Heat flow: Heat always flows from a hotter region to a colder region.

Any matter at any given

temperature will eventually reach the temperature of its surrounding to reach thermal
equilibrium.

The greater the temperature difference, the higher would be the rate of heat flow.

Mathematical analysis of specific heat capacity:

−1 −1
• C of water, Cw = 4200 Jk kg
−1 −1
• C of lead, CL = 126 Jk kg

1 kg of lead and 1 kg of water are heated for the same time using the same heat source.

However, the final temperature of lead will be much higher. Since they were
heated for the same time using the same heat source, both of them gained
the same amount of energy.

According to E = mcΔθ, since lead has a smaller specific heat capacity,

the rise in temperature of lead would be higher.

Mathematical examples associated with specific heat capacity:

Q. 500g of water at 80 °C is poured into a beaker containing 200 g of water at 20 °C. If the
specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Jk −1 kg −1,

a) Calculate the first equation temperature that the mixture of water will have.

Elost by hot water = Egained by cold water

E = mcΔθ

500 200
× (80 − T ) = × (T − 20)
1000 1000
x = 62.9 K

The diagram shows an electric heater being used to heat

500g of water at 20 °C. The voltage supplied is 12V and
the current in the heater is 1A. If the heater is used for
one hour and of it 40% is efficient, calculate the final
temperature of water after one hour.

Eelectrical from heater = Eheat in water

40
VI T × = mcΔθ
100
12 × 1 × 3600 × 0.4 = 0.5 × 4200 × (T − 20)

∴ T = 28.2 °C
Latent heat:

Latent heat is the energy required to change the state of matter. For instance, the energy
required to charge ice at 0 °C to water at 0 °C is called the latent heat (of fusion of ice)

Similarly, the energy required to change water at 100 °C to steam at 100 °C is called the latent
heat (of vaporisation) of water.

*When matter charges its state, its temperature does not change, even though heat is
constantly being supplied or taken away from it.

The graph below shows how

temperature changes with time
for ice at -20 °C to steam at
120 °C.

*steepness depends on
specific heat capacity

*gas has the lowest specific

heat capacity

For a certain mass of material, m the energy E needed to change the state is given by

E=Δm L

Mathematical Example:

How long will a 150W freezer take to freeze 650g of water which is already at 0 C?
The specific latent heat of fusion of water is 334 000 J/kg
HEAT FLOW
When you place a thermometer in water boiling at 100 oC, the temperature of the thermometer rises until it reaches 100
o
C. From this, you can see that temperature tells us about the direction in which energy flows. If two objects are placed
in contact (so that energy can flow between them), it will flow from the hotter to the cooler. Energy flowing from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature is called thermal energy. (Here, we are not concerned
with the mechanism by which the energy is transferred. It may be by conduction, convection or radiation.)
When two objects, in contact with each other, are at the same temperature, there will be no net transfer of thermal
energy between them. We say that they are in thermal equilibrium

TEMPERATURE
To understand the concept of temperature, we need to think about materials in terms of their molecular kinetic energy.
If the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance increases, the temperature of the substance increases.
To further grasp the concept of temperature we need to have a clear understanding of the scale with which we are
measuring it. In day to day life we use the Celsius scale. However, in physics, most calculations are done in the Kelvin
scale. The temperature in Kelvin scale is often called the absolute temperature. The absolute temperature scale stars
with absolute zero.

The average molecular kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature

INTERNAL ENERGY
Along with having kinetic energy, molecules of matter has some potential energy due its position within the structure of
the material. This potential energy is due to the bonds between molecules. Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and
potential energies of all the molecules in a given mass of a substance.

Internal energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy

POTENTIAL ENERGY
You know that the kinetic energy of a particle is the energy it has due to its
motion. The figure on the left shows how the
electrical potential energy of two isolated atoms depends on their separation.
Work must be done (energy must be
put in) to separate neighbouring atoms – think about the work you must do to snap
a piece of plastic or to tear a
sheet of paper. The graph shows that:
■ the electrical potential energy of two atoms very close
together is large and negative
■ as the separation of the atoms increases, their potential
energy also increases
■ when the atoms are completely separated, their potential
energy is maximum and has a value of zero.
MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION
The velocity of each molecule in a particular sample range from a few moving very slowly to a few moving very fast. The
majority of the particles move close to the average speed. If we plot a graph of number of molecules against their
energies, we obtain a curve called Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution as shown below –
The curve shows

- There are no molecules with zero energy

- Only a few molecules have very high energy
- There is no maximum value for the energy a molecule can have

RMS SPEED
According to Kinetic Molecular Theory, gaseous particles are in a state of constant random motion;

Individual particles move at different speeds, constantly colliding and changing directions. We use velocity to describe
the movement of gas particles, thereby taking into account both speed and direction. We cannot gauge the velocity of
each individual particle, so we often reason in terms of the particles’ average behavior.

Particles moving in opposite directions have velocities of opposite signs. Since a gas’ particles are in random motion, it is
plausible that there will be about as many moving in one direction as in the opposite direction, meaning that the
average velocity for a collection of gas particles equals zero; as this value is not very helpful in calculations, the average
of velocities can be determined using an alternative method – RMS!

The symbol of rms speed is √<c2>

To calculate the rms speed, apply the functions in reverse order – first square, then find the mean and finally root.

Calculate the rms speed for the sample of gas in the diagram above.

MATHEMATICAL INTERPRETATION OF KINETIC THEORY

The average kinetic energy of any molecule in a gaseous sample is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
They are related by the expression:

Where m is the mass,<c2> is the mean square speed, k is the Boltzmann constant 1.38 x 10 -23 JK-1 and T is the
temperature in the kelvin scale
MATHEMATICAL EXAMPLE FROM QUESTION PAPER
 GAS LAWS
KINETIC THEORY AND TEMPERATURE
The kinetic theory of gases states that all the molecules are in constant random motion. In simpler terms they all
have a kinetic energy, hence the name - kinetic theory. A rise in temperature causes the kinetic energy of gases
to increase. In other words, when temperature increases, the speed of the molecules increases

The quantities in concern in gas laws are pressure, volume, temperature. The gas laws basically represent the
relationship between any of these two quantities. When the relationship between any two quantities is to be
determined, it has to be ensured that the third quantity is kept constant.

