Anatomy & Physiology

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Cells & Tissues

The human body is a complex organism made up of many structures. Before we begin to look at the
systems that allow us to function, we need to have a basic understanding of how it all works.

Our bodies are made up of small structures that all work together. The most basic, simplest unit in our
body are cells, which are made from molecules.

Cells can be referred to as the basic building blocks of life (think of lego) and are the smallest
structure able to carry out a living process. They contain information that determines what we look
like, and some would say how we behave. There are many types of cells, such as red and white blood
cells. A cell is surrounded by a cell membrane and the cell contains many components which are
called organelles. The function of a cell is to allow for growth, respiration, irritability, movement,
metabolism, excretion and reproduction.

A collection of cells of the same type makes a tissue. The cell is protected by the cell membrane,
which also allows substances to travel in and out of the cell. The nucleus is in the centre of the cell,
which carries out a unique function of storing the genes. It acts like the brain of the cell and controls
many functions. The cytoplasm is the fluid that fills the cell and holds the organelles of the cell, such
as the mitochondria and chloroplasts. Inside the cell is a dynamic structure called the matrix, which
can change from solid to fluid and back again.
Tissues are made up of a collection of cells and are more complex in nature. There are four basic
types of tissue; muscles, nervous, connective and epithelial tissue. Each type forms a different
function. For example epithelial tissue provides a covering (skin), and blood is a major type of
connective tissue. A collection of several different forms of tissue which carry out a special function,
make up an organ.

Organs are even more complex than tissues and contain at least two different tissue types that carry
out a function. For example; the skin is an organ as it contains epithelial tissue and connective tissue.
There are many organs in the body such as the kidneys, lungs and stomach. A collection of organs,
arranged to carry out a specific function will make a system.

Systems are by far the most complex component of the human body and are made up of varying
organs, designed to carry out a function. For example; the circulatory system contains the heart and
vessels and is organised to be able to pump oxygenated blood around the body. A collection of
systems makes a human body, and it is now that we need to start to consider how one system will
affect another, very much like a car being made up of several components.

Now we know how the body is made we can start looking at systems in more depth.

The Circulatory System

The main functions of this system are to supply oxygenated blood throughout the body, and to remove
waste products, such as carbon dioxide. It is able to carry out this task by using three organs; the
blood, vessels and the heart.

Blood
If we think of the circulatory system as a transportation service, then the blood would be the bus.
Carrying and distributing oxygen, nutrients, antibodies, heat and hormones, it travels through the
body, whilst also collecting waste products, such as carbon dioxide, which need to be removed. Its
main functions are therefore protection, heat regulation, clotting and transportation. The blood is
made up of 4 components, plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes and thrombocytes, and an adult has 10.6
pints. It is one of the major types of connective tissue.

Plasma is a straw coloured fluid and accounts for about half of the total volume of blood. It is
necessary for the suspension of blood cells and is made up of 90% water. The major protein in plasma
is albumin which prevents fluid from leaking out of the blood vessels into tissues. Plasma also
supplies water when additional liquids are needed in the tissues of the body, as well as play a crucial
role in regulating the body temperature by carrying heat around the body. The Plasma contains
dissolved substances, most of these are useful and are carried to places where they are to be stored or
used. The products of digestion including glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and vitamins are carried
from the small intestines (ileum) to other organs. Without plasma, the life-giving blood cells would be
left without transportation.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen, which is needed by the cells to produce energy, and are
formed in the bone marrow of long bones. They are the most common type of blood cell and live for
around 12o days and make up around 40% of the bloods volume. These blood cells contain protein
chemical called haemoglobin which is bright red in colour. Haemoglobin allows the oxygen to be
collected in the lungs by binding its molecules with the oxygen and then distributes it around the
body. Carbon dioxide is then collected to allow it to be removed. If you have a lack of haemoglobin,
you may develop a condition called anaemia.

White blood cells (leucocytes) are involved in the protection of the body and are on the continual look
out for any sign of bacteria. There are five main types of white blood cells which all have a differing
role. The white blood cells that are most numerous are Neutrophils which kill and ingest foreign
material. Lymphocytes help protect against viral infections and produce antibodies. Monocytes ingest
dead and damaged cells, Eosinophils protect by killing parasites and destroying some cancer cells as
well as being involved in the allergic response, as well as the basophils.

White blood cells have a shorter life expectancy than red, only surviving for about 3 weeks. A drop of
blood can contain anywhere from 7,000 to 25,000 white blood cells at a time. If an invading infection
fights back and persists, that number will significantly increase.

Platelets, also called thrombocytes are necessary for the blood clotting process to take place. They are
irregularly-shaped and colourless and have a sticky surface that lets them form clots to stop bleeding.
When you cut yourself, platelets in the blood react to the air and calcium, vitamin K, and a protein
called fibrinogen are released. This forms a blood clot, which seals or plug’s the hole and later on
becomes a scab. A scab is an external blood clot that we can easily see, but there are also internal
blood clots. A bruise, or black-and-blue mark, is the result of a blood clot. Clotting is necessary, but
sometimes it can be very dangerous as if a blood clot forms inside of a blood vessel, it can block the
flow of blood, cutting off the supply of oxygen.

Blood Vessels

If the blood acts as a bus, then the blood vessels are road networks that it travels along. There are
three main vessels, and the blood follows two pathways known as pulmonary and systemic.

Arteries always carry blood away from the heart, with the exception of the pulmonary artery (we will
look at that later). They are the biggest of the vessels and carry oxygenated blood. The walls of the
artery are muscular and elastic which helps allow the blood to travel the body. The largest artery of
the body is the aorta which originates from the heart, and branches out into smaller arteries. The
smallest arteries are called arterioles which branch into capillaries. An artery has three layers. An
outer layers of tissue a muscular middle and an inner layer of epithelial cells. There are two types of
arteries. Pulmonary arteries carry blood from the heart to the lungs and systemic arteries carry blood
to the rest of the body. The smallest arteries are called arterioles and deal with delivering blood from
the arteries to the capillaries. Sometimes, pulmonary circulation is referred to. This means blood is
circulated from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. Arteries are found deep in the tissues to
prevent damage.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart, under low pressure, in order for it to get sent to the
lungs. Veins contain valves, which act like doors - preventing the blood from flowing in the wrong
direction. The largest vein is the vena cava which leads to the right atrium of the heart. Veins also
have three layers: an outer layer of tissue, muscle in the middle, and a smooth inner layer of epithelial
cells, but the layers are thinner and contain less tissue. Because it lacks oxygen, the blood that flows
through the veins has a deep red colour. The walls of the veins are rather thin which makes the blood
visible through the skin on some parts of the body, such as the hands, wrists and ankles. As the skin
refracts light, the deep red colour actually appears a little blue from outside the skin. Veins can be
classified into four different types. Pulmonary veins carry blood from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart. Systemic veins carry deoxygenated blood from the remainder of the body to the right atrium
of the heart. Superficial veins are to be found close to the surface of the skin and deep veins are
located deep within muscle tissues.

Capillaries are very small vessels that transport blood from the arteries to the veins. They have thin
walls, made up of endothelium (single layer of overlapping flat cells) that allows substances such as
nutrients to exchange. The capillaries are so small that red blood cells have to travel through them in
single file. The flow of blood through the capillaries is controlled by structures called precapillary
sphincters, which are located between arterioles and capillaries. They contain muscle fibres that allow
them to contract. Blood flows freely to the capillary beds of body tissue when the sphincters are open,
but when the sphincters are closed blood is not allowed to flow. Plasma moves out of the capillaries
and becomes tissue fluid. This fluid bathes the cells in nutrients and oxygen, some waste and excess
fluids move into the lymphatic vessels, with the carbon dioxide and waste returning to the capillaries.

Diagram of a vein and an artery

Arteries of the neck

The Heart

The heart is a muscular organ that is primarily a shell containing 4 chambers, which are the right and
left atrium and the right and left ventricle. Its main function is to act as a pump and maintain a
constant circulation of blood around the body.

The Right Atrium

This chamber receives de-oxygenated blood from the body through the superior vena cava (head and
upper body) and inferior vena cava (legs and lower torso). An impulse is sent via the sinoatrial node,
which causes the cardiac muscle tissue of the atrium to contract, allowing the tricuspid valve, which
separates the right atrium from the right ventricle to open. This allows the de-oxygenated blood which
has collected in the right atrium to flow into the right ventricle.

The Right Ventricle

This chamber receives de-oxygenated blood from the atrium as it contracts. The pulmonary valve
leading into the pulmonary artery is closed which allows the ventricle to fill with blood, then to
contract. As this contraction occurs, the tricuspid valve closes and the pulmonary valve opens. The
closure of the tricuspid valve prevents blood from backing into the right atrium and the opening of the
pulmonary valve allows the blood to flow into the pulmonary artery toward the lungs.

The Left Atrium

This chamber receives the newly oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary vein. A
contraction triggered by the sinoatrial node progresses through the atrium and the blood passes
through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.

The Left Ventricle

This chamber receives the oxygenated blood as the left atrium contracts, and the blood passes through
the mitral valve into the left ventricle. The ventricle is able to fill with blood as the aortic valve
leading into the aorta is closed. Once the ventricle is full it contracts, the mitral valve closes and the
aortic valve opens. The closure of the mitral valve prevents blood from backing into the left atrium
and the opening of the aortic valve allows the blood to flow into the aorta and flow throughout the
body.

The right side of the heart is completely separate from the left side by the septum to prevent blood
flowing into the opposite side.

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body and is approximately the size of a fist. The
heart walls are made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which allows it to contract
and relax. The heart is centrally located but is tilted so that most of the heart muscle is to the left. The
left ventricle contracts most forcefully, so you can feel your heart beating stronger on the left side of
your chest.

 Deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart via the inferior and superior vena cava
into the right atrium.
 From here it travels through the tricuspid valve, which shuts off once the blood fills the right
ventricle.
 The blood then passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs to
allow the carbon dioxide to be removed and to collect oxygen.
 Oxygenated blood then enters the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein and enters the
left atrium.
 It passes through the mitral valve that closes once the left ventricle is full.
  The ventricle now contracts and forces the blood through the aortic valve into the aorta so that
blood is pumped to the head and rest of the body.

The function of the valves is to prevent the blood from flowing back the wrong way. The bodies’
blood is circulated through the heart more than 1,000 times per day, and beats an average of 70 to 80
times per minute. Many factors can affect the pulse, such as exercise, age, gender, emotion and drugs.

Coronary Arteries
The heart tissue must have a constant supply of oxygen to allow the heart to contract and relax, so
there is a network of vessels that deliver oxygenated blood to the tissues.

The aorta is supplied with the left and right coronary arteries, which gradually branch off into smaller
vessels. The larger vessels are situated on the surface of the heart, with the smaller vessels penetrating
the heart muscle. Over time, and in a diet that is rich in cholesterol, plaques can build up and
eventually block the flow of blood through the coronary artery. When this happens, the heart tissue
becomes starved of oxygen and stops functioning as it should. This results in a heart attack.

Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the force applied against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood through
the body. The pressure is determined by the force and amount of blood pumped and the size and
flexibility of the arteries.

Each time the heart beats (about 60–70 times a minute at rest); it pumps out blood into the arteries.

 our blood pressure is at its highest when the heart beats, pumping the blood. This is called
systolic pressure.
  When the heart is at rest, between beats, your blood pressure falls. This is the diastolic
pressure

If the blood pressure is too high, the heart may get larger, which could lead to heart failure. Small
bulges (aneurysms) form in blood vessels. Common locations are the main artery from the heart
(aorta); arteries in the brain, legs, and intestines; and the artery leading to the spleen.

Blood vessels in the kidney narrow, which may cause kidney failure. Arteries throughout the body
"harden" faster, especially those in the heart, brain, kidneys, and legs. This can cause a heart attack,
stroke, kidney failure, or amputation of part of the leg. Blood vessels in the eyes can burst or bleed
which may cause vision changes and can result in blindness

In 90 to 95% of high blood pressure cases, the cause is unknown. In fact, you can have high blood
pressure for years without knowing it. When the cause is unknown, you have what's called essential or
primary hypertension. Factors that may lead to high blood pressure in the remaining 5–10 percent of
cases, which are known as secondary hypertension, include:

Kidney abnormality, a structural abnormality of the aorta (large blood vessel leaving the heart)
existing since birth, narrowing of certain arteries, lifestyle factors such as diet and smoking.

