Definitions & Standards of Literature

Intended Learning Outcomes: (ILOs)

At the end of the session, students should be able to:

11.define what Literature is;

,2.demonstrate an understanding of the essence and
significance of Literature;
3. determine the standards of a good literary masterpiece; and
4. enumerate the ways of studying Literature.
Two Main Division
of Literature
 PROSE POETRY
Form Written in paragraph form. Written in stanza or verse form.

Language Expressed in ordinary language. Expressed in metrical,

rhythmical and
figurative language.

Appeal To the intellect. To the emotions.

To convince, inform, instruct, imitate Stir the imagination and set an

Aim and reflect life. ideal of how life should be.

TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE

 Prose
1. Prose Drama - a drama in prose form. It consists entirely of dialogues in
prose, and is meant to be acted on stage. Example: Hamlet by William
Shakespeare
2. Essay - a short literary composition which is expository in nature. The author
shares some of his thoughts, feelings, experiences or observations on some
aspects of life that has interested him. Example: Of Anger by Michael
Montaigne
3. Prose Fiction (something invented, imagined or feigned to be true)
🠶 a. Novel - a long fic titious narrative with a c omplic ated plot. It may
have a main plot and one or more sub plots that develop with the main
plot. Characters and actions representative of the real life of past or
present times are portrayed in a plot. It is made up of chapters.
Example: Tuesdays with Moorie by Mitchel David Albom
🠶 b. Short Story - a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit of time,
place and action. It deals with a single character interest, a single series of
emotions called forth by a single situation. It is distinguished from the novel
by its compression. Example: The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway
4.Biography and Autobiography
🠶 Biography - a story of a certain person's life written by another who knows him
(the former) well. Example: The Life of Samuel Johnson: A Biography by James
Boswell
🠶 Autobiography - a written account of man's life written by himself. Example:
A Woman with No Fac e by Ms. Pilar Pilapil
5.Letter - a written message which displays aspects of an author's psychological
make-up not immediately apparent in his more public writings. It is a prose form
which by the force of its style and the importance of its statements becomes an
object of interest in its own right.
6. Diary - a daily written record of ac c ount of the writer’ s own experienc es,
thoughts, activities or observations. Example: The Diary of Anne Frank ·
7. Journal - a magazine or periodical especially of a serious or learned nature.
Other Prose Forms:
❖ Historical Prose - a prose form dealing with historical events.
❖ Scientific Prose - a prose form that deals with the subject science.
❖ Current Publications - books, magazines or newspapers that are commonly
known or accepted or in general usage at the time specified or, it is unspec ified
at the present time.
❖ Literary Criticism - the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of literary
works; it does not mean "finding fault with“
❖ Book Review - an article dealing with the contents, literary worth, etc. of a book

espec ially a rec ently published book.

❖ Philosophy - a prose form that deals with the processes governing principles or
laws that regulates the universe and underlie all knowledge and reality.
❖ Travel - a written account of trips, journeys, tours, etc .taken by the writer.
❖ Parody - an imitation of another author's work, where ridicule is the main
objective.
❖ Anec dote - a brief narrative c oncerning a partic ular individual incident.
Example: The Moth and The Lamp
❖ Charac ter Sketc h - a short description of the qualities and traits of a person.
❖ Parable - a short tale that illustrates principle, usually by setting forth the
application of the principles to something familiar to the hearer or reader
❖ Pamphlet - a small book of a topic of current interests.
❖ Eulogy - writing in praise of a dead person, event or thing.
❖ Speech - the general word for a discourse delivered to an audience,
whether prepared. or impromptu.
❖ Address - implies a formal, carefully prepared speech and usually
attribute importance to the speaker or the speech.
❖ Oration - suggest an eloquent, rhetorical sometimes merely bombastic
speech, especially one delivered on some special occasion.
❖ Lecture - a carefully prepared speech intended to inform or instruct the
audience.
❖ Talk - suggests informality and is applied either to an impromptu speech or
to an address or lecture which the speaker deliberately uses a simple
c onversational approac h.
❖ Sermon - a speech by a clergyman intended tc give religious or moral
instruction and usually based on Scriptural text.
Literary Genres
a. Fiction b. Poetry c . Essay d. Drama
➢ Fiction
a. is any imaginative recreation and re-creation of life
b. it includes short stories and novels.
🠶 Short Story - often referred to as a "slice of life"; is a fictitious narrative
compressed into one unit of time, place and action; it deals with a single
character interest, a single emotion called forth by a single situation.
(Example: “The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant)
🠶 Novel - is a fictitious narrative with a complicated plot; it may have a main plot and
one or more sub plots that develop with the main plot; characters and actions
representative of the real life of past or present times are portrayed in a plot; it is
made up of chapters. (Example: (“Jane Eyre” by C harlotte Bronte )
🠶 Like any other fiction, such as novel, both are fictional narrative of make-
believed world, where the literary characters seem almost real and the situations
are likewise similar to real life conditions and surroundings. However, the short story
differ from each other only in length and complexity; the novel is longer because of
several complications and twist to its plot.
 In general, people fictionalize their common experiences and actions in order
to give significance and meaning to them. The authors of short stories seek to
convey to their readers not only matters capable of verification but also the unseen
but imaginatively perceived world of human motives, responses, desires, and
energies.
Our appreciation of a short story can be increased by a thorough
understanding of what story is, and about the tools or elements that an author
makes use of in telling the story.
Elements of Fiction
1. Characters - are the representation of a human being; persons involved in a
conflict.
➢ Five ways of revealing literary c harac ters:
What the characters do along with the circumstances in which they do it?
How the c harac ters are described? What
the c harac ters say and think ? What other
c harac ters say about them?
W hat the author says about them?
Types of Characters
a. round character

❖ as a dynamic character who recognized changes in the

circumstances
❖ as a fully - developed character, with many traits- bad and
good-shown in the story
b. flat character

❖ also known as the stock or the stereotype character who

does not grow and develop; not fully developed and
does not undergo changes
Other:
1. protagonist --hero/heroine
2. antagonist --a foil to the protagonist
3. deuterogamist --second in importance
4. fringe --one who is destroyed by his inner
5. typical or minor characters conflict
 2. Setting - the locale (place) or period (time) in which the action of a short
story, play, novel or motion picture takes place (also known as the
background of the story ; local color described as local scenery (the writer
uses words, mention thing s in the native 1.anguage, gives names to
characters line to create a vivid picture of a native place.
3.Conflict - the struggle of complication involving the characters; the
opposition of persons or forces upon which the action depends in drama or
fiction. (there is conflict if there is a struggle which grows out of the interplay
of opposing forces (ideas / interest).
Types of C onflict:
Internal Conflic t
- occurs when the protagonist struggles within himself or herself.
- the protagonist is pulled by two courses of action or by differing emotions.
Interpersonal Conflic t
- pits the protagonist against someone else.
- person-against-person .
 External Conflic t
- person against society happens when the protagonist is in conflict with the
values of his or her soc iety.
4. Plot - a causally related sequence of events; what happens as a result of
the main conflict is presented in a structured format; is the sequence of
events which involves the character in conflict. (Beginning, Middle, Ending)
Narrative Order - the sequence of events is called the narrative order.
- Chronological the most common on type of narrative order in children's
books.
- Flashback occurs when the author narrates an event that took place
before the c urrent time of the story.
- Time lapse occurs when the story skips a period of time that seems
unusual c ompared to the rest of the plot.
 PYRAMIDAL STRUCTURE OF A PLOT