BOYLE’S LAW
*Boyles law represents the relationship between pressure and volume and as mentioned earlier, to establish the
relationship between pressure and volume, the temperature must be kept constant.

Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume.
Mathematically,
P ∝1/V
To turn the expression into an equation we need to introduce a constant. Therefore
P = constant 1/V
OR
PV = constant
Therefore
P1V1 = P2V2 *This is the equation that you will be using in calculations involving Boyle’s law

Graphs for Boyle’s Law

Analysing relationship between pressure and volume

It has to be kept in mind that between pressure and volume, pressure is the dependent quantity and volume is
the independent quantity. i.e pressure depends on volume and not the other way around. Since temperature is
kept constant, it is called a control variable in this context.
 As seen in the diagram, as the plunger is pushed in, the volume
of gas inside the container decreases.

The gas molecules will now collide more frequently

More frequent collisions mean a greater force and therefore a

greater pressure is exerted

CHARLE’S LAW
*Charle’s law represents the relationship between volume and temperature and as mentioned earlier, to establish
the relationship between volume and temperature, the pressure must be kept constant.

Charle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
temperature (in the Kelvin scale)

Mathematically,
V∝ T
To turn the expression into an equation we need to introduce a constant. Therefore
V = constant T
OR
V/T = constant
Therefore
V1/T1 = V2/T2 *This is the equation that you will be using in calculations involving Boyle’s law

Graphs for Charle’s law

between
Analysing relationship volume and temperature
It has to be kept in mind that between volume and temperature, volume is the dependent variable and
temperature is the independent variable. i.e volume depends on temperature and not the other way around.
Since pressure is kept constant, it is called a control variable in this context.
 As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
the molecules also increases

The molecules move faster and collide harder with

each other

They move farther apart from each other in turn

increasing the volume of the gas

PRESSURE LAW
*Pressure law represents the relationship between pressure and temperature and as mentioned earlier, to
establish the relationship between pressure and temperature, the volume must be kept constant.
Pressure law
Charle’s
Pressure law
law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is directly proportional to the
temperature (in the Kelvin scale)

Mathematically,
P∝ T
To turn the expression into an equation we need to introduce a constant. Therefore
P = constant T
OR
P/T = constant
Therefore
P1/T1 = P2/T2 *This is the equation that you will be using in calculations involving Boyle’s law

Graphs for pressure law

Analysing relationship pressure and temperature

It has to be kept in mind that between pressure and temperature, pressure is the dependent variable and
temperature is the independent variable. i.e pressure depends on temperature and not the other way around.
Since volume is kept constant, it is called the control variable in this context.
As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules also increases
The molecules move faster and collide harder with each other.
There is a greater rate of change of momentum, a greater force and therefore the pressure increases

IDEAL GAS LAW

So far we have seen how P, V and T are related. It is possible to derive a single equation relating this quantities.
This is called the ideal gas law. It can be mathematically summarised both in terms of number of molecules and
number of moles –

In terms of NUMBER OF MOLECULES: pV = NkT

where N is the number of molecules k is the Boltzmann constant which has a value of 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1

In terms of NUMBER OF MOLES: pV = nRT

where n is the number of moles and R is the universal molar gas constant which has a value of 8.31Jmol-1K-1
Evaluating particle properties from tracks

The thickness of the tracks represent ionising power

The length of the track represent the range of the particle
The visibility of the tracks means the particles are charged

Carbon Dating: Carbon dating is a method of estimating the age of matter, that was once alive. Example: Dead tree
trunks, fossilized animals etc.

Living organisms have the same ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12. Carbon-12 is stable but carbon-14 is unstable.

When the living matter dies, the proportion of carbon-12 in the body remains the same but the proportion of carbon-14
decreases. The proportion of carbon-14 and carbon-12 is compared to estimate the age of the fossil.

This method is not effective for matter older than 60,000 years because the fraction of carbon-14 remaining is too small
to be determined accurately after 60,000 years.

*The half life of carbon-14 is around 6,000 years. The exact half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.

Why cannot we measure the activity after 60,000 years using carbon dating?

60000
After 60,000 years, No. of half life elapsed = = 10
6000
1 10 1
Fraction remaining = ቀ ቁ
2
= 1024 × 100 = 0.1%

The amount of fraction remaining is so small that the activity will be very difficult to measure.

Suitability of appliances that rely on radioactive sources:

(i) Smoke detectors:

• Generally use alpha emitting sources

• These sources must have a very long half-life, so that they can be used over a long period of time
• Alpha has a high ionizing power and therefore, a low penetrating power. This makes these detectors safe to use, as
alpha will not be able to penetrate the casing.
• Smoke detectors are generally placed near the ceiling since alpha has a short range in air and will therefore not be
able to reach the user even if there is a leak in the casing.

(ii) Pace makers: Same as above, only it is attached inside the heart

(iii) Tracers in medicines:

• One of the most common tracers is iodine-131. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days. This half-life is relatively short and
will limit the time of exposure to radiation in the patients body. However, this half-life is long enough to complete the
procedure. Iodine-131 is a beta emitter which enables them to be detected easily outside the body.
Further mathematical aspects of radioactivity:

When a radioactive atom decays, the mass of the parent nuclide is not equal to the sum of the mass of the daughter
nuclei. For instance, in the decay of Americium, Am nucleus decays to form Neptunium and releases an alpha particle.
The sum of the masses of Neptunium and alpha is less than the mass of Americium. The rest of the mass accounts for
the kinetic energy of the alpha particle (and the Neptunium nucleus) according to E=mc2.