Pathologies of the Circulatory System

Disease Meaning
Aneurysm A bulge in a blood vessel, which can split
 open.
Gangrene Body’s tissues begin to decay due to an
interruption of blood flow.
Arteriosclerosis Where the arteries lose their elasticity and is
a form of atherosclerosis’
Atherosclerosis Hardening of the arteries, usually caused by
cholesterol.
Palpitations Noticeable heartbeat, often felt in the throat
or neck.
Deep Vein Thrombosis Blood clot within a blood vessel.
Stroke A blockage of the blood supply to the brain
due to a bleed of a blood clot.
Phlebitis Inflammation of a vein usually caused by
local trauma.
Varicose Veins Swollen or enlarged veins, caused when
valves within the veins become weakened.

The Respiratory System

We have already learnt how the circulatory system is responsible for supplying oxygenated blood to
all parts of the body. We are now going to look at the respiratory system, which works hand in hand
with the circulatory system.

The main function of the respiratory system is to allow oxygen to enter the body and for carbon
dioxide to leave. This is called “gas exchange” and takes place on an internal level into tissues and an
external level into the lungs. It is vital that it takes place for life to continue.

The circulatory system is constructed to allow this gas exchange to take place. Below are the organs
within the system.

The Mouth allows an intake of air if there is a high demand or if the nasal passage is blocked in any
way. It is an oval shaped cavity which is lined with a mucous membrane. The mouth contains the soft
and hard palate, forming the roof of the mouth, as well as the gums in which the teeth sit. It is not
ideal to continually breathe through the mouth as the air is not as well filtered and it can cause other
medical problems.

The nasal cavity traps particles that enter the passages by containing shelf-like structures called
turbinate’s. Any material that is deposited in the nose is transported by ciliary action to the back of the
throat in around 10-15 minutes. The vascular mucus membranes of the nose will also warm and
moisten the air as it is inhaled. The mucus which is produced will also be moved to the back of the
pharynx for either swallowing or expectoration. The nose is formed by the two nasal bones and by
cartilage and is divided by a septum. The nose also acts as a sounding chamber for the voice as some
of the bones surrounding the nasal cavity are hollow. These hollows are called paranasal sinuses and
allow the voice to become resonant, lighter and to secrete mucus to help with air filtration. The
olfactory receptors are found in the nasal cavity, where the nerves connect directly with the brain and
have a powerful and immediate effect on emotions.

The pharynx (throat) is a muscular cavity that begins from behind the nose to the beginning of the
voice box and the oesophagus. The pharynx is divided into three sections. The nasopharynx lies
behind the nose and can be seen when the mouth is wide open, the oropharynx which lies behind the
mouth, and the laryngopharynx which lies behind the larynx. The upper part of the pharynx lets air
pass through, whilst the lower parts permit air, foods and fluids to pass. When it is necessary to
swallow, breathing will stop as the oropharynx becomes blocked off from the nasopharynx as the soft
palate is raised, as it is impossible to be able to breathe whilst swallowing.

The larynx, also known as the voice box, is a 2” tube shaped structure which is located at the entrance
of the trachea. The larynx contains two vocal cords, which will vibrate together when air passes
between them. This gives us the sound of the voice. The larynx is made up of several irregular
cartilages and the lobes of the thyroid gland are on either side. The oesophagus, which is the tube that
carries food from the mouth to the stomach, is just behind the trachea and the larynx. Both openings
of the oesophagus and the larynx are close together in the throat, so when the act of swallowing
occurs, a flap called the epiglottis keeps the food out of the windpipe by moving down over the
larynx.

The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a tube like structure consisting of between 16 – 20 rings
of cartilage that joins the nose and mouth to the lungs. It measures approximately 10-12” in length
and runs from the lower part of the larynx to the lungs by dividing into the bronchi. The trachea
contains an epithelial lining that secretes mucus, which traps any dust. It is then swept upwards by the
cilia towards the larynx away from the lungs.

The bronchi are supported by cartilage and are formed when the trachea forks into two branches,
making up the left and right bronchi. These branches then divide again, with the right Bronchus being
wider and shorter than the left. The right bronchi then divide into two branches for the middle and
lower lobes. The left bronchi is nearly double in length, being 5cm long and divides again, one for
each broncho-pulmonary segment. Within the lungs, the bronchi divide again into smaller bronchi,
called bronchioles. There are numerous glands in the wall of the bronchi which secrete slimy mucus,
which helps to trap dust and any other particles, which are then propelled upwards to the mouth by
cilia.

The bronchioles are the first divisions of the bronchi that no longer contain cartilage, but are made up
of a single layer of epithelial cells. The bronchioles are smaller than one millimetre in diameter and
control the air distribution into the lungs. The bronchiole end in the alveoli.
The alveolar sac contains around 300 million alveoli, which are arranged in grape like clusters to
increase the surface area, which can become reduced due to irritants such as dust. It is here that gas
exchange takes place. To allow this to happen, the alveoli are constantly moist and are surrounded by
a network of capillaries. Oxygen is in a higher concentration in the alveoli than in the blood and so
therefore it is able to diffuse into the blood through a thin layer of cells. The reverse happens with
carbon dioxide, which is a higher concentration in the blood than the alveoli and so it diffuses into the
alveoli through the thin layer of cells.

The lungs are located in the thorax and are cone shaped. They make up one of the largest organs of
the body with a huge surface area. The main role of the lungs is to exchange gas; oxygen for carbon
dioxide and on average a person breathes 25,000 times a day, moving 10,000 litres of air a day.

Mucus is produced in the lungs that traps any inhaled particles, which can be removed by coughing.
The lungs are situated in a space, known as the pleural cavity. Each lung is covered in two thin layers
of a single celled membrane called pleura which slide back and forth over each other every time a
breath is taken to allow the lungs to expand and contract. There is a small amount of fluid here to
prevent friction. The pleura, which are connected to the chest wall, are called the parietal pleura, and
the pleura that are attached to the lung are called visceral pleura.

The front and back of the lungs are protected by the ribs, and the intercostals muscles help allow the
chest wall to move. The front of the ribs contains costal cartilage which connects the sternum and the
ends of the ribs. The back of the lungs contains the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The
lungs differ on either side with the right lung having 3 lobes; the superior, middle and inferior lobe
and the left lung only having the superior and inferior lobe.
The Diaphragm is a dome shaped muscular sheet that extends along the bottom of the rib cage and
inserts into the lower ribs. The diaphragm relaxes during inhalation to allow more room in the
thoracic cavity, which in turn creates a suction to allow air to be drawn into the lungs. When you
exhale, the diaphragm expands which reduces the amount of space in the cavity for the lungs, which
forces the air out.

The Intercostal Muscles occupy the space in-between the ribs and are made up of two types. The
internal muscles are on the inside of the rib cage and extend from the front of the ribs and go around
the back, and the external muscles are on the outside of the ribs and cover the back of the rib, around
to the bony part at the front. They receive messages from the brain to control breathing, and are
responsible for working alongside the diaphragm.

Breathing Mechanism
To be able to take in oxygen and allow carbon dioxide to be expelled, a complex procedure needs to
take place.

Inhalation:
 The diaphragm contracts and moves downwards
 This forces the rib cage muscles to contract
 The ribs then move up and out
 There is decreased pressure in the chest
 The air is sucked down into the lungs through:
 Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchiole and to the alveoli.
 Once the oxygen is in the alveoli, gas exchange takes place so that the carbon dioxide is ready
to be exhaled. The reverse then happens.

Exhalation:
 The muscles of the diagram and intercostals relax
 The size of the thorax reduces
  Air is forced out of the lungs

Gas Exchange
 Once the air that we have inhaled reaches the lungs, the 21% of dissolved oxygen then
diffuses through the alveolar lining cells of the alveolar and the walls of the capillaries and
enters the plasma of the blood.
 From the plasma, the oxygen then diffuses into the red blood cells (erythrocytes) and
combines with the haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
 The newly oxygenated blood then leaves the capillary network and enters the pulmonary
veins to be transported back to the heart to be pumped around the body for its use.
 Once the oxygen has travelled the body, the deoxygenated blood leaves via the capillary
network from the pulmonary artery back into the alveoli.
 The exhaled breath still contains 16% oxygen and 4 ½% carbon dioxide.

Breathing Patterns
Shallow Breathing
When we take short intakes of breath, the Intercostal muscles around the ribs tend to work harder than
the diaphragm, which in turn can cause the diaphragm to become weak. Stress and tension can be the
cause of shallow breathing and it can lead to a lack of oxygen entering the body, as well as
constricting the chest and lung tissue.

Deep Breathing
By using the diaphragm muscle, we are able to fully fill our lungs with air and therefore take in the
largest amount possible. The abdominal muscles also play an important role in deep breathing.

Pathologies of the Circulatory System

Disease Signs & Symptoms Cause
Emphysema Shortness of breath due to Permanent damage of the
obstruction. lungs due to smoking or
working in an environment
with chemicals.
Bronchitis Burning sensation during An infection of the airways
breathing, cough, sore caused by virus or bacteria.
throat.
Pneumonia Cold feeling, difficulty Inflammation of the tissue
breathing, cough, fever. within the lungs.
Tuberculosis Persistent cough, weight Bacterial infection, usually
loss, night fevers. affecting the lungs but can
affect other body systems.
Rhinitis Itching and sneezing and Inflammation inside the
irritation of the nose. nose, usually due to an
allergy.
Laryngitis Sore throat, pain in the voice Inflammation of the larynx
box, mild fever. (voice box) due to infection
or damage.
Pharyngitis Sore throat. Bacterial or viral infection.

The Musculoskeletal System

This system gives individuals the ability to move, using muscles and the skeleton. It consists of the
body's bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage, and other connective tissue.

Muscles
Muscles are classified into three different types, which are skeletal, smooth and cardiac.

Skeletal muscles, also known as striated due to its appearance, or voluntary due to its action, are
attached to bones and deal with movement. These muscles are made up of fine, thread like fibres of
muscles, containing light and dark bands. Skeletal muscles can be made to contract and relax by
voluntary will. They have striations due to the actin and myosin fibres and create movement when
contracted.
Smooth muscles also called unstriated or involuntary, tend to be found within hollow organs such as
blood vessels, the intestines and the respiratory tract. This muscle works automatically with no
participant control. This type of muscle does not tire easily and the contractions are slow, rhythmic
and automatic.

Cardiac muscle is what the heart is made up of and only exists in your heart. It is similar in
appearance to skeletal muscle, in that it is striated. This type of muscle never tires and contracts and
relaxes with no participant control. It is made up of short, cylindrical fibres and is purely controlled by
the nervous system.

There are over 650 different types of muscles in the human body, making up nearly half of the body
weight. The main function is to move joints, to which they are joined, by shortening and pulling one
end of the muscle closer to the other end. Each muscle is made up of muscle fibres that are controlled
by the brain sending impulse to the fibres via the nerves.

When a muscle is damaged, fibres become torn and the connective tissue around the muscle is also
damaged. The fibres are damaged and fluid seeps out of torn fibres, which causes localised swelling.
This fluid tends to stick the fibres together which causes pain as the muscle is irritated by the slightest
contraction. Stretching exercises will increase the length, flexibility and tone of muscles which allows
the joint to move further than before.

Muscles of the body

Muscles have many functions in the body, not just for movement. They also provide the body with its
shape and contours as well as providing a supporting cover for the skeleton. Muscle tone can be
improved by increasing your exercise.

Muscles of the Face, Neck, Shoulder, Back and Arms

The face has several relevant muscles.

Names, position and function of facial muscles

Name Position Action

Frontalis Upper part of the cranium Elevates eyebrows
Draws the scalp forwards
Corrugator Inner corner of eyebrows Forms vertical wrinkles
between the eyebrows
Procerus Top of nose between Depresses the eyebrows
eyebrows (forms wrinkles over bridge
of nose)
Orbicularis Oculi Surrounds the eye Closes the eye (blinking)
Remember Oculi rhymes
with eye
Nasalis Over the front of nose Compresses nose (causing
wrinkles)
Temporalis Runs downs the side of face Aids chewing
towards jaw Closes mouth
Masseter Runs down and back to the Retracts the jaw and aids
angle of the jaw chewing (remember
Masseter - eater)
Buccinator Forms most of the cheek and Puffs out cheeks when
gives it shape blowing
Keeps food in mouth when
chewing
Risorius Lower cheek Pulls back angles of the
mouth(smiling)
Zygomaticus Runs down the cheek Pulls corner of the month
towards the corner of the upwards and sideways
mouth
Quadratus labii superiorus Runs upward from the upper
Lifts the upper lip
lip Helps open the mouth
Orbicularis Oris Surrounds the lip and forms
Closes the mouth
the mouth Pushes lips forwards
Mentalis Forms the chin Lifts the chin
Moves the lower lip
outwards
Triangularis Corner of the lower lip, Pulls the corner of the chin
extends over the chin down
Platysma Front of throat Draws the lower lip and jaw
down, and forms horizontal
wrinkles in the neck
Sternocleido mastoid Either side of the neck Allows neck to flex and
(SCM) rotate, and nod the head
Occipitalis Back of the skull Draws the head backwards

Muscles of the Upper Body

Name Position Action
Trapezuis Upper back and sides of Rotation of shoulders
neck Draws back the scapula
(retracts)
Pulls head back
 Assists in rotation of head
Pectoralis Front of chest, under breast Pulls arms forward and
assists rotation of the arm
Deltoids Surrounds shoulders Lifts arms sideways,
forwards and backwards

Muscles of the Arm and Hand

Many of the muscles in the forearm are termed according to their action. They are grouped as flexors
and extensors.

