P O I N T E R S Standard Deviation of a discrete random variable

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY formula: (The square root of the variance.)

▪ Definition of Statistics
𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)]
▪ Probability Formula
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
𝑃= ▪ Normal Distribution or Continuous Probability
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
Distribution
▪ Definition of Random Variable
Properties:
Random Variable is a variable whose possible
values are determined by chance. 1. The graph is a bell-shaped curve.
2. It is symmetrical.
▪ Difference between Discrete and Continuous
3. The mean, median, and mode is equal.
Random Variable
4. It is defined by standard deviation.
Discrete random variable can take only a finite 5. It is asymptotic to the horizontal axis.
(countable) number of distinct values. 6. The area under the curve is equal to 1.

Continuous random variable can assume an infinite The standard normal distribution is a normal
number of values in an interval between two specific distribution whose mean is 0 and whose standard
values which are often results of measurement. deviation is 1.

▪ Discrete Probability Distribution Areas under the normal curve can be found
using the z – table.
Discrete probability distribution is a listing of
the possible of a discrete random variable along Review how to find the area to the right, to the left,
with their corresponding probabilities. and in between of z-scores.

Properties: Review how to convert raw scores to standard/z –

scores.
1. The probability of each value of a discrete
𝑥−𝑥̅
random variable is between 0 and 1, Formula for Sample: 𝑧 = 𝑠
inclusive. 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝑥) ≤ 1.
2. The sum of all the probabilities is 1. Where: 𝑧 = standard score
∑ 𝑃(𝑥) = 1 𝑥 = raw score

Mean of a discrete random variable formula: 𝑥̅ = sample mean

𝑠 = sample standard deviation

𝜇 = ∑ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑥−𝜇̅
Formula for Population: 𝑧 =
Where: 𝜇 = population mean 𝜎

Where: 𝑧 = standard score

𝑥 = value of the random variable
𝑥 = raw score
𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the value
𝜇 = population mean
Variance of a discrete random variable formula:
𝜎 = population standard deviation
𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)]
▪ Four Types of Random Sampling Techniques
Where: 𝑥 = value of the random variable 1. Simple Random Sampling is a sampling
technique in which every element of the
𝜇 = population mean population has the same probability of being
𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the value selected for inclusion in the sample.
 2. Systematic Sampling is a random Examples of statistics are sample mean 𝑥̅ , sample
sampling technique in which a list of variance 𝑠 2 , and sample standard deviation 𝑠.
elements of the population is used as a ∑𝑥
sampling frame and the elements to be Sample mean formula: 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
included in the desired sample are selected
Where 𝑥 = given data
by skipping through the list at regular
intervals. 𝑛 = sample size
3. Stratified Sampling is a random sampling
technique in which the population is first ▪ Sampling Distribution
divided into strata, and then samples are Sampling distribution is a probability distribution
randomly selected separately from each that describes the probability for each mean of all
stratum. the samples with the same sample size 𝑛.
4. Cluster Sampling or area sampling is a
random sampling technique in which the Two possible conditions:
entire population is broken into small groups
a. With Replacement
or clusters, and then samples of these
clusters are randomly selected. The data Formula to get the number of possible samples:
from the randomly selected clusters are the
No. of Samples = 𝑛𝑟
ones that are analyzed.
▪ Parameter and Statistic Where: 𝑛 = no. of population values
Parameter is a measure that describes a 𝑟 = sample size
population. Parameters are usually denoted by
Greek letters. Population mean 𝜇, population Example: Consider the population values 2,
variance 𝜎 2 , and population standard deviation 𝜎 3, 4, and 5. How many possible samples of size 3
are examples of parameters. with replacement?

∑𝑥 Solution: No. of Samples = 𝑛𝑟

Population mean formula: 𝜇 = 𝑁
= 43
Where 𝑥 = given data
No. of Samples = 64
𝑁 = population size
b. Without Replacement
∑(𝑥−𝜇)2
Population variance formula: 𝜎2 = 𝑁 Formula to get the number of possible samples:
Where 𝑥 = given data No. of Samples = 𝒏𝑷𝒓 (Use calculator)
𝑁 = population size Where: 𝑛 = no. of population values
𝜇 = population mean 𝑟 = sample size
Population standard deviation formula: Example: Consider the population values 2,
3, 4, and 5. How many possible samples of size 2
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 with replacement?
𝜎=√
𝑁
Solution: No. of Samples = 𝒏𝑷𝒓
Where 𝑥 = given data
= 12
𝑁 = population size
No. of Samples = 12
𝜇 = population mean
▪ Central Limit Theorem
Statistic is a measure that describes a sample.
Statistics are usually denoted by Roman letters.
If samples of size 𝑛 , where 𝑛 is sufficiently large, The number of degrees of freedom is equal to the
are drawn from any population with a mean 𝜇 and number of the remaining values in a data set that
a standard deviation 𝜎, then the sampling are free to vary after one or more values have been
distribution of sample means approximates a normal deducted.
distribution.
Degrees of Freedom Formula: 𝒅𝒇 = 𝒏 − 𝟏
This means that…
Where: 𝑑𝑓 = degrees of freedom
The sampling distribution of the sample means
𝑛 = sample size
taken with replacement from a population N with
population mean 𝜇 and variance 𝜎 will approach a Review how to find the percentiles using the
normal distribution according to the Central Limit 𝑡 −distribution table.
Theorem.
▪ Length of the Confidence Interval
1. As the sample size 𝑛 increases, the
sampling distribution of the means Confidence level refers to the probability that the
approaches a normal distribution. confidence interval contains the true population
2. The mean of the sampling distribution of parameter.
means is equal to the mean of the Confidence coefficient is used to find the margin
population. of error.
𝝁𝒙 = 𝝁
3. The variance of the sampling distribution of Refer to the confidence coefficients table.
means is equal to the variance of the Confidence Interval form:
population divided by the sample size 𝑛.
𝝈𝟐 𝐿𝐿 < 𝜇 < 𝑈𝐿
𝝈𝟐𝒙 =
𝒏 Where: 𝐿𝐿 = lower limit
▪ 𝑡 −Distribution
𝑈𝐿 = upper limit
Properties:
Lower Limit Formula:
1. The graph is a bell-shaped curve.
2. It is symmetrical around the mean. 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋̅ − 𝐸
3. It is defined by degrees of freedom.
Where: 𝑋̅ = sample mean
4. The area under the curve is equal to 1.

𝒕 −distribution Formula: 𝐸 = margin of error

𝑥̅ − 𝜇 Upper Limit Formula:

𝑡= 𝑠
𝑈𝐿 = 𝑋̅ + 𝐸
√𝑛
Where: 𝑋̅ = sample mean
Where: 𝑥 = sample mean
𝐸 = margin of error
𝜇 = population mean
Margin of Error (E) Formula:
𝑠 = standard deviation of the sample
𝜎
𝑛 = sample size 𝐸 = 𝑍𝑐 ( )
√𝑛
***To find a value in the Table of 𝑡 Critical Values,
Where: 𝑍𝑐 = confidence coefficient
there is a need to adjust the sample size 𝑛 by
converting it to degrees of freedom 𝑑𝑓. 𝜎 = standard deviation

𝑛 = sample size

Degrees of Freedom