Analogy of radioactivity

Radioactivity can be thought of as analogous to popping of kernels (popcorn) in a micro-wave. This analogy is suitable
as well as unsuitable in the following ways:

1. They are both random processes i.e. just like radioactive nuclei, it cannot be predicted which kernel will pop next or
when it will pop.
2. Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process but popcorn formation is not.
3. If the kernels are not heated, they will not pop at all. On the other hand, radioactive decay does not require external
intervention.

Problems with harnessing fusion energy

• Despite the huge potentials of fusion, fusion power generation is still in the development phase, because very high
temperatures are required to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion.

• A very high density is required to maintain a sustainable/sufficient collision rate.

• These high temperatures give rise to confinement problems.

• Contact with the container will cause temperature to fall and fusion to cease.

Energy and activity

The rate at which energy is transferred due to radioactive decay is given by Energy x Activity
This is because activity = dN/dt and energy/time is power.
Mathematical example:
Q: Polonium is an alpha emitter. Alpha particles are released with an energy of 5.3 MeV. The activity of
polonium at a specific time is 8 x 1013 Bq. Calculate the rate at which energy is transferred to the alpha
particles in the decay process.

A: 𝑃 = 𝐸 × 𝐴

𝑃 = 5.3 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 8 × 1013

𝑃 = 67.8 𝑊
Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom are held together by the strong nuclear force (Discussed in
unit 4 Particle physics). So if we imagine splitting a nucleus up into its separate protons and neutrons, it would
require energy, because we would need to overcome the strong nuclear force.

Since energy is conserved:

energy of nucleus + energy put in to separate nucleons = total energy of separated nucleons
Since energy is being provided, the separated protons and neutrons must have more energy in total than the
original nucleus. So if the nucleus was formed from its constituent particles, energy would be released
Therefore,
Binding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its constituent nucleons

Binding energy per nucleon

Instead of looking at the total binding energy of a nucleus, it is often more useful to consider binding energy per
nucleon – in other words, the total binding energy divided by the total number of nucleons.

For example, for a helium nucleus, the total binding energy is 28.4 MeV

Since there are four nucleons (two protons and two neutrons), the
binding energy per nucleon is 28.4 ÷ 4 = 7.1 MeV.

The binding energy per nucleon gives an indication of the stability of the nucleus. A high binding energy per
nucleon indicates a high degree of stability – it would require a lot of energy to take these nuclei apart

The graph below shows how binding energy per nucleon varies with mass number for different elements

The following observations can be made from the graph:

1. The binding energy/nucleon increases quickly at first then less so, up to a maximum at iron (Fe-56)
2. After iron the binding energy/nucleon slowly decreases
3. Less massive nucleons, up to iron, participate in fusion reactions.
4. Nucleons more massive than iron participate in fission reactions.
Nuclear processes and binding energy
Processes such as radioactive decay, fission and fusion involve the nucleons being rearranged into different
nuclei. If the new nuclei produced have a higher binding energy per nucleon, then energy is given out. All
spontaneously occurring processes involve energy being given out – i.e. the products have greater binding
energy per nucleon than the original nuclei.

Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process. It always involves a less stable (i.e. lower binding energy per
nucleon) nucleus decaying to form a more stable nucleus. Energy is therefore always given out in radioactive
decay - in alpha-decay, for example, this energy is largely in the form of the kinetic energy of the alpha particle.

Nuclear fission involves a heavy nucleus (such as uranium) splitting to form two smaller nuclei and some
neutrons. The nuclei produced will be nearer the peak of the graph – so energy is released. Fission can only
occur with nuclei to the right of the peak.

Nuclear fusion involves small nuclei joining together to form a larger one – again, some neutrons are usually
produced as well. The nucleus produced will always be nearer the peak of the graph – so again, energy
is released. Fusion can only occur with nuclei to the left of the peak.

Mass defect
This relationship between mass and energy means that since a nucleus has less energy than its separated
nucleons, the mass of the nucleus must be less than that of its constituent particles

The mass defect of a nucleus is the difference between the mass of the nucleus, and the mass of its constituent particles.

The mass defect is related to the binding energy by:

Binding energy (J) = mass defect (kg)xc2

MATHEMATICAL EXAMPLE:
Condition/Definition of SHM:

1. The force and therefore the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from
the equilibrium position.
2. The force and therefore the acceleration always acts towards the equilibrium position.

Assessing equations for time period of SHM:

For spring-mass system:

For a spring-mass system, the determining factors of time period are

mass and stiffness of the spring.

m
T = 2π
k

For pendulum:

For a pendulum, the only determining factor of its time period is the
length of the string. If mass is doubled, T will be still the same. For
instance, a mass m, set into oscillation has time period, T. If the
1
mass is replaced by 2m or m, the time period still remains the
2
same.

L
T = 2π
g

Associated graph:

4π 2 m
T2 =
k

k is a constant. ∴ T 2 ∝ m or T ∝ m

Associated graph for pendulum:

4π 2l
T2 =
g
Deriving equations for SHM, considering the vertical aspect of displacement:

x
sinωt =
A
x = [Asinωt ]
dx
= v = ωAcosωt
dt
dv
= a = − ω 2 [Asinωt ]
dt
a = − ω2 x
∴ a ∝−x

Deriving equations for SHM, considering the horizontal aspect:

Link between a and x:

a = − ω 2 x where a is the acceleration

a ∝−x

Natural Frequency:

When a system is allowed to oscillate freely, the frequency with which it oscillates is called its
natural frequency.

Free oscillation:

When a system oscillates on its own [with its natural frequency] it is said to be undergoing free
oscillation.

Forced oscillation:

When a system is driven into an oscillation, it is said to be undergoing forced oscillation.

In more technical terms, forced oscillation occurs when the system is forced to oscillate at a
particular frequency by a periodic input of force.

Forced/Driven Frequency:

The frequency with which a system is made to oscillate, that is, the system is driven into
oscillation is called the forced frequency.

Resonance:

When the forced frequency becomes equal to the natural frequency of a system, the system
oscillates with a large amplitude. This phenomenon is known as resonance.

