AC Circuits

Dr. J.L Febin Daya

 Sinusoid

𝑇 is the Time period of the sinusoid

𝑓 is the frequency of the sinusoid
(No. of Cycles per sec)
It can be observed that
 Phase/ Phase Difference
General form of Sinusoid

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Consider two sinusoids

𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
Find the amplitude, phase, period and
frequency of the sinusoid 𝑣 𝑡 = 200 sin(50𝑡 + 20°)
Amplitude 𝑉𝑚 = 200𝑉

Phase ∅ = 20°

Angular Frequency ω = 50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

2𝜋 2𝜋
Period T = = = 0.126 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔 50

1
Frequency 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 7.95 𝐻𝑧
 Average & RMS values
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑉𝑚 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

RMS (Effective) Value of a sine wave

The effective value of a sine wave produces the same 𝐼 2 𝑅 heating effect in a load as we
would expect to see if the same load was fed by a constant DC supply. The effective
value of a sine wave is more commonly known as the Root Mean Squared or simply
RMS value as it is calculated as the square root of the mean (average) of the square of
the voltage or current.
 RMS Value
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = = 0.707𝑉𝑚
2

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

2𝜋
𝑣 𝑡 2
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
0 2𝜋

2𝜋
𝑉𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
0 2𝜋
 Average Value

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 … … . +𝑣𝑛
𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
1
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(ωt) 𝑛
𝜋 0 𝑚
Form Factor
2 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
𝜋 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
 Capacitor
𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
A - Surface area of each plate
d - Distance between the plates
𝜖 - Permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.

Amount of Charge stored 𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗

𝐶 − Capacitance (Farad)

Energy Stored
 Inductor

N - Number of turns
𝑙 - Length of the coil,
A - Cross-sectional area
𝜇 - Permeability of the core

Energy Stored

𝐿 − Inductance (Henry)
 Resistor in AC Circuit
𝑣 𝑡

𝑖 𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝑡 (1−cos 2𝜔𝑡)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
2

𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
−
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 2 2
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑅 Phasor Representation 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = = = 𝑉𝐼
2 2 2
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = =𝑅
𝐼𝑚
 Inductor in AC Circuit
𝑣 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑖 𝑡
𝐼𝑚 =
𝜔𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝜃
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = = 𝜔𝐿
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

1
𝑖 𝑡 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Phasor Representation
𝑉𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 = 0
𝑖 𝑡 = (− cos 𝜔𝑡) V
𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 90 °) 𝜔
𝜔𝐿
I
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃 °)
 Inductor in AC circuit
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
𝜋
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − )
2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=− sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0

 Capacitor in AC Circuit
𝑣 𝑡
𝐼𝑚 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑖 𝑡

𝑉𝑚 1
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = =
𝐼𝑚 𝜔𝐶

1 1
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥𝐶 = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Phasor Representation
𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 = 0
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 I
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
V
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜔𝑡 + 90°)

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 °)
 Capacitor in AC Circuit
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
𝜋
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= sin 2𝜔𝑡
2