CLIMAX

COMPLICATION DENOUEMENT

RESOLUTION
EXPOSITION
1. Exposition (beginning) introduces the time and place setting and the main
characters.
2.Complication (rising action) unfolds the problems and struggles that would be
encountered by the main characters leading to the crisis.
3. Climax (result of the crisis) pa r t where the problems or conflict is at its
highest peak of interest; the highest point of the story for the reader,
frequently, it is the highest moment of interest and greatest emotion
; also known as the crisis or the point of no return.
4. Denouement is the untying of the entangled knots, or the part that shows
a c onflic t or a problem is solved, leading to its downward movement or end.
5. Resolution (end) contains the last statements about the story.
Qualities of the Plot
1. Exciting - (it should he exciting than the everyday reality that surrounds us)
2. Good Structure - (the episodes must be arranged effectively, but the most
important of plot structure is tying all the incidents together, so that one leads
naturally into another.
 Plot Devices
1. Flash back - something out of chronological order; to reveal an information, to
understand character's nature.
2 .Foreshadowing - a device to give a sign of something to come; its purpose is to
create suspense, to keep the readers guessing what will happen (when).
3. Chronological Arrangement – it starts from the beginning of the events.
4. Medias res – this starts at the middle of the story.
5. Stream of Consciousness – a continuous and random flow of ideas, feelings,
sensations, association and perception as they register on the protagonist’s
consciousness.
5. Point of View - the writer's feeling and attitude toward his subject; determines
who
tells the story; it identifies the narrator of the story (also, the form of narration affects
the story itself).
C lassification (Point of View)
1.First Person - the writer uses the pronoun "I"He/she could be a participant or a
character in his own work; the narrator may be the protagonist, an observer, a
minor character, or the writer himself /herself.
 2. Third Person – the writer is merely an observer and uses pronouns in the
third person.
3. Omniscient – the writer – narrator sees all; he can see into the minds of
characters and even report everyone’s innermost thoughts.

Name Characteristics Pronouns

Speaker part of the story, can

First Person observe characters, but I, me, mine, we, us, our(s)
reveals feelings and
reactions only of self.

Third Person Story told only as one, He, him, his, she, her(s), they,
character can observe. them ,theirs

*Limited Third Person Narrator not part of the He, him, his, she,
story, cannot read any her(s),they, them,
character’s mind. theirs

Omniscient Narrator/author knows all He, him, his, she, her(s), they,
and sees all. them, theirs
 6. Tone /Mood - the attitudes or mixture of attitude taken by the writer toward his
work; it can be ironic, friendly, informal, angry, humorous, jeering, solemn, impersonal,
nostalgic , or some c ombination of these.
7. Symbolism – stand for something, other than themselves, they bring to mind not their
own concrete qualities, but the idea or obstruction that is associated with them.
An object can achieve symbolic meaning in many ways. For example, by tradition
(wedding ring), by religion (the Cross) or by natural resemblance (a rose). A symbol then
does double duty. It designates something real, something we can see and touch, and it
also stands for something else that is real even if intangible. By using symbols, the writer
packs more meaning and emotion into his words.
8. Images - are usually characterized by concrete qualities rather than abstract
meaning, these appeals to the sense of taste, smell, feel, sound or sight.
9.Theme - the c entral or dominating idea in a literary work; it is the topic or the subject
of the selection, which is sometimes stated by a character or by the writer himself , but
oftentimes, it is merely implied or suggested.
(Note! The theme is not familiar saying or moral lesson).
On Poetry
1. Poetry is derived from a Greek word poesis meaning "making or creating.”
2. Poetry is generally considered to be the oldest of the arts. Long before our
forefathers learned to write, they sang and recited lines of verse.
3. Poetry is a kind of language that says more and says it more intensely than
ordinary language does. Apparently, we have to remember five things
about poetry (Baritugo, 2004, p.1)
4 . Poetry is a c oncentrated thought.
5. Poetry is a kind of word-music .
6. Poetry expresses all the sense.
7. Poetry answers our demand for rhythm.
8. Poetry is observation pl us imagination.
9. Poetry is as varied as the nature of man - unique in some sense along with
man's eccentricities, yet clings if appreciated or if deeply imbibed by the
reader (Aguilar, 1997, p.1)
Elements of Poetry
1. Sense - is revealed through the meaning of words; images and symbols.
diction - denotative and connotative meanings / symbols
images and sense impression - sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, motion and
emotion.
figure of speech - simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe, metonymy,
synecdoche, hyperbole, irony, allusion, antithesis, paradox, litotes, oxymoron,
onomatopoeia.
2. Sound - is the result of a combination of elements.
tone color - alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, repetition, anaphora.
rhythm - ordered recurrent alteration of strong and weak elements in the flow of
the sound and silence: duple, triple, running or common rhyme.
meter - stress, duration, or number of syllables per line, fixed metrica l pattern, or
a verse form: quantitative, syllabic, accentual and accentual syllabic.
rhyme scheme - formal arrangement of rhymes in a stanza or the whole poem.
3. Structure - refers to ( 1 ) arrangement of words, and lines to fit together,
and (2) the organization of the parts to form a whole.
a. word order - natural and unnatural arrangement of words.
b. ellipsis - omitting some words for economy and effect.
c. punctuation - abundance or lack of punctuation marks.
d. shape - contextual and visual designs: jumps, omission of spaces,
capitalization, lower c ase.
Types of Poetry
1. Narrative Poetry - a poem that tells a story
a.Epic - a long narrative poem of the largest proportions. A tale centering
about a hero concerning the beginning, continuance, and the end of events of
great significance - war, conquest, strife among men who are in such a
position that their struggles take on tribal or national significance.
Two kinds of epic poetry are the popular or ancient, which is often without a
definite author and is of slow growth; the literary or modern, which has a
definite author.
b.Metrical Romance - a narrative poem that tells a story of adventure, love and
chivalry. The typical hero is a knight on a quest.
c.Metrical Tale – a narrative poem consisting usually of a single series of
connective events, are simple, and generally do not form a plot. Examples of
these are simple idylls or home tales, love tales, tales of the supernatural or
tales written for a strong moral purpose in verse form.
d. Ballad - the simplest type of narrative poetry. It is a short narrative poem
telling a single incident in simple meter and stanzas. It is intended to be sung.
e.Popular Ballad - a ballad of wide workmanship telling some simple incidents
of adventure, cruelty, passion, or superstition, an incident that shows the primary
instincts of man influenced by the restraint of modern civilization.
f.Modern or Artistic -created by a poet in imitation of the folk ballad, makes use
(sometimes with considerable freedom) of many of its devices and
conventions.
g. Metrical Allegory - an extended narrative that c arries a second
meaning along with the surfac e story. Things and a c tions are symbolic .
2.Lyric Poetry a poem that is very personal in nature. It expresses the author's
own thoughts, feelings, moods and reflections in musical language. "It derived
its name from the musical instrument the lyre.
a.Ode - a lyric poem of some length , serious in subject and dignified in style. It is
most majestic of the lyric poems. It is written in a spirit of praise of some persons
or things.
Example: Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind"
b.Elegy - a poem written on the death of a friend of the poet. The ostensible
purpose is to praise the friend, but death prompts the writer to ask, "If death
can intervene, so cruelly in life, what is the point of living?" By the end of the
poem, however, we c an expect that poet will have c ome to terms with his grief.
Example: The Lovers Death by Ric ardo Demetillo
c. Song - a lyric poem in a regular metrical pattern set to music. These have
twelve syllables (dodeca syllables) and slowly sung to the
ac c ompaniment of a guitar or banduria .
Example: Florante at Laura by Francisco Balagtas