*Resonance occurs when a system is driven at its natural frequency.

• Maximum energy transfer occurs during resonance.

*Resonance occurs at integer multiples of the natural frequency.

This is illustrated in the graph below:

Damping:

It is the removal of energy from a system.

*Energy in oscillations should always be linked with amplitude.

If the energy in the system decreases, the amplitude of oscillations will also decrease.

Damping can be done by any means what so ever. For instance, a cardboard attached to a
mass in a spring-mass system or cone attached to the bob of a pendulum will reduce the
amplitude of oscillations, by removing the energy from the system. The card or the cone
causes a greater air resistance to act. A greater work needs to be done causing a greater loss
(removal) of energy.

The graph below shows a system undergoing a damped oscillation:

Irrespective of the amplitude, the time period remains the same.

Application of damping:

While choosing the framework for tall buildings, the first preference for the material is steel.
Steel is a ductile material. During an earthquake due to vibrations, the steel deforms. During
the deformation process, energy is removed from the system and is not transferred back to the
system in turn reducing the amplitude of oscillations.

Tuned mass dampers:

*Damping is reducing amplitude of oscillation, by removing energy from the system.

Tuned mass dampers reduce the amplitude of oscillation by absorbing energy from the system.

In skyscrapers (tall building) high speed winds or earthquakes may cause the tower to oscillate/
vibrate uncontrollably.

Tuned mass dampers have the same natural frequency as the frequency of oscillation of the
tower. When the building starts shaking, energy is transferred to the dampers and as it
oscillates, energy is removed from the entire system in turn reducing the amplitude of
oscillations.

Assessing natural frequency of oscillating systems:

m
(i) Spring-mass system: According to the equation, T = 2π , the determining factors of
k
the time period and hence the frequency of oscillation for a spring-mass system are mass
and the stiffness of the spring. A larger mass on the spring would cause the time period to
increase and therefore the frequency to decrease. A spring with a greater stiffness would
cause the time period to decrease and therefore the frequency to increase.

l
(ii) Pendulum: According to the equation, T = 2π , the determining factor of the time
g
period and hence the frequency of oscillation for a pendulum is the length of the string. A
larger length of the string would cause the time period to increase and therefore the
frequency to decrease.

Energy graphs in SHM:

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

There are several different types of fields. In unit 4, we saw that a charged object experiences a force when it is placed in
an electric field. Similarly, a magnet produces a magnetic field around itself, and that this will produce a force (attractive
or repulsive) on another magnet placed nearby. If an object is placed in a gravitational field, a force will act on the object
because of its mass. Gravitational force is always attractive.

The mass of an object creates a gravitational field around it. A mass placed in that field generates a force of attraction
on that mass. Two masses always attract each other with an equal and opposite force (but some forces are too small to
measure, e.g. a person pulling the Earth).

If you place a small ‘test’ mass near a massive object it will follow a path which reveals the direction of the field line.
There are 2 types of fields

1. Radial Field Lines

2. Uniform field - gravitational field strength is the same in magnitude and direction throughout. This is the
approximated field in a small region on the Earth's surface.

■ The arrows on the field lines show us the direction of the gravitational force on a mass placed in the field.
■ The spacing of the field lines indicates the strength of the gravitational field – the further apart they are, the weaker the field
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
Any two point masses attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their separation.

Therefore:

To turn this into an equation, we introduce the gravitational constant G. The gravitational constant G is sometimes
referred to as the universal gravitational constant which has a value of 6.67 × 10-11 N m2 kg-2

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH g

We can describe how strong or weak a gravitational field is by stating its gravitational field strength. We are used
to this idea for objects on or near the Earth’s surface. The gravitational field strength is the familiar quantity g. Its
value is approximately 9.81. The weight of a body of mass m is mg. To make the meaning of g clearer, we should write it
as 9.81 N kg-1. That is, each 1 kg of mass experiences a gravitational force of 9.81 N
Mathematically,

We can use the definition above to determine the gravitational field strength for a point (or spherical) mass.
The force between two point masses is given by

The graph below shows how g varies with distance from the centre of a large spherical object (e.g. a planet ) of uniform density
Since force is a vector quantity, it follows that gravitational field strength is also a vector. We need to give its direction
as well as its magnitude in order to specify it completely. The field strength g is not a constant; it decreases as the
distance r increases. The field strength obeys an inverse square law with distance. The field strength will decrease by a
factor of four when the distance from the centre is doubled. Close to the Earth’s surface, the magnitude of g is about
9.81Nkg-1. Even if you climbed Mount Everest, which is 8.85km high, the field strength will only decrease by 0.3%.

EXAM QUESTION EXAMPLE

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
Gravitational potential at a point is the g.p.e. per unit mass at the point (just as field strength g tells us the force per unit
mass at a point in a field). Gravitational potential is always negative. This is because, as a mass is brought towards
another mass, its g.p.e. decreases. Since g.p.e. is zero at infinity, it follows that, anywhere else, g.p.e. and potential are
less than zero, i.e. they are negative.

The gravitational potential is zero at infinity (far from any mass), and decreases as a mass is approached

Mathematically

Vgrav = Egrav /m
Vgrav = mgh/m
Vgrav =gh
Since, g = GM/r2 and if h=r

Vgrav = GM/r
ORBITING UNDER GRAVITY

For an object orbiting a planet, such as an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth, gravity provides the centripetal force
which keeps it in orbit. Therefore,

Rearranging gives

This equation allows us to calculate, for example, the speed at which a satellite must travel to stay in a circular orbit.
Since the masses get cancelled out, this means for all satellites, whatever their masses, will travel at the same speed in a
particular orbit

THE ORBITAL PPERIOD

We can substitute this in the equation for v2

and rearranging this equation gives

This equation shows that the orbital period T is related to the radius r of the orbit. The square of the period is directly
proportional to the cube of the radius (T 2 ∝ r3). This is called Kepler’s law
ASTRONOMY

Light from stars: All stars are considered to be black body radiators.