The muscles flex and extend, supinate and pronate the hand and arm and the fingers to spread apart
and close together
Name Position Action
Deltoids Surrounds shoulders Lifts arms sideways,
forwards and backwards
Biceps Front of upper arm Flexes elbow
Supinates the forearm and
hand
Triceps Back of upper arm Extends the elbow
Brachio radialis On the thumb side of the Flexes the elbow
forearm
Flexors Middle of the forearm Flexes and bends the wrist
drawing it towards the
forearm
Extensors Little finger side of the Extends and straightens the
forearm wrist and hand
Thenar muscle Palm of the hand below the Flexes the thumb and moves
thumb it outwards and inwards
Hypothenar muscle Palm of hand below little Flexes little finger and
finger moves it outwards and
inwards

Muscles of the Chest, Abdomen, Hips, Legs and Feet

The pectoralis major is the main muscle that covers the front of the chest. It is a thick, fan shaped
muscle which gives the chest its contour. It makes up most of the males chest shape and lies under the
breasts on females. The latissimus dorsi covers the back of the chest and abdomen. It adducts, extends
and medially rotates the shoulder joint. The serratus anterior runs around the side wall of the chest.
  The main muscles are at the front of the thigh and are called the quadriceps. They are
responsible for extending the knee joint and flexing the hip
 The Adductors are the group of muscles on the inside of the thigh and moves the leg in
towards the body
 The Abductors are on the outside of the thigh, and moves the hip outwards. (Remember that
the term abduct means to take away)
 The hamstrings are located at the rear of the thigh and extends the thigh and flexes the leg
 The abdominal area consists of the two different types of muscles. The internal and external
oblique. These muscles allow you to move your body from left to right.
 The transversus and rectus abdominus allow us to bend down and pick things up (flexion of
the trunk)
 Dorsiflexion of the foot is performed by the tibialis anterior
 The glutes are the biggest muscle in the body and are the muscles that give your bottom its
shape. They are known to be lazy muscles as they are only used to be sat on.

Name Position Action

Pectoralis major Across upper chest Used in throwing ad
climbing
Adducts and medially
rotates the arm
Pectoralis minor Underneath pectoralis major Draws shoulders downwards
 and forwards
Gluteals In the buttocks Used in walking and
running
adduction and rotation of the
thigh, and extending the hip
Hamstrings Back of the thigh Flexes and extends the knee
Gastrocnemius Calf of the leg Flexes the knee
Plantar-flexes the foot
Soleus Calf of leg, below the Plantar-flexes the foot
gastrocnemius
Quadriceps extensor Front of the thigh Extends the knee, used in
Group of four muscles kicking
Sartorius Crosses the front of the Flexes the knee and hip
thigh Abducts and rotates the
femur
Adductors Inner thigh Adducts the hip
Flexes and rotates the femur
Tibialis anterior Front of the lower leg Inverts the foot
Dorsiflexes the foot
Rotates the foot outwards

Muscles of the Back

Name Position Action

Trapezuis The back of the neck and Moves scapula up, down
chest and back (retracts)
Raises the clavicle
Latissimus dorsi Across the back Used in rowing. Adducts,
extends and medially rotates
the shoulder joint
Erector spinae Three groups of muscle Extends the spine
which lie either side of the Keeps body in an upright
spine form the neck to the position
pelvis
Rhomboids Between the shoulders Braces the shoulders
Rotates the scapula

Muscles of Respiration
As previously mentioned, the diaphragm is a vital muscle of the respiratory system. This sheet of
muscle divides the chest from the abdomen and expands and contracts to allow inhalation and
exhalation to occur. But along with the diagram are two other muscles that are important. These are
the external and internal intercostal muscles. These muscles draw the ribs downwards and inwards.

Tendons and Ligaments

Tendons and ligaments are made up of collagenous tissue with ligaments attaching bone to bone and
tendons attaching muscle to bone. The place where a muscle attaches to a bone but does not move, is
known as the origin. To make movement occur, the muscles contract, which will pull on the tendons,
this then pulls on the muscles.

Tendons are tough, yet flexible bands of fibrous tissue, which allows movement. Ligaments are
stretchy connective tissue which helps to stabilise the joints. They control the range of movements of
a joint to prevent them from bending the wrong way. Injuries to both tendons and ligaments are very
common, caused mainly by sporting injuries. It is fairly common for tendons to be stretched or torn
which can be extremely painful. If ligaments are stretched, either by injury or excess strain the joint
will become weaker, as the ligaments are unable to support it.

Muscle Tone
Muscle tone refers to the amount of tension or resistance to movement in a muscle.

Muscle tone is what enables us to keep our bodies in a certain position or posture. A change in muscle
tone is what enables us to move. For example, to bend your arm to brush your teeth, you must shorten
(increase the tone of) the bicep muscles on the front of your arm at the same time you are lengthening
(reducing the tone of) the tricep muscles on the back of your arm. To complete a movement smoothly,
the tone in all muscle groups involved must be balanced. The brain must send messages to each
muscle group to actively change its resistance.

Characteristics of a Muscle
Muscle tissue has four main properties which allow it to carry out its function. It is able to respond to
stimuli (Excitability). It can contract (Contractibility). It can extend without tearing (Extensibility)
and it can return to its normal shape (Elasticity)

Growth and Repair of the Muscles

Muscle hypertrophy is the term used for when a muscle cell grows in size, and the commonest reason
for this is due to exercise, where there will be an increase in muscle fibre. When a muscle is damaged
(torn) the body has to repair it and will do this by using satellite cells which fuse with the ends of the
damaged fibre. If the damage is constant then the process will repeat itself so that more satellite cells
are used which will create growth of the muscle.

Pathologies of the Muscular System

Disorder Signs & Symptoms Cause

Cramp Sudden muscle pain, mostly The muscle suddenly
commonly in the calf shortens, which can be due
muscle to exercise, nerves or
tendons shortening due to
age
Sprains Pain, inflammation, lack of A stretch, tear or twist of a
movement ligament due to force
Strains Pain, inflammation, lack of A stretch, tear or twist of a
movement muscle fibre due to force
Fibromyalgia Pain and stiffness in the No known cause
muscles, ligaments and
tendons
Muscular Dystrophy Causes muscles weakness inherited
 which slowly gets worse
and loss of muscle tissue
Spasticity An abnormal increase in May occur with spinal cord
muscle tone or stiffness in injury, MS, Cerebral palsy,
the muscles which will brain damage
affect movement

The Skeletal System

The Skeletal System serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for our bodies
in addition to supporting, protecting, allowing bodily movement, producing blood for the body, and
storing minerals such as calcium.

Functions
Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached.
Skeletal bones provide the body with a protective framework, and provides storage for calcium.

 Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the surrounding
skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.
 Bodily movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For
this reason, they are often grouped together as the muscular-skeletal system. Muscles are
connected to bones by tendons. Bones are connected to each other by ligaments. Where bones
meet one another is typically called a joint. Muscles which cause movement of a joint are
connected to two different bones and contract to pull them together. An example would be the
contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. This produces a bend at the elbow.
The contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening
the arm.
  Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6 million red
blood cells is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and
destroyed by the liver.
 Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess
is present in the blood, build-up will occur within the bones. When the supply of these
minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

The human skeleton is divided into two distinct parts:

The axial skeleton consists of bones that form the axis of the body and support and protect the organs
of the head, neck, and trunk. These bones are:

The Skull, the Sternum, the Ribs and the Vertebral Column

The appendicular skeleton is composed of bones that anchor the appendages to the axial skeleton.
These bones are:

The Upper and Lower Extremities, the Shoulder and Pelvic Girdle (the sacrum and coccyx are
considered part of the vertebral column)

Types of Bone
The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and
irregular bones.

 Long bones are longer than they are wide and work as levers. The bones of the upper and
lowerextremities (ex. humerus, tibia, femur, ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type.
 Short bones are short, cube-shaped, and found in the wrists and ankles.
 Flat bones have broad surfaces for protection of organs and attachment of muscles (ex. ribs,
cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle).
 Irregular bones are all others that do not fall into the previous categories. They have varied
shapes, sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the
skull.
Bone Composition
Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of two forms. Compact 0r dense bone, spongy or
cancellous bone. Most bones contain both types.

 Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the protective exterior portion of all bones.
 Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is very porous (full of tiny holes like chocolate
aero). Spongy bone occurs in most bones.

The following charts show the main bones that you will need to have a good knowledge of.

Bones of the Skull and Face

The adult skull is usually made up of 22 bones. You can find a fibrous joint in the sutures of the skull.
Many of the 22 bones are small bones that make up larger ones. The most significant to you as a
therapist are:-
Name Position
Frontal Makes up your forehead and also the
roof of your eye sockets. It joins with
the parietal and temporal bones
Parietal Forms the roof and sides of the
cranium
Occipital Situated at the back of the cranium
Temporal Situated on both sides of the cranium
Sphenoid Located at the front of the temples and
contains a sinus cavity and houses the
pituitary gland
Ethmoid Forms the roof of the nasal passage
Nasal Forms the bridge of the nose
Lacrimal The most fragile bone of the face and
is part of the eye socket
Maxilla Forms the upper jaw and is the largest
facial bone
Mandible Forms the lower jaw and is the
strongest of the skull
Zygomatic Form the angle of the cheeks

Within the skull, the sinuses aim to lighten and improve the voice tone, and to secrete mucus to help
with air filtration. They are to be found at the frontal, ethmoid, maxilla and sphenoid bones.

Bones of the Neck, Chest, Shoulder and Spine

Name Position
Cervical version The neck
Hyoid U-shaped bone at the front of the
neck
Clavicle Slender long bones at the base of
neck
Scapula Triangular bones in the upper
back
Humerus Upper arm
Sternum Breast bone

We have 7 bones in the neck, which form the cervical vertebrae. Our shoulders have 4 bones. These
are 2 clavicles (collar bones) and 2 scapulae (shoulder bones).

The sternum is a dagger shaped bone located in the centre of the chest. It helps protect the heart, along
with the ribs, which are thin, flat curved bones. There are 24 bones which make up the ribs, and these
are arranged in 12 pairs. The function of the ribcage is to allow for inspiration and expiration.

The spine, technically called the vertebral column, consists of 33 irregular shaped bones, called
vertebrae. Its main function is to house and protect the spinal cord. Arranged within 5 sections, these
bones make up the 7 vertebrae of the cervical (neck) , the 12 vertebrae of the thoracic (chest), 5
lumbar (lower back), 5 that are fused to form the sacrum (back wall of pelvic girdle) and 4 coccygeal
bones that form the coccyx (tail bone).
In between these vertebrae are vertebral discs which are made up of fibrous cartilage which acts as a
shock absorber. Sometimes a disc may collapse. This is called a “slipped disc” and can cause intense
pain as the disc presses on a nerve root. Massage may be of a great benefit if this happens.

Bones of the Arm and Hand

The forearm is made up of two bones called the Radius and Ulna, with the ulna being the larger of
these two bones. The radius and ulna on the forearm form a hinge with the upper arm bone called the
Humerus and this enables the arm to flex and extend.

The wrist is made up of eight individual bones called the Carpals.

The palm of the hand is made up of bones called the Metacarpals and the finger bones are called the
Phalanges. The fingers are made up of three bones except for the thumb which has two.
Bones of the Leg and Foot
The tibia and the fibula are the bones that make up the lower leg. (The tibia is normally called the
shinbone) the fibula forms part of the ankle joint.

Seven bones all with individual names make up the tarsals they are named Calcaneum, Talus, Cuboid,
Outer Cuneiform, Middle Cuneiform, Inner cuneiform and Navucular and five Meta tarsals together
support the major arches of the foot.

The toes are made of phalanges like the fingers. Big toes have two phalanges and the others have
three.
Joints
A joint is formed where two or more bones meet and join each other. A joint will allow movement,
for example the elbow and wrist. As we discovered earlier, the bones are joined to each other by
ligaments.
There are three types of joints. They are fibrous (immoveable), cartilaginous (partially moveable) and
synovial (freely moveable).