d. Corridos (Kuridos ) - these have measures of eight syllables (octosyllabic)

and rec ited to a material beat.
Example: Ibong Adarna by Jose dela Cruz (Huseng Sisiw)

e. Sonnet - a lyric poem containing four iambic pentameter lines, and a

c omplic ated rhyme.
Examples: Santang Buds by Alfonso P. Santos
Literary Devices in Poetry
1. Figure of Speech
Simile - consists of comparing two things by using the words like or as.
Example: Your face as a big as a seed,But you do not bear fruit.
(lines from A Sec ret by Carlos Bulosan)
Metaphor - uses direc t c omparison of two unlike things or ideas.
Example: Dear Lord:
Let thou be the street c leaner
Whilst be the road.
(Prayer by NVM Gonzales)
Personific ation - gives human traits to inanimate objects or ideas.
Example: The bulled said to the heart:
From now on we shall never part.
(lines from Communion by Gerson M. Mallillin)
Apostrophe - is a direct address to someone absent, dead, or inanimate.
Example: Little sampaguita
With thy wandering eye
Did a tiny fairy
Drop you where you lie?
(lines from The Sampaguita by Natividad Marquez)

Metonymy – substitutes a word that closely relates to a person or thing.

Example: 1. The pen is mightier than the sword.
2. He lives through the bottle.
3. Ihave read all of Shakespeare.
4. By the sweat of your brow, you will eat your food.
Synecdoche - uses a part to represent the represent the whole.
Example: No busy hand provoke a tear
No roving foot shall thee here.
Hyperbole - makes use of exaggeration.
Example: Iknow not what to name thy charms,
Thou art half human, half divine;
And if Icould hold thee in my arms,
Iknow both heaven and earth were mine.
(lines from The Rural Maid by Fernando M. Maramag)
Irony - says the opposite of what is meant.
Example: If all these men whose friends are with the stars,
Who dream unceasingly of blazing royalty,
Will only strive to be like you.
A dwellerof the sod with the heart of loyalty!
(lines from To A Dog by Florizel Diaz)
Allusion - refers to any literary biblical, historical, mythological,
Scientific event, c harac ter or plac e.
Example: The pendulum
ls a thing dread
To nervous person like me
It reminds one of swaying Iscariot -
Suspended from a tree.
(lines from After Palanan by Rene A. Ituralde)
Antithesis - involves a contrast of words or ideas.
Examples: 1. "Love is so short... Forgetting is so long."
2 "You may be through with the past but the past isn’t through
with you."
3. Man proposes, God disposes. They promised freedom and
provided slavery .
Paradox - uses a phrase or statement that on surface seems contradictory, but
makes some kind of emotional sense.
Example: M y dear, ca nst thou resolve for me
This paradox of love concerning thee
Mine eyes, when opened with thy beauty fill-
But when they’re closed they see thee better still.
(lines from Paradox by A.E. Litiatco)
Litotes - makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm by negating its opposite.
Example: War is not healthy for children
and other living things.
Oxymoron - puts together in one statement two contradictory terms.
Examples:
1. resident - alien
2. silent scream
3. living dead
4.clearly misunderstood
5.butt head
Onomatopoeia - the formation or use of words which imitate sounds, but the term is
generally expanded to ref to any word whose sound is suggestive of its meaning
whether by imitation or through cultural inference.
Examples:
1.whisper
2.buzz
3.boom
4.bang
5.crackle
The Essay
❑ is a prose composition of moderate length usually expository in nature, which aims
to explain or clear up an idea, a theory, an expression, or point of view.
❑ It is the most popular form of literature.
❑ Isany written text that is not a poem, is not a novel and is not a drama.
❑ includes such diverse forms as letters, diaries, journals, newspaper
editorials, and editorial columns, opinions, reviews and reportage.
Elements of the Essay
1. Theme and c ontent - what is the main point of the essay?
❑ trivial, c ommonplac e, unusual, c ontroversial.
❑ appraise, criticize, expand, comment, lament, celebrate
❑ human nature, social conditions, manners, politics, attitudes, art
❑ c reating a single impression or produc ing a single effect with the work
❑ present ideas, describe events, interpret experiences.
2. Form and structure - how are ideas ordered to achieve a single effect?
❑ unity of expression, c oherenc e and c ohesion.
❑ orderly, systematic , logic al manner.
❑ three basic parts: introduc tion, main body, c onclusion
❑ two major patterns: induc tive and deduc tive
❑ expository devices: definition, description, narration, analogy
3. Language and style - what makes the essay literary?
❑ mode or tone, attitude, sensibility of the essayist.
❑ whimsical, humorous, matter-of-fact, satirical, serious, optimistic.
❑ diction, choice of topics, personal bias or attitude.
Types of Essays (_. PNU Teacher's Guide, 2002)
They are two general types of essays:
1. Formal or impersonal essay - deals with the serious and important topics like
philosophy, theology, science, and politics. It has authoritative and scholarly
style, and shows the writer's masterful grasp of the topic. Its formal tone echoes a
detached, objective, clear, straightforward expression. Mainly the purpose is to
teach and instruct.
2. Informal or familiar –covers the light, ordinary, even commonplace subjects
through a bubbling, casual, conversational, friendly, often humorous, but equally
insightful stance as the formal essay. The familiar essay appeals more to the
emotion than to the intellect, touching the sensitivity first, then the mind. Often,
the personality of the author is revealed through a fluid style and light treatment
of the topic.
The modern essay has derived from the combination of these two general types. A
number of specific types such as the following:
a.reflective – serious in tone and dignified in style, this type is mainly aphorististic. Its
short and sharp “quotable quotes” or choice of maxims cut deep into memory like a
proverb or an adage. The subject matter spurs thinking and arouses keen
observation.
b.narrative - uses an incident or event, not for the sake of the story but to shape the
theme. Narration is often used more to make the idea clear and endearing than
to present a plodding plot.
c. descriptive - adds vividness, reality, and animation to the narrative essay.
d. speculative ·- theories or poses some questions on an interesting subject or it
may just ramble along aimlessly, merely speculating and prying into some problems.
e. biographical - portrays characters or sketches life, not simply chronicling it. It is
analytical and interpretative, depending upon which side of the character or
individual is emphasized. This is also known as character essay.
f.nature - aims to picture the world of trees, flowers, birds, mountains, animals and
plants. It may either be pictorial or reflective or both depending upon the mood;
and aim of the writer. It always possesses the human touch and sensitiveness to the
beauty of the outdoor life.
g.critical - includes biography, literary criticism, book reviews, and other prose compositions
that aim at analytic al judgment upon literature.
h.Didactic –enforces moral lesson. It is serious and has the tone of a teacher explaining or
trying to convince. It does away with moods and fancies, but concentrates wholly on driving a
lesson.
i.scientific – contains excellent logic, clarity of expression and organized presentation of the
sequence of ideas. It is purely expository in nature, objective in method, a system that
practically leaves no room for the exposition of the writer’s personality.
The Drama
The drama comes from the Greek word “dran” which means to do; it is a form of literature in
which a story is told through the words and actions of characters. It is meant to be performed. It
can be acted on stage or on film, radio or television.
Kinds of Theatres
1. Arena –is the theatre of the early Greeks. The actors are surrounded on all sides by the
audience and they make exits and entrances through the aisles. This type of arrangement,
brings the audience into a special kind of intimacy.
2. Medieval – is the theatre used in playing areas called mansions inside the churches and
portable wagons wheeled about outside the churches. In some performances the actors
came into the audience, breaking the sense of distance or the illusion of separation. Their
drama was integrated with their religion, and both helped them express their sense of
belonging to the c hurch and the c ommunity.
3.Elizabethan – in the theatre was a wooden structure providing an enclosed space around a
courtyard open sky. The enclosed structure generated intimacy and involvement between
actors and audience. Actors were in the habit of speaking directly to members of the
audience, and the audience rarely kept police silence.
4.Proscenium - was the stage of the nineteenth century. This type of stage distances the
audience from the play, providing a clear frame behind which the performers act out their
scenes. The audience is a silent observer witnessing an action, while the actors are in the
world of their own, unaware of the audience’s purpose.
5.Theatre of Cruelty - was developed in France. This type of theatre closed the gap between
actor and audiences. Its purpose was to confront the members of the audience individually to
make them feel uncomfortable and force them to deal with the primary issues of the drama
itself .
Types of Drama
1. Tragedy - a serious drama which the protagonist, traditionally of noble position, suffers a
series of unhappy events that lead to a catastrophe such as death or spiritual breakdown.
🠶 Aristotle suggested that plot was the heart and soul of tragedy and that character came
second. The tragic hero/heroin is more magnanimous, more dragging and larger than life
than the average person. She experiences havarti, the wrong act that leads people to a
tragic end. This tragedy is a result or peripatetic which specifies that the desires of the
tragic characters sometimes lead them to a reversal, that is, they get what they want, but
what they want, but what they want turns out to be destructive.
2. Comedy - a type of drama intended to interest and amuse the audience
rather than to make them deeply concerned about the events that happen.
The characters experience difficulties, but they always overcome their ill
fortune and find happiness at the end.
❑ Comedy of humors or Old comedy - resembles farce and often pokes fun
at individuals who think of themselves as very important. The characters'
disposition are exaggerated and stereotyped.
❑ Comedy of manners or New comedy - realistic and satirical is concerned
with the manners and conventions of high society.
3. Tragicomedy - a play that does not adhere strictly to the structure of
tragedy. This is usually a serious play that also has some of the qualities of
comedy. It may be a commentary on the society's raucous behavior that
draws laughs and ends happily, yet there is a sense of discomfort in the
sardonic humor. Thus, leaving the audienc e wondering how they c an laugh
at something that is ultimately frightening. An example is the theatre of the
absurd which presents the human condition as meaningless, absurd, and
illogical.
Elements of Drama
1.Plot - a term for the action of drama. The function of the plot is to give action a form that it
helps the audience understand the elements of the drama in relation to one another. The plot
depends largely on the conflict of the characters.
2.Characters - as the conflict unfolds, so are the characters revealed. In many plays, the entire
shape of the action derives from the characters' strengths and weakness thus, they create their
own opportunities and problems. Characters arc revealed through their own words, their
interaction with other characters, their expression of feelings, and their presence on
stage expressed in movement and gesture.
3.Setting - as it is fiction, setting refers to the time and place in which the action occurs. It also
refers to the scenery and physical elements that appear on stage to vivify the author's stage
directions. Some plays make use of very elaborate settings, while others make use of simplified
settings, even an empty stage in an absurdist play.
4.Dialogue - the speeches that the characters use to advance the action. Since there is no
description or commentary on the action, as there is in fiction, the dialogue must tell the whole
story. A highly efficient dialogue reveals the characters, unfolds the action and introduces the
themes of the play.
❑ Soliloquy - a speech in which an actor, usually alone on stage, utters his or her thoughts
aloud, revealing personal feelings.
❑ Aside - a short speech made by a character to the audience which, by convention, the
other characters onstage cannot hear.
5.Movement - in the Greek tragedies, the chorus danced in a ritualistic fashion
from one side of the stage to the other. Their movement was keyed to the
structure of their speeches. In reading a play, the stage direction gives
information as to where the characters are, when they move, and perhaps even
the significance of their movement. The stage direction enhance the actor's
interpretations of the characters' actions.

6.Music - is an occasional dramatic element in a play, This may be either sung 'live
by the characters or provided as background during the performance.

7. Theme - is the message, the central action, or what the play is about. Many
plays c ontain several rather than just a single theme.
Literary Theories &
Criticisms: Some
Perspectives
 Every piece of literature conveys meaning, but understanding its message
can be a complicated process. In many cases, unless stated otherwise by the
author, the message can be subjective. This means each of us might interpret
the same text in a slightly different way.
This is why scholars have devised ways to understand how people interpret
a text. These ways have since become known as literary theories.
There are many schools of literary theory, each designed to view literature
from a different angle. This can range from the time period, to the writer’s
background, geographic location, and more. As perspectives change, new
schools are established while existing ones are reinforced.
Generally, literary critics clustered these theories or approaches into five
groups.
a. Mimetic theory – based on the classical Aristotelian idea that literature
imitates or reflects the real world or the world of ideal concepts or things from
which the subjects of literature is derived. The work and the world that it
imitates is how others call this theory.
b. Authorial theory - holds that the author is the soul source of meaning. One
studies
literature with one eye set on the literary text ana another eye on the author's
biography. The work in relation to its author insists on a very private expression of
the writer's feelings, imagination, inspiration, and intention.
c. Reader response theory - is also called as affective or pragmatic theory.
Some call this as the work and its readers. This theory permits varied and
numerous interpretations of the literary texts from as many readers.
d. Literary tradition theory - relates the work to its literary history by identifying
the tradition to which it belongs.
e. Textual analysis theory - this theory is also known as the work as an entity in
itself.
NOTE! In recent times, even though theories are considered important, earlier new
criticism and reader - response theories, popular in the late period are less and
less used in recent times ... and the "NO THEORY" position of latter-day critics, and
the like, are interesting fields of interrogation for students.
2. Literary Criticism-refers to the individual's way of reading a literary text.
❑ New Criticism or Formalist Criticism (was considered new in the 1930s)
• seeks to make literary criticism scientific study
• insists that each literary work shows function as a harmonious possessing a
universal meaning which suggests that there is only "correct" way of reading.
• meaning is revealed by "dissecting" a literary work, by examining the
literary elements and by determining how it contributed to the essential unity of
the literary piece.
strength: calls for a careful and thought reading of the text.
weakness: ignores the relationship of one story to another, the
interconnection of literature, the influence of society to literature, and the
importance of the author's individualism.
• denies the impact of reader's personal experience.
❑ Archetypal criticism - is influence by Carl Gustav Jung's belief in the
collective unconscious of all the people of the world.
•identifies certain archetype, which are simple repeated patterns or images of
human experience : the changing seasons, the cycle of birth, death, rebirth
and heroic quest.
• depends heavily on symbols and patterns operating on a universal scale.
• uses Northrop Frye's assertion that literature consists of variation on a great
mythic theme that contains the following elements:
1. The creation of life in the paradise garden.
2. a displacement from paradise: alienation
3. a time of trial and tribulations, usually a wandering; a journey
4. a self discovery as a result of the struggle; an epiphany
5. a return to paradise: either the original or a new improved one.
❑ Historicism - examines the culture and society from which literature is
produced, and how these influences affect literature.
• Who is the author, where did he/ she come from, and what was his/ her objectives in
writing?
• How did the political events influence what the writer wrote?
• How did the predominant social customs of the time influence the writer's outlook?
• What is the predominant philosophy that influenced the work?
• Were there any special circumstances under which the work was written?
•Strength: enriches one's understanding of literature because a knowledge of the
historical times in which a piece is written.
• Weakness: overlooks the literary elements and structure as weII as author's
individual contribution.
❑ Marxist criticism has the longest history being a 20th century phenomenon.
• Argues that literature is a product of real, social and economic existence.
• Views literature to be ideologically determined, usually of the dominant social class.
• Insists that literalure rnust be used to challenge class oppression
• Uses Mao Tse Tung's ideas that literature must answer -
• Whom to serve: The working people, the masses
• How to serve: Awaken and arouse the masses and impel them to unite and struggle
change their environment.
• Strength:provides functional cultural and political agenda of literature.
• Weakness : opens up the possibility of prioritizing content over form,
ideological criterion over artistic.
❑ Feminist criticism combines several critical methods while focusing on the
questions on how gender affects a literary work, writer, or reader.
• How are woman portrayed in the work? As stereotypes? As individuals
• How is the woman's point of view considered?
• Is male superiority implied in the text?
• In what way is the work affec ted bec ause it was written by a woman?
• Strength: enriches a reading by showing awareness of the complexity of
human interaction
• Weakness: ultimately becomes cultural criticism
❑ Structuralism is based on the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and
cultural theories of Claude Levi-Strauss
• Language is a self-contained system of signs (Saussure)
• Culture, like languages, could be viewed as systems of signs and could be
analyzed in terms of the structural relations among their elements (Levi-Strauss)
• Views literary texts as systems of interlocking signs which are arbitrary.
•Seeks to make explicit the "grammar" (the rules and codes or system of
organization) ·
•Uses the concept of binary oppositions (sign-signifier, parole-langue,
performance-competence)
•Believes that a sign (something which stands to somebody for
something) can never have a definite meaning, because the meaning
must be continuously qualified.
• Strength: allows extra textuality and links literary texts to systems of signs
that exist even before the work is written .
• Weakness: denies author's individual contribution.
❑ Deconstruction was initiated by Jacques Derrida in late 1960’s
•Assumes that language refers only to itself rather than to an extratextual
reality.
• Asserts multiple conflicting interpretations of a text.
• Base interpretations on the philosophical, political or social implications of
the use of language in a text rather than on the author’s intentions.
• Involves the questioning of the many hierarchical opposition in order to expose the
bias of the Perivale terms.
• Takes apart the logic of language in which author's make their claims.
• Reveals how all texts undermine themselves in that every text includes unconscious
"traces" of other positions exactly opposite to that which it sets out to uphold.
Strength: debunks the idea of the arbitraries of the verbal sign and loosens
up language from concepts and referents.
Weakness: views that the "meaning" of the text bears only accidental
relationship to the author's conscious intentions.

❑ Psychoanalytic Criticism
• Psychoanalytic criticism is based on Sigmund Freud’s theories in psychology, including
those of the consciousnesses and the unconscious. It argues that much like dreams,
literary texts are a manifestation of the author’s neuroses, revealing their unconscious
desires and anxieties.
 A character from a text may be psychoanalyzed, but the usual assumption is
that all characters are a projection of the author’s psyche. The author’s
traumas, fixations, guilts, and conflicts many be traced through how these
characters behave.
The story of Oedipus Rex is perhaps the most commonly psychoanalyzed
piece of literature, started by Freud himself. He introduced the concept of the
Oedipus complex, a purported universal phase of boys where they hate their
fathers and want to have sex with their mothers.
❑ Postcolonial criticism
Postcolonial criticism concerns itself with literature written by colonizers
and those who were/are colonized. In particular, it looks at issues of culture,
religion, politics, and economics within the text and how these relate to
colonial hegemony (the colonizer’s act of controlling the colonized).
Put simply, it addresses the problems, consequences, and challenges that a
decolonized country goes through. Specifically, it looks at these countries’
struggles with political and cultural independence, racism, and colonial
mentality.
❑ Queer Theory
Queer theory explores the representation of gender and sexuality in
literature. It challenges the assumption that heterosexuality is the preferred or
normal mode of sexual orientation—a notion that is reinforced by certain social
institutions such as marriage, employment, and adoption rights.
It argues that sexuality is fluid and plural, not a fixed identity. Thus, queer
theory is interested in the breakdown of binaries such as gay/straight,
masculine/feminine, and mother/father. Queer theorists are then primarily
concerned about those who don’t fit in conventional categories such as
intersex, bisexuals, and trans people.
❑ New Historicism
New Historicism acknowledges that literature isn’t only influenced by the
history of the author, but also that of the critic. Put simply, the writer’s
circumstances shape their writing, their work reflects their time, and the
critic’s circumstances and environment affect their criticism.

This theory then reveals that literary criticism is impermanent. Current

criticisms are colored by current prejudices, social environments, and beliefs
much like literature affects and is affected by its historical context. As times
change, so will the understanding of a particular work.
The Importance of Literary Theories
All literary theories are starting points from which we can better understand a
piece of literature, learn more about the author’s intentions, and improve the
quality of said literature for both the author and the critic. One theory is not
better than the others, each is just a different way of seeking an answer to a
question.
You’re not required to follow one particular theory in your criticism. Many
people often use multiple theories to gain a broader appreciation of the
literature they’re studying. Plus, it’s sometimes fun to delve into a text with
different theories as you often end up with a whole new perspective.
Many of these theories are not only applied in literature, but also in other
facets of humanity, including other types of art, psychology, sociology,
philosophy, and language. In studying these theories and applying them to your
criticisms, you’ll often encounter ideas that take you in different directions.
There are definitely more literary theories than the ones listed above. Some
are old and out of use, others are updated to keep up with today’s literature, and
still others are being created based on social and cultural movements.
Why Read Literature?

Amidst the gushing river of popular culture, the turbulent climate of

politics, media bias, and misinformation, the tornadic winds of modern
educational theories, and the volcanic eruption of screens and
technology, a pertinent set of questions exists: Why read literature? Of
what value is literature?
It is helpful to think about the role of literature in the context of
cultural problems—for literature has always persisted in the midst of and
in response to a fallen, often chaotic world. Assuredly, Wordsworth’s
lament applies to all ages, a prescient vision of the past, present, and
future:
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers:
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!
Truly, we have given our hearts away, disconnecting ourselves from
God, nature, and others—but literature has the capability of providing a
restorative cure. So then, what kind of literature holds such power?
 The answer is the Great Book. Samuel Johnson said in his “Preface to
Shakespeare” that “the only test of literary greatness is length of
duration and continuance of esteem.” Moreover, a book may be
considered great if it meets three criteria. The first is universality. A great
book speaks to people across many ages—affecting, inspiring, and
changing readers far removed from the time and place in which it was
written. Second, it has a Central One Idea and themes that address
matters of enduring importance. And third, it features noble language. A
great book is written in beautiful language that enriches the mind and
elevates the soul. Now that we have established what kind of literature
to read, let’s consider why we should read literature.
Here are six reasons:
1. Reading great literature exercises the imagination. We enjoy stories;
it is a pleasure to meet characters and to live in their world, to experience
their joys and sorrows. In a practical sense, an active imagination helps
us perceive truth, make value judgments, and deal with the complexities
of life in creative ways. It even aids in our ability to use logic and to
reason well.
2. Reading literature transports us out of our current context and into
other ages and places. Interacting with characters across space and time
diminishes our ignorance. Mark Twain once remarked, “Travel is fatal to
prejudice, narrowmindedness, and bigotry. Broad, wholesome,
charitable views of men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in
one little corner of the earth all of one’s lifetime.” Because most of us
cannot pilot a steamboat along the Mississippi River, or travel to many
parts of the world as Twain was able to do, literature serves as a worthy
guide and vessel for our exploration.
3. Reading literature enables us to see the world through the eyes of
others. It trains the mind to be flexible, to comprehend other points of
view—to set aside one’s personal perspectives to see life through the
eyes of someone who is of another age, class, or race. Reading literature
nurtures and develops the power of sympathetic insight.
4. Great works of literature have played a fundamental role in shaping
society. For example, The Epic of Gilgamesh initiated the archetypal
narrative of the hero embarking on an epic quest, which became a
popular and influential blueprint for literature the world over. Some
other landmark texts include Homer’s Odyssey, Dante’s Divine Comedy,
Shakespeare’s Hamlet, and Cervantes’ Don Quixote, which is credited as
the first novel in the Western world, creating a genre that has since
become the dominant form of literature in the modern era. A little later,
Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther was deeply influential (though
not necessarily in positive ways); Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical
Ballads initiated the Romantic era in English literature, and Harriet
Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin helped push a divided nation into
civil war over slavery. In the early twentieth century, Upton Sinclair’s
novel The Jungle exposed the horrors of America’s meatpacking industry
and caused many reforms in the mass production of food. Books have
the power to shape culture and history.
5. Reading literature fosters contemplation and reflection, and improves
our facility with language and vocabulary. Interacting with these texts
requires deliberate, conscious thinking in order to understand and retain
longer units of thought. The average number of words per sentence in
the sixteenth century was 65-70 words, but, not surprisingly, that
number has steadily declined through the modern era to about 15 words
today. Likewise, the average number of letters per word has declined,
revealing a decrease in the use of longer, higher-level words. The
continual exposure to elaborate, elevated syntax and diction develops
not only our thinking abilities, but our speaking and writing skills too. We
begin to conceive of sentences in the manner of the great writers,
imitating their techniques in style and vocabulary. In his poem Four
Quartets, T. S. Eliot prophesied that we would be “distracted from
distraction by distraction.” Alas, we are unable to retain and reflect upon
an idea for any meaningful length of time. Reading great literature is an
active push against this tendency.
6. Finally, reading literature helps us to know ourselves—in short, to
understand man. For the subject of literature is man. In its pages, we
learn about our creative and moral faculties, our conscience, and most
importantly, our soul. We see man at the height of his glory and the
depth of his folly—with every heartrending thought, action, emotion,
and belief in between. In other words, literature holds a mirror up to
human nature, revealing its inner depths and complexities, its array of
virtues and vices; and moreover, it holds a mirror up to a cultural age,
illuminating its shape and ethos.
Long ago, inscribed on the forecourt of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
was the maxim, “Know thyself.” Reading literature remains the surest
means to do just that—to live the life Socrates declared the only one
worth living: the examined life. After all, literature may simply be the
creative expression of metaphysics and being: In some mysterious way,
each life is every life, and all lives are one life—there is something of
ourselves in each and every character we meet in the hallowed pages of
a Great Book.
 Ways of Looking at Literature: How to Read,
Approaches, Perspectives, and Appreciation
presentation title
 Why read Literature?
Amidst the gushing river of popular culture, the turbulent
climate of politics, media bias, and misinformation, the tornadic
winds of modern educational theories, and the volcanic eruption of
screens and technology, a pertinent set of questions exists: Why
read literature? Of what value is literature?
It is helpful to think about the role of literature in the context of
cultural problems—for literature has always persisted in the midst
of and in response to a fallen, often chaotic world. Assuredly,
Wordsworth’s lament applies to all ages, a prescient vision of the
past, present, and future:
The world is too much with us; late and soon,
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers:
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon!
Truly, we have given our hearts away, disconnecting ourselves
from God, nature, and others—but literature has the capability of
providing a restorative cure. So then, what kind of literature holds
such power?

20XX presentation title 2

 The answer is the Great Book. Samuel Johnson said in his “Preface to
Shakespeare” that “the only test of literary greatness is length of duration
and continuance of esteem.” Moreover, a book may be considered great if it
meets three criteria. The first is universality. A great book speaks to people
across many ages—affecting, inspiring, and changing readers far removed
from the time and place in which it was written. Second, it has a Central One
Idea and themes that address matters of enduring importance. And third, it
features noble language. A great book is written in beautiful language that
enriches the mind and elevates the soul. Now that we have established what
kind of literature to read, let’s consider why we should read literature.
Here are six reasons:
1. Reading great literature exercises the imagination. We enjoy stories; it is
a pleasure to meet characters and to live in their world, to experience their
joys and sorrows. In a practical sense, an active imagination helps us
perceive truth, make value judgments, and deal with the complexities of life
in creative ways. It even aids in our ability to use logic and to reason well.
2. Reading literature transports us out of our current context and into
other ages and places. Interacting with characters across space and time
diminishes our ignorance. Mark Twain once remarked, “Travel is fatal to
prejudice, narrowmindedness, and bigotry. Broad, wholesome, charitable
views of men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in one little
corner of the earth all of one’s lifetime.” Because most of us cannot pilot a
steamboat along the Mississippi River, or travel to many parts of the world
as Twain was able to do, literature serves as a worthy guide and vessel for
our exploration.
3. Reading literature enables us to see the world through the eyes of
others. It trains the mind to be flexible, to comprehend other points of
view—to set aside one’s personal perspectives to see life through the eyes
of someone who is of another age, class, or race. Reading literature
nurtures and develops the power of sympathetic insight.
4. Great works of literature have played a fundamental role in shaping
society. For example, The Epic of Gilgamesh initiated the archetypal
narrative of the hero embarking on an epic quest, which became a popular
and influential blueprint for literature the world over. Some other landmark
texts include Homer’s Odyssey, Dante’s Divine Comedy, Shakespeare’s
Hamlet, and Cervantes’ Don Quixote, which is credited as the first novel in
the Western world, creating a genre that has since become the dominant
form of literature in the modern era. A little later, Goethe’s The Sorrows of
Young Werther was deeply influential (though not necessarily in positive
ways); Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads initiated the Romantic
era in English literature, and Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin
helped push a divided nation into civil war over slavery. In the early twentieth
century, Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle exposed the horrors of America’s
meatpacking industry and caused many reforms in the mass production of
food. Books have the power to shape culture and history.
5. Reading literature fosters contemplation and reflection, and improves our
facility with language and vocabulary. Interacting with these texts requires
deliberate, conscious thinking in order to understand and retain
longer units of thought. The average number of words per sentence in the
sixteenth century was 65-70 words, but, not surprisingly, that number has
steadily declined through the modern era to about 15 words today. Likewise,
the average number of letters per word has declined, revealing a decrease in
the use of longer, higher-level words. The continual exposure to elaborate,
elevated syntax and diction develops not only our thinking abilities, but our
speaking and writing skills too. We begin to conceive of sentences in the
manner of the great writers, imitating their techniques in style and vocabulary.
In his poem Four Quartets, T. S. Eliot prophesied that we would be “distracted
from distraction by distraction.” Alas, we are unable to retain and reflect upon
an idea for any meaningful length of time. Reading great literature is an active
push against this tendency.
6. Finally, reading literature helps us to know ourselves—in short, to
understand man. For the subject of literature is man. In its pages, we learn
about our creative and moral faculties, our conscience, and most importantly,
our soul. We see man at the height of his glory and the depth of his folly—with
every heartrending thought, action, emotion, and belief in between. In other
words, literature holds a mirror up to human nature, revealing its inner depths
and complexities, its array of virtues and vices; and moreover, it holds a mirror
up to a cultural age, illuminating its shape and ethos.
Categories of Observation Kinds of Questions and Comments
The Writer

The Writer’s life Who wrote this?

What kind of person was he or she?
How old was the writer when the poem
was written?

The Writer's culture In what place and time was it written?

What was going on at the time?
What events and ideas were important?
What was the world view?
The Work
Structure, Techniques How many parts are there to this work?
How are they related?
What key words images, figures of speech
are important?
Characters or Speaker Who is talking here? To whom?
What is their relationship like?
What motivates them?
What conflict do they have?

Ideas, Lessons, Philosophy What ideas or lessons are expressed

or implied here?
What values?
What forces have determined these events?
What are we supposed to learn?
The Reader
Yourself as a Reader How does it make me feel?
What features of the work stand out?
What in me those features stand out?
What happens to me when I read this?
Your Culture
Place What is the present world view in the place
where I am situated?
What events and ideas are important?
Connections
Historical Perspectives Does this refer to historical events?
Is it about something or somebody in the past?
Artistic/Literary Tradition What does this remind me of?
How is it related to other works, storylines,
characters, or myths?
THREE BASIC APPROACHES TO INTERPRET LITERATURE
1. Text - Oriented Approaches a reader may analyze a work of literature as
complete in itself without relating it to the outside world.
2. Author - Oriented Approaches a reader may study an author's life, time
and culture to better understand the author's work. This approach
requires research.
3. Reader - Oriented Approaches each reader brings a unique set of
experiences and expectations to literature in its extreme for