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0

 Series RL Circuit 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑉𝐿
𝑉
𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝜃 𝜃
𝑉𝑅
𝐼 𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
Ԧ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 𝑍= 𝐼𝑚 =
Ԧ 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋 𝐼𝑚 𝑍
𝑋𝐿
Ԧ = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍 Ԧ + 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐿 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 (lagging) 𝑍
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝑍 = |𝑍|∠𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑍
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃°)
 Series RL Circuit
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝐼𝑆2 𝑍
=
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
[ cos θ − cos ( 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)] 𝐼 2𝑄𝑋𝐿
2
𝜃
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= cos θ − cos ( 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃) 𝐼 2𝑃𝑅
2 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
2 2 2
= 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑍
𝑋𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑍
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑍 𝑉𝐴
 Problem
In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and the voltage are expressed
2𝜋 5𝜋
as 𝑖 𝑡 = 5 sin 314𝑡 + and 𝑣 𝑡 = 15 sin 314𝑡 +
3 6
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit ?
(b) What is the value of the resistance ?
(c) What is the value of inductance in Henrys ?
(d) What is the average power drawn by the circuit ?
(e) What is the power factor of the circuit?
𝑋𝐿
𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 15 5
𝑉𝑚 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑍 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = cos 30°
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = = = 3Ω 𝑍 2 2
𝐼𝑚 5 𝑋𝐿
𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛 30 = = 32.47𝑊
𝐶𝑜𝑠 30 = 3
𝑣 𝑡 = 15 sin 314𝑡 + 150° 3
𝑋𝐿 = 1.5Ω 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 30°
𝑖 𝑡 = 5 sin 314𝑡 + 120° 𝑅 = 2.6Ω = 0.87 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 1.5Ω
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑦 30°
𝑋𝐿 1.5
𝐿= = = 4.78𝑚𝐻
𝜔 314
A certain electronic circuit is connected across a 220V supply. The circuit consists of a resistance in series
with an inductance. When the supply frequency is 50Hz, the circuit draws a current of 4A. When the
frequency is decreased to 40Hz, it draws 4.8A. Determine the resistance and inductance present in the
circuit. Determine the power drawn by the circuit, after the frequency is changed to 40Hz.
• When a voltage of 100 V is applied to a coil A, the current taken is 8 A and the
power is 120 W. When applied to coil B, the current is 10 A and the power is 500
W. What current and power will be taken when 100 V is applied to the two coils
connected in series.

• A coil ‘X’takes 2A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging with an applied voltage of 10V.
A second coil ‘Y’ takes 2A with a power factor of 0.7 lagging with an applied
voltage of 5V.What voltage will be required to produce a current of 2A with coil ‘X’
and ‘Y’ connected in series? Find the power factor in this case.
 Series RL Circuit
𝑉

𝜃 𝑉
𝜃
𝐼
𝐼
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑉∠0
𝑉 𝑉∠0 𝑉
𝐼 = = = ∠−𝜃
𝑍 𝑍∠𝜃 𝑍
 Series RC Circuit 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐼 𝑅
𝑉𝑅
𝜃 𝜃
𝑋𝐶
𝑍

𝑉𝐶 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶
Ԧ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 𝑍= 𝐼𝑚 =
Ԧ 𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋 𝐼𝑚 𝑍
𝑋𝐶
Ԧ = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍 Ԧ − 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐶 𝜃 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 (leading) 𝑍
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶
𝑍 = 𝑍 ∠−𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃°)
 Series RC Circuit
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝐼𝑃2𝑅
𝜃
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= [ cos θ − cos ( 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]
2
2𝑆𝑍
𝐼 2𝑄𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼
= cos θ − cos ( 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
2 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
2 2 2
= 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑍
𝑋𝐶
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜃 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐶 𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑍
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 = IZ I = 𝐼 2 𝑍 𝑉𝐴
A voltage of 125V at 50Hz is applied across a non-inductive resistor connected in series with
a capacitor. The current is 2.2A and the power loss in the resistor is 96.8 W. Calculate the
resistance and the capacitance.
A capacitor of 35 µF is connected in series with a variable resistor. The circuit is
connected across 50 Hz mains. Find the value of the resistor for a condition when the
voltage across the capacitor is half the supply voltage.
 Series RLC Circuit 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑰𝒇 𝑿𝑳 > 𝑿𝑪 𝑉𝐿

𝑍
(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )
(𝑉𝐿 -𝑉𝐶 ) 𝑉
𝜃
𝜃 𝑉𝑅
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶 𝐼
Ԧ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝐶 𝑍= 𝐼𝑚 =
Ԧ 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋 𝐼𝑚 𝑍
Ԧ 𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑅
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
Ԧ = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍 Ԧ + 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐿 − 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐶 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑍
𝑅 (𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 (lagging) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 𝑍

