎡ − (−9000 J) ⎤
∆GE = = !RT ln Ksp, Ksp = exp ⎢ ⎥ = 38 = 40
⎣ 8.3145 J/K • mol × 298 K ⎦

NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) Ksp = 40

Initial s = solubility (mol/L) 0 0

Equil. s s

Ksp = 40 = s(s), s = (40)1/2 = 6.3 = 6 M = [Cl−]

682 CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY

Integrative Problems
109. Because the partial pressure of C(g) decreased, the net change that occurs for this reaction to
reach equilibrium is for products to convert to reactants.
A(g) + 2 B(g) ⇌ C(g)

Initial 0.100 atm 0.100 atm 0.100 atm

Change +x +2x ← !x
Equil. 0.100 + x 0.100 + 2x 0.100 ! x

From the problem, PC = 0.040 atm = 0.100 – x, x = 0.060 atm

The equilibrium partial pressures are: PA = 0.100 + x = 0.100 + 0.060 = 0.160 atm,
PB = 0.100 + 2((0.60) = 0.220 atm, and PC = 0.040 atm

0.040
K= = 5.2
0.160(0.220) 2

∆GE = !RT ln K = !8.3145 J/KCmol(298 K) ln(5.2) = !4.1 × 103 J/mol = !4.1 kJ/mol

110. ∆GE = ∆HE ! T∆SE = !28.0 × 103 J – 298 K(!175 J/K) = 24,200 J

− ∆G o − 24,000 J
∆GE = !RT ln K, ln K = = = !9.767
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol × 298 K

K = e −9.767 = 5.73 × 10 −5
B + H2O ⇌ BH+ + OH− K = Kb = 5.73 × 10 −5

Initial 0.125 M 0 ~0
Change !x +x +x
Equil. 0.125 ! x x x

[BH + ][OH − ] x2 x2
Kb = 5.73 × 10 −5 = = ≈ , x = [OH−] = 2.68 × 10 −3 M
[B] 0.125 − x 0.125
pH = !log(2.68 × 10 −3 ) = 2.572; pOH = 14.000 – 2.572 = 11.428; assumptions good

Marathon Problem
111. a. ∆S° will be negative because there is a decrease in the number of moles of gas.

b. Because ∆S° is negative, ∆H° must be negative for the reaction to be spontaneous at
some temperatures. Therefore, ∆Ssurr is positive.
CHAPTER 17 SPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY 683

c. Ni(s) + 4 CO(g) ⇌ Ni(CO)4(g)

∆H° = !607 ! [4(!110.5)] = !165 kJ; ∆S° = 417 ! [4(198) + (30.)] = !405 J/K

∆H o − 165 × 103 J
d. ∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°, T = = = 407 K or 134°C
∆So − 405 J / K

e. T = 50.°C + 273 = 323 K

o
∆G 323 = !165 kJ ! (323 K)(!0.405 kJ/K) = !34 kJ

− ∆G o − (−34,000 J)
ln K = = = 12.66, K = e12.66 = 3.1 × 105
RT 8.3145 J/K • mol(323 K)

f. T = 227°C + 273 = 500. K

o
∆G 500 = !165 kJ ! (500. K)( !0.405 kJ/K) = 38 kJ

− 38,000 J
ln K = = !9.14, K = e −9.14 = 1.1 × 10 −4
(8.3145 J/K • mol )(500. K)

g. The temperature change causes the value of the equilibrium constant to change from a
large value favoring formation of Ni(CO)4 to a small value favoring the decomposition of
Ni(CO)4 into pure Ni and CO. This is exactly what is wanted in order to purify a nickel
sample.

h. Ni(CO)4(l) ⇌ Ni(CO)4(g) K = PNi ( CO ) 4

At 42°C (the boiling point): ∆G° = 0 = ∆H° ! T∆S°

∆H o 29.0 × 103 J
∆S° = = = 92.1 J/K
T 315 K

o
At 152°C: ∆G 152 = ∆H° ! T∆S° = 29.0 × 103 J ! 425 K(92.1 J/K) = !10,100 J

− (−10,100 J)
∆G° = !RT ln K, ln K = = 2.858, Kp = e2.858 = 17.4
8.3145 J/K • mol(425 K)
A maximum pressure of 17.4 atm can be attained before Ni(CO)4(g) will liquify.