*The term black body has nothing to do with the physical appearance of the bodies.

A black body is a perfect emitter and absorber of all electromagnetic radiation.

Associated terms:

• Luminosity (L): Luminosity is the power output of a star. The unit of luminosity is Watt.
• Radiation flux/Intensity: It is denoted by F and is the luminosity per unit area. The unit of Flux is
Wat t /m 2
Mathematically,
L
Linking luminosity and radiation flux, F =
4π r 2 (sphere)

In the equation, L remains constant as it is the total power output of a

star. Radiation flux depends on the distance. The two quantities F and
r obey inverse squared law.

Light from stars are associated with several quantities. They are the
surface temperature (T), luminosity and surface area of the star (not
the area used to calculate intensity → 4π r 2) and the peak
wavelength λma x

The relationship between these quantities is governed by two laws:

1. Wien’s law: According to Wien’s law, the peak wavelength (λma x) is inversely proportional to the
surface temperature.

*λma x IS NOT THE MAXIMUM WAVELENGTH

It is the wavelength at which maximum radiation output (luminosity) occurs.
1
λma x ∝ 2.898 × 10^-3 is the Wien's Displacement Constant
T 1
λma x = 2.898 × 10−3 ×
T
−3
λma xT = 2.898 × 10 m K

2. Stefan Boltzmann Law: Stefan Boltzmann law states that the luminosity is directly proportional to
the fourth(T 4) power of the absolute (temperature in K) surface temperature.
Mathematically,
L ∝ T4
L = 4π r 2 σ T 4, where 4π r 2 is the surface area of the star, σ is the Stefan Boltzmann constant,
W
which has a value of 5.67 × 10−8 and its unit is .
m2 K4
Graphically linking Wien’s law and Stefan Boltzmann law

According to Wien’s law, the graph shows that

the peak wavelength is shortest for the star with
the highest temperature.

According to Stefan Boltzmann law, the graph

shows that the emissive power is greatest for
the star with the highest temperature.

Mathematical example:

The Sun behaves as an approximate black-body

radiator with peak energy radiation occuring at a
wavelength 5.2 × 10−7m.

a) (i) Show that the Sun has a surface temperature of about 6000 K.

λma xT = 2.898 × 10−3

2.898 × 10−3
∴T = = 5573 K
5.2 × 10−7
(ii) The radiation received from the Sun at the top of the atmosphere is 1.37 kWm −2. Show that
the Sun’s luminosity is about 4 × 10 26 W.

Distance from the Sun to the Earth = 1.49 × 1011 m

L
Flux =
4π r 2
L = 3.82 × 10 26 W
(iii) Hence calculate the radius of the sun.

L = 4π r 2 σ × T4

3.82 × 10 26 = 4π r 2 × 5.67 × 10−8 × (5573)4

∴ r = 7.46 × 108

Distance to stars:

There are 2 methods of determining the distance to stars:

1. Trigonometric parallax: In this method, a nearby star is observed, relative to distant stars. Distant
stars is this context are also referred to as background stars. Nearby stars are observed relative to
background stars because background stars have a relatively fixed position.
 The nearby star is viewed from 2 positions at an interval of 6 months i.e from opposite ends of the
Earth’s orbital diameter around the sun. The change in angular displacement (θ2 − θ1) of the star
relative to the fixed distant stars is measured. The radius of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun must
be known and the distance to the stars is calculated using trigonometry.

Trigonometric parallax is only suitable for measuring distance to nearby stars. The distance to
distant stars cannot be found out using trigonometric parallax because the angle would be too
small to be measured accurately.

2. Standard candles: Standard candles are astronomical objects of known luminosity.

Cepheid variables are examples of

standard candles. Cepheid variables
are stars where luminosity changes
over time periodically. Another
example of standard candles is Type 1
A SuperNova.

The method: First, a cepheid variable

has to be located. The time period of
the change in luminosity is measured.
The corresponding luminosity is found
out from the T-L data-sheet. The
radiation flux of the standard candle is
measured on Earth. The distance of
the star us calculated using inverse
L
squared law, F = where F is
4πd 2
the radiation flux, L is the luminosity
and d is the distance to the star.

Special Measuring Unit

1. Astronomical Unit (AU): 1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m

It is the average distance between the sun and the Earth.

2. Light Year: Light year is not a unit of time, it is a unit of distance. 1 light year is the distance that
light travels in 1 year.
distance
speed = distance = speed × t im e
t im e
= 3 × 108 × 1 × 365 × 24 × 3600
 STELLAR EVOLUTION/LIFE CYCLE OF STARS

Stars form from massive clouds of interstellar dust and gas in space called nebulae (the singular of nebulae
is nebula - latin for 'cloud').
The gas in the nebula is made up of mainly hydrogen and helium gases which were in the early universe.
The dust is the product of supernova - dramatic explosions of massive stars that fling the atoms made within the
stars out into space.

Gravity is the force that pulls matter together - it is an attractive force that acts on masses. It acts on the dust and
gas together. It pulls in gas and dust from a vast area - steadily building up the shape of the 'star'. This is
called accretion. (Accretion is a process in which the size of something gradually increases by steady addition
of smaller parts)

As the cloud continues to contract there is conversion of gravitational energy of the particles to thermal kinetic
energy. So as the matter is pulled together it swirls ever faster (like water going down a plug hole!). This results
in the matter getting even hotter and the pressure building up. It also results in the gas and dust forming a disc
shape with a concentration of mass in the middle or core of the protostar.
A protostar is the gas and dust clumped together under the force of gravity. Fusion is yet to start in a protostar

Some of the material from the disk is ejected outward in a bipolar jet. Jets of fast moving particles can be
detected coming out at right angles to the accretion disc.
It gives out radiation from atoms that are excited due to their high kinetic energy collisions - but at this stage as
mentioned earlier, there is no fusion going on.
The outer parts of the disc might clump together to form planets and the inner core will gather most of the
matter into the central star (or even stars - binary systems develop two from the central core). At last the
surrounding gas/dust envelope disperses and accretion process stops, the star is considered a pre-main sequence
star.

When the core of the protostar becomes hot enough and there is sufficient pressure on the atoms and the process
of nuclear fusion begins. The star is now a main sequence star.

A main sequence star is a stable star where the inward force due to gravity and the outward force due to
fusion are in equilibrium.

During this period of a stars life the fusion of nuclei within the star occurs forming elements with atomic
numbers up to 26 (iron). (Elements heavier than iron are formed in a supernova).

The fusion reaction is what makes stars shine.

There is a lot of energy released when fusion occurs and this is sent out into the Universe in the form
of electromagnetic radiation.
We can only see the visible light emitted from stars and only feel the infra red emitted from our star - the Sun -
but electromagnetic radiation from the full spectrum is emitted from a star in its main sequence phase. That is
why stars are often referred to as black body radiators.

We can observe this radiation using telescopes that detect the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the
telescope is made to detect. This information is then translated into visible images by a computer so that we can
have a visual representation of what the star is emitting in that region of the spectrum.

The force of gravity is continually trying to cause the star to collapse but this is counteracted by the pressure of
hot gas and/or radiation in the star's interior. The two processes create a dynamic equilibrium. This is
called hydrostatic support and results from the pressure inwards being balanced by the pressure outward. Our
Sun is almost halfway through its 10 billion year stable phase

In about 4 to 5 billion years from now the Sun will will begin to exhaust its supply of hydrogen fuel.
The Sun's core will then collapse under its own gravity as the outward pressure of the core decreases (because
fusion reactions deep within the core are less prevalent).
This will make the core hotter.

Its atmosphere will become unstable because of the increased pressure from the hotter core and start to expand.

This will transform the Sun just like any other low mass star into a huge red giant star.

In a red giant star, as the hydrogen runs out, the star begins fusing helium into heavier elements such as
carbon, oxygen etc. The outer layers of the star expand and cool down.
At the bloated surface, the increased amount of energy will be spread out over a larger area so each square
metre will be cooler.

The surface will have a red colour because it is so much cooler than it was at the yellow stable stage and will be
much further from the center than during the main sequence.
Our Sun will swell in size to encompass the inner planets (perhaps Earth too) when this happens!
Despite its cooler surface temperature, a red giant is very luminous because of its enormous surface area;
so even if the Earth is not swallowed up when our Sun becomes a red giant, conditions on the planet will
become impossible for life to exist. The surface temperature would be so high that the oceans and atmosphere
would have evaporated away.

Once all of the red giant's atmosphere has been dissipated, energetic ultraviolet radiation from the exposed hot
luminous core ionizes the ejected material. Absorbed ultraviolet light then energizes the shell of nebulous gas
around the central star, causing it to appear as a brightly coloured planetary nebula.
Planetary nebula is the remains of an explosion at the end of the life cycle a low mass star.
The term "planetary nebula" is a misnomer (wrongly named) because they are unrelated to planets

Finally, when the fuel runs out completely the crushing force of gravity makes the star collapse under the force
of its own weight; as it is a relatively small star, it will collapse gently and remains collapsed. Such a collapsed
star, at its life's end, is called a white dwarf.
In a white dwarf, there is no fuel left for fusion to occur. The core contracts due to gravity.
Our Sun will probably end its life in this way.
It will continue to shine as radiation will still given out from electron promotion/demotion transitions until the
kinetic energy of the atoms diminishes enough to stop radiation emission - it will then be a black dwarf - a
cold mass moving through space. It is referred to as black because it does not emit any visible radiation.

A different fate awaits a massive star. Its final collapse generates a violent explosion, blowing the innards of the
star out into space - this is called a supernova.
Supernova is the violent explosion at the end of the lifecycle of a massive star. During this supernova event
fusion of nuclei cause large nuclei to form - larger than ones formed in small stars.

The materials of the exploded star are flung out into space and mix with the primeval hydrogen of the universe
as dust. Later in the history of the galaxy, other stars are formed out of such clouds of dust and gas - nebulae
(see above) and the whole cycle begins again.

After the supernova has blown all of the atoms from the outer star into space the dense core becomes a neutron
star or if the core remnant was exceptionally massive, a black hole.

In a neutron star, gravity is so strong that it forces protons and electrons to come together to form
neutrons. A neutron star only consists of neutrons.

If a neutron star is greater than approximately 3 solar masses, it will collapse further to an infinitely
small point, called a singularity, and will become infinitely dense. The gravitational field strength around
the black hole is so strong that even light cannot escape.

ADVANCED IDEAS:
Most stars have their own angular velocity, or rate of spin. When a star decreases in size rapidly, it will spin faster,
because angular momentum is conserved. This is similar to the way an ice-skater can spin faster if she holds her
arms closer to her body. Often, this is what happens when the core of a supernova shrinks to form a neutron star.
The rate of rotation increases massively, and this results in a pulsar. We call it this because on Earth we detect
them as regular radio pulses, with periods sometimes in the millisecond range. The regularity and short periods of
these pulses led scientists to believe that aliens were trying to communicate with us, although the pulses are now
known to come from the magnetic field of a spinning neutron star.
 ASTROPHYSICS LECTURES BY RAFQUAT SIR

MEASURING TECHNIQUES
We have previously discussed some of the main measuring techniques for astronomical distances. We need to
realise that we apply different techniques for different distances for objects in the universe. The diagram below
illustrates these –

As we saw earlier, stars appear to be a range of brightness. The first attempt to catalogue stars in terms
of their brightness was by Hipparcos, an ancient Greek astronomer. He observed over 850 stars and
assigned them a magnitude based on how bright they appeared. These magnitudes are called apparent
magnitudes (m) and are how bright a star appears from Earth. This idea is still used today and
apparent magnitudes are expressed in number. Always remember, the bigger the number, the smaller
the brightness and vice versa.