Fibrous joints are held together by only a ligament, for example the teeth are held to their bony
sockets. These joints are immovable and an example would be the sutures of the skull.

Cartilaginous joints occur where the connection between the bones is made up of cartilage. An
example would be between the vertebrae in the spine, which allows for some movement.

Synovial joints are the commonest and are highly moveable. They consist of two or more bones held
together by a synovial capsule which surrounds the entire joint. They also have a synovial membrane
which secretes synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant. There are five types of synovial joints which
are classified by the shape of the joint and the movement available. They are the ball and socket, such
as the hip and shoulder, the hinge, such as the knee, the double hinge, such as the wrist, the gliding
joint where bones glide on each other and the pivot joint, where one bone turns on another.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a form of dense connective tissue that covers the surface of joints and acts as a shock
absorber. It is found in many areas of the body, including the knees, ribs, the nose, ear and bronchial
tubes.

Growth and Repair of Bones

Bone is continually going through a system of growth and repair called ossification. There are two
stages of ossification, with the first stage consisting of the cartilage being covered with a layer of
Osteoblasts, which are cells that are constantly forming new bone, using calcium and other minerals.
Further cells called osteoclasts then break down the calcium to prevent the bones becoming too dense
whilst the bones get larger. There are also old bone cells called osteocytes which are mature cells that
store the calcium of the body.

Pathologies of the Skeletal System

Postural Defects Meaning
Kyphosis Excessive curvature at the top of the spine.
Scoliosis Curvature of the spine to one side.
Lordosis Inward curve of the lower back.
Cervical Spondylitis Arthritis of the spine in the neck.

Fractures Meaning
Simple Fracture causing little damage to the
surrounding tissue. The skin remains intact.
Compound The bone is sticking through the skin.
Comminuted The bone breaks into several pieces.
Greenstick The bone is bent and broken on only one
side.
Impacted One broken fragment is impacted into the
end of another.
Complicated When the broken bone causes damage to
other organs.

Skeletal Disease Meaning

Gout Type of arthritis in one or more joints,
usually the big toe.
Paget’s Normal cycle of bone renewal and repair is
disrupted.
Osteoarthritis Arthritis where bony spurs grow.
Osteoporosis Weak and fragile bones.
Rheumatoid arthritis Arthritis that attacks the cells that line the
joints.
Rickets Softening and weakening of bones that can
cause bow legs.
Scleroderma Targets the connective tissue of skin,
muscles and organs.
Synovitis Inflammation of the synovial membrane.
Ankylosing Spondilitis A form of inflammatory arthritis, affecting
the joints of the lower back.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus An autoimmune disorder that can affect
many parts of the body including the joints

The Integumentary System

This system protects the body from damage from the outside world and the harmful substances. It
consists of the skin, hair, nails and sweat glands. The word integument comes from the Latin word
integumentum, meaning "cover" or "enclosure. It is the most visible organ system and one of the most
complex.

The Skin

The Skin Structure

Skin makes up around 12% of an adult’s body weight and is the largest organ in the body. It’s very
adaptable and able to mould into different shapes, covering bones and muscles to perform various
functions of the body’s make up.

The functions of skin (remember the word Shapes) are:

 Sensation - Main sensory organ for temperature, pressure, touch
and pain. Pain and pressure receptors in the skin send messages to
the brain to help prevent potential damage or injury.
 Heat Regulation – Controls the body temperature by sweating to cool the body down when it
overheats, allowing the sweat onto the surface of the skin where it evaporates, and shivering
when the body is cold. Shivering occurs due to the arrector pili muscle contracting.
 Absorption – Some creams, fatty substances, essential oils and some medication can be
absorbed through the hair follicles.
 Protection – Too much UV light may harm the skin, so the skin protects itself by producing a
pigment, seen in a tan, called Melanin. Bacteria and germs (invading antigens) are prevented
from entering the skin by a protective barrier called the Acid Mantle. This barrier also helps
protect against moisture loss.
 Excretion – Waste products and toxins are eliminated from the body through the sweat glands
onto the skins surface.
 Secretion – Sebum, a waxy substance and sweat are secreted onto the skins surface. The
sebum keeps the skin lubricated and soft and the sweat combines with the sebum to form the
acid mantle.

Another function of the skin:

 Vitamin D production - Absorption of UV rays from the sun helps formation of vitamin D,
which the body needs for the formation of strong bones and good eyesight.

There are 3 major layers of the skin, the Epidermis, Dermis and the Subcutaneous (adipose):

The Epidermis Layer

The outermost layer of the skin is called the epidermis layer. There are no blood vessels in the
epidermis but it’s the deepest layer and is supplied with lymph fluid. It is at its thickest in the palms of
the hands and on the bottom of the feet.

There are various layers of cells within the epidermis, the outermost of which is called the stratum
corneum (or horny layer). The layers may be clearly seen in the diagram of the skin. The surface layer
is composed of twenty-five to thirty sub-layers of flattened scale-like cells, which are continually
being cast off by friction and replaced by the cells of the deeper epidermal layers. The surface layer is
considered the real protective layer of the skin. The cells are commonly called keratinised cells
because the living matter within the cell is changed to a protein (keratin) which helps to give the skin
its protective properties.
New skin cells are formed in the deepest layer within the epidermis. This area is called the stratum
germinative. The new cells will gradually move towards the outer layers of the skin as the stratum
corneum is shed. The new cells gradually change in form as they move upward to the outer layers,
becoming keratinized in the process.

Names of the Layers of the Epidermis

English Name Latin Name
Horny Layer Stratum Corneum
Clear Layer Stratum Lucidum
Granular Layer Stratum Granulosum
Prickle Cell Layer Stratum Spinosum
Basal/Germinative Layer Stratum Basale

The Dermis Layer

The dermis is a tough and elastic layer containing white fibrous tissue interlaced with yellow elastic
fibres and is found beneath the epidermis. Many structures are embedded in the dermis including: ·
Blood vessels – form a fine network with capillary branches · Lymphatic capillaries and vessels –
form a network throughout the dermis · Sweat glands and their ducts – eccrine and aprocine glands ·
Sebaceous glands – secrete sebum (oil) · Sensory nerve endings - send messages via the nervous
system · The arrector pilli muscle - involuntary muscle sometimes activated in cold weather to give
'goose bumps' · Hair follicles, hair bulbs and hair roots

The Subcutaneous Layer (Adipose)

This is the deepest of the layers of skin and is located on the bottom of the skin diagram. It lies below
the dermis and above the muscle layer and connects the dermis above it to the underlying organs. The
subcutaneous layer is mainly composed of loose fibrous connective tissue made up of fat cells,
interlaced with blood vessels. The hypodermis is generally about 8% thicker in females than in males.
The main functions of the hypodermis are insulation, storage of lipids, cushioning of the body and
temperature regulation.
Below the dermis and above the muscle layer

Diagram of the Skin

Diseases and Disorders of the skin

There are some common diseases and disorders of the skin that affect many people. They can be
troublesome and some of them can even be dangerous. They are broken down into different
categories; bacterial, viral, fungal, infestations, sebaceous gland disorders, sweat gland disorders,
pigmentation disorders, malignant tumours and allergies.

Name Appearance Cause Categories i. e

fungal, bacterial etc
Contact Dermatitis Inflammation of the Allergic reaction to Allergy
skin, swelling & contact with allergen
 redness (always wear
protective clothing)
Seborrheic Warts Flat top/warty Ageing Fungal
looking lesion
Herpes simplex Red sore/scab Viral infection Viral
usually on side of the transmitted by
mouth also none as a contact with another
cold sore infected area. Highly
contagious
Warts Small solid growth Same as Herpes Viral
simplex
Scabies Itchy white spots Mite transmitted by Infestation by a mite,
direct skin to skin fungal
contact typically
from itchy infected
area and transporting
mite to someone else
under fingernails.

Psoriasis Red itchy scaly The immune system Chronic recurring

patches erupting on sends out a faulty skin disease which
skin signal that speeds up can be pustular or
the growth cycle of non pustular
skin cells
Acne Rosacea Redness on nose and Dilation of minute Skin disorder
cheeks capillaries in the
skin
Impetigo Red spot which Highly contagious. Bacterial
blisters then Spread through
discharges direct contact and
developing a yellow itching
crust
Milia Small harmless Manifestation of Benign cyst
pinhead cysts also immature sebaceous
called milk spots glands and become
blocked with keratin
Eczema Same as dermatitis: Allergic reaction Allergy
Redness is due to Stress
dilated blood vessels
and as fluid
accumulates itching,
and swelling occurs.
Weeping skin can
then become
infected
The Hair

There are roughly 5 million hairs that cover the body and with the exception of the palms, soles, the
lips, the sides of the fingers and toes and some parts of the genitals, the whole body is covered in hair.
 Hair originates from a structure called a hair follicle. This tube like structure extends into the
dermis layer and is fed by capillaries and nerves which are attached to it.
 Epithelial cells grow and divide inside the base of the follicle, which forms the hair bulb.
 Keratin, a protein which is found in the epithelial cells coats the hair which causes it to stiffen
as it grows up through the follicles. Whilst the hair is in the follicle, it is called the root, but
once exposed from the scalp it is called the hair shaft.
Structure of the Hair Root
Below the surface of the skin is the hair root, which is enclosed within a hair follicle. At the base of
the hair follicle is the dermal papilla. The dermal papilla is feed by the bloodstream, which carries
nourishment to produce new hair. The dermal papilla is a structure very important to hair growth
because it contains receptors for male hormones and androgens. Androgens regulate hair growth and
in scalp hair, Androgens may cause the hair follicle to get progressively smaller and the hairs to
become finer in individuals who are genetically predisposed to this type of hair loss.

Each strand of hair consists of three layers.

1. An innermost layer or medulla, which is a core of loosely arranged cells and air spaces and only
present in large thick hairs.
2. The middle layer known as the cortex. The cortex provides strength and both the colour and the
texture of hair, and is made up of densely packed keratinized cells.
3. The outermost layer is known as the cuticle, made up of a single layer of scaly cells that overlap.
The cuticle is thin and colourless and serves as a protector of the cortex.
As the newly formed cells grow and push up from the follicle base, the older epithelial cells die.
The colour of the hair is determined by pigmented cells called melanocytes, which contain melanin.
The amount of melanin will determine the colour of hair.

Hair Types and Textures

Straight Hair
With this type of hair, there is absolutely no curl pattern, and it is completely straight and sleek. The
hair tends to be shiny because of the lack of curl pattern which allows the light to reflect off of the
hair, giving it a shiny finish.

If straight hair appears dull is may be because it has become damaged. It is essential to care for the
hair carefully to maintain its shine.

Wavy Hair
Wavy Hair can either be fine, or medium textured which looks coarser and thicker. It is possible to
style and straighten the hair for a sleek look, but tighter curls can also be added.

Medium Curly Hair

This hair has a tighter curl pattern, and can either be loose curl or a tighter curl pattern. There is a lot
of body in this hair which gives it versatility and it can be styled in many different styles, although it
may be hard to straighten. The hair easily absorbs water when wet, but then it shrinks.

Kinky, Coily Hair

Tightly coiled hair has a lot more kink and appears thicker than other curly hair but it can be fairly
fine. This type of hair is found in Afro styles and should not be brushed when dry as it can cause
damage and breakage.
Texture
Hair texture is the measure of the circumference of the hair strand and is classified as either being
"coarse", "fine", or "medium".
 Coarse hair has the largest circumference and is strong as it has more substance. It can be
resistant to colouring and perming.
 Medium texture indicates a middle-range size circumference of the hair shaft, it's considered
normal and poses no special considerations regarding processing and chemical services.
 Fine hair, has the smallest circumference, and is often very easy to process. It is easily
damaged from chemicals and heat.

Hair texture varies from individual to individual, and the same head of hair can have different textures
in different places.

Hair Density
Hair density is the amount of hair strands on the head, and is measured by counting the number of hair
strands found in one square inch (2.5cm) of scalp. Generally, the classifications of hair density are
thick, medium, and thin, and are unrelated to the texture of the hair. The average head has
approximately 2,200 strands of hair per square inch, and a total of approximately 100,000 hairs.

Hair Growth Cycle

Hair follicles grow in repeated cycles. One cycle can be broken down into three phases.
1. Anagen - Growth Phase
2. Catagen - Transitional phase
3. Telogen - Resting Phase

Each hair passes through the phases independent of the neighbouring hairs.
We are constantly losing around 30,000 to 40,000 dead skin cells form the surface of the skin every
day, with the epidermis constantly replacing old skin cells and shedding them. The germinativum
layer (basale) has cells that are shaped liked columns that divide and push new cells into the layer
above. This process continues through each layer with the final layer – the corneum being made up of
dead, flat cells that shed around every 2 weeks.

