1.

Scope and application of Operations Research

Operations research (OR) is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced
analytical methods to help make better decisions. It is an interdisciplinary field that
involves techniques from mathematics, economics, computer science, and engineering,
among other disciplines.
OR techniques are used to solve a wide variety of problems in a variety of fields, including:

● Transportation and logistics: OR is used to optimize transportation routes,

schedules, and vehicle assignments, as well as to design efficient warehouse and
distribution systems.
● Supply chain management: OR is used to optimize the flow of materials,
information, and finances through a supply chain.
● Finance: OR is used to model financial systems and to optimize investment
decisions.
● Marketing: OR is used to optimize marketing campaigns and to analyze customer
behavior.
● Healthcare: OR is used to optimize the allocation of healthcare resources, such as
hospital beds, and to analyze the effectiveness of different treatments.
● Manufacturing: OR is used to optimize production processes and to design efficient
factory layouts.
● Government: OR is used to optimize the allocation of resources and to analyze the
impact of policy decisions.

Overall, OR techniques are used to optimize the design of complex systems and to analyze
and improve the performance of organizations. OR is used in both the public and private
sectors to help make better decisions and to improve efficiency and effectiveness.

2. History of Operations Research.

Operations research (OR) is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced
analytical methods to help make better decisions. It originated in the military during
World War II as a way to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of military operations.
The term "operations research" was coined in the United Kingdom during the early 1940s,
when a group of British scientists and engineers applied statistical and mathematical
techniques to the problem of maximizing the efficiency of the country's military
operations during World War II. This group, which became known as the "Operational
Research Section," included prominent figures such as Patrick Blackett, John von
Neumann, and George Dantzig.
In the United States, OR also developed during World War II as a way to optimize the use
of resources in military operations. OR techniques were used to design more efficient
military logistics systems and to improve the accuracy of artillery fire.
After the war, OR techniques were applied to a wide range of problems in the public and
private sectors, including transportation, manufacturing, and finance. OR has continued to
evolve and expand, and today it is an interdisciplinary field that involves techniques from
mathematics, economics, computer science, and engineering, among other disciplines.
OR techniques are used in a variety of fields, including transportation, logistics, supply
chain management, finance, marketing, and healthcare. OR is also used to optimize the
design of complex systems and to analyze and improve the performance of organizations.

3. Assumptions of Linear Programming Problem.

Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical optimization technique used to find the
maximum or minimum value of a linear objective function, subject to a set of linear
constraints. There are a few assumptions that are typically made in LP problems:
● Linearity: The objective function and constraints are all linear. This means that
the relationship between the variables is linear and can be represented by a
straight line.
● Boundedness: The variables are bounded, which means that they have a finite upper
and lower limit.
● Feasibility: There exists at least one solution that satisfies all of the constraints.
● Duality: The problem has a dual, which is a related optimization problem that can be
used to obtain additional insights about the original problem.
● Non-degeneracy: The solution to the problem is not degenerate, which means that
the constraints are not redundant and the optimal solution is unique.
● Independence: The constraints are independent, which means that the solutions to
the different constraints are not related.
● Certainty: The coefficients of the objective function and the constraints are
known with certainty.
It's important to note that these assumptions may not always hold in real-world problems,
and it's up to the modeler to decide whether or not LP is an appropriate method for
solving a particular problem.

4. Limitations of Graphical Solution.

There are several limitations of using graphical solution to solve mathematical problems:
● Complexity: Graphical solution may not be suitable for solving complex problems
with multiple variables or a large number of constraints. It can become difficult to
visualize and interpret the solutions in such cases.
● Limited accuracy: The accuracy of the solution obtained through graphical method
is limited by the accuracy of the graph plotted. This can lead to errors in the
solution if the graph is not drawn accurately.
● Limited scope: Graphical solution is only applicable to problems that can be
represented graphically. It may not be suitable for problems that cannot be
represented or visualized in a graph.
● Time-consuming: Solving a problem graphically can be time-consuming, especially if
the graph is complex and has a large number of variables.
● Limited to two variables: Graphical solution is typically limited to problems
involving only two variables. It may not be suitable for solving problems with more
than two variables.

5.Short notes on:

(i)Basic Feasible Solution,
A basic feasible solution (BFS) is a solution to a linear programming problem that satisfies
all of the constraints of the problem and is expressed in terms of a set of basic variables.
A basic variable is a variable that is expressed in terms of the other variables in the
problem, while a non-basic variable is a variable that is not expressed in terms of the
other variables.
In a linear programming problem, the number of constraints is typically equal to the
number of variables. This means that for any given solution, there must be exactly as many
basic variables as there are constraints. The remaining variables are non-basic variables
and are set to zero.
A BFS can be found using the simplex method or other algorithms for solving linear
programming problems. It is an important intermediate step in the solution process, as it
can be used to identify the optimal solution to the problem.
It is important to note that a BFS is not necessarily the optimal solution to a linear
programming problem. In order to find the optimal solution, it may be necessary to
perform additional pivot operations or use other solution methods. However, a BFS can
provide a starting point for finding the optimal solution and can be used to quickly identify
infeasible solutions.

(ii)Degeneracy in simplex,

In the simplex method, degeneracy occurs when a basic variable becomes equal to zero.
This can happen when the pivot element (the element used to perform the pivot operation)
is equal to zero, or when the pivot element is very small compared to the other elements in
the pivot row or pivot column.
Degeneracy can affect the solution of a linear programming problem in several ways. For
example, it can lead to multiple optimal solutions, or it can cause the solution to be
suboptimal. Degeneracy can also make it difficult to identify the optimal solution using the
simplex method.
To overcome degeneracy, it may be necessary to use advanced solution methods such as
the dual simplex method or the revised simplex method. These methods can handle
degeneracy by finding alternative pivot elements or by using specialized pivot rules.
It is important to note that degeneracy is not unique to the simplex method. It can also
occur in other algorithms used to solve linear programming problems, such as the interior
point method. Dealing with degeneracy is an important aspect of solving linear programming
problems and requires a careful analysis of the problem and the solution method being
used.

(iii)Surplus and Slack variable,

A surplus variable is a variable that is introduced into a linear programming problem to

represent excess capacity. It is used to represent the difference between the capacity of
a resource and the amount of that resource that is actually used. Surplus variables are
typically denoted by s in linear programming problems.
For example, consider a linear programming problem with the constraint "x + y ≤ 10". If the
value of x + y is less than 10, then there is excess capacity that is not being utilized. This
excess capacity can be represented by a surplus variable s, which is added to the
constraint as follows: "x + y + s = 10". The value of s is then set to the difference between
the capacity of the resource (10) and the amount of the resource that is actually used (x +
y).
A slack variable is a variable that is introduced into a linear programming problem to
represent the amount by which a constraint is not satisfied. It is used to represent the
difference between the right-hand side of a constraint and the left-hand side. Slack
variables are typically denoted by y in linear programming problems.
For example, consider a linear programming problem with the constraint "x + y ≥ 10". If the
value of x + y is less than 10, then the constraint is not satisfied. The difference between
the right-hand side of the constraint (10) and the left-hand side (x + y) can be
represented by a slack variable y, which is added to the constraint as follows: "x + y - y =
10". The value of y is then set to the difference between the right-hand side of the
constraint (10) and the left-hand side (x + y).
Surplus and slack variables are commonly used in linear programming to represent excess
capacity and constraints that are not satisfied, respectively. They play a crucial role in the
solution of linear programming problems and are often used in conjunction with the simplex
method.

(iv)Role of artificial variable,

An artificial variable is a dummy variable used in linear programming to represent an
inequality constraint. It is used to convert a constraint of the form "less than or equal to"
into an equality constraint, which is necessary for the simplex method.
In a linear programming problem, the objective function is typically minimized or
maximized subject to a set of constraints. These constraints may be represented as
equalities or inequalities. However, the simplex method, which is a commonly used
algorithm for solving linear programming problems, can only handle equality constraints.
Therefore, when a constraint is represented as an inequality, an artificial variable is
introduced to convert the inequality into an equality.
For example, consider the constraint "3x + 4y ≤ 6". To convert this inequality into an
equality, we can introduce an artificial variable a and rewrite the constraint as "3x + 4y + a
= 6". The value of a is then set to the difference between the right-hand side of the
inequality and the left-hand side, which in this case is 6 - (3x + 4y) = 6 - 3x - 4y.
Artificial variables are typically used in the initial phase of the simplex method, and are
removed once the optimal solution has been found. They play a crucial role in ensuring that
the simplex method can be applied to linear programming problems with inequality
constraints.

(v)Degeneracy in transportation problem

In a transportation problem, degeneracy occurs when a cell in the transportation tableau
(also known as the transportation matrix) has a zero allocation, but the corresponding row
or column is not satisfied. This means that there is excess capacity in that row or column,
but there is no demand for the commodity being transported in that cell.
Degeneracy can occur in a transportation problem for several reasons. For example, it can
occur when the available supply or demand for a particular commodity is less than the
demand or supply of the other commodities. Degeneracy can also occur when there is a
surplus of a particular commodity and not enough demand for it.
Degeneracy can affect the solution of a transportation problem in several ways. For
example, it can lead to multiple optimal solutions, or it can cause the solution to be
suboptimal. Degeneracy can also make it difficult to identify the optimal solution using the
northwest corner rule or the minimum cell rule. To overcome degeneracy, it may be
necessary to use advanced solution methods such as the stepping stone method or the
modified distribution method.

(vi)Unbalanced transportation problem

An unbalanced transportation problem is a special type of linear programming problem that
is used to optimize the allocation of limited resources to meet the demand for a set of
products at different locations. In a transportation problem, the objective is to minimize
the total cost of shipping the products from the sources to the destinations, subject to
the constraints that the demand at each destination must be satisfied and the supply at
each source must not be exceeded.
In an unbalanced transportation problem, the supply and demand at the different locations
are not equal. This means that it is not possible to satisfy all the demand using the
available supply, or vice versa. As a result, it is necessary to introduce an artificial source
or destination, also known as a "dummy" location, to balance the problem. The dummy
location is used to represent the excess supply or demand, and the cost of shipping to or
from the dummy location is set to zero.
Solving an unbalanced transportation problem involves finding the optimal allocation of the
resources among the sources and destinations, as well as the optimal flow through the
dummy location. The solution to the problem can be used to determine the optimal shipping
routes and the amount of resources that should be shipped from each source to each
destination.
Unbalanced transportation problems can be solved using linear programming techniques,
such as the northwest corner rule or the Vogel's approximation method. These methods
involve iteratively allocating the resources among the sources and destinations until the
problem is balanced, and then finding the optimal solution using linear programming
techniques.

6. Economic interpretation of dual.

In linear programming, the dual problem is a related optimization problem that is obtained
by exchanging the roles of the objective function and the constraints in the original
problem. The dual problem is often used to obtain additional information about the original
problem, such as the sensitivity of the optimal solution to changes in the problem
parameters.
In economics, the dual problem can be interpreted as a market equilibrium problem. In this
interpretation, the variables in the dual problem represent prices for the inputs or outputs
in the original problem. The dual objective function represents the total revenue or profit
obtained by selling these inputs or outputs at the given prices. The dual constraints
represent the supply and demand conditions for the inputs and outputs in the market.
For example, consider a linear programming problem that represents a firm's production
decision. The variables in the problem represent the quantities of different products that
the firm produces, and the objective is to maximize profit. The dual problem can be
interpreted as the market equilibrium problem for the products produced by the firm. In
this interpretation, the variables in the dual problem represent the prices of the products,
and the dual objective function represents the total revenue obtained by selling the
products at the given prices. The dual constraints represent the supply and demand
conditions for the products in the market.
The economic interpretation of the dual problem can be useful for understanding the
trade-offs involved in the original optimization problem and for analyzing the sensitivity of
the optimal solution to changes in the problem parameters.

7. Degeneracy of transportation problem.

A transportation problem is considered degenerate if at least one of the following

conditions is satisfied:
● A supply or demand value is zero: If a source or destination has a supply or demand
value of zero, then it is not necessary to transport any goods to or from that
location, and the corresponding row or column can be removed from the
transportation table.
● A cell in the transportation table has an infinite cost: If the cost of transporting a
unit of goods from a source to a destination is infinite, it means that it is not
possible to transport goods between those two locations. In this case, the
corresponding cell in the transportation table can be set to zero.
● A cell in the transportation table has a negative cost: If the cost of transporting a
unit of goods from a source to a destination is negative, it means that the
transportation of goods between those two locations generates a net profit. In this
case, it is always optimal to transport an infinite number of goods between those
locations.
The presence of degeneracy in a transportation problem can make it easier to solve, as it
allows for the removal of certain rows or columns from the transportation table or the
setting of certain cells to zero. However, degeneracy can also make it more difficult to
find the optimal solution, as it may require the use of special techniques to handle the
degeneracy.
Overall, the presence of degeneracy in a transportation problem depends on the specific
characteristics of the problem, and it can affect the ease and accuracy of finding the
optimal solution.
T
8. “Assignment is a degenerate transportation”-Explain
An assignment problem is a special type of linear programming problem that involves
assigning a set of tasks to a set of workers in such a way that the total cost of completing
the tasks is minimized. It is a degenerate transportation problem, which means that it has
certain properties that make it easier to solve than a regular transportation problem.
A transportation problem is considered degenerate if at least one of the following
conditions is satisfied:
● A supply or demand value is zero: If a source or destination has a supply or demand
value of zero, then it is not necessary to transport any goods to or from that
location, and the corresponding row or column can be removed from the
transportation table.
● A cell in the transportation table has an infinite cost: If the cost of transporting a
unit of goods from a source to a destination is infinite, it means that it is not
possible to transport goods between those two locations. In this case, the
corresponding cell in the transportation table can be set to zero.
● A cell in the transportation table has a negative cost: If the cost of transporting a
unit of goods from a source to a destination is negative, it means that the
transportation of goods between those two locations generates a net profit. In this
case, it is always optimal to transport an infinite number of goods between those
locations.
In an assignment problem, the supply and demand values at each source and destination are
equal to one, and the cost of transporting a unit of goods from a source to a destination is
either zero or a positive value. This means that an assignment problem satisfies the first
and second conditions for degeneracy, which makes it easier to solve than a regular
transportation problem.
Therefore, an assignment problem can be considered a degenerate transportation problem,
as it has certain properties that make it easier to solve than a regular transportation
problem.

9. “Assignment is a special case of transportation problem”-Explain.

The transportation problem is a type of linear programming problem that involves finding
the optimal solution for transporting a set of goods from a set of sources to a set of
destinations, at a minimum cost. It involves minimizing the total transportation cost while
satisfying the demand at each destination and the supply at each source.
An assignment problem is a special case of a transportation problem where there is only
one unit of each type of good and the supply and demand at each source and destination
are equal to one. In other words, the assignment problem involves assigning a set of tasks
to a set of workers in such a way that the total cost of completing the tasks is minimized.
In both the transportation problem and the assignment problem, the objective is to
minimize the total cost of transporting goods or completing tasks. The main difference is
that the transportation problem involves multiple units of each type of good, whereas the
assignment problem involves only one unit of each type of good.
Therefore, the assignment problem can be viewed as a special case of the transportation
problem, where the number of units of each type of goods is limited to one.

10.Write a note on traveling salesman Problem.

The traveling salesman problem (TSP) is a well-known problem in computer science and
operations research. It involves finding the shortest possible route that a salesman can
take to visit a set of cities, visiting each city exactly once, and returning to the starting
city.
The TSP is an NP-hard problem, meaning that it is computationally difficult to find an
exact solution for large instances of the problem. As a result, a variety of heuristics and
approximate algorithms have been developed to find good solutions to the TSP.
The TSP has many real-world applications, including logistics, transportation, and network
design. It has also been used as a benchmark for evaluating the performance of various
optimization algorithms.
One popular approach to solving the TSP is the use of genetic algorithms, which mimic the
process of natural selection to find good solutions to optimization problems. Other
approaches include local search algorithms, branch and bound algorithms, and ant colony
optimization.
Despite the numerous approaches that have been developed to solve the TSP, it remains a
challenging problem, and finding the optimal solution for large instances is still an active
area of research.