The table on the left shows the apparent magnitudes of

different objects when viewed from the earth. It’s pretty
obvious that the sun “appears” the brightest compared to
anything else in the universe. Hence its apparent magnitude is
denoted with the smallest number. On the other hand,
Barnard’s star having in the highest positive value appears to
be the dimmest object when viewed from the earth.
Consider the diagram below –

As can be seen from the diagram above, two stars can have the same apparent magnitude, despite
having a very different intrinsic brightness (actual brightness), due to their differing distances from
Earth. The total power output of a star, or its intrinsic brightness is called its luminosity, and is measured
in watts. The energy radiated by a star spreads out in all directions into space across the surface of an
ever-increasing sphere. Therefore, as the area of a sphere is related to the square of the radius, the
intensity decays in proportion to the reciprocal of the radius squared. So if we double the distance to a
star, its intensity decreases by a factor of 4, and if we triple the distance to a star, its intensity decreases
by a factor of 9. This is known as the inverse square law which we have already studies in the Light from
Stars topic.

It is important, therefore, to be able to compare stars under similar conditions. That’s why we need to
define the absolute magnitude of a star which is its apparent magnitude when viewed from a distance
of 10pc.

You may well be expected to compare the apparent and absolute magnitudes of two different stars and
comment on their relative distances from Earth. For example, the table below shows the apparent
magnitude and the absolute magnitude for two stars.

Both of the stars have similar apparent magnitudes, so appear to be the same brightness in the night
sky. However, Bellatrix is a more luminous star as it has a brighter absolute magnitude. So when both of
the stars are viewed from the same distance Bellatrix would be brighter. From this we can conclude that
Alioth must be closer to Earth than Bellatrix.

COMPOSITION OF STARS

We have discussed emission and absorption spectrum in details in

our AS, but it is important to recall how they are created in order
to understand the classification system in stars.
When a photon passes through a cloud of cool gas it might be
absorbed by an orbital electron. When this happens the electron
becomes excited to a higher energy level. The greater the energy
of the photon, from E=hf, the greater the quantum jump. The
electron will soon de-excite and fall back down to the lowest
energy level or ground state. When the electron de-excites it will
give up all the energy it absorbed by emitting a photon in a
random direction. This de-excitation does not necessarily occur in
one jump

Different elements, and molecules show characteristic spectra, so they can identified by looking for these absorption or
emission spectra. In fact this is how astronomers identify the composition of many things including, stellar atmospheres,
comets’ comas and nebulae.

The absorption and emission spectra of hydrogen are of particular importance to astronomers due to its abundance in
the universe, and of the different series of spectra, the most important is one known as the Balmer series. The Balmer
series is also important because the wavelengths of photon created are in the visible spectrum.
The diagram above shows the production of hydrogen alpha lines in the atmosphere of a star. The
diagram below shows a nebula exhibiting the characteristic color of the hydrogen alpha line.
When the spectrum from a star is observed through a spectroscope thousands of dark absorption lines
can be seen crossing the otherwise continuous spectrum

The first attempts to classify stars was made using the strength of these dark absorption lines, especially the
Blamer lines. Stars were classified alphabetically according the strength of these lines. However, it was soon
discovered that the strength of the lines depended on the temperature of the star and that some stars were
so hot (over 10000k) that they ionise the hydrogen, and some were too cool to excite the hydrogen in the first
place. The order was re-arranged by Annie Jump-Cannon into temperature order into seven spectral types,
now known as the Harvard system of O, B, A, F, G, K, M.
There are several ways to remember this order but most famous one till date is – Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy Kiss Me!

Stars are near perfect black body radiators and therefore emit all colours of the visible light spectrum. Therefore
all stars should appear white! However, the peak of a star’s Wein’s Law curve shows us what colour it will
appear. The peak wavelength depends on the surface temperature and therefore the colour of a star in a certain
spectral class depends on its surface temperature. This is illustrated in the diagram on the next page –
The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) Diagram
HR diagram is not a graph. This is actually one of the most common misconceptions. It doesn’t show the
relationship between the quantities on either axes. You can think of it as an illustration of stellar classification.
There are several variations of the HR diagram. The axes may vary but the shape of the diagram remains the
same. Two of the common ones are shown below.

Sometimes you may be asked to draw an evolutionary path of for a specific star, like our sun as shown below –
OBJECTS NOT SHOWN IN THE H-R DIAGRAM
1. Binary system is one where two astronomical bodies orbit around a common centre of mass.

The Doppler effect can be used to identify binary star systems. As the stars eclipse each other, they are travelling
perpendicular to the line of sight from the observer, so there is no Doppler shift in their emitted radiation.

However, when one star is travelling away from the observer, the other is travelling towards the observer. This causes
each spectral line to be split into two, where one is blue-shifted and the other is red-shifted. This is illustrated in the
diagram below –

Observer

Observer

Along with change in wavelengths due to Doppler effect, there is a change in intensity as well in a binary system.
The diagram below shows how intensity varies when bodies in a binary system undergo an eclipse.
Quasar is an active galactic nucleus – a supermassive black hole surrounded by a disc of matter which, as it falls into the
black hole, causes jets of radiation to be emitted from the poles.

Quasars are characterised by the following features: ● Extremely

large optical red-shifts ● Very powerful light output ● Their size
being not much bigger than a star Quasars are thought to be some
of the most distant measurable objects in the known universe. The
power output of quasars can be estimated using the inverse square
law for intensity. The distance can be determined using Hubble’s
law and Doppler shift. The inverse square law shows that quasars
are extremely powerful and can have the same energy output as
several galaxies. The first quasar to be discovered was 3C 273,
which was thought to be a dim star, but it had much greater radio
emissions than expected. It was later found to be 26 billion light
years away and 1000 times more luminous than the Milky Way

2. Most neutron stars are observed as pulsars. Pulsars are rotating neutron stars observed to have pulses of radiation
at very regular intervals that typically range from milliseconds to seconds. Pulsars have very strong magnetic fields
which funnel jets of particles out along the two magnetic poles. These accelerated particles produce very powerful
beams of light. Often, the magnetic field is not aligned with the spin axis, so those beams of particles and light are
swept around as the star rotates. When the beam crosses our line-of-sight, we see a pulse – in other words, we see
pulsars turn on and off as the beam sweeps over Earth.

One way to think of a pulsar is like a lighthouse. At night, a lighthouse emits a beam of light that sweeps across the
sky. Even though the light is constantly shining, you only see the beam when it is pointing directly in your direction.
The video below is an animation of a neutron star showing the magnetic field rotating with the star. Partway
through, the point-of-view changes so that we can see the beams of light sweeping across our line of sight – this is
how a pulsar pulses.

No pulse detected A strong pulse is detected

ADVANCED CONCEPTS

1. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING
Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity says that matter curves
the fabric of spacetime. As a result, any light passing through that
curve will curve, too. The most famous example: Imagine a bowling
ball sitting at the center of a trampoline, with the bowling ball
acting as a massive object (like a galaxy) and the trampoline fabric
acting as spacetime. If you put a golf ball in the role of light and roll
that golf ball toward the bowling ball, it won't take a straight path.
Instead, it'll follow the curve in the trampoline and become "bent"
by the presence of the bowling ball. That's what light does around
massive objects: the more massive the object, the deeper the sag
in the trampoline, and the more the light will bend around it. This is
illustrated in the diagram on the left. Lenses refract i.e bend light
and gravity does the same thing, hence the name - lensing.

Astronomers can verify the existence of dark matter using gravitational lensing. Although astronomers cannot
see dark matter, they can detect its influence by observing how the gravity of massive galaxy clusters, which
contain dark matter, bends and distorts the light of more-distant galaxies located behind the cluster.
2. Event Horizon

An “event” is a something happening that can be observed or recorded. If any action happens and we can
interact with that action (e.g. we can see a candle glowing because we interact with the light emitted/reflected
from it). “Horizon” is the boundary till which we can observe. All our technology and skills to record/observe
breaks down beyond a horizon. (E.g. we can't “look” beyond a horizon in a sea beach because light coming
beyond that imaginary line can't reach our eyes. So in short all “events” taking place beyond the horizon are
unobservable. Almost all astronomical evens are documented using the light from them that are detected on
earth. Now when it comes to black holes, the “surface,” called its event horizon, defines the boundary where
the velocity needed to escape exceeds the speed of light, which is the speed limit of the cosmos. Matter and
radiation fall in, but they can’t get out. In 2019, astronomers using the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) captured
an image of a black hole for the first time. It appears as a dark circle silhouetted by an orbiting disk of hot,
glowing matter.

3. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

An important discovery related to black holes came in 2015 when scientists first detected gravitational waves,
ripples in the fabric of space-time predicted a century earlier by Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
LIGO detected the waves from an event, where two orbiting black holes spiraled into each other and merged 1.3
billion years ago. Since then, LIGO and other facilities have observed numerous black hole mergers via the
gravitational waves they produce.

These are exciting new methods, but astronomers have been studying black holes through the various forms of
light they emit for decades. Although light can’t escape a black hole’s event horizon, the enormous tidal forces
in its vicinity cause nearby matter to heat up to millions of degrees and emit radio waves and X-rays.

When it comes to astrophysics, all electromagnetic waves, visible or otherwise are referred to as light.
AGE OF THE UNIVERSE

Edwin Hubble observed that light from all distant galaxies are red shifted. He concluded that all
galaxies must therefore be moving away from each other. This shows that the universe is
expanding.

*Light from all distant galaxies are red shifted.

The velocity with which the galaxies are moving away from each other is called the recession
velocity.

Hubble calculated the recession velocities using Doppler shift. The Doppler shift can be
mathematically expressed as follows:

Δλ Δf v Δλ
z= = = , where z is the doppler shift, is the fractional change in wavelength,
λ f c λ
Δf
is the fractional change in frequency, v is the recession velocity and c is the speed of light.
f
v Δλ
For our syllabus, the most important equation is =
c λ

Δλ 532 − 530 v
z= = =
λ 530 c

∴ recession velocity
532 − 530
= ×c
530

After calculating the recession velocities, distance to the distant galaxies were measured. A
graph of recession velocity, v against distance, d is plotted as shown below:

After plotting the graph, he concluded that there was a

direct relationship between v and d. Therefore, the graph
must be a straight line and the gradient must be
constant. He named his constant after himself - Hubble’s
constant, H0.
v∝d
∴ v = H0 d

There is a large uncertainty in the age of the universe

because of the large uncertainties in the measurement
of the distances to distant stars which gives rise to a
large uncertainty in the value of the Hubble’s constant.
Finding distance to distant stars/galaxies using Hubble’s Law:

1. The spectrum of light from the distant galaxy is compared to a similar source on Earth.
Δλ
2. The Doppler shift is calculated using the fractional change in wavelength, .
λ
v Δλ
3. The recession velocity, v is calculated using = where c is the speed of light.
c λ
4. The distance to the galaxy, d is calculated using Hubble’s Law, v = H0 d where H0 is the
Hubble’s constant.

Fate of the universe

As of now, the universe is expanding. Scientists are, however, unsure about the ultimate fate of
the universe. Nevertheless, they have been able to identify the determining factor behind the
ultimate fate of the universe. The quantity that determines the ultimate fate of the universe is
critical density.

It has been suggested that there can be 3 possible fates of the universe:

• If the density of the universe is less than the critical density, the universe will keep on
expanding indefinitely forever. This universe would be called an open universe.
• If the density of the universe is just equal to the critical density, the universe will at one point
stop expanding and maintain a fixed size. This universe would be called a flat universe.
• If the density of the universe is greater than the critical density, the universe will collapse back
into a big crunch. This universe will be known as a closed universe.

The actual density of the universe is very hard to predict because of the presence of dark
energy and dark matter. Dark matter does not emit any detectable electromagnetic radiation.

The graph below illustrates the 3 possible fates of the universe: