PCr ese 3 : a 2 z = 2 : é 5USS. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 81-68616 Copyright © 1981 The Asphalt Institute e C ¢ c iG C C . ¢ ic ie iG Alll reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of this Manual; however, the Asphalt Institute can accept no responsibility for the consequences of any Cc inaccuracy which it may contain. c r ICT Library. 4 . r x Aay eG imum A eae 1 clo cP 'R 6617 J fete ates c ie ie 7 NOTE, C ‘This publication Incorporates dual units of c measurement: The Interafional System of Unit, G@ ‘SI (metric), followed by U.S. Customary Units, ies (ie PRINTED IN USA =TAAAANMARAANAMEMBERS OF THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (As of October 2002) * Akzo Nobel Surface Chemisty LLG, Willowtrook, Hino Al States Asphalt, Inc., Sundertand, Massachusetts ‘Alon USA, Dallas, Texas * Andre In., Muskegon, Michigan *AnMaz Products, Winter Haven, Florida ‘Asphalt Materials, In, Indkanapals, Indiana ‘Asphalt Processors Incorporated, Barbados, West Indies Associated Asphalt, Inc, Roanoke, Virginia ATOFINA Petrochemicals, Inc, Houston, Texas “ATOFINA Petrochemicals, Inc, Houston, Texas Bitumar Inc, Montreal, Quebec, Canada Bituminous Products Company, Maumee, Ohio “Bouchard Coastwise Management Corp, Hicksville, New York BP, Whiting, Indiana Caltex Corporation, Sydney, Australia Canadian Asphalt Industries Inc., Markham, Ontario, Canada ChevronTexaco Corp., San Ramon, California CITGO Asphalt Refining Company, Plymouth ‘Meeting, Pennsyivania Colas, S.A, Paris, France ConocoPhilps, Houston, Texas Consolidated Of & Transportation Co, Inc, Englewood, Colorado ‘CORASFALTOS, Piedecuesta, Colombia Dexco Polymers (A DowExxontobil Partnership), Houston, Texas “DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware *Dynasol LLC, Houston, Texas EMCO Building Products td, LaSalle, Quebec, Canada Ergon Asphalt & Emulsions, In, Jackson, Mississippi ExxonMobil Lubricants & Petroleum Speciaties Company, Fairfax, Virginia EoxontMobil Lubricants & Petroleum Speciaties Company (Intemational), Fairfax, Virginia Frontier Terminal & Trading Company, Tulsa, Oktzhora GAF Materials Corporation, Wayne, New Jersey Gorman Asphalt, LTD, Rensselaer, New York “Heateo Ino. Chattanooga, Tennessee ‘The Hudson Companies, Providence, Rhode Istand Hunt Refining Company, Tuscaloosa, Alabama Husky Oil Marketing Company, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 1KO, Chicago, linois Imperial Oi, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Isfat AS, Uskudar, Istanbul, Turkey ebro Inc, Sioux City, lowa Koch Maleials Company, Wichita, Kansas Kokosing Materials, Inc, Fredericktown, Ohio *KRATON Polymers, Houston, Texas Lafarge Asphalt Engineering, ADhsion of Lafarge Construction and Materials, Inc, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Marathon Ashland Petroleum LLC, Findlay, Ohio E.A Mariani Aspralt Co, Ine, Tampa, Florida Mathy Construction Company, Onalaska, Wisconsin Measphalt Industries Ld, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada ‘Moose Jaw Asphalt Inc., Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada ‘Murphy Oil USA, Ine, Superior, Wisconsin NlynYées Bitumen, Brussels, Beigium Oldcastie Materials Group, Washington, D.C. Paramount Petroleum Corporation, Paramount, California *Penn Maritime, Inc, Stamford, Connecticut Petro-Canada In., Oakile, Ontario, Canada Petroleo Brasiiro, S.A. - Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro, Bri *Polimeri Europa Americas, Inc, Houston, Texas RECOPE, Catago, Costa Rica REPSOL YPF, Machid, Spain "Rhoda Inc, Cranbury, Nev Jersey "ohm and Haas Company, North Andover, Massachusetts * Safety-Kleen, Oil Recovery Division, Elgin, Hinois San Joaquin Refining Co, Ino, Bakersfield, California Sargeant Marine, Ine, Boca Raton, ora Seneca Petroleum Co, Inc, Crestwood, tlinals Shel Canada Products, Montreal, Quebec, Canada Shel International Petroleum Company Limited, London, England Sheil Ol Products US, Burbank, California Sk Corporation, Seoul, Korea * Sprague Energy Corp, Portsmouth, New Hampshire Suit-Kote Corporation, Cortland, New-York “Terry Industies, nc, Hamilton, Ohio Tesoro Refining and Marketing Company, Anacortes, Washington TexPar Energy, In, Waukesha, Wisconsin ‘Trumbull Products (Division of Owens Corning), Toledo, Otio “Ultrapave Corporation, Resaca, Georgia United Refining Company, Warren, Pennsyvania US. Oil & Refining Company, Tacoma, Washington Valero Energy Corporation, San Antonio, Texas Werden Modified Asphal, Harisburg, Pennsylvania * Alfiiate Member A. ASPHALT INSTITUTE Executive Office and Research Center Research Park Drive P.O. Box 14052 Lexington, KY 40512- 4052 Tel: 859-288-4960 Fax: 859-288-4999 ‘wwwaasphaltinstituts.com(GGG EV BE GE EUG SE GE SE EEEFOREWORD This edition of MS-1 is a revision of the Ninth Edition of the Asphalt Institute’s Thickness Design manual, originally published in 1981. The major change in this revision is the inclusion of thickness design charts for three typical sets of environmental condi- tions which represent most of North America. The procedures presented here are based on an application of elastic layer theory to pavement design that utilizes the results of currently acceptable research. Advances in asphalt pavement technology, new knowledge of materials properties, and changing needs of the highway system will require future revision and additions to the manual. The engineers and editors responsible for producing this manual are grateful to the ‘many individuals, companies, and agencies that made contributions to the Ninth Edition, including the Computer Science Center of the University of Maryland whose facilities were used in developing the design charts, and Chevron Research Corporation for use of their N-Layer Computer Program, Details of the background and development of this design manual can be found in “Research and Development of the Asphalt Institute’s Design Manual (MS-1) Ninth Edition,” Research Report No. 82-2 (RR-§2-2), Asphalt Institute. This research report and many other publications dealing with the various aspects of asphalt pavement design and construction can be obtained from the Asphalt Institute. ASPHALT INSTITUTE iA. Research Park Drive P.O. Box 14052 Lexington, KY 40512-4052 USA Telephone: (606)-288-4960 viiCONTENTS Asphalt Institute Member Companies. ‘Asphalt Inset Engineering Offices: Foreword List of litustrations . List of Tables List of Charts .... CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION . 1.01 Scope of the Manual. 1.02 Definitions of Terms . 1.03 Basis of the Manual 1.04 Advantages of Asphalt Bases 1.05 Advantages of Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements . CHAPTER II: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . 2.01 Introduction . : 2.02 Classifications of Highways and Streets . 2.03 Selection of Design Input Variables . 2.04 Stage Construction... 2.05 Economic Comparisons. CHAPTER III: DESIGN PRINCIPLES . 3.01 Basis for Design . 3.02 Design Criteria 3.03. Material Characteristics. 3.04 Environmental Considerations . 3.05 Design Charts ......... CHAPTER IV: TRAFFIC ANALYSIS 4.01 Introduction . . 4.02 Traffic Volume Estimates . 4.03 Estimating EAL. 4.04 Determining Design EAL- 4.05 Parkways and Shoulders... ....- - CHAPTER V: MATERIALS EVALUATION. 5.01 General A. Subgrade Soils . 5.02 Definition .... 3.03 Improved Subgrade 5.04 Evaluation Methods 3.05 Sampling and Testing. 5.06 Selection of Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus .4 ( roeeoer CONTENTS (Cont’d.) 5.07 Subgrade Compaction Requirements . aed - 28 B. Asphalt Concrete Surface and Base Mixtures . 2B 5.08 Material Requirements for Asphalt Concrete . . + 28 5.09 Asphalt Concrete Compaction Criteria . 29 C. Emulsified Asphalt Base Mixtures .. 29 5.10 Material Requirements for Emulsified Asphalt Mixé 29 5.11 Compaction Requirements for Emulsified Asphalt Mixes. = 30 D. Untreated Aggregate Base and Subbase . - 30 5.12 Material Requirements for Untreated Base and Subbase. . 30 5.13 Compaction Requirements for Untreated Aggregate Base ant 30 CHAPTER VI: STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCEDURE... 33 6.01 Introduction .. a 33 6.02 Design Procedure . . : 33 6.03 Design Traffic, Subgrade, and Materials Input Values - 33 6.04 Environmental Factors ... . ee - 35 6.05 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Concrete . 7 a 35 6.06 Thickness Determination for Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete Pavements - 36 6.07 Thickness Determination for Emulsified Asphalt Base Pavements .. 6.08 Thickness Determination for Pavements with Asphalt Concrete Over Untreated Aggregate Base........ oe ea 6.09 Thickness Determination for Pavements with Emulsified Asphalt Mixes Over Untreated Aggregate Base -39 CHAPTER VII: PLANNED STAGE CONSTRUCTION .... 7.01 Planned Stage Construction ... 7.02 Advantages of Stage Construction 7.03 Design Method CHAPTER VIII: ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 8.01 Introduction ...... 8.02 Basic Factors for Analysis . 8.03 Discussion of Basic Factors 8.04 Salvage Value ......... APPENDIX: THICKNESS DESIGN CHARTS : Sot ateeeeeaeee etree 49ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1-1 Spread of wheel-load pressure through pavement structure . .. 12 Pavement deflection results in tensile and compressive stresses in pavement structure. .. 2 TIE-1 Locations of strains considered in design procedure IL-2 Subgrade modulus variations for the conditions where freeze-thaw occurs IV-1 Load Equivalency Factors. 1V-2 Example of a USS. axle load jon.. IV-3 Example worksheet for traffic analysis. IV-4 EAL Adjustment Factor VI-l_ Flow diagram for design TABLES Table IV-1 Distribution of Trucks on Different Classes of Highways (United States) IV-2 Percentage of Total Truck Traffic in Design Lane a IV-3 Growth Factors . : IV-4 Load Equivalency Factors IV-5 Distribution of Truck Factors (TF) for Different Classes of Highways and ‘Vehicles (United States) V-1 _ Subgrade Soils Tests and Sample Sizes V2 Subgrade Design Limits V-3 Untreated Aggregate Base and Subbase Quality Requirements . Vil Selecting Asphalt Grade VL2 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Concrete Over Emulsified Asphalt Base . VI3 Minimum Thickness of Asphalt Concrete Over Untreated Aggregate BaseDESIGN CHARTS Charts SI Units (Metric): Blue Pages Page MAAT7°C A-1 Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete... 2... ae 3 A-2 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Pee sageagaeeaeeateeeaeeeee . 54 A-3 Emulsified Asphalt Mix PPO eee ae me} A-4 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type... 00... 56 A-S Untreated Aggregate Base, 150mm thickness aaESt A-6 Untreated Aggregate Base, 300mm thickness... . . - 58 MAAT 15.5°C A-7 Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete ...... 2.20. i - 59 A-8 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Typel.. 0... =» 60 A-9 — Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type. ae . 61 A-10. Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type I ee .. A-11 Untreated Aggregate Base, 150mm thickness wee . 63 A-12 Untreated Aggregate Base, 300mm thickness . 64 MAAT 24°C A-13. Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete . . e635 A-14 Emulsified Asphalt Mix TypeI . . -- 6 A-15 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type II. . 67 A-16 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Typelll . . a wee. OB A-IT Untreated Aggregate Base, 150mm thickness aero) A-18 Untreated Aggregate Base, 300mm thickness see U.S. Customary Units: Yellow Pages MAAT 45°F A-19 Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete A-20 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type I A-21_ Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type I A-22, Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type III A-23 Untreated Aggregate Base, 6-in. thickness | A-24 Untreated Aggregate Base, 12-in. thickness xiA25 A26 A2T A28 A29 A230 A31 A32 4-33 A384 A35 A36 DESIGN CHARTS (CONTINUED) MAAT 60°F Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete... . : 79 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type I. . : 80 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type II. - 81 Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type 111 : 82 Untreated Aggregate Base, 6-in. thickness .....-......... - 8 Untreated Aggregate Base, 12-in. thickness... 22.2... 84 MAAT 75°F Full-Depth Asphalt Concrete. . Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type... 2... Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type II Emulsified Asphalt Mix Type III Untreated Aggregate Base, 6-in. thickness. Untreated Aggregate Base, 12-in. thickness xiiCHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.01 SCOPE OF MANUAL This manual presents a structural thickness design procedure for pavements utilizing asphalt cement or emulsified asphalt in all, or part, of the structure. Included are various combinations of asphalt concrete surface, emulsified asphalt surface (with surface treatment), asphalt concrete base, emulsified asphalt base, and untreated aggregate base or subbase. Guidelines are offered for defining subgrade properties, material properties, and traffic values required for the selection of appropriate thickness of the pavement layers, In addition, there are procedures for stage construction design and economic analysis. Recommended compaction requirements also are included. 1.02 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS Common or standard terms are used for the most part, but a number of terms that may be unfamiliar are used also. Thus, in most cases, terms are explained at appropriate points in the text. A glossary commences at page 91. 1.03 BASIS OF THE MANUAL In this manual the asphalt pavement is characterized as a multi-layered elastic system. Established theory, experience, test data, and an analytical computer program (DAMA) were used to develop a comprehensive design procedure. The procedure was then simplified into design charts for use without recourse to computers or complicated test procedures. The multi-layered elastic analysis computer program, DAMA, and a com- puter program of the thickness design procedure presented here (HWY) can be obtained from the Asphalt Institute headquarters. Two specific stress-strain conditions are considered, as shown in Figures I-1 and I-2. The first condition is illustrated in Figure I-1(a). Here, the wheel load, W, is transmitted to the pavement surface through the tire as an approximately uniform vertical pressure, Po, The pavement structure then spreads the load stresses, thus reducing their intensity until, at the surface of the subgrade, the vertical pressure has a maximum intensity of Pi. Figure I-1(b) illustrates the general manner in which the maximum vertical pressure intensity decreases with depth, from Po to Pi. The second condition is illustrated by Figure 1-2. Here the wheel load, W, deflects the pavement structure and causes both tensile and compressive stresses and strains in the asphalt layer. Criteria for vertical compressive strains induced at the top of the subgrade layer and maximum tensile strains induced at the bottom of the asphalt layer by wheel loads have been adopted and used in producing the thickness design charts included in this manual. 1.04 ADVANTAGES OF ASPHALT BASES This manual includes design charts for asphalt concrete base courses, emulsified- asphalt-treated base courses and untreated aggregate base courses. Asphalt bases have many advantages over untreated base courses. A major one is thatNOT DRAWH TO SCALE ee " SUBGRADE (b) Figure 1-1. Spread of wheel-load pressure through pavement structure. LOAD,W NOT DRAWN TO SCALE PAVEMENT ‘STRUCTURE ‘SUBGRADE POE COMPRESSION “0-2 TENSION Figure |-2. Pavement deflection results in tensile and ‘compressive stresses in pavement structure.asphalt-treated bases resist pavement stresses far better than untreated aggregate bases, which have no tensile strength. Therefore, for the same loading conditions, asphalt. treated bases can be constructed thinner than untreated aggregate bases. Other important advantages of asphalt bases are: + With proper construction, asphalt bases will result in pavements of improved riding quality. + Aggregates unsuitable for asphalt surface courses often may be used in asphalt base courses. + Asphalt bases are excellent for stage construction (see Chapter VII). + Construction delays caused by inclement weather are minimized. + Asphalt bases may be used by haul traffic before the surface course is placed, thus expediting construction. 1.05 ADVANTAGES OF FULL-DEPTH ASPHALT PAVEMENTS AFull-Depth asphalt pavement is one in which asphalt mixtures are employed for all courses above the subgrade or improved subgrade. In addition to the advantages named above, Full-Depth pavements do not trap water that can cause base and subgrade failures, as untreated aggregate layers frequently do. In fact, there is sometimes little or no reduction in subgrade strength under Full-Depth pavements. According to limited studies, the moisture in a clay subgrade may stabilize at a lower water content under a Full-Depth asphalt pavement after construction; but under Pavements constructed with untreated base layers the reverse frequently is the case. However, building by the Full-Depth method does not call for ignoring subsurface drainage. Proper drainage design is an essential feature of the overall pavement design. Even when subsurface drains beneath the pavement are not called for, interceptor drains frequently are required to divert ground water. Drainage of Asphalt Pavements Struc- tures (MS-15), Asphalt Institute, provides an in-depth discussion of all aspects of asphalt pavement drainage. ‘Some other Full-Depth pavement advantages are: + Time required for construction is reduced. + When placed in thick lifts—100 mm (4 in.) or more—construction seasons may be extended. + There is less interference with utilities in a city street construction because Full- Depth pavements are thinner than pavement structures with untreated aggregate layers. + They are usually less affected by moisture.VU SSB eV SS Se SUS Se SS SS SS SSCHAPTER 0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2.01 INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the selection of appropriate factors for the structural design of asphalt pavements. Information is presented on highway classifications, the selection of material types as they relate to traffic, the use of stage construction, and economic com- parisons between alternative designs. Methods for determining actual design factors and their use are given in the appropriate chapters. Usually, more is known about traffic, environment, and subgrade conditions for heavier traveled highways than for lightly traveled roads. Additionally, stricter material and construction standards and better performance for longer periods of time may be required. The degree of complexity applied to the design for a given pavement, therefore, can vary depending on the class of highway or street under consideration. 