Computer Networks

A computer network is a group of interconnected computing devices that can exchange data
and share resources with each other.
There are two kinds of networks:
1. Wired Networks – Uses coaxial cable, twisted pair cable (CAT5e and CAT6 cables) and fiber
optic cable as its transmission media.
2. Wireless Networks – Uses radio waves, infrared, microwave and satellites as the transmission
media to send and receive data using wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, Hotspots,
Bluetooth. An example of such a network is mobile networks.

Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network) – A computer network that inter connects computers within a limited
area for example, home, school, office building.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – A computer network that interconnects computers over a
large geographic area the size of a metropolitan area e.g. a city. Typically used by a single
organization in several buildings or several organizations interconnected in the same geographic
vicinity.
WAN (Wide Area Network) – The interconnection of LANs that extend over a large geographic
area for example, a bank uses a WAN to interconnect its branches throughout Trinidad and
Tobago together. It can be used to connect LANs that exist in other countries.

Wired Networks
This type of network uses many network devices to facilitate data transmission and
communication between computing devices. Data is broken up into data packets that are
transmitted via some transmission media to and from computing devices.

Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable is a convenient and inexpensive method of connecting computers and
peripherals in a network. It is the most common method for the cabling of a LAN in a building. It
consists of eight copper wires twisted into pairs. It can transmit up to 10Gbps (gigabits per
second) of data.

Coaxial Cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer,
surrounded by conductive shielding (outer conductor), and a protective outer jacket. Today this
type of cable is hardly ever used in modern networks. It is primarily used by cable TV companies
to connect their satellite antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses.

Fiber Optic Cable is a type of cable that contains strands of glass fibers inside an insulated
casing. They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data networking, and
telecommunications and can transmit up to 100Gbps of data.

Wired Network Devices

Modem (Modulator Demodulator) – Takes digital signals and converts them into analog signals
that can be transmitted over transmission media as well as taking an analog signal from some
transmission media and converting it into a digital signal that can be understood by computing
devices.

Router – This device is used to connect networks together and is used to send and receive data
between networks. We can connect a LAN to a WAN in the case of your home network (LAN)
connected to your Internet Service Provider’s WAN or LAN to LAN in the case of the accounts
department LAN on the 5th floor being connected to the Human Resource LAN on the 3 rd floor.

NIC Card (Network Interface Card) – Used to connect a computer to a network. A wireless NIC
Card (or wireless adaptor) is a USB enabled device that is used to connect a computer to a
wireless network or wireless access point (WAP).

Switch – A device used to send and receive data to and from computing devices on a network.

Wireless Access Point (WAP) – A device that is attached to a LAN (wired network) that extends
the network wirelessly. It converts digital signals into radio signals that it transmits and is received
by wireless NICs connected to computing devices and equipment (printers, video cameras). These
devices convert a digital into a radio signal and transmits a signal back to the WAP

Wireless Networks
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks. They
generally use radio waves for communication between computing devices and equipment. They
allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network coverage
area.

Mobile networks which are wireless networks uses radio waves to send and receive data
between users. It is composed of base stations (cells) that covers an area in a hexagonal pattern
and when these cells are joined together covers a wide geographical area. Each cell uses a
different set of radio frequencies from neighboring cells to avoid interference. A common carrier
is a company that offers communication services to the general public. For example, Bmobile and
Digicel are both common carriers for mobile networks.

Technology Generation Expected download Speed

1G 2.4 Kbps (kilobits per second)
2G 40 – 50 Kbps
3G Up to 2 Mbps
4G Up to 45 Mbps
5G Up to 20 Gbps

Wireless Technologies
Wireless technology is technology that allows people to communicate or data to be transferred
from one point to another without using cables or wires. Below is a list of wireless technologies.

Wi-Fi technology allows computers, smartphones, or other devices to connect to the internet or
communicate with one another wirelessly within a particular area. It can be used to create a
completely wireless network or to extend a wired network.
Bluetooth uses radio waves to connect mobile devices and computers to connect to each other.
It is a form of short wave communication (about 30ft).

Hotspot is a physical location where people can access the Internet and other devices, typically
using Wi-Fi. It can be either be part of a purely wireless network or an extension of a wired LAN
of a business.

Wireless Transmission Media

Microwave Wi-Fi is suitable for short-range wireless connections, but it is not a good choice for
applications that require longer wireless links. Microwave communication allows you to create wireless
links over a wider range and with a higher data-carrying capacity. It is often used in places where it is not
practical to lay a fiber optic cable. It needs to have a line of sight and uses a dish aerial, like a larger version
of a television satellite dish. A typical application might be to link two campuses of a university, where the
aerials can be mounted on top of tall buildings with a clear view of each other.