𝑍 = |𝑍|∠𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃°)
 Series RLC Circuit 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑰𝒇 𝑿𝑪 > 𝑿𝑳 𝑉𝐿 𝑅
𝜃
(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )
𝑉𝑅
𝜃 𝐼 𝑍
(𝑉𝐶 - 𝑉𝐿 )
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶
Ԧ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑍= 𝐼𝑚 =
Ԧ 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋 𝐼𝑚 𝑍
Ԧ 𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑅
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
Ԧ = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍 Ԧ − 𝑗𝐼(𝑋
Ԧ 𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 ) 𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑍
𝑅 (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 (leading) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 ) 𝑍

𝑍 = 𝑍 ∠−𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃°)
 Series RLC Circuit
𝑉𝐿
𝑰𝒇 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪

𝑉𝑅 = V
𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶
Ԧ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝐶
Ԧ 𝐿
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋
𝑍 =𝑅
Ԧ = 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑍 Ԧ + 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐿 − 𝑗𝐼𝑋
Ԧ 𝐶
𝜃 = 0°

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑍 = 𝑅 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝜃 = 1(Unity)

𝑍 = |𝑍|∠𝜃 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
R, L, C Circuits
Example
A resistance of 20 Ω, an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 100 μF are connected in series
across 220-V, 50-Hz mains. Determine the following (a) impedance (b) current (c) voltage across
R, L and C (d) power in watts and VA (e) p.f. and angle of lag.

XL = 0.2 × 314 = 63 Ω
(e) p.f. = cos 𝜃 = R/Z = 20/37 = 0.54;
XC = 1/ωC = 32 Ω
𝜃 = 57°
X = 63 − 32 = 31 Ω (inductive)

(a) Z = 37 Ω

(b)I = V/Z = 220/37 = 6 A

(c) VR = I × R = 6 × 20 = 120 V; VL = I XL = 6 × 63 = 378 V, VC = I XC = 6 × 32 = 192 V
(d) Power in watts = VI cos 𝜃 = 6 × 220 × 0.54 = 713 W
Power in VA = 6 × 220 = 1320 VA
 Example
A voltage e(t) = 100 sin 314 t is applied to series circuit
consisting of 10 ohm resistance, 0.0318 henry
inductance and a capacitor of 63.6 μF. Calculate (i)
expression for i (t)(ii) phase angle between voltage and
current (iii) power factor (iv) active power consumed
 Example
Two impedances Z1 and Z2 when connected separately across a
230-V, 50-Hz supply consumed 100 W and 60 W at power factors
of 0.5 lagging and 0.6 leading respectively. If these impedances
are now connected in series across the same supply, find : (i)
total power absorbed and overall p.f. (ii) the value of the
impedance to be added in series so as to raise the overall p.f. to
unity.
 𝑉𝐼1 cos 𝜃1 = 100𝑊 𝑉𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 = 60𝑊
𝐼1 = 0.87𝐴 𝐼2 = 0.434𝐴
𝐼1 2 𝑅1 = 100𝑊 𝐼2 2 𝑅2 = 60𝑊
𝑅1 = 132.1Ω 𝑅2 = 318.5 Ω
𝑉 𝑉
𝑍1 = = 264.3Ω 𝑍2 = = 529.95 Ω
𝐼1 𝐼2

𝑍1 = 𝑅1 2 + 𝑋1 2 ⟹ 𝑋1 = 228.9Ω 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2 ⟹ 𝑋2 = 423.5Ω
(𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) (𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑅 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 = 450.6 Ω 𝑅
𝑋 = 𝑋1 −𝑋2 = −194.6 (𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 0.92 (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑍
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 = 450.62 + (−194.6)2 = 490.8 Ω
𝑉
𝐼 = = 0.47𝐴
𝑍
𝑖 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 99.2 𝑊
A resistance of 20 ohm, inductance of 0.2 H
and capacitance of 150 μF are connected in
series and are fed by a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Find XL , XC , Z, p.f., active power and
reactive power.
A two-element series circuit is connected across
an a.c. source v = 200 2 sin (ωt + 20°) V. The
current in the circuit then is found to be i = 10 2
cos (314 t − 25°) A. Determine the parameters of
the circuit.