Nails
Nails provide some protection to our sensitive fingers and toes as well as allowing us to grasp small
objects

The nail is made up from the following:-

Nail Wall: This is the folds of skin that overlap the sides of the nail. It holds the nail in place and
protects the nail plate edges.

Matrix: The only living reproducing part of the nail, this is situated directly below the cuticle. New
cells form here and continually push towards to produce the nail plate. It also contains blood vessels
and nerves. Blood supply provides the cells with nourishment. If the matrix is damaged the nail will
grow deformed.

Lunula: (Halfmoon) This is the meeting point for the matrix and nail bed and is pearly coloured and
crescent shaped due to the cells being pushed closely together. The blood capillaries cannot be seen
through the lunula because of this.

Nail Plate: Visible nail that rests on the nail bed up to the free edge. This is made up from dead cells
(that have been pushed up from the matrix) and are held together with a minimum amount of
moisture. The nail is semi-transparent – allowing the colour of blood supply of the dermis to show
through (pink colour).

Nail Bed: Part of the nail that the nail plate rests on, also a continuation of the matrix. It is abundantly
supplied with blood vessels and nerves, having numerous parallel ridges which dovetail exactly with
the ridges on the under surface of the nail plate.

Free Edge: Is an extension of the nail plate. It overlaps the hyponichium. This part of the nail can be
filed and shaped.

Cuticle: This is the overlapping epidermis surrounding the nail. It protects the matrix from invading
bacterial and physical damage.
Eponychium – Base of the nail.
Peronychium – Sides of the nail.
Hyponichium -The portion of the skin at the end of the finger which is underneath the free edge.
Nail Grooves (Or furrows): Side of the nails upon which the nail moves on and acts as a guideline for
the nail to follow.

Mantle: Is the skin over the matrix which protects it.

Disease or Disorders of the Nail

There are a variety of diseases that can affect the nail, ranging from anonychia, which is a congenital
abnormality in which there is an absence of a nail, koilonychias, where the nail becomes spoon
shaped, onycholysis, which is where the nail becomes separated from the nail bed and paronychia, in
which there is a bacterial infection of the cuticle. Nails can also become curved, shed or ingrown.

Nail Pathologies

Name Appearance Cause

Leukonychia White flecks within the nail Trauma to the nail or signs
plate. of a disease.
Hang nail A small piece of torn skin Usually picking or biting
next to the nail the nails
Paronychia Skin infection around the From biting or injury
nails, causing red swelling
Vertical ridges Lines running the length of Unknown but more
the nail common as you get older.
Nothing to worry about
Onycholysis Separation of the nail from Usually trauma but can be a
the bed sign of disease

Diagram of the Structure of the Nail

Glands
There are two types of glands that are associated with the Integumentary system. They are sweat and
sebaceous glands and both have their own different roles. There are around 2.5 million sweat glands
covering the majority of the body and these consist of eccrine and aprocine sweat glands. The eccrine
sweat glands produce a clear secretion with is made up of 99% water. The other 1% consists of salts
and traces of waste. These glands are found all over the body but have a large supply on the forehead,
upper lip and palms. The aprocine sweat glands are larger and do not function until puberty. They are
found in the armpits and groin and secrete a cloudy substance which contains proteins and fatty acids.
If the secretions remain on the skin for too long an odour can occur as the bacteria living on the skin
break down the proteins and fatty acids.

All over the body, with the exception of the soles and palms, sebaceous glands lie in the dermis. The
function of these glands is to secrete a substance called sebum which acts as a lubricant to prevent the
skin and hair from drying out. The sebum consists of a mixture of fats, proteins the debris of dead fat-
producing cells and is deposited onto the hair inside the follicles. If there is no hair on a particular
surface, the sebum is deposited through ducts.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis involves maintaining a constant internal environment in order for the body to function,
regardless of the external conditions. The skin plays an important role in this as it contains heat and
cold receptors in the skin which regulates the body temperature, keeping it at around 37°C.

The glands that we have discussed also reduce the growth of fungi by producing acidic secretions, as
well as responding to signals from the hypothalamus in the brain. These nerve signals send messages
to the glands which stimulates the production of sweat to cool the body down.

The blood vessels within the skin also respond to the hypothalamus and dilate to allow blood to flow
closer to the skin and allow heat to be lost, as well as constrict to retain heat within the body when the
temperature drops.

The pigmented cells, melanocytes also play a part in homeostasis as they act as a barrier from the
damaging effects of ultraviolet light.

The Digestive System

The digestive system allows for the breaking down of chemicals in the body that can be absorbed and
contains a number of hollow organs which runs from the mouth to the anus. There are a number of
stages to digestion as it follows its route through the digestive tract, which takes from 20 – 30 hours,
and we are going to look at them in turn as we follow that journey. The digestive systems main aim is
to allow for mastication, digestion, absorption and then elimination of food.

The Mouth
When we think of food or before it even enters the mouth, saliva is released from the salivary glands
which are passed around the mouth by the tongue. The saliva, which is secreted at around 1 – ½ litres
a day, contains an enzyme called amylase that assists with chemically breaking down some
carbohydrates. The saliva also moistens the food, making it easier to swallow. Our teeth break down
food into smaller manageable pieces by tearing and shredding.

Movements by the tongue and the jaw push the food to the back of the pharynx (throat), where a tiny
flap of skin called the epiglottis closes over the entrance of the trachea to prevent choking. This
swallowed food, now called a bolus, is pushed down into the oesophagus, where wave like
contractions, called peristalsis push the food further down to the stomach. The food passes through a
muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter into the stomach, which then quickly shuts to prevent food
travelling back up the oesophagus.
The Stomach
Once in the muscular J shaped sac, the food and liquids are stored and mixed with strong digestive
juices that are secreted by the lining of the stomach. The bolus is churned and squeezed by the
powerful muscular contractions of the stomach wall. Hydrochloric acid breaks down the bolus into
chyme, which is a liquid. The acid does not damage the stomach walls due to a thick layer of
protective mucus, but if this mucus becomes limited, then an ulcer may form. With the exception of
water, alcohol and certain drugs, very little of the chyme is absorbed into the blood from the stomach.

The stomach walls contain three layers of smooth muscle arranged in longitudinal, circular, and
diagonal rows, which allows the stomach to squeeze and churn the food during mechanical digestion.
Whilst this digestive process in the stomach is occurring, which can take several hours, a stomach
enzyme called pepsin is breaking down proteins. The chyme is then transported a little at a time
through the pylorus into the small intestine, via the pyloric sphincter.

The Small Intestine

Sometimes called the small bowel, the small intestine is the longest portion of the digestive tract and
is approximately 20 feet long is made up of the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum and is a narrow
tubed structure that fills most of the lower abdomen. Once the chyme is in the duodenum, bile from
the gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas all combine to complete the final stages of digestion.
The acid from the stomach is neutralised in the duodenums alkaline environment.

Gland cells in the small intestine secrete digestive enzymes that chemically break down complex food
molecules into simpler ones.
The chyme leaves the duodenum and it enters the jejunum and ileum. Here the nutrients are absorbed
through the lining of the small intestine and transferred to the bloodstream and liver by tiny villi
which cover the walls of the small intestine.

These finger like projections allow for a greater surface area, allowing the chyme to be absorbed.
Such products as fibre and water, that have not been digested in the small intestine travel to the large
intestine. The ileum is the final portion of the small intestine, which leads into the large intestine.

The large Intestine

Sometimes called the large bowel, the large intestine collects and stores all waste products before
processing them into faeces to be removed from the body. This part of the intestines is around 5 feet
long and is made up of the caecum, appendix, colon and rectum.

The caecum is shaped like a pouch and is found in the right lower abdomen and stores all the material;
fibre, water salts and some vitamins from the small intestines before moving it along to the colon. The
material enters the expanded caecum through a valve that separates the small intestines from the large
intestine. A small projection, the appendix, emerges from the caecum, and although it has no known
function it can become troublesome if it becomes infected.

Starting at the caecum, the ascending colon travels up the abdomen towards the liver. The colon then
becomes transverse as it travels across the abdomen, and then descends down the left side of the
abdomen to the sigmoid colon. This S shaped organ is the largest part of the intestine and joins onto
the rectum. All the time that the processed mixture is in the colon, mucus and bacteria from within the
large intestine mix and starts to form faeces. This water and some vitamins and minerals from the
faeces are then absorbed into the colon.

The faeces are pushed along to the sigmoid colon and finally the rectum by muscular action, where
they are stored until being passed as a bowel motion.
The Pancreas
This 12-15cm organ is located just below the stomach, and slightly behind it. Around 99% of the
pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells called acini, which is responsible for
producing the clear pancreatic juice which has many functions. These enzymes enter the duodenum
via two pancreatic ducts, which classifies it as an exocrine gland. Pancreatic amylase is secreted for
digesting carbohydrates, trypsin to digest proteins and lipase to digest fats. The remaining 1% of the
pancreas contains cells which are arranged into clusters called Islets of Langerhans. These cells
directly secrete the hormones Insulin and glucogen, needed to control the blood sugar level into the
bloody which also means the pancreas is an endocrine gland.

The Liver
Found in the upper abdominal cavity towards the right and above the diaphragm, the liver is the
heaviest gland in the body. The livers cells or hepatocytes process chemical changes and its main
function is to regulate the composition of blood, so is therefore highly vascular, receiving oxygenated
blood via the hepatic artery and deoxygenated blood from the stomach and intestines via the hepatic
portal vein. Here, excess glucose from the blood is removed and stored in the form of glycogen, until
all the glucose in the body has been used up and blood sugar levels fall. The liver then re-converts the
glycogen back into glucose. Filtering the blood of any harmful substances is crucial and this is done
by the liver extracting it from the blood. Blood is transported back to the heart via the inferior vena
cava.
As well as the mentioned functions, the liver also secretes bile, which consists of cholesterol,
pigments, salts and traces of other substances. Bile is removed from the liver to the gall bladder for
storage via the canaliculi.

The Gall Bladder

Acting as a storage vessel for bile produced in the liver, this small 4 inch sac is located behind the
liver and has an important function of adding mucus to the bile which increases its concentration. As
the body requires bile to emulsifier fats, the gall bladder contracts and releases bile into the bile duct.
Along with the pancreatic duct, bile enters the duodenum.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts, made up of proteins, which speed up chemical reactions in all living
things. They are needed to digest food and only work for one specific reaction. Human saliva contains
an enzyme called amylase which breaks down starch into a sugar called maltose. The pancreas is the
main digestive gland in the body

In the stomach the gastric enzymes pepsin, gelatinase, gastric amylase and gastric lipase are secreted.
All of these enzymes have a different role, from breaking down proteins to degrading starch

Digestive Hormones
As well as releasing enzymes, at least four digestive hormones are released which help aid and
regulate the digestive system. These consist of gastrin found in the stomach, secretin, cholecystokinin
and gastric inhibitory peptide also found in the duodenum.

Absorption and Transportation of Nutrients

The human body is made up of two-thirds water and it is an essential nutrient that is involved in every
function of the body. Water helps transport nutrients and waste products in and out of cells and is
necessary for all digestive, absorption, circulatory, and excretory functions. Maintenance of the proper
body temperature is determined by water and it is recommended that you drink at least eight 8-ounce
glasses of water each day.

Carbohydrates, such as starch and sugars need to be broken down into simpler molecules by enzymes
in the saliva and pancreatic enzymes. Starches are digested by the enzyme in saliva and pancreatic
juices and sugars are digested by an enzyme found in the lining of the small intestine.

Fibre is indigestible and does not get broken down at all by enzymes. Soluble fibre can be dissolved in
water, whereas insoluble fibre passes through the intestines unchanged.

Fats need to be broken down by being dissolved in the intestine and then by the bile acids produced
by the liver, so they form tiny droplets. These droplets are then carried into the cells of the mucosa
before changing back into large molecules. They then pass into the lymphatic’s to be carried to the
veins of the chest, and by blood vessels to the fat deposits in the body where they are laid down as
storage.

Proteins must start to be digested by an enzyme in the stomach before they can be used to help build
and repair the bodies cells and tissues. Once in the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes complete the
breakdown of larger protein molecules into smaller ones called amino acids. Once absorbed, they can
be carried to all parts of the body for growth and repair

Vitamins are classified by being either water-soluble vitamins (the B vitamins and vitamin C) or fat-
soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). It is difficult to store water-soluble vitamins, and any
excess are flushed out in the urine. Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the liver and the fatty tissue
of the body.

Minerals are needed in small amounts. Minerals are classified into essential minerals and trace
minerals, with the body only needing very small amounts of trace minerals. Those classified as
essential are magnesium, sulphur, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, iron and calcium. The main
function of minerals is to control body fluids, build strong bones and teeth and to assist with
converting food into energy that can be used.