Infrared uses infrared light, which is invisible to our eyes, to transmit small amounts of data over short
distances. Devices such as keyboards and mice can use infrared to connect wirelessly to a computer.

Satellites are communications devices that are land based or orbiting space that relays microwave signals
to and from remote locations. Microwaves are used because they can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere
and communication between satellites are point to point.

Data Communications

Rapid advances in communications systems, computer use and multimedia technologies are
changing the way people communicate and transmit data. Data communications can be broadly
described as the transmission of data from one location to another for direct use or for further
processing.

Data transmission direction in data networking, the term ‘transmit’ means to issue signals to the
network medium. Transmission refers to either the process of transmitting or the progress of
signals after they have been transmitted. Data transmission, whether analogue or digital, may
also be characterized by the direction in which the signals travel over the media.
 A SIMPLEX line permits data to flow in only one direction. You can send data or receive data,
but not both. An example of simplex communication is a principal speaking to students over
the schools’ public address system (PA). In this example, the principal’s voice is the signal,
and it travels in only one direction – away from the PA system and towards the classrooms or
student assembly. Simplex is sometimes called one-way, or unidirectional, communication.
 A HALF-DUPLEX line can alternately send and receive data. This means that at any particular
time you can either send data but not receive it, or receive data but not send it. An example
of half-duplex communication is a two-way radio system, which allows the operator to talk
or listen, but not at the same time.
 A FULL-DUPLEX line can simultaneously send and receive data. A telephone is an example of
a full duplex system. When you call a friend on the telephone, your connection is an example
of a full-duplex transmission because your voice signals can be transmitted to your friend at
the same time your friend’s voice signals are transmitted in the opposite direction to you. In
other words, both of you can talk and hear each other simultaneously.

Network Privacy

Intranet is a private network within a company that is used to securely share a company’s
information and resources among employees. It lets employees easily access important
information, links applications, forms and database of records. Only employees with usernames
and passwords have access to the network in an effort to maintain intranet security.

Extranet is an organization’s private network and is available only to selected users outside of
the organization. Users typically login using a username and password.

Internet is a global public wide area network (WAN) facilitating communication and data sharing.
 Internet Technologies

WWW (World Wide Web) – A collection of different websites you can access through the
internet.

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) – A programming language used to create and lay out
contents on a webpage.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – A set of rules used for transferring data (text, images,
sound, video etc.) across the internet. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is similar to
HTTP but it tells your browser to encrypt and information you enter for example your user
name and password.

DNS (Domain Name Service) – Converts domain names into IP addresses.

Hyperlinks - Are used to navigate the Web. When you click a link, it will take you to a different
webpage, a page within the website you are browsing and allows you to upload or download
data. When hovering your mouse pointer over a hyperlink your pointer arrow turns into a
pointing white gloved hand.

Web Server - A web server is a computer on which the web pages of a website are stored. It
delivers or ‘serves’ the content of your website to the users through Internet using HTTP.

Webpage - Is a simple document written in HTML that can be displayed on a browser such as
Opera, Safari, Firefox, Chrome etc. A group of webpages make up a website which is stored and
can be accessed from a web server.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – Is a standard communication protocol used for the transfer of
computer files from a one computer to another.

Web Browser – Software that allows you to find and view websites on the internet.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) - The unique address of a given resource on the Web.

Example:

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

https://www.hgtv.com/sweepstakes/hgtv-dream-home

Domain Page within the

Protocol Directory
Name website (can be
an image or file
or some other
resource)

Upload - To send data or a file from your computer to somewhere on the Internet.

Download – To receive data or a file from the Internet on your computer.

Email – An e-mail is a message that may contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent
through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals using an email program or
email service for example Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo etc.

Domain Name – Is the human readable address to a website. This is converted to an IP Address
by the DNS.
 Internet Technologies

The following tips will help you tell a good source from one that’s biased, outdated, or inaccurate:

Check the domain name

Look at the three letters at the end of the site’s domain name, such as “edu” (educational), “gov”
(government), “org” (nonprofit), and “com” (commercial). Generally, .edu and .gov websites are
credible, but beware of sites that use these suffixes in an attempt to mislead. Nonprofit websites
may also contain reliable information, but take some time to consider the organization’s purpose
and agenda to determine if it could be biased. Commercial websites, such as those of reputable
news organizations, can also be good sources, but do some investigation to look for signs of
reliability.

Take a closer look at the source

Does the article or study have any authors listed? If so, do they cite or link to authoritative
sources, or are they writing their own opinions without backing these up with facts? Are their
credentials listed?

Additionally, check the date of publication. In some cases, it may not matter if the source is older
or hasn’t been recently updated, but in fields of study where information can rapidly change, the
data may be obsolete.

Search for additional information to back up what you’ve found

As you find information, try to verify its authenticity and legitimacy using other reliable sites. If
you find another credible site that contradicts your original source, further research may be
required.
Use certain sources only to jump-start additional research

Wikipedia offers a large volume of information, but because its entries are created in a
collaborative effort involving many different users, its reliability can vary widely. In some cases,
users deliberately place incorrect information on the site; in others, well-meaning users
unintentionally introduce inaccuracies. For these reasons, you can use Wikipedia as a jumping-
off point to spark more research, but not as a source on its own.

Individual blogs, online forums, chat rooms, etc.

Much like Wikipedia, sources such as individuals’ blogs, online forums and chat rooms can be
used to fuel further research, but shouldn’t be relied upon as sources of dependable information.
 COMPUTER SYSTEMS MISUSE AND CYBERSECURITY

Computer Security – Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and
information from harm, theft, and unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting
unauthorized use of your computer system.

Cybersecurity – Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs

from digital attacks. These cyberattacks are usually aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying
sensitive information; extorting money from users via ransomware; or interrupting normal
business processes.

Computer misuse - Is about the way people or organizations use computers to access other
people’s or organizations computer systems and their information, or how they use computers
to spread unfair, false or hurtful information. See pages 104 to 113 for Computer misuse that
impacts individuals and organizations.

To protect a system, you need to find out the parts of a system that could be affected by a system
attack, and then identify the various risks that could affect those parts. The parts, often called
the infrastructure, include computer hardware, network hardware (for example, routers and
servers), communications systems, operating systems, application software and data files.

• Vulnerabilities are flaws in a system that can be used to cause loss or harm. Vulnerabilities
may be due to design, implementation or operational procedures and can exist at the
network, host, or application levels. For instance, a system may be vulnerable to data
manipulation by someone who should not have access to the system because the system
does not check a user’s identity before allowing computer and data access.

• Threats to a computing system are a set of circumstances that have the potential to cause
loss or harm. They may or may not be damaging or malicious in nature. Threats to a computer
system can be started (or exploited) by humans or by computers. Some of these threats
include human errors, hardware design flaws and software failures. Natural disasters such as
 floods, earthquakes and hurricanes are also considered to be threats, as they can cause
damage to a system.

• Attacks (or exploits) are actions taken that use one or more vulnerabilities in a system to
realize a threat. For example, a human who exploits a flaw in the system causes an attack on
the system. An attack can also be launched by another system, as in the case of ‘denial of
service’ attacks, which work by causing a server or part of a network to be overloaded with
data so that genuine users cannot use it.

Countermeasures or controls are how we deal with and prevent these problems. A
countermeasure is an action, device, procedure or technique that removes or reduces a
vulnerability. It does not directly address threats; instead, it addresses the vulnerabilities to
reduce the probability of an attack or the impact of a threat. Countermeasures can range from
improving application design, programming code or operational practices. Countermeasures can
take the form of software, hardware and modes of behavior (Personal).

Software countermeasures include:

 Firewalls.
 Pop-up blockers.
 Malware detection/removal programs (e.g. Antivirus software).
 Regular installation of updates and patches for operating systems.
 Backup and recovery.
 Identity Checking systems (e.g. Biometrics).
 Encryption.
The most common hardware countermeasure is a router that can prevent the IP address of an
individual computer from being directly visible on the Internet as in the case of your personal
computer at home on a LAN not being directly visible by computers beyond that network. Other
hardware countermeasures include:

 Biometric authentication systems (electronic access system).

 Physical restriction of access to computers and peripherals using a secured location.

 Security Personnel.

 Equipment Locks.

 Fireproof and Waterproof storage.

Behavioral (Personal) countermeasures include:

 Frequent deletion of stored cookies and temporary files from Web browsers.

 Regular scanning for viruses and other malware.

 Refusing to click on links that appear within e-mail messages.

 Refraining from opening e-mail messages and attachments from unknown senders.

 Staying away from questionable Web sites.

 Regularly backing up data on external media.

 Limited use of open Wi-Fi networks and hotspots.

 Don’t access sensitive files such as banking information on open Wi-Fi networks and
hotspots.

 Creating strong passwords.