2.02 CLASSIFICATIONS OF HIGHWAYS AND STREETS The United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) classifies highways and streets by a functional classification system that should be helpful in selecting appropriate traffic factors and other required input variables. Functional classification is the process by which streets and highways are organized into classes, or systems, accord- ing to the character of service they provide. The major classifications are: RURAL FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS URBAN FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS Principal arterial system Principal arterial system * Interstate * Interstate + Other principal arterials, + Other freeways & expressways * Other principal arterials, Minor arterial system Minor arterial street system Collector system Collector street system Major collectors * Minor collectors Local system Local street system 2.03 SELECTION OF DESIGN INPUT VARIABLES Whenever possible, the subgrade properties, material properties, traffic values, en- vironmental factors, and other variables used in design should be based on studies of actual data. However, many times, particularly for minor roads and streets, the neces- sary information is not available. For these cases, guidelines are offered at appropriate places in the manual.Some recommended design values vary with the class of highway or design traffic level. For heavier traffic a more conservative value is selected and a thicker pavement will result, all other things being equal. For example, the recommended subgrade strength design value is lower for heavy traffic than for light traffic. On the other hand, mix design requirements for asphalt concrete are somewhat higher for heavy traffic than for light traffic. Minimum thickness requirements for asphalt concrete are also func- tions of traffic level and base type. If litte is known about the subgrade soil and other material properties and, particular- ly, if construction control is relaxed, the resulting pavement probably will vary in quality and performance. The more variability there is in the constructed pavement the more probability there is of early distress and higher maintenance costs. Also, the choice of base type can affect pavement performance. Asphalt bases have advantages over untreated aggregate bases (See Chapter I) and should be used where possible. 2.04 STAGE CONSTRUCTION There are many types of traffic situations for which stage construction of the pavement should be considered. One of these is streets in new housing developments. Here, the asphalt base may be built to accommodate construction traffic and the asphalt surface added as the final construction phase. Another example is roads on which future traffic volume is expected to increase substantially, A valuable advantage of stage construction is that deficiencies of subgrade or base course that show up under traffic can be corrected prior to, or at the time of placement of the remaining courses. This later paving ensures superior surface smoothness over a much longer period. Design procedures for planned stage construction are contained in Chapter VII. 2.05 ECONOMIC COMPARISONS Often, but not always, the selection of a base type, or the decision to use stage construction, is based on an economic analysis of the available alternatives. The preferred procedure for comparing alternative costs utilizes the concept of present worth. In this procedure initial costs and future costs are reduced to their “present value.” A method for making such an analysis is given in Chapter VIII. However, least initial or total cost is not always the most logical basis for making such decisions. One of the most compelling reasons for using stage construction, for example, is that future traffic conditions may be unknown. ( ( (CHAPTER I DESIGN PRINCIPLES 3.01 BASIS FOR DESIGN In this design procedure the pavement is regarded as a multi-layered elastic system. ‘The materials in each of the layers are characterized by a modulus of elasticity and a Poisson's ratio. Traffic is expressed in terms of repetitions of an equivalent 80 KN (18,000 Ib) single-axle load applied to the pavement on two sets of dual tires. For purposes of analysis, the dual tire is approximated by two circular plates with radius = 115 mm (4.52 in.) spaced 345 mm (13.57 in.) center to center, corresponding to an 80 KN (18,000 Ib) axle load and a 483 kPa (70 psi) contact pressure. These standard loading characteristics can be easily modified in the DAMA computer program. ‘The procedure can be used to design asphalt pavements composed of various com- binations of asphalt concrete surface and base, emulsified asphalt surface (with surface treatment) and base, and untreated aggregate base and subbase. Typical pavement sections are shown schematically in Figure I1I-1 For pavements composed of Full-Depth asphalt layers the pavement is regarded as a three-layer system. The pavement with the untreated aggregate is considered a four- layer system, The subgrade, the lowest layer, is assumed infinite in the vertically downward and horizontal directions. The other layers, of finite thickness, are assumed infinite in extent in the horizontal directions. Full continuity (“full friction”) is assumed at the interfaces between each of the layers. 3.02 DESIGN CRITERIA In the methodology adopted for this manual, loads on the surface of the pavement produce two strains which, as noted in Figure III-1, are critical for design purposes. They are (1) the horizontal tensile strain, &, on the underside of the lowest asphalt- bound layer, either asphalt concrete or emulsified asphalt treated, and (2) the vertical compressive strain, €., at the surface of the subgrade layer. If the horizontal tensile strain, &, is excessive, cracking of the treated layer will result. If the vertical compressive strain, ec, is excessive, permanent deformation will result at the surface of the pavement structure from overloading the subgrade. Excessive deformation in the treated layers is controlled by limits on material properties. To develop the design criteria, horizontal tensile strains, e, and subgrade vertical compressive strains, €., were calculated using the DAMA computer program. DAMA uses the Chevron N-layer program for calculation of stresses and strains and will consider a wide variety of material input parameters, loading conditions and environ- mental conditions.FULL-DEPTH ASPHALT PAVEMENT DEEP-STRENGTH ASPHALT PAVEMENT ‘Asphalt Concrete Surtace| BOR oan OS See oenerl ay Same Se Oe ee ACES 8" LO Os 1 2s Granular Base 0 Sa {a) Full-Depth ssphalt conorete and emulsified ‘asphalt bese pavements (b) Pavements with arenular base Figure Ill. Locations of strains considered in design procedure. 3.03 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS All materials were characterized by a modulus of elasticity (also called dynamic modulus, if asphalt mixtures; or resilient modulus, if untreated granular or soils materials) and a Poisson’s ratio. Specific values were selected based on experience and extensive study of actual test data. Asphalt Concrete The dynamic modulus of asphalt concrete mixtures is highly dependent upon pave- ment temperature. In producing the design charts for this manual the temperature versus ‘modulus relationship for a typical high quality asphalt concrete was used. To simulate the effects of temperature as it changes throughout the year, three typical distributions of mean monthly air temperature, representing three typical climatic regions of North America, were used. Appropriate dynamic modulus values were selected after an extensive study of modulus-temperature relationships and asphalt properties. ( ¢ ( C ¢ ¢ ¢ iC ( ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ iC ¢ ¢ ¢ (Emulsified Asphalt Mixes The emulsified asphalt mixes included in this manual are characterized by three mix types, depending on the type of aggregate used: Type | — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with processed, dense-graded aggregates. Type II — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with semi-processed, crusher-run, pit- run, or bank-run aggregates. ‘Type I — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with sands or silty sands. Appropriate dynamic modulus values were selected for these three mixes after extensive study of modulus data. Dynamic modulus is a function of curing time, and a period of 6 months was used to prepare the design charts. Curing lengths up to 24 months do not have a significant influence on the thicknesses shown in the design charts. Untreated Granular Materials Resilient moduli of untreated granular materials vary with stress conditions in the pavement. Values used in developing the design charts given in the Appendix vary from fewer than 103 MPa (15,000 psi) to more than 345 MPa (50,000 psi). 3.04 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS In addition to the effects of monthly temperature changes throughout the year on the dynamic modulus of asphalt concrete and emulsified asphalt mixtures, the design curves also take into consideration the effects of temperature on the resilient modulus of the subgrade and granular base materials. For the subgrade this was accomplished by using an increased subgrade resilient modulus to represent the freezing period and a reduced subgrade resilient modulus to represent the thaw period. This variation is shown schematically in Figure 11-2. ‘The same technique was used to represent environmental effects on granular base. Month Thaw Started Frozen Subgrade Modulus "Normal Subgrade Modulus Time Month Freeze ‘Started Figure Ill-2. Subgrade modulus variations for the conditions where freeze-thaw occurs. Month Freeze Started “Thaw (Reduced) Subgrade Modulus3.05 DESIGN CHARTS The DAMA computer program was used to determine thicknesses for the two strain criteria described in Article 3.02 for the various conditions selected. Two thicknesses were obtained for each condition, one for each critical strain value, and the larger of the two used to prepare the design charts. For this reason many of the design curves repre- sent shapes associated with two different criteria. Minimum thicknesses have been shown for certain traffic levels. In cases where these minimums were not directly the product of calculations using the DAMA computer pro- gram they were selected based on experience, including the AASHO Road Test, other studies, and previous editions of this manual. In the development of this manual three sets of environmental conditions were selected to represent the range of conditions to which the manual should apply: ‘Mean Annual Air Frost ‘Temperature Effects 27°C (48°F) Yes 18,5°C (60°F) Possibie 224°C (75°F) No Mean Annual Air Temperature (MAAT) was used to characterize the environmental conditions applicable to each region, and the characteristics of the materials were selected accordingly. 10: CHAPTER IV TRAFFIC ANALYSIS 4.01 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is to provide methods for determining appropriate traffic input factors for the pavement structural design methods presented in Chapter VI. Of primary concern are the number and weights of axle loads expected to be applied to the pavement during a given period of time. Typically they range from light (less than 9 KN [2000 1b)) to heavy (in excess of legal limits). Research has shown that the effect on pavement performance of an axle load of any mass can be represented by the number of equivalent 80 KN (18,000 Ib) single-axle load applications (EAL). For example, one application of an 89 KN (20,000 Ib) single-axle is equal to 1.5 applications of an 80 KN (18,000 1b) single-axle. Conversely, it takes almost four applications of a ‘58 KN (13,000 Ib) singie-axle to equal one application of an 80 KN (18,000 Ib) single-axle, The traffic analysis procedure presented in this chapter incorporates equivalent 80 KN (18,000 Ib) single-axie loads. Therefore, knowledge is required of the number of vehicles, or number and mass of axle loads, expected on the new highway facility. Most states in the United States, in cooperation with the U.S. Federal Highway Administra- tion (FHWA), collect truck count and weight data every one or two years. Truck weight and vehicle count data are usually available from the local department of highways. Many other countries also collect this type of information. All of the traffic analysis Procedures presented in this chapter were derived from studies of truck count and weight data or make extensive use of such data. 4.02 TRAFFIC VOLUME ESTIMATES Estimating the initial and future traffic volumes and loading for structural design requires substantial study and analysis. The information presented in this article can be used for this purpose. Analysis Period For comparison of alternative designs it is necessary to select a period of time for which the analysis of these alternatives is to be made. This is known as the Analysis Period. The Analysis Period is discussed further in Chapter VIII—Economic Analysis. Classification and Number of Trucks The traffic analysis procedures used in this manual require that estimates be obtained of the number of vehicles of different types, such as passenger cars, buses, single-unit trucks, and multiple-unit trucks of different types expected to use the proposed facility. In the United States, traffic classification counts are made periodically by state highway and other agencies and this information should be available for use in pavement structural design. Mt‘When traffic count and classification data are not available, estimates can be obtained from the data given in Table IV-1, “Distribution of Trucks on Different Classes of ‘Highways—United States.” This table was compiled from truck count data collected by the states in cooperation with the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. The range of per- centages in Table IV-1 indicates the probable range for the United States. Individual cases may be either smaller or larger than the range. Statistical data available for 1986 indicate that in the United States the volume of heavy trucks (see Glossary for definition) on all classes of highways averages about 7 percent of total traffic volume. Regionally, a range of 2 to more than 25 percent heavy trucks can be expected. Ten percent heavy trucks is not uncommon on urban highways and the number varies from less than 5 to more than 15 percent. During peak-hour traffic periods the percent trucks usually will be less than the daily average. Peak-hour heavy truck traffic is about one- half the daily average percentage of trucks on urban arterials and from one-half to two- thirds on rural highways. ‘Use of local traffic data is recommended. However, local traffic is subject to variations and care should be taken in collecting and using these data. 12*seveys wos uy suojeuyqusod soyen-1n4 Buypnou, “uonensiaupy AemubyH 1e19pe 'S'n “uorsig sansneis Aemydiy oy) Aq peysdans cep wou payeduseg, oor | on | oo | on | oo oo | oo oor seman we | 5 s | oa | se | we | e e ty] sumer ny we foe foe e [oe 4 we] op : L 9100 19019 wz | 2 8 a | oa | @ | wo | o os ” “nes st , 2 © s s selacs z * 80.0 op» ‘syndy un ordyryy wo | o | ss se | wz | 0» | we | w | cs stun ous ay Peele ® ’ z vz | 2 , z emu i0 epee as | ou 6 fee tie or | or 8 ong'onoe wes | oo | ve wo | om | 2 | oom | o ee ony'ence Senay aug aowv | 8HBo] MON’ MES PARES Bain | sows PQ Te ONIN [a | SHGISAS NVBEN SHELSAS Wun ss 99M, ee S¥ONUL LNBOUB ae +SHLV1S QALINN—SAVMHOIH AO SASSV1O LNSYAIIIG NO SHONHL FO NOLLNAIMISIG FAIS TEVLDesign Lane For two-lane streets and highways the Design Lane may be either lane of the pavement facility. For multi-lane streets and highways it is usually the outside lane. Under some conditions more trucks may travel in one direction than in the other. In many locations heavily-loaded trucks will travel in one direction and empty trucks in the other direction. In the absence of specific data, Table IV-2 may be used for determining the relative pro- portion of trucks to be expected for the Design Lane. TABLE IV-2 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL TRUCK TRAFFIC IN DESIGN LANE Number of Percentage of ‘Teatfic Lanes Trucks in (Two Directions) Design Lane 2 50 4 45 (35-48)" Gor more 40 (25-48)* “Probable range. Design Period A pavement may be designed to support the cumulative effects of traffic for any period of time. The selected period, in years, for which the pavement is to be designed is called the Design Period. At the end of the Design Period it can be expected that the pavement may require some rehabilitation, usually including an asphalt overlay, to restore high-level riding quality. The Design Period, however, should not be confused either with pavement life or with the Analysis Period. Pavement life may be extended indefinitely, through overlays or other rehabilitation measures, until the roadway becomes obsolete through changes in grade, alignment, or other factors. Highway Capacity Consideration must be given to the number of traffic lanes required to accommodate the traffic volume, both initially and throughout the Design Period. Traffic Growth ‘Pavements must be designed to adequately serve traffic needs over a period of years. Traffic growth—and in some cases, no growth or decline—must, therefore, be anticipated when determining the structural requirements of the pavement. Traffic history for comparable facilities and community and regional planning programs provide a basis for the estimate. Overall growth does not appear to differ greatly between urban and rural highways. However, since average growth percentages are based on total vehi- cle miles traveled, it is advisable at times to determine, if possible, separate growth percentages for trucks and passenger vehicles. Normal growth in the United States is about 3 to 5 percent per year compounded. However, new facilities or new developments can generate increases of greater magnitude. Growth rates ranging from 4 to 9 percent have been suggested for U.S. rural 14 ( ¢ ( ¢ ¢highways and from 8 to more than 10 percent for some Interstate highways. In applying growth factors care should be taken that the capacity of the roadway is not exceeded. ie) This could result in an unnecessarily conservative design. Growth may be accounted for in design using the Growth Factors given in Table IV-3. ‘These factors multiplied by the first-year traffic estimate (EAL) will give the total number of load repetitions expected during the Design Period. TABLE IV-3 GROWTH FACTOR* eS = Ft Gow aoe , Period, No ] ) 3 30 3.06 312 3.15 318 321 3.25 331 6 fo) 8 fae | ae] in| ie ¢ | se | se] aeles | te] te] as | oe ) 6 6.0 631 6.63 6.80 6.98 715 734 7.72 S 7 | go | ce | tm | oh | SS | ak] ae | 22 | leeol Fame ec | Wess | lame | sel el eae 2 | we | tem | sear | ieee | Heer | oe | tem | BS Ee & | ie | tame | tom | eo | foo | Se] Be] Re & | io |e | oe |e | Be | 2S) Be | Ze te | se [tee |e | ae | Re | bo | 22 | oz } 7 17.0 20.01 23.70 25.84 28.21 30.84 33.75 40.55 0) @ | wo [an |e | ae | aa | em | SZ] 28 ® | wo [me lao | ae | ae | He) Re] se C) 2 20.0 24.30 | 29.78 33.06 (36.79 41.00 45.76 ‘57.28 & | go lan fe las | Se | O28 | 8% | 22 3 tasr | Soe | mat | feos | Stas | vase | sue J EJ 49,99 73.65 90.32 111.43 138.24 172,32 271.02 “racer TE gra a pn. At Gow eee, Gn Faron Pe 4.03 ESTIMATING EAL The recommended traffic analysis procedure determines the number of equivalent 80 Q KN (18,000 Ib) single-axle load applications (EAL) to be used in the pavement thickness determination. These terms apply: ) + Truck Factor—The number of equivalent 80 kN (18,000 Ib) single-axle load applications contributed by one passage of a vehicle. + Load Equivalency Factor—The number of equivalent 80 kN (18,000 Ib) single- axle load applications contributed by one passage of an azle. O + Number of vehicles—Total number of vehicles involved. « 15EAL is calculated by multiplying the number of vehicles in each weight class by the appropriate Truck Factor and obtaining the sum of the products: EAL = E (number of vehicles in each weight class x Truck Factor) The Truck Factors are determined from axle-weight distribution data using Load Equivalency Factors (Table IV-4). An average Truck Factor is calculated by multiplying the number of axles in each weight class by the appropriate Load Equivalency Factor and dividing the sum of the products by the total number of vehicles involved: E (number of axles x Load Equivalency Factor) number of vehicles Load Equivalency Factors may be obtained from Table IV-4. Figure IV-1(a) shows examples of EAL for various axle weights, and Figure IV-1(b) illustrates the calculation of a truck factor for a single truck using the load equivalency factors from Table IV-4. The procedure for calculating Truck Factors is illustrated in Figure IV-2. Truck Factors can be determined for individual trucks of any type or for combinations of truck types (e.g., 2-axle single-units, 3-axle single-units, 5-axle tractor-trailer units). Typical Truck Factors are given in Table IV-5 for a variety of U.S. truck and highway classifications. These factors were calculated from data collected individually by U.S. states and summarized by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. The data represent studies made at more than 600 locations in the United States during 1985. It is emphasized that these data are averages fiom one study and that detailed information from local traffic surveys should be used when available. The characteristics of the current trucking fleet are gradually changing as old equip- ment is replaced by more modern technology. Belted tires are being phased out for radial tires which changes the actual contact pressures that are applied to the pavement. Suspension systems are improving; the number of air bag suspensions is increasing and the older, leaf-spring type is gradually diminishing in number. All of this shifting in the trucking industry has generated much research effort to evaluate the overall impact of these changes to pavement life and to possibly establish new equivalent axle load factors in the future. The largest average Truck Factor in Table IV-5 is 2.21. But, Truck Factors in excess of, that have been reported for roads subjected to extremely high volumes of heavily loaded trucks. Under certain circumstances, such as entrance roads to heavy commercial opera- tions, mining operations, or logging roads, Truck Factors for loaded trucks may exceed 5.0. Limited data indicate that in some instances a stream of extremely heavily loaded 5-axle tractor semi-trailers can consist of as many as two-thirds exceeding 329 KN (74,000 Tb) gross weight. Various combinations of normal traffic mix plus certain percentages of these heavily loaded vehicles can easily be used to determine average Truck Factors exceeding 2.0 for design purposes. Average Truck Factor = 16TABLE IV-4 LOAD EQUIVALENCY FACTORS* Gross Axle Load Load Equivalency Factors nN is Single | Tandem | Tridem Axles ‘Axles: Axles: 445 2,900 .o0002 89 2.000 o.00018 178 4000 o.00208 | o.00s 287 8.000 0.01043 | oor 0.0003 356 000 0.0343 0.003 001 445 19.000 0877 0.007 002 534 120000 0.188 0014 0.003 623 44000 0.360 0.027 0.008 m2 16000 0.823 047 oon 300 18,000 4.000 oor? oir 89.0 20,000 181 ore oe? 979 22000 218 0180 40 1088 241000 3.03, 0260 0.057 1158 26,000 4.03 0.364 0.080 1285 28,000 539 0495 0.109 1334 30,000 6s7 0.658 0745 1423 32000 888, 087 oxst 1512 34000 | 11.18 1.095, 0.248 4601 36000 | (1383 138 0313, 168.0 38000 | 17.20 170 0393 1780 op00 | 21.08 208 0487 187.0 42p00 | (25.64 28 0507 1957 44000 | 31.00 300 0723 2045, 46000 | 37.24 355 0.868 2135 sooo | 4450 4i7 1.038 224 5288 406 122 2313 563 143 2002 647 1.88 229.0 741 491 258.0 345, 220 267.0 959 251 2758 1084 285 2045 re 322 2535 1373 362 3025 15.28 495 ans 1739 482 3200 1936 5.03 3290 2132 557 3380 2368 815 3470 28.22 78 356.0 20 745 3647 220 a2 3738 353 89 3825 388 98 391.4 426 108 4003 68 ne “From Appendtx 0 of AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, American Assoclaton of State Highway and Transporiaton Oiicals, Washington, D.C. 1988. ‘Note: KN converte to bare within 0.1 percent of shown. 1780KN 100KN 44kN 18,000-Ib 22,400-Ib 10,000-1b (a) EAL Gross Weight 94 KN 67 KN 27 KN 15,000 Lbs. + 6,000 Lbs. = [21.000 Lba._| 0.48 0.01 ‘Track Factor 0.49 Gross Weight 151 kN 151 KN 54EN S56 KN 34,000Lbs. + +~—- $4,000 Lbs.+12,000 Lbs. = |_80,000 Lbs. 1.10 1.10 0.19 ‘Truck Factor 2.39 ®) Figure IV-1. Load Equivalency Factors 18No.of toad Genet ‘Axles Per Equivaleney e ‘1000 Factor ky roan OBR | ok aN Cok w @ @ “ Single Ale <13.38 (3) eos 0.0002 on 13.35- 31.18 (37) 557 0.008 33 31.15 356 (73) 140 0.028 39 356 - 534 (aa) 493 0.087 42.9 534-712 9216) 184 0.360 554 71.2 - 800 16-18) 6 oait 608 80.0 - 890 (18-20) 3 1.25 412 82.0 - 97.8 (20-22) 6 ves 92 97.8 -1068 (22.24) 2 260 52 1088-1155 (24-28) 1 3.56 36 1186-1335 (28-30) 1 be 5a ‘Tandem Axles <287 (<6) 2 0.010 02 26.7 - 534 (6-12 227 0.010 23 58.4 - 800 (12-18) tea 0.037 60 80.0 “1088 ce-28) 108 0.150 162 106.8 133.5 (24-30) 140 0.429 60.1 1335 -1423 (30-32) 58 0757 43.9 1423 151.2 82-34) 2B 097 243 181.2 ~1600 (34-38) 6 429 74 160.0 169.0 5-38) 3 154 46 168.0 “1780 (3-40) 1 189 19 1780 -187.0 (40-42) 1 220 23 187.0 “198.7 (42-48) 1 275 28 195.7 -204.5 (4e-46) 1 327 33 208.5 -272.4 (46-50) 1 4a7 42 >2226 eo) + 52 82 (Use 226.8 (51) ae EEAL=#157 Average Truck Factor=EAL/Vehicle=415.7/1000=0.42 “Most U.S. truck weight and truck count data are reported in terms of 1000 vehicle units. This conven ‘tion is retained here for convenience in using state Truck Weight Study reports for traffic analysis. Figure 1V-2. Example of U.S. axle-load distribution (based on truck count and weight data for typical U.S. Interstate rural highways). 19“uonensiuupy Aamubiy jexepe ‘Sn “uosina senspes AemybyH eyn 4g poyddns exap wow poduseg, “moy 3 syann Aneoy Jo saqUnU ayp LYE PSN 94 0} £BNIEA 10} SOP 9;RIY BS, 4g ‘sove}s wos wy suojeurquico sessing Buypnjouy, wewo | wo | wo] ev | wo | om] woeo | zo] oe | ao] wo] wo =a woven | cm | cv | wo | so | om | muro | ot | an | uo] iat | sen | senetmn srvwo | ~ | wo] ooo | or | sos | season | ses | ize | wos | or | cr | Leomommg wo | wo} wo | as | a] aor | mn | an | sor | oes | oot a esvero | ovo | ovo | sco | oo | so | isouco | wo | wo | zo} aso | oo | eenome an wavveo | vo | soo | oo | woo | son | zroere | om | aco | soo | m0 | ovo | canonaay aise | eo | oxo] zor} xo | wo} cero | oro | oes | om | oo | 10 | smomes yous | sro | seo} va | eo | av | weer | oo | wo | ov | so | wo | cxowee enS10'0-900'°0 ass 9000 2000 100 2000 | wdb00-£000 8000 200 800°0 £000 000 ii 'OpKe-Z eenanafins ow | ot [Gar PSS PR | BE [= eee ee eee addy a11YaA, swiaishg ueqan, ‘suinishg jeuny oa eal «SALVLS GALINN—S3TOIH3A GNY SAVMHOIH dO SASSV19 LNAY3I4IG HOS (41) SHOLOV4 MONHL JO NOLLNGIISIG SAI a TaVvL 204.04 DETERMINING DESIGN EAL These steps outline the procedure for determining Design EAL: NY pais (Q) Determine the average number of each type of vehicle expected on the Design Lane during the first year of traffic. (2) Determine, from axle-weight data, or select from Table IV-5, a Truck Factor for each vehicle type found in step (1). 3) Select, from Table IV-3, a single Growth Factor for all vehicles, or separate Growth Factors for each vehicle type, as appropriate for the design period. (@ Multiply the number of vehicles of each type times the Truck Factor and the Growth Factor (or Factors) determined in steps (2) and (3). (5) Sum the values determined to obtain Design EAL. Figure IV-3 is an example of a worksheet showing the calculation of Design EAL for a four-lane rural highway following the procedure outlined here. Location: Four-Lane Interstate Fural Highway Design Period: 20 Years EAL Vehicle Truck a ve rea Factor [1x2x3] 2 3 4 Single-Unit Trucks 2Axle, 4-Tie 84,700 X 0,003 x 29.8 = 7,600 2Axle, 6-Tite 15,800 X 0.21 x 208 98,900 3Axle oF More 4,000 X Ot x 29.8 72,700 All Singles 104,500 Subtotal 179,200 ‘Tractor Semi-Trailers and Combinations éeAxle oF Less 9.800 x 0.62 x 228 = = 181,100 Beale 80,800 X 1.09 x 298 = = 2,624'500 6-Axle of More 7,000 X 4.23 x 298 = 256,600 All Tractors, Ete. 92,600 Subtotal 3,082,200 All Trucks. 197,100 Design EAL= Total 3,241,400 “Based on AADT = 5,000 during frst year of traffic, 45 percent in the Design Lane, 24 percent trucks. Figure IV.3. Example worksheet for traffic analysis. Another factor that could be considered in determining the Design EAL is the detrimen- tal effect of higher tire contact pressures. If actual truck tire measurements indicate that inflation pressures are significantly above the standard loading condition (70 psi), then the adjustment factors from Figure IV-4 may be used to modify the design traffic for this additional stress. This adjustment is made by multiplying the initial design EAL by the EAL Adjustment Factor (from the appropriate asphalt concrete thickness line) for each individual vehicle type or for the average truck condition. Typically, truck tire contact pressures equal about 90 percent of the tire inflation pressure. 214.05 PARKWAYS AND SHOULDERS Highways and streets that carry large volumes of automobile traffic but only a few trucks require special attention; so do shoulders. The following guidelines are offered for determining Design EAL for these facilities. Parkways, Residential Streets and Parking Lots Most of these facilities have relatively high volumes (almost 100 percent) of automobile traffic and relatively few trucks. A pavement design using the Load Equivalency Factors for light axle loads given in Table IV-4 can result in a pavement that is too thin to withstand occasional heavy traffic, such as snowplows, maintenance trucks, moving vans, ready-mixed concrete trucks, buses, and garbage trucks. It is recommended, therefore, that a realistic estimate of future truck traffic on residential streets and parking lots be attempted. Failing this, minimum thickness recommenda- tions given in Chapter VI—STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCEDURE should be maintained. Shoulders Asphalt shoulders are constructed to increase safety and to accommodate vehicle emergency parking. Shoulders must withstand encroachment of moving vehicles and often must serve as temporary driving lanes during construction or maintenance ac- tivities. At times shoulders are used by slow-moving vehicles as travel lanes. For these reasons, and when it is possible to determine future traffic usage, it is recommended that shoulders be designed using the principles and procedures adopted for the main travel lanes, For minimum protection against the damaging effects of occasional heavy vehicles it is recommended that the Design EAL for shoulders be at least 2 percent of the Design EAL for the Design Lane. Tire Contact Pressure (kPa) 483 650. 1034 Contact Pressure = seme 10. x Inflation Pressure ‘omon) | Figure 1V-4. EAL Adjustment Factor tor Tire Pressures." EAL Adjustment Factor Dual-Tired Axles zsh 70 700 180 “Tre Contact Pressure (esi) + HF, Southgate and A. C. Deen, “Effects of Load Distribution and Axle and Tire Configurations on Pavement Fatigue,” UKTRP-85-13, May 1985, Kentucky Transportation Research Program, University of Kentucky 22CHAPTER V MATERIALS EVALUATION 5.01 GENERAL For any given traffic, pavement design involves three steps: (1) selection of materials to be used for construction, (2) thickness requirements for each material selected for use, and (3) construction requirements, including such factors as mix design and compaction. A key factor in each of the three steps is the material evaluation of the various pavement elements: asphalt concrete, emulsified asphalt mixes, aggregate for base and subbase, and subgrade materials. In Chapter III the design principles used in developing this manual were briefly described. It was stated that materials are characterized by elastic constants appropriate for each material selected for use in the structural section and for the subgrade. In the preparation of this manual, the Asphalt Institute has researched expected material Properties for the structural elements; i.e., asphalt concrete, emulsified asphalt mixes, and aggregates for base and subbase. The design charts contained in the Appendix were prepared using appropriate values for the elastic constants; hence, it will not be necessary for the user to determine these constants. The DAMA computer program may be used to design for any set of appropriate design constants. The definitive material property of the subgrade material is the resilient modulus (M,). The preferred procedure for determining M, is described in the Asphalt Institute publication, Soils Manual (MS-10). It is recognized, however, that many agencies do not have the equipment for performing the resilient modulus test. Therefore, suitable factors have been established to determine M, from the standard CBR and R-value tests. The results are approximate, however, and the acquisition of resilient modulus test equipment is recommended. Agencies that plan to measure the resilient modulus of subgrade materials are cautioned that the modulus of most soils depends on the magnitude of stress under the design load. The thicknesses in the design charts in the Appendix, in turn, depend on specific values of the subgrade modulus. Thus, care should be taken that the ap- proximate confining pressure and deviator stress used in the resilient modulus test most nearly match the anticipated in-place stresses. The test method recommends a confining pressure and a deviator stress that are reasonable for most testing. A. Subgrade Soils 5.02 DEFINITION Subgrade is defined as the soil prepared and compacted to support a structure or a pavement system. It is the foundation for the pavement structure. Subgrade soil or material sometimes is called “basement” or “foundation soil.” 235.03 IMPROVED SUBGRADE An improved subgrade is any course or courses of improved material between the native subgrade soil and the pavement structure. It may be a treated in-place material, or an imported material. Improved subgrade normally is not required in the design and construction of a Full- Depth asphalt pavement structure. It should be considered only when a subgrade that will not support construction equipment is encountered. In such cases it is used as a working platform for construction of the pavement courses and does not affect the design thickness of the pavement structure. A study at the construction site is usually required to establish the best solution for such problems. 5.04 EVALUATION METHODS The design charts in this manual call for a subgrade resilient modulus, which can be determined from a laboratory test in accordance with procedures described in the Asphalt Institute’s Soils Manual (MS-10). In order to facilitate the use of the design charts with other widely used tests, correla- tions have been established with the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and the Resistance (R) value. Procedures for performing CBR and R-value tests are detailed in MS-10 and in the following ASTM/AASHTO test method: () Bearing Ratio of Laboratory-Compacted Soils - ASTM Method D 1883 (AASHTO Method T 193) [compact samples according to ASTM Method D 1557 (AASHTO Method T 180), Method B or Dj. @) Resistance R-Value - ASTM Method D 2844 (AASHTO Method T 190), The resilient modulus may be approximated from the CBR test values according to the relationship M, (MPa) M, (esi) The resilient modulus may be approximated from the R-value test results according to the relationship M, (MPa) = 8.0 + 3.8 (R-value) or M, (psi) = 1155 + 555 (R-value). CBR and R-value correlations are considered applicable to materials classified as CL, CH, ML, SC, SM, and SP (Unified Soil Classification, ASTM D 2487), A-7, A-6, A-5, A-4, and finer A-2 soils (AASHTO Designation M145), or for materials that are estimated to have a resilient modulus of 207 MPa (30,000 psi) or less. These correla- tions are not applicable to granular, untreated base or subbase materials. Direct laboratory testing is required to obtain higher subgrade resilient modulus values. Other agencies have developed correlations that relate CBR or R-value to dynamic modulus. Many of these will produce lower Mr values, and, consequently greater thicknesses, than those given above. The design charts in this manual assume that relationships similar to those recommended above will be used, and care should be taken that the use of other relationships does not produce unnecessarily large design thicknesses. 5.05 SAMPLING AND TESTING A sampling and testing plan must be prepared as a preliminary step to the design pro- cess. General guidelines for selecting sampling locations along a proposed project are 4described in Appendix B of the Asphalt Institute's Soils Manual (MS-10). MS-10 also provides guidelines for developing soil profiles and for classifying subgrade soils. Table V-1 offers guidelines for sample preparation and testing of subgrade soils. TABLE V-1_ SUBGRADE SOILS TESTS AND SAMPLE SIZES ‘Common Name us aeeeete: Approximate Pur Te of Test se ‘Size of Sample. sleebasideet AasuTo | AST Tefnd the water conten =the Lind Lint |Caniteaion | a9 | pasta foun non tei od Pare rts | ofind to water conten the Plastic Limit | Classification | T 90 | pasta | boundary between the plastic and 25 kg | semisolid states ofa sil cm oad he ng of tr cores Matic Inde | Ceifeaton | 90 |DeS18 ofr og of te cor rachael | To determine te partes dt Analysis een | ee oe bution of a soil. Te denice th cium ety a Moisture . 111g | ageencompuctne cor nde Cormaction | Deny | TSO 01887 | Gt) |mwrcomem at which en be Rataionhio Seed eater iq | Termine ons-rng cane con | twcknan | tr92 fonaee | 782, [iy: Merennsaeusedto rahe Deion ‘sorte reson module Bator aug | %etemie o-ring capac enue | Thstres | 190 |oasts| (242, [iy toreuteore sed fete Oatn ‘porainan elon oda iain | Belor | pea nnte | 114g | To deermine the restion modus of ties, | Thdnes | eetal tio | asia) | benim so AASHTO = American Association of State Highway Transportation and Officials. ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials “Seo aso the Asphalt Insta’ Soll Manual (MS-10). A certain amount of judgment is required to develop a test schedule to fit the local situation. These general guidelines may help: (1) Test all subgrade materials that are expected to be within 0.6 m (2 ft) of the planned subgrade elevation. In fill areas it is necessary to determine first the expected source of the fill material. The test should, as nearly as possible, represent the condition of the subgrade that is likely to control the design. 25(2) If the soil profile indicates that there is a nonsystematic variation in subgrade soil type along the alignment, i.e., one or more major soil types are randomly present, a random sampling plan should be used within the boundary of each soil type. If the soil profile indicates that there is a systematic variation in soil type, the alignment can be subdivided by soil type for testing. Schedule suffi- cient testing to prepare separate pavement designs for each soil type. In these situations it is desirable to establish a minimum length for which separate designs are considered feasible. In either case, if the various soil type areas are not large enough to justify separate pavement designs, a single design should be made based on the worst soil type. (3) Also schedule a sufficient number of tests for a statistical selection of the design subgrade strength value (see Article 5.06). Six to eight tests are recommended for cach soil type. More than nine tests are unnecessary. @ Ifa sample from a test location has a value so low that it indicates an extremely weak area then additional samples should be obtained and tested to determine the boundaries of that area. Such areas may require increases in thickness, or replacement with improved subgrade material, to provide uniform support for the entire length of the section. Test values representing these locations should be omitted from the Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus calculations. 5.06 SELECTION OF DESIGN SUBGRADE RESILIENT MODULUS Individual subgrade test values (six to eight tests) are used to find a Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus (M;). For any given set of test values, Mr should be selected as the traffic varies. If 2 high volume of traffic is anticipated, Mr is adjusted to a lower value than if a low volume is expected. This is done to ensure a more conservative design for a larger traffic volume. The design subgrade resilient modulus is defined as the subgrade resilient modulus value that is less than 60, 75, or 87.5 percent of all test values in the section. These percentages are related to traffic levels as shown in Table V-2. TABLE V2 SUBGRADE DESIGN LIMITS es Design Subgrade Level Value, Percent 10% or less 0 Between 10* & 10° 7 10° or more 875 The graphical procedure for determining the Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus, Mr, is as follows: (J) Select the Design Traffic EAL according to the procedure outlined in Chapter Iv. 26) Test six to eight samples of subgrade as outlined in Articles 5.04 and 5.05. Convert CBR or R-value test data to subgrade resilient modulus value as indicated, ‘ @) Arrange all test values in descending numerical order. @ For each change in test value, beginning with the lowest value, compute the percentage of the total number of values that are equal to,or greater than the'test value. (5) Plot the results on cross-section paper. (© Draw a smooth, best-fit curve through the plotted points. (Note: if the test data are well-distributed the curve should be S-shaped and the 50th percentile value should fall close to the average of the data.) (7) Read from the curve the subgrade strength value at the appropriate percentile value shown in Table V-2. This is the design subgrade strength value. ) Example - Determine Design Subgrade Resilient Modulus for the given conditions. (2) Design Traffic EAL = 10*, 10° and 10°, @) The results of seven tests produced the following subgrade resilient modulus test values: 44.8, 58.6, 67.6, 68.3, 68.3, 80.0, 106.9 MPa (6,500; 8,500; 9,800; 9,900; 9,900; 11,600; 15,500 psi). G) Percentage values have been calculated as follows: Test Values ‘Number Equal to Percent Equal to MPa psi ‘or Greater Than, or Greater Than 106.9 15,500 1 G10 = 14 80.0 11,600 2 2/7) 100 = 29 8.3 9,900 8.3 9,900 4 4/7) 100 = 57 67.6 9,800 3 G/) 10 = 71 58.6 8,500 6 6/7) 100 = 86 448 6,500 7 (7/7) 100 = 100 (@ Plot test values vs percent equal to or greater than: My, MPa 100 42-60 ‘a0 90120 Percent Equal To or Greater Than(8) From the graph, determine the design subgrade Mr values for the different design EAL values. Design Subgrade M_ EAL Percentile Value MPa ‘Psi 10° 0 60 10,000 108 15 64.1 9,300 108 87.5 56.9 8,250 5.07 SUBGRADE COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS ‘Compaction tests should be made in the laboratory on each soil type to be used in con- struction to determine the practical maximum density that may be obtained. For subgrade materials these laboratory compacted densities should be determined by means of ASTM Method 1557 (AASHTO Method of Test T 180). These compaction criteria are recommended for subgrades and improved subgrades in the construction of asphalt pavement structures: (1) Cohesive Subgrades Minimum 95 percent of ASTM Method 1557 (AASHTO Method of Test T 180), ‘Method D density for the top 300 mm (12 in.) and minimum 90 percent for all fill areas below the top 300 mm (12 in.). The water content for compaction of cohesive soils should be selected to provide the highest remolded strength consistent with expansion considerations. Generally, non-expansive cohesive soils should be compacted one or two percentage points on the dry side of laboratory optimum moisture content. Known expansive soils should be compacted one or two per- centage points on the wetside of laboratory optimum moisture content to minimize expansion. In some cases it may be necessary to reduce percent compaction requirements to prevent excessive expansion. (2) Cohesionless Subgrades Minimum 100 percent of ASTM Method 1557 (AASHTO Method of Test T 180), Method D, density for the top 300 mm (12 in,) and minimum 95 percent below this for all fill areas. Clean sands and gravels which have a Plasticity Index of 6 or less and which do not stick together when dry generally are classified as cohesionless soils. They may bulk when wet and densify under vibratory loads. Compaction requirements should be sufficiently high to insure that the subgrade resilient modulus, Mr, will not be lower than that used for design. If reduced compaction requirements are specified then the design subgrade Mr should be adjusted accordingly. Additional information on subgrade compaction is contained in the Asphalt Institute publication, Asphalt Paving Manual (MS-8). B. Asphalt Concrete Surface and Base Mixtures 5.08 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ASPHALT CONCRETE The asphalt concrete properties used in this manual are based on extensive studies of dynamic modulus-temperature relationships for dense-graded asphalt concrete. Hence, it 28is not necessary to test the asphalt concrete in order to use the design charts if these requirements are satisfied: (2) The aggregate gradation must comply with the requirements for asphalt concrete Contained in Model Construction Specifications for Asphalt Concrete and Other Plant-Mix Types (SS-1), Asphalt Institute, when tested in accordance with proce- dures contained in Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete and Other Hot-Mix Types (MS-2), Asphalt Institute. (2) The mixture of asphalt binder and aggregate must be designed to meet the criteria suggested in SS-1, and, (3) The asphalt concrete must be compacted to the density requirements stipulated in Article 5.09. The design charts refer to two asphalt concrete layers; ive., surface and base. It is necessary that both layers meet the three requirements described above. The mineral aggregate may consist of crushed or uncrushed materials, or some combination of the two; however, the coarse aggregate in the surface layer should have at least 50 percent crushed pieces. 5.09 ASPHALT CONCRETE COMPACTION CRITERIA In order to establish a more realistic target density, samples of the actual plant mixture should be compacted on the job site or in the field laboratory. The Asphalt Institute recommends this procedure: Divide the mixture production into lots, each lot equal to the mix produced during one day {not to exceed 2700 tonnes (3,000 tons)]. Determine the target density for each lot by measuring the average density of laboratory-prepared specimens representing randomly chosen sub-samples taken from trucks delivering mix- ture to the job site. Compacted pavement density should be determined from nuclear density testing or core samples. The testing or core sampling should be done on pavement sections built with the same truckloads of mix from which the target density sub-samples were taken. It is recommended that five field density determinations be made in each lot of the com- acted base and surface. The average of these five density determinations should be (1) equal to or greater than 96 percent of the average density of the laboratory-prepared specimens, and no individual determination should be lower than 94 percent or (2) equal to or greater than 92 percent of the theoretical maximum specific gravity and no individual determination should be lower than 90 percent. Refer to "Acceptance Requirements” in Specification PM-1, Model Construction Specifications for Asphalt Concrete and Other Plant-Mix Types (SS-1), Asphalt Institute, for directions on determining target density and relative density. C. Emulsified Asphalt Base Mixtures 5.10 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EMULSIFIED ASPHALT MIXES The emulsified asphalt mixes used as base materials in this manual are characterized by three mix types: ‘Type — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with processed, dense-graded aggregates. Type I — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with semi-processed, crusher-run, pit- run, or bank-run aggregates. Type III — Emulsified asphalt mixes made with sands or silty sands. 29‘The aggregates and emulsified asphalts used in these mix types must meet the requirements set forth in Chapter VII. A Basic Asphalt Emulsion Manual (MS-19), Asphalt Institute. Design of the emulsified asphalt mixes should be accomplished by using the procedures and criteria included in MS-19. Materials properties typical of these three mix types were used to develop the thickness design curves for the emulsified asphalt pavement sections included in this manual. Plant mixing is required for the high-quality, dense-graded Type I emulsified asphalt mixes in order to obtain the controls necessary for uniform blending of aggregate, ‘emulsified asphalt and, in some cases, water during the mixing process. Plant or in-place mixing may be used to produce the Type II or Type III emulsified asphalt mixes. 5.11 COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS FOR EMULSIFIED ASPHALT MIXES ‘There is no standard procedure for determining the field density of emulsified asphalt mixtures. The Asphalt Institute recommends that this procedure be used until a standard procedure is adopted: Divide emulsified asphalt mixture production into lots, each lot equal to the mix pro- duced during one day. Determine the target density for each lot by measuring the average density of six laboratory-prepared specimens representing two randomly chosen sub- samples taken from trucks delivering mixture to the job site. Recommended laboratory compaction procedures are given in A Basic Asphalt Emulsion Manual (MS-19), Asphalt Institute. The target density shouldbe reported as dry density. Determine the compacted density in the field from five randomly located positions in each lot of the compacted mixture. The density of freshly compacted material can be determined using a properly calibrated nuclear density device or other procedure. Density determinations made after a period of curing may be determined on samples obtained from the compacted material by a suitable core-drilling technique. All compacted densi- ties should be converted to dry density. It is recommended that the average of the five field density determinations made in each lot be equal to or greater than 95 percent of the average density of the six laboratory-prepared specimens, and that no individual deter- minations be lower than 92 percent. ‘Additional information on compacting emulsified asphalt mixtures is contained in A Basic Asphalt Emulsion Manual (MS-19), Asphalt Institute. D. Untreated Aggregate Base and Subbase 5.12 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR UNTREATED BASE AND SUBBASE ‘When untreated aggregate base and subbase are incorporated into the design section, it is recommended that they comply with “Graded Aggregate Material for Bases or Sub- bases for Highways and Airports,” ASTM Specification D 2940, except that the require- ments given in Table V-3 should apply where appropriate. 5.13 COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS FOR UNTREATED AGGREGATE BASE AND SUBBASE Untreated aggregate base and subbases should be compacted at optimum moisture content, plus or minus 1.5 percentage points, to achieve a minimum density of 100 per- cent of maximum laboratory density. ASTM Method of Test D 1557, Method D (AASHTO Method of Test T 180, Method D) should be used for determining laboratory density. 30TABLE V3 UNTREATED AGGREGATE BASE AND SUBBASE QUALITY ) REQUIREMENTS 2 ‘Test Requirements Test Subbase Base 7 CBR, minimum* 20 80 ) oF Revalue, minimum* 55 B Liquid Limit, maximum 25 6 oO Plasticity Index, maximum, or 6 NP : ‘Sand Equivalent, minimum 25 38 7 Passing No, 200 sieve, maximurn 2 7 “The formulae in Article 6.04 relating CBR and R-value to subgrade sol resillont modulus do not apply to ) untreated aggregate base and subbase. ) ‘The compaction load and contact pressure should be as high as the material being com- : pacted will support without displacing the subbase or base course or damaging the subgrade beneath. As stronger layers are placed, the load and contact pressure may be in- creased to obtain final compaction density. Three field density tests should be made on ) ‘each 2700 tonnes (3000 tons) of materials. ) 31CHAPTER VI STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCEDURE 6.01 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents procedures for determining the thickness of pavement struc- tures consisting of asphalt concrete surface, emulsified asphalt surface (with surface treatment), asphalt concrete base, emulsified asphalt base, and untreated aggregate base or subbase. As outlined in Chapter IIl—Design Principles, the resulting thicknesses satisfy two different strain criteria, the vertical compressive strain at the surface of the subgrade, and horizontal tensile strain on the underside of the lowest asphalt-bound layer. Design thicknesses shown in Charts A-1 through A-36, Appendix (blue pages for SI [metric] units; yellow pages for U.S. customary units), represent the greater of two thicknesses associated with the criteria. The Asphalt Institute’s HWY computer program provides a computerized solution to the thickness design procedures outlined here. Traffic levels from EAL = 5x 10° to EAL in excess of 10” are included in the design charts, Pavements designed for EAL greater than those on the charts represent special cases and designs should be made (or checked) with the DAMA computer program. Designs for EAL greater than 3 x 10° should be considered candidates for future leveling overlays or stage construction. 6.02 DESIGN PROCEDURE The steps in the design procedure are illustrated schematically by the flow diagram shown in Figure VI-1. These steps are: (2) Select or determine input data. @) traffic value, EAL, (b) subgrade resilient modulus, M;, (© surface and base types. (@) Determine design thicknesses for the specific conditions described by the input data. (3) Prepare stage construction design, if appropriate. (@) Make an economic analysis of the various solutions arrived at for the design problem. (6) Select final design. Steps 1 through 3 have been automated in the HWY computer program, while the economic analysis (step 4) can be performed using the LCCOST computer program. Both are available from the Asphalt Institute. 6.03 DESIGN TRAFFIC, SUBGRADE, AND MATERIALS INPUT VALUES Input common to the design procedures for three pavement types include: 33