Water is an essential nutrient which makes up around 50-75% of our body weight. It removes toxins
in the body, regulates temperature and is essential for growth of the body.

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)

The RDA was originally set in 1979 by the Government of Health to state what the minimum amount
of nutrients needed by the body but the term Dietary Reference Value (DRV) can also be used. The
rates are different for adults, children, male and females. The law now ensures that food is labelled to
state what percentage it is providing against the RDA, and also many foods now contain the “traffic
light” symbols.

Pathologies of the Digestive System

Disease Meaning
Crohn’s Disease Inflammation in the gut, a long term
 disease, affecting any part of the digestive
system.
Coeliac’s Disease An intolerance to gluten which causes
indigestion, bloating, weight loss
Gall stones Pebble like deposits, usually made of
cholesterol, that form inside the gall
bladder.
Irritable bowel syndrome Bouts of stomach cramps, bloating and a
change in bowel motion.
Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver, usually caused by
a virus.
Hernia The lining of the abdominal cavity weakens
and protrudes through a weak area of the
abdominal wall.

The Urinary/Excretory System

The urinary/excretory system is made up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra and is
responsible for controlling the amount of water and salts that are absorbed and filtered into the blood,
and will regulate the chemical composition of body fluids by removing water and salts (metabolic
waste).

The Kidneys
These are two bean shaped kidneys in the body, one on either side, located near the middle of the back
behind the 13th rib. These 5 – 6 inch long organs are responsible for processing waste products and
filtering the blood to ensure that the body is in a state of balance. The waste comes from the normal
breakdown from the food that is eaten.

It is essential that this waste is removed as it could damage the body. Each kidney is joined to the
aorta, which is the largest artery in the body by a short renal artery, as they receive a huge blood
supply.

Each kidney contains around a million nephrons, a tube which is closed at one end, and open at the
other. Inside the nephron is a tiny blood vessel called a glomerulus. This vessel intertwines with a tiny
tubule where waste materials and water leave the blood and enters the urinary system where it is
turned into urine, to continue the journey to the urethra. The main filtered substances consist of water,
nitrogen containing compounds, acids, salts and alkalis.

The renal artery supplies blood, containing glucose and oxygen to the kidney from the left hand side
of the heart. Blood in the renal artery must have sufficient pressure or the kidney will not be able to
filter the blood. The blood in this vessel contains a toxic product called urea which must be removed,
as it may have too much salt and water. It is the kidneys function to remove these excess materials.
The renal vein has a large diameter and a thin wall, and carries blood away from the kidney and back
to the right hand side of the heart. Blood in the kidney has had all its urea removed. The renal vein
contains blood that has exactly the right amount of water and salts, as the kidneys remove excess
water and salts. The kidney is controlled by the brain, and a hormone in the blood called Anti-Diuretic
Hormone (ADH) is used to control exactly how much water is excreted.

Any products that can be re-used enter the blood and travels throughout the body. About 150 litres of
blood pass through the kidneys every day, but of this only about 1% is excreted as the rest is cleaned
and re-used.

The cortex is the outer part of the kidney and is where the blood is filtered. This process is called
ultra-filtration or high pressure filtration because it only works if the blood entering the kidney in the
renal artery is at high pressure.

The medulla is the inside part of the kidney and is where the amount of salt and water in your urine is
controlled. It is dark red in colour and contains billions of loops of Henle’ which pumps sodium ions.
ADH stimulates the loops to work harder to pump more sodium ions, which results in very
concentrated urine, is produced.

Nephron
A nephron is the functional unit of the kidney which is responsible for purifying and filtering the
blood. It is around 2-4cm in length and each cortex contains around one million nephrons, and each
one consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule which carry out the functions of the nephron.

The Glomerulus
The glomerulus is the main filter of the nephron and is found within the Bowman's capsule. It looks
like a twisted mass of tiny tubes through which the blood passes. The glomerulus is semi permeable
which allows water and soluble wastes to pass through and be excreted out of the Bowman's capsule
as urine. Once filtered, the blood passes out of the glomerulus into the efferent arteriole to be returned
through the medullary plexus to the intralobular vein.

Bowman's Capsule
This is where the glomerulus is contained. Blood is transported into the Bowman's capsule from the
afferent arteriole and within the capsule; the blood is filtered through the glomerulus and then passes
out via the efferent arteriole.

Ureter
Leading from each of the kidneys to the bladder is a 25cm long tube called the ureters. The walls of
the ureters are hollow and contain smooth muscles which contracts and allows the movement of urine
out of the kidneys. Each Ureter is lined with a membrane coated with mucus. This lining is
impermeable to the normal soluble substances of the urine.

The Bladder
The bladder is a hollow, elastic muscular organ in which urine is stored until it is passed out of the
body via the urethra. The bladder is found in the pelvis behind the pelvic bone and can expand and
hold around 400 – 600ml of urine at a time, for up to five hours.
The more fluid that is drunk, the more urine is produced. When the body becomes hot, and sweat is
produced, less urine will be made.

Of the urine produced, around 96% of it is water, but it also contains waste salts and a substance
called urea, which is made during the breakdown of proteins in the liver. It is a transparent solution
but is amber in colour. The sweat that the body produces may also contain urea and it is essential that
this does not build up in the body as it can be an indicator that the kidneys are not working
satisfactorily.

The Urethra
This tube runs from the bottom of the bladder to the outside of the body. In males the urethra is
approximately 8 inches long and leaves the bladder, passing downward through the prostate gland,
through the length of the penis until it ends at the urethral orifice or opening at the tip of the glans
penis. In females, the tube is around 4 – 5 cm in length and exits the body just in front of the vagina.

A ring like band of muscle, called the internal urethral sphincter helps control the process of urination.
This sphincter is an involuntary muscle and therefore requires no participant control. The external
sphincter, lying below the internal sphincter is made up of smooth and striated muscle and is under
the control of the pudendal nerve.

The striated muscle allows it to be under voluntary action and its function is to keep urine in the
bladder. As the bladder fills, the internal pressure inside the bladder activates stretch receptions in the
bladder wall and a message gets sent to the nervous system. This produces small waves in the muscle
attached to the internal sphincter which relaxes and becomes funnel shaped. This action causes the
conscious effort of tightening the external sphincter until the person is able to urinate and relax the
external sphincter.

As well as the organs mentioned, other organs also have an important role in excreting waste
substances. The lungs excrete carbon dioxide and water, the liver excretes bile and the skin secretes
waste in the form of sweat.

In addition to removing waste products from the body, the urinary system also secretes an enzyme
called renin which maintains normal blood pressure and a hormone called erythropoietin which
controls red blood cell production.

Pathologies of the Urinary System

Disease Meaning
Urinary Tract Infection An infection that can happen anywhere
along the urinary tract.
Cystitis Inflammation of the bladder, usually caused
by an infection.
Nephritis Inflammation of a kidney.
Kidney Stones Stone that are made in the kidneys, usually
out of tiny crystals. Pain occurs if the stones
move into the ureters.
Bladder Stones Small stones that form inside the bladder,
which can disrupt the flow of urine.
Renal Failure A deterioration of kidney function which
can be caused by other conditions such as
diabetes.
Renal Colic Abdominal pain, usually caused by kidney
stones.

The Reproductive System

The primary function of the reproductive system is to ensure that the human species survives. All
living things reproduce and it is one of the functions that sets living things apart from nonliving
things. The continuation of the species will happen by producing an egg and sperm cell and allowing
for the transportation of these cells. Another role is to nurture and develop the offspring and to
produce hormones.
The Male Reproductive System
This system consists of organs which allows for the production of a new individual. The organs
involved are the testes, excretory ducts made up of the epididymis and the vas deferens, glands such
as seminal vesicles and the prostate gland and the penis.

Testes
The testes are the principal structure of the male reproductive system. The two egg shaped organs,
approximately 2 inches in length are suspended from the body by the scrotal sac, a pouch of skin that
allows the testes to remain at an optimum temperature for the development of sperm. The scrotum
changes size to be able to maintain the right temperature. The testicles produce and store million of
sperm cells. Around 850 feet of tubules are packed into each testis and is where sperm are produced
by meiosis. The testes also produce testosterone, the primary hormone which is involved in puberty.
During ejaculation, the muscular movements of the vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct aid the
ejection of the sperm.

Excretory Ducts
The epididymis and the vas deferens make up the duct system of the male reproductive system. The
epididymis is a c shaped set of coiled tubes that is connected to the vas deferens. They are found at the
back of the testes and are where sperm are matured and stored. The vas deferens is a muscular tube
that passes up along the side of the testicles and transports the semen.

Glands
The function of the glands in the male reproductive system is to secrete fluids during ejaculation.
 The seminal vessels have a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens to form an
ejaculatory duct that empties into the urethra.
 The fluid produced assists with the mobility and viability of the sperm, as well as neutralising
the acidity in the female reproductive tract.
 The prostate is a firm, walnut size gland that encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary
bladder. It secretes a thin, milky coloured liquid that enhances the mobility of the sperm. It is
of an alkaline substance that counteracts the acidity of the urethra.
 The paired bulbourethral glands, or sometimes called the Cowper’s glands are about the size
of a pea and are found near the base of the penis. During sexual stimulation, theses glands
 secrete mucus like fluid which neutralises the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra. It also
provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during intercourse.

The Penis
The penis is the sex organ that allows for the passage of both urine and sperm. Apart from the muscles
on the tip of the penis, it does not contain bone or muscles.

The penis is made up of three columns of erectile tissue that are wrapped in connective tissue and
covered with skin. It has a root, shaft and glans penis, with the root attached to the pubic arch. The
shaft is the visible part.

The glans penis is formed at the end and the urethra extends throughout the length of the penis and
opens through the external urethral orifice at the tip of the glans penis. The foreskin, a loose folding of
skin covers the glans penis.

Seminal Fluid
Seminal fluid contains a mixture of sperm cells and secretions from the accessory glands. In fact
around 60% of semen is made up of the secretions from the seminal vesicles, with the prostate gland
providing the remainder. Only a small amount comes from the bulbourethral gland and sperm.

In one single ejaculation, the volume of semen can vary from 1.5 to 6.0ml with usually anything
between 50 to 150 million sperm per millilitre of semen.

The Female Reproductive System

Again, this system consists of organs which allows for the production of a new individual. The organs
involved are the ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus, cervix and vagina.

The Ovaries
 The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs, with each one being a solid oval
structure around the size and shape of an almond.
 They are approximately 3.5 cm in length and 2 cm wide and are located one on each side of
the uterus, in the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity.
 They are suspended by the ligaments in the upper pelvic cavity, one being on either side of
the uterus. At the birth of a female, each ovary contains over 200,000 immature ova, with
 each ova being encased in a sac called a follicle. In response to various sex hormones, each
follicle develops until they become primary follicles, which is when ovulation occurs.
 The ovum breaks free of the follicle and enters the fallopian tube. The ovaries are also
responsible for producing oestrogen and progesterone, which are vital for proper reproductive
function
 There are two fallopian tubes, each about 4 inches in length and a narrow as a piece of string,
attached to a side of the uterus. Each tube resembles a funnel, which is wider at the ovary and
becomes narrower at the uterus.
 Once in the fallopian tubes, Epithelial tissue that has tall, oblong-shaped cells with hair-like
projections, known as ciliated columnar, move ova in one direction, down the narrow
passageway towards the uterus.
 If fertilization takes place, it will usually occur in the wider part of the fallopian tube. Once
the ovum has become fertilized it is called a zygote and travels to the uterus over the next 7
days.

The Uterus
The uterus is suspended by broad ligaments and is situated between the bladder and the rectum. It is
shaped like an upside-down pear, with a thick lining, muscular walls and a rich blood supply. It is
made up of three layers, being the peritoneum (outer layer), myometrium (middle layer) and
endometrium (inner lining). The uterus serves as a pathway for sperm to reach the fallopian tubes as
well as to be able to expand and contract to accommodate a growing foetus and push the baby out
during labour. If fertilisation occurs, the uterus will provide a source of attachment and nourishment
for the growing zygote, which embeds into the endometrium. When a woman isn't pregnant, the
uterus is only about 3 inches long and 2 inches wide and the lining of the uterus (endometrium) breaks
down during menstruation.

The Cervix
The uterus ends at the cervix which is the lower portion or neck of the uterus. The cervix is lined with
mucus and joins the top end of the vagina. It is a thick tube of smooth muscle that acts as a channel
for sperm to reach the waiting ovum. During late pregnancy the walls of the narrowed channel thin
out to allow for the babies head to descent. The opening of the cervix is very small and during
childbirth, the cervix can expand to allow a baby to pass.

The Vagina
The vagina is the female’s sex organ and extends about 3 – 5 inches inside, up to the cervix. It is a
muscular, ridged sheath connecting the external genitals to the uterus. The vagina acts as a pathway
for the penis to enter during intercourse to allow sperm to be deposited. It also acts as a passageway
for the birth of a baby. During sexual arousal, droplets of fluid appear along the vaginal walls and
eventually cover the sides of the vagina completely. The tissues are rich in blood vessels which when
engorged with blood as a result of sexual arousal, press against the tissue, forcing natural tissue fluids
through the walls of the vagina

Menstruation, Conception and Pregnancy

Menstruation is controlled by hormones and the cycle is usually a 28 day process, although this can
vary greatly.
 During day 1 – 5 the hormones oestrogen and progesterone reduce which causes a breakdown
of the endometrium. This results in the discharge of blood, tissue fluid and mucus, but also in
the preparation of a mature follicle.
 During days 6 – 13, two more hormones, Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone stimulate the ovaries to produce more oestrogen. This in turn allows for the
endometrium to re-build.
 By now a mature follicle is ready to be released on day 14.
 Between days 15 – 28, progesterone is stimulated by luteinizing hormone to prepare the
uterus to receive the fertilised ovum, if there is one.
  If fertilisation does not occur then the hormone changes will start the cycle over again and
initiate the breakdown of the lining.

The process of conception is nothing short of a miracle. Once the ovum has been released, it travels
along the fallopian tubes, producing an enzyme that attracts any sperm. One sperm will break through
the tough coating of the ovum to fertilise it, which will then continue to the uterus. Once the zygote
has arrived in the uterus it will implant itself into the endometrial lining and become an embryo.

Pregnancy
The first four weeks after fertilisation will show a rapid amount of development as all of the major
organs and body systems start to develop. The placenta and umbilical cord, which sustains pregnancy,
are also being formed.
 During weeks 5 – 8, the embryo starts to become recognisably human in form as the limbs
begin to grow and the torso straightens out.
 By weeks 9 – 12, the first trimester is closing and the foetus is almost double in length with
all organs formed. The eyelids are fused with the eyes remaining closed.
 Weeks 13 – 16 see the foetus rapidly increasing in size, with movements alerting the pregnant
women of its presence. The foetal circulation is now established with the blood being pumped
around its body.
 By the fifth month, the skin of the foetus has become more mature and a network of blood
capillaries and nerve endings has become established.
 The sixth month marks the end of the second trimester and the facial features are beginning to
resemble those of a full term baby. The growth rate is slow but weight is being gained rapidly.
 The last trimester up until 40 weeks is a period where the foetus continues to develop, but in a
much smaller space.
 By week 33, the foetus is still putting on weight at just over 5lb, but still lacks adequate fat
stores under the skin.
 The last few weeks of pregnancy can be a time of great discomfort for many women. For the
foetus the fingernails have reached the ends of the digits and its body is covered in a coating
called vernix. The average pregnancy lasts from 38 weeks from fertilisation or 40 weeks
when calculated from the last day of the menstrual cycle.

Pathologies of the Reproductive System

Disease Meaning
Mastitis Inflammation of the breast tissue, which
can be caused by infection, engorgement or
blocked ducts.
Amenorrhoea The absence of menstruation in a women
who is still of a reproductive age.
Dysmenorrhoea Pain during menstruation
Endometriosis Small pieces of uterus lining are found
outside of the uterus which causes pain.
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Inflammation of the uterus, fallopian tubes
and ovaries.

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that release hormones which have an influence on
almost every cell, organ, and function of the body. Hormones are chemicals that carry messages from
one cell to another through the bloodstream. The endocrine system regulates our mood, growth and
development, the function of tissues, as well as metabolism and sexual function.

The endocrine system is in charge of body processes such as breathing and cell growth, which are
controlled by hormones that transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another.
Many different hormones circulate throughout the bloodstream, and each one has a specific role. The
levels of hormones circulating can be influenced by factors such as stress, infection, and changes in
the balance of fluid and minerals in blood. In summary, the endocrine system produce’s chemicals
called hormones, which are secreted directly into the blood stream, where they are then carried to
their target organ.

The major glands that make up the human endocrine system include the:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary gland
 Thyroid
 Parathyroid’s
 Thymus
 Adrenal glands
 Pineal body
 Reproductive glands
 Pancreas

A gland has more than one function. It produces and secretes chemicals but it also selects and
removes materials from the blood, processes them, and then secretes the finished chemical product to
be used in a specific area in the body.

There are two different types of glands. Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretory product
to a surface. Such glands include the sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands. Endocrine glands
release hormones directly into the blood stream for transportation around the body. Some other organs
in the body, but not part of the endocrine system, also release hormones, such as the brain and heart.
We are going to look at each one in turn:

The hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small cone shaped structure of specialized cells that is located in the lower
central part of the brain just above the brain stem. It acts as the primary link between the endocrine
and nervous systems through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus has to respond to many different
signals and has the following functions:
 Controls the autonomic functions
 Controls emotions
 Plays a significant role in homeostasis
 Controls motor functions
 Regulates food and water intake
 Regulates the sleep and wake cycle

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which is sometimes referred to as the master gland,
and sends hormones down to the pituitary gland.

The Pituitary Gland

Around the size of a pea and located just below the hypothalamus, this tiny gland has a powerful
effect on the body. This master gland makes hormones that control other endocrine glands, such as the
thyroid and adrenals, and receives its information from the hypothalamus, for example a change in
temperature.

The pituitary is divided into two parts:

 The anterior lobe regulates the thyroid, adrenals and reproductive glands.

 The posterior stores and releases the hormones from the hypothalamus without making any
hormones itself. For example the antidiurectic hormone is released as it prevents excess water
being excreted by the kidneys.
The pituitary gland also secretes endorphins that act on the nervous system to respond to pain as well
as secreting the hormone FSH and luteinizing hormone that are vital for reproduction.

Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid

This gland is located in the front part of the lower neck and is shaped like a butterfly. It produces the
hormone Thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which controls the rate at which cells burn fuels from food
to produce energy. This phrase is called metabolism and deals with body temperature and weight.
Iodine is found in the thyroid hormones which the thyroid needs to make the hormones.

If there is a lack of iodine in the diet, the thyroid cannot make the hormones. Hormones produced by
the thyroid also aid in the development of the brain and nervous system in children. The release of
these hormones is controlled by thyrotopin, secreted by the pituitary gland. Attached to the pituitary
are four small glands, called the parathyroid’s which release the parathyroid hormone that regulates
the levels of calcium in the blood.

Thymus
The thymus is a small gland that is situated behind the top of the breastbone in front of the trachea and
plays an important role in immunity. The thymus increases in size and activity until puberty then
begins to shrink. The thymus secretes several hormones which help develop the immune system, one
in particular called thymosin are produced that stimulate the development of antibodies as well as
producing T-lymphocytes which are white blood cells that fight infection and destroy any abnormal
cells.

The Adrenal Glands

The body has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenals work with the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland by stimulating the adrenals to produce corticosteroid hormones.
The adrenal glands consist of two parts, each one producing a set of hormones which has a different
function. The adrenal cortex, which is the outer part,
produces hormones called corticosteroids directly into the blood stream which help regulate the salt
and water balance in the body. The cortex also controls the body's use of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates. The adrenal medulla, which is the inner part of the gland, is not essential for life but
secretes epinephrine which increases blood pressure and the heart rate when under stress – also called
adrenaline.

The Pineal Gland

This gland is situated in the middle of the brain, around a quarter or an inch long and secretes a
hormone called melatonin when it’s dark that regulates the sleep – wake cycle. This is why some
people feel depressed in the dark winter months when they may be producing too little melatonin. The
pineal gland is shaped like a pine cone and helps to promote sleep as it is sensitive to light. But can
also affect reproduction by depressing the activity of the gonads.

The ovaries secrete two female hormones; oestrogen and progesterone, with the former being
involved in the development of features such as breast growth and the accumulation of body fat
around the hips and thighs. Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for
pregnancy.

The Pancreas
This organ is situated in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach, with the right side being the widest
part and being attached to the duodenum. This organ is classed as a compound gland as it works as
both an exocrine and endocrine gland, with the exocrine part secreting digestive hormones and the
endocrine part producing two important hormones; insulin and glucagon.
A part of the pancreas, called the Islets of Langerhans secretes glucagon which tells the liver to take
carbohydrate out of storage to raise a low blood sugar level if there is one. If the blood sugar level is
too highthe islet cells secrete insulin to tell the liver to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower
it. Both hormones insulin and glucagon therefore work together to maintain a steady level of glucose,
or sugar, in the blood and to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of
energy. If there is not enough insulin made by the body, the blood sugar will rise and become diabetes
mellitus.
The exocrine part makes pancreatic juices, and as they are made they flow into the main pancreatic
duct which joins the common bile duct. This connects the pancreas to the liver and also the
gallbladder.

The workings of the endocrine system

Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the bloodstream to target cells
designed to receive the message. During the transit to the cells, the hormones have special proteins
bound to them. These proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormones that are available to
interact with and affect the target cells. Once at the target cells, receptors within the cells attach
themselves to specific hormones so that only those hormones communicate with the cells. The
hormone locks onto the cells receptors and chemical instructions are transmitted to inside the cell.
Once the hormone level reaches the required amount, any further secretions are controlled by
mechanisms to maintain it.

Gland/Organ Hormone Process

Pituitary Gland Trophic hormones, Growth Stimulates production of
hormones, luteinising hormones from other glands
hormone (LH), Milk production
Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)
Hypothalamus Hormone releasing factors, Stimulates pituitary gland to
anti-diuretic hormones, produce hormones, control
Oxytocin of water
Helps uterine contraction in
childbirth and stimulates the
let down reflex for
breastfeeding
Thyroid Thyroxine Controls rate of body
processes and heat
production and energy
production from food
Parathyroid glands Parathormone or parathyroid Controls the amount of
hormone calcium in blood and
hormones
Pancreas Insulin Controls blood sugar
Adrenal glands Adrenaline Controls emergency
Cortisol action,response to stress
Aldosterone Stress control, conversion of
Androgens fats, proteins and
carbohydrates to glucose.
Acts on the kidneys to
control salt and water
balance
Testes Testosterone Control of sperm, growth
and development of male
features at puberty, beard
growth
Ovaries Progesterone Helps control normal
Oestrogen progress of pregnancy.
Placental hormone Interacts with FSH and LH
(pregnancy only) and oestrogen to control the
menstrual cycle
Stomach wall Gastrin Starts acid production by
stomach
Small intestine Secretin Triggers release of digestive
enzymes from pancreas

Pathologies of the Endocrine System

Disease Meaning
Acromegaly Too much growth hormone, causing body
tissues to gradually enlarge.
Thyrotoxicosis When there is too much thyroid hormone in
the body
Addison’s Syndrome Disorder of the adrenal glands affecting the
production of adrenaline and cortisol.
Cushing’s syndrome A range of symptoms if there is too much
cortisol in the blood.
Goitre An abnormal swelling of the thyroid gland.
Diabetes The amount of glucose in the blood is too
high because the body cannot use it
properly.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Condition which affects the workings of the
ovaries, causing cysts to form around the
edge of the ovaries.

The Lymphatic System

The lymph system is a collection of thin tubes that carries colourless liquid called lymph. As
discovered in the circulatory system, blood travels around the body and delivers oxygen and other
nutrients. On its journey, fluid leaks into the bodies tissues and it is this fluid which makes the lymph,
along with substances such as fibrinogen, water and lymphocytes. It travels around the tissues of the
body and carries white blood cells. After travelling around the body, lymph enters one of the major
lymphatic vessels, the thoracic duct, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects lymph
from the pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest. This duct runs up through the chest and empties into the
blood through a large vein near the left side of the neck. The right lymphatic duct is the other major
lymphatic vessel and collects lymph from the right side of the neck, chest, and arm, and empties into a
large vein near the right side of the neck. This means that lymph is continuously emptied into the
blood where it mixes with the plasma. The system has no heart or arteries, but capillaries that extend
into most tissues, which run parallel to the blood capillaries. In conclusion, Lymph is formed when
plasma seeps from the blood into the surrounding tissues and becomes tissue fluid where it is
collected by the lymph vessels. The main function of the lymphatic system is to fight infection,
distribute excess fluid and transport fats around the body.

Nodes
Throughout the miles of lymph vessels, there are small round nodes or glands which are bean shaped
structures covered in a capsule of connective tissue. They are packed full with lymphocytes which are
used to filter the lymph. These structures are made of lymphatic tissue and here the white blood cells
fight infection, that is why sometimes these glands can be felt, for example in the armpits, in the groin
and neck, as the lymph nodes trap bacteria or viruses that they cannot destroy immediately. The
lymph node may swell and become painful and sore. Some nodes cannot be felt, for example those in
the abdomen, chest and pelvis. Occasionally the lymph nodes can trap cancer cells that it cannot
destroy. The nodes then become swollen but not necessarily painful. This is why it is so important to
check any swollen lymph node as cancers can develop in the lymph system.

Lymph
As lymph flows through the node, lymphocytes (white blood cells) are added, which leaves the lymph
cleaner due to breaking down bacteria. Lymph drains through around 8 – 10 nodes before returning to
the blood. Most lymph nodes are solitary but some can be found in clusters. For example, a cluster is
found in the ileum of the small intestine. These large masses of lymph nodules are known as Peyer's
patches.

Lymph Vessels – carry lymph

These are microscopic, thin walled tubes which branch, interconnect and extend into almost all tissues
of the body. They look like blood capillaries but they contain a larger inner space and also have a
closed end. Lymph capillary walls are made up of overlapping cells that swing slightly inward when
fluid outside the capillary pushes against them. This allows the milky fluid to enter the capillary, and
is now referred to as lymph. Small amounts of diffuse lymphatic tissue are found in virtually every
organ of the body.
Lymph capillaries join to form larger vessels called lymphatic’s or sometimes called lymph veins.
Lymphatic’s are found in the subcutaneous tissue of the skin, following the same path as veins.
Lymph vessels contain valves to prevent the back flow of lymph and they allow lymph to travel
through lymphatic nodes.
Lympahtic
Lymphatic Ducts – collects lymph
Thoracic duct is the principal vessel of the lymphatic system and carries lymph as well as a substance
called chyle, which is a milk fluid that contains lymph and emulsified fats. It begins in the abdomen
and runs to the neck where it empties into the venous blood stream at the left subclavian vein. This
duct receives the lymph from smaller vessels of the lower limbs and the upper left side of the head
and neck.
Right lymphatic duct is a vessel that collects lymph from the right upper side of the body and drains it
into the right subclavian vein.

Cisterna Chyli vessels drains lymph from the intestines which is laden with digested fats

Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is found in the hollow of bones and is a spongy material that makes red and white blood
cells and plasma. Once mature enough, two types of white blood cells, lymphocytes and myeloid cells
made by the bone marrow enter the bloodstream and circulate around the body. The lymphocytes also
circulate in the lymph system. These cells only live for a few days so it is essential that the bone
marrow constantly renews the old ones.

There are four main organs that are involved with the lymphatic system. They are the spleen, thymus,
tonsils and adenoids.

The Spleen
This organ is found in the upper left abdominal cavity and is the largest lymphatic organ in the body.
The spleen consists of two types of tissue called the white and red pulp. The white pulp consists
mainly of lymphocytes and the red pulp consists of venous sinuses which are filled with blood and
cords of lymphatic cells.
The function of the spleen is to filter blood, similar to the way lymph nodes filter lymph, but it also
breaks down and destroys old red blood cells, which have a life span of around 120 days. The spleen
holds extra blood that can be released into the circulatory system if needed.

The Thymus
As already discovered, the thymus is an endocrine gland but it also helps to produce white blood cells,
so that puts it in the lymphatic system as well.

The Tonsils
The tonsils are two glands in the back of your throat, and they help to protect the entrance of the
digestive system by preventing bacteria from entering. When the tonsils become infected, a condition
called tonsillitis occurs. The lymphoid tissues in the back of the mouth at the top of the throat that
normally help to filter out bacteria.

The Adenoids
The adenoids are lumps of tissue found at the back of the nose above the tonsils but are only present
in children as they begin to shrink by the age of 7. The appendix also needs to be mentioned as,
although its function is unclear, it has a rich supply of lymph tissue.

Pathologies of the Lymphatic System

Disease Meaning
Oedema Soft tissue swelling – fluid retention.
Hodgkin’s Cancer of the lymphatic system.
Non Hodgkin’s lymphoma Cancer of the lymphoid tissue.
Glandular fever Viral infection causing sore throat and
temperature.
Lymphadenitis An infection of the lymph nodes.
Lupus An autoimmune disease where the body
starts to attack healthy cells, tissues and
organs.
The Nervous System

The nervous system is the means by which the body co-ordinates bodily systems and informs the
body about any changes in the environment.

The nerves carry brief electro-chemical messages that trigger appropriate responses in the various
parts of the body. The messages (impulses) then react and will do certain tasks such as make the
muscles contract, the glands secrete and the blood vessels widen or narrow.

The nervous system is a very complex system in the body but is divided up into two main parts. The
Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

The CNS
The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of this part of
the system is to get information from the body and send out instructions, and to maintain equilibrium
in the body. The CNS receives sensory information from all parts of the body. On receipt of this
information, the CNS analyses the information, and thoughts, emotions and memories are then
generated and stored. The CNS usually responds to nerve impulses by stimulating muscles or glands,
which creates an appropriate response to the original stimulus such as a change in temperature.

The Brain
The brain is the most highly developed part of the nervous system and is protected by the skull. A vast
network of arteries supply the brain with blood and twelve pairs of cranial nerves originate from the
brain. Most of these nerves supply the sense organs and muscles in the head, but some do extend to
other parts of the body. The cranial nerves are not part of the CNS but are part of the peripheral
nervous system. The surface layer of the brain is called the cerebral cortex, and is often referred to as
the gray matter because of the lack of insulation which gives it the white appearance.

The largest part of the brain is called the cerebrum, which in Latin means “brain” and is divided into
two sections called hemispheres, which are joined by a band of nerve fibres. These hemispheres are
both responsible for different behaviours such as hearing smell and touch.
Each hemisphere has four lobes, as you can see from the diagram.
 The front part of the frontal lobe deals with problem solving and personality and the rear part
are concerned with movement. There is a strip here called the motor area which moves
different muscles.
 The parietal lobe deals with sensation and perception, with an area called the somatosensory.
It is also concerned with speech and processing information.
 The temporal lobes at the side of the head contain auditory areas which deal with hearing as
well as emotional responses. The Wernicke’s area found in the left temporal lobe deals with
understanding speech.
 The occipital lobe is the prominent bone which can be felt at the back of the head. This part
deals with receiving visual information.

The rear part of the brain is called the cerebellum and is responsible for monitoring the position of the
limbs. Fine movements are controlled by this part of the brain.

The base of the brain extends into the spinal cord.

Meninges
Around the brain and spinal cord is a covering called the meninges. This is made up of three layers,
with the outer layer called the dura mater, the middle layer called the arachnoid and the inner layer
called the pia mater. The dura mater is thick and tough and can restrict the movement of the brain
within the skull. The arachnoid contains projections which transfers cerebrospinal fluid from the
ventricles back into the bloodstream. The pia mater contains tissues which adhere to the brain, making
it difficult to dissect.

Brainstem
The brainstem is the lower extension of the brain where it connects to the spinal cord. Neurological
functions located in the brainstem include those necessary for survival (breathing, digestion, heart
rate, blood pressure) and for arousal (being awake and alert).

Most of the cranial nerves come from the brainstem. The brainstem is the pathway for all fibre tracts
passing up and down from peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the highest parts of the brain
The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long nerve tract that runs from the base of the brain, down through the vertebral
column. It consists of millions of nerve fibres which will allow messages to be transmitted.

The spinal cord allows the brain to communicate to all areas of the body. It does this using 31 pairs of
spinal nerves which branch off from the spinal cord and are part of the PNS.

The main function of the spinal cord is to transmit information from sense organs located in the skin
and in muscles, to the brain, and to transmit information back from the brain to the muscles and
glands. The nervous system, therefore works closely with other systems, such as the Integumentary,
the muscular and the endocrine systems.

Nerves exit the spinal cord at the vertebra and are numbered accordingly. For example, a nerve that
exits the foramen of the 3rd Thoracic vertebra will be numbered T3.
Neurons
The spinal cord is a thick bundle containing millions of nerve cells called neurons. A neuron is a cell
which is very long and is specialised to be able to transmit nerve impulses. Most of this length is
made up of the part of the cell called an axon – this is a nerve fibre thinner than a hair.

A neuron is triggered to fire a nerve impulse, which travels along the axon, which then passes from
one neuron to another by means of transmitter chemicals. Long axons enable nerve impulses to be
transmitted very quickly. Most nerve fibres are encased in a fatty layer called the myelin sheath. This
acts like insulation and gives the nerve its white appearance. Unlike an electrical wire, the axon of a
neuron can only transmit impulses in one direction. This means that there has to be two types of
neurons:
 Sensory neurons are needed to send information from the sense organ to the brain.
 Motor neurons are needed to transmit the information from the brain to muscles and glands.

The dendrites receive the nerve impulses, which are then carried away by the axon. The terminal
button touches a dendrite of another neuron at a junction called a synapse. Dopamine; a chemical
neurotransmitter then allows the nerve impulse to be transmitted across the synapse, which allows the
message to be conveyed.

The Peripheral Nervous System

This part of the system is made up of all of the nerves and the wiring. This system sends the messages
from the brain to the rest of the body. The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous
system.

There are two types of cells in the peripheral nervous system which carries information to the sensory
neuron cells and from the motor neuron cell. Cells of the sensory nervous system send information to
the CNS from internal organs or from external stimuli. Much of the peripheral nervous system is
concerned with voluntary response, but there are still involuntary responses that are dealt with. This
part of the PNS is called the autonomic nervous system as it deals with automatic responses such as
smooth and cardiac muscle. The autonomic nervous system comprises of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic system. The differences between both of these are the responses that are generated as
they work in opposition to each other. For example, the medulla of the adrenal glands is supplied with
sympathetic fibres which trigger the release of adrenaline into the blood. The parasympathetic
nervous system releases acetylcholine that decreases the heart.

Types of Nerves
Sensory nerves send messages from the muscles to the spinal cord and the brain. Special sensors in
the skin and deep inside the body help people identify if an object, for example if it is hot. Sensory
nerve damage often results in tingling, numbness, pain, and extreme sensitivity to touch.

Motor nerves enable the brain to stimulate muscle contraction, by sending impulses from the brain
and spinal cord to all of the muscles in the body. Damage to the motor nerve can lead to muscle
weakness, difficulty walking or moving the arms, cramps and spasms.

Autonomic nerves control involuntary or semi-voluntary functions, such as heart rate. If the
autonomic nerves are damaged, then a person’s heart may beat faster or slower, and dizziness may
occur. In addition, autonomic nerve damage may result in difficulty swallowing, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea or constipation, problems with urination, abnormal pupil size, and sexual dysfunction.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
This fluid circulates throughout the CNS and is located between the ventricles of the brain and within
the spinal canal. The choroid plexus is the area on the ventricles of the brain where cerebrospinal fluid
is produced at the rate of 500 ml/day. It has two important functions. Firstly it is needed to deliver
nutrients to structures of the nervous system and to remove any waste. It also acts as a shock absorber
in the case of trauma to the head through an injury or accident.

Pathologies of the Nervous System

Disease Signs & Symptoms Cause

Bell’s Palsy Temporary paralysis of the Due to an injury of the facial
 muscles on one side of the muscle where it becomes
face. inflamed or compressed
Epilepsy Condition affecting the Not always known
brain, causing repeated
seizures.
Meningitis An infection of the Bacteria or a virus.
meninges, the membrane
that surrounds the spinal
cord and brain.
Multiple Sclerosis Scarring of the myelin Many theories, such as
sheath that protects and genetics, environment,
coats the nerves, creating autoimmune disease.
problems with vision,
sensation etc.
Neuritis An inflammation of a nerve. Trauma or injury
Cerebral Palsy Brain damage causing Usually from birth or from
problems with movement trauma.
and function.
Depression A mental or psychological No single cause but can be
condition which affects linked to life events.
mood.
Alzheimer’s Disease A form of dementia with No single factor.
memory loss and action
slips.
Sciatica Pain, tingling and numbness When there is damage or
in the leg. pressure on the sciatic nerve.
Vertigo Sensation that you are Usually caused by problems
moving when you are not to do with the balance
mechanism in the ear.

The Olfactory System

The Olfactory System is basically the body's system of smell and it begins at the roof of the mouth
and nasal cavity.
Tiny molecules of aroma are inhaled by the nose and are trapped in the nose by hair like nerve
endings that pass the aroma on to receptors. These are then carried to the Olfactory Bulb within the
limbic region of the brain. As a neural circuit, the olfactory bulb has one source of sensory input
(axons from olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory epithelium), and one output (mitral cell
axons).

The olfactory region of each of the two nasal passages in humans is a small area of about 2.5 square
centimetres containing in total approximately 50 million primary sensory receptor cells