LITERARY APPRECIATION
Literary Appreciation is a form of close reading that involves the analysis
and evaluation of a literary work. All literary works are inscribe in language,
and the readers must have sufficient understanding of linguistic elements
before they can make that judgement.
 Any literary text is a contrived utterance that addresses several levels of
reality. To communicate through the text, the writer and reader must put
into operation certain process that will make the text intelligible. But the
utterance, it must be remembered, is first of all, a linguistic
construction, fixed and specific, thus demanding of both writers and readers
an expertise in language.
There are three levels of reality that the readers must consider:
1. First level - clears ways impediments to the comprehension of the work’s
literalness, that is, human condition as articulated through proper
language.
2. Second level - produces additional meanings when harmonized with the
literal elements.
3. Third level - compels the heart and mind to examine things in a newer
manner.
HOW TO "READ" A LITERARY TEXT
1. A text acquires meaning only in the imagination of an actual reader, which
is you, with your experience, memories and dreams.
2. One of the ways you can read a text is to look at readings made by other
people. You can read reviews or critical accounts of the text. You can try
to step away from yourself, and see how you are reading, you may even go
a step further and try to be sensitive to the role of language in the way
you read.
3. A lot depends on why you are reading a text. If you are reading only to
satisfy a class requirement, you may want to look into the uses of power
in the classroom. You could look at the way certain texts working
together exert power over all other readers. You may even look at certain
imperialist countries exert power over post colonial minds such as yours.
If you are reading in order to gain knowledge, you could look into how the
text reveals this knowledge, how it relates to the world that you live in, how
it interacts with other texts in society.
4. You are not the first person to read a literary text. There have been may
others who have asked the kinds of questions you now ask of the text.
Literary history is the branch of knowledge that deals with these
questions.
5. Every one who reads a literary text necessarily adopts one of these
theories even without knowing it. It is like the difference between
someone who plays the piano by ear and someone who has taken music
lessons; the former may appreciate a musical piece, but the latter knows
why musical piece is so appealing.
6. You can understand a novel, a poem, or a play if you do not study literary
theory, but if you study literary theory or at least some aspects of literary
criticism, you will understand why you understand, how you understand,
and maybe even what you understand.
The Hero’s Journey: Examples of Each Stage
 Mythology can be simultaneously fascinating and complex.
Intrigued by these legendary tales, author Joseph Campbell studied
myths and made the famous claim that nearly all myths and some
other story types have similar ideas, and the heroes' adventures are
almost identical in their format. The different stages of adventure
he identified have come to be called the hero's journey. Explore the
stages of a hero's journey and hero's journey examples.
Stages of the Hero's Journey
There are multiple steps to the hero's journey, and each step falls
into one of three stages.
• Stage 1: Departure - During this stage, the hero is preparing for
his quest.
• Stage 2: Initiation - This begins as the hero crosses the first
threshold, and it ends as the hero begins the road back.
• Stage 3: Return - This starts as the hero begins the road back,
this stage continues through the end of the story.
Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey Steps
In his book, The Hero with a Th ousand Face s, Joseph Campbell broke down the
17 steps of the hero's journey.
1. Call to Adventure - A problem or threat interrupts the hero's normal life.
2. Refusal of the Call - Initially, the hero is hesitant to embark on the journey.
Therefore, they refuse the call.
3. Supernatural Aid - Someone they look up to helps them find the inspiration
to join the journey.
4. Crossing the Threshold - This is the point where the hero leaves on their
journey.
5. Belly of the Whale - In this stage, the hero encounters the first obstacle after
leaving on the journey. This step is the end of the departure stage.
6. Road of Trials - The first step of the initiation stage, these are the trials the
hero undergoes and the beginning of the change in some aspect of the hero.
They learn from their mistakes in this step.
7. Meeting With the Goddess - The hero meets the allies that will help them
through their journey.
8. Woman as Temptress - The temptation that arises to try to get the hero to
abandon the journey.
9. Atonement With the Father - One of the major turning points of the story
where the hero faces the ultimate reason for the journey. The hero might face
a villain or even their own doubt.
10. Apotheosis - From the previous step, the hero learns how they will face the
rest of the journey. This is the moment that the hero gains profound
understanding or knowledge that helps them to prevail.
11. Ultimate Boon - The final step of the initiation stage, this step is where the
hero fulfills the reason for their journey.
12. Refusal of Return - The first step of the return stage, the hero is initially
reluctant to return to their mundane life.
13. Magic Flight - Though the hero has answered their call and completed the
reason for their journey, they are still chased by others. In this step, the hero
works to evade those chasing them.
14. Rescue From Without - Again an outside source or mentor works to guide
them home and rescue them from those chasing them.
15. Crossing the Return Threshold - The hero crosses back into their mundane
world.
16. Master of Two Worlds - Since the hero has been on the journey, they need to
learn to balance their mundane life and the world they experienced on the
journey.
17. Freedom to Live - The hero acclimates back into their mundane life and lives
peacefully.
Christopher Vogler's 12 Step Hero's Journey
In his book, The Writer's Journey, Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood consultant,
simplified Joseph Campbell's hero's journey into only 12 steps. The 12 steps of
the hero's journey include:
1. Ordinary World - This step refers to the hero's normal life at the start of the
story, before the adventure begins. It’s the starting point, and it gives a glimpse
into the character of the hero before the adventure begins. Often, this hero
will change over the course of the story. We may see evidence of hamartia or a
fatal flaw in the hero at this early point in the story.
2. Call to Adventure - The hero is faced with something that makes them begin
their adventure. This might be a problem or a challenge they need to
overcome. In general, the hero must make a choice about whether to
undertake the adventure.
3. Refusal of the Call - The hero attempts to refuse the adventure because of
fear. They may feel unprepared or inadequate, or may not want to sacrifice what
is being asked of them.
4. Meeting With the Mentor - The hero encounters someone who can give
advice and ready them for the journey ahead. Acting as a mentor, this person
imparts wisdom that may change the hero’s mind.
5. Crossing the First Threshold - The hero leaves their ordinary world for the
first time and crosses the threshold into adventure. This step may seem almost
inevitable, but it also represents a choice the hero is making. It’s a door through
which the hero must pass for the story to really begin.
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies - The hero learns the rules of their new world. During
this time, they endure tests of strength and tests of will, meets friends, and
come face to face with foes. This period in the journey helps define the hero's
relationship with other characters in the story. During this part of the journey,
the hero learns who will help and who will hinder.
7. Approach - Setbacks occur, sometimes causing the hero to try a new approach
or adopt new ideas. This is a lesson in persistence for the hero. When they fail,
they need to try again. Often, the stakes are rising, and real overall failure
becomes less of an option.
8. Ordeal - The hero experiences a major hurdle or obstacle, such as a life or
death crisis. They must come face to face with their weaknesses and must
overcome them. This will be something the hero barely manages to accomplish.
9. Reward - After surviving death, the hero earns a reward or accomplishes
their goal. This is a moment of great success in the story. The hero is a changed
person now, though they may not fully realize the extent of the change in their
continued focus on the matter at hand.
10. The Road Back - The hero begins the journey back to ordinary life. In some
ways, integrating back into their life will be a challenge. They are different now
after the ordeal.
11. Resurrection Hero - The hero faces a final test where everything is at stake,
and they must use everything they have learned. This is where personal changes
prove useful. The hero is now ideally suited to overcoming the obstacles in front
of them.
12. Return With Elixir - The hero brings their knowledge or the "elixir" back to
the ordinary world, where they apply it to help all who remain there. This is
the true reward for the journey and transformation.
Hero's Journey Examples in Literature and Movies
This concept of the hero's journey is one that has gained much praise and
consideration of worth in the literary community. This classic formula for an epic
tale has been around for a long time, and it’s satisfying to readers and viewers
today. You’ll recognize it in many of the most famous stories, including Ancient
Greek mythology.
Beowulf
The Old English poem Beowulf is a great example of the hero’s journey.
Literary Analysis (Elements)

You’ll recognize the following stages:

1. Ordinary world - Geatland is Beowulf’s ordinary world.
2. Call to adventure - Beowulf heard stories of Grendel, who had killed many
men. He was asked to help.
3. Refusal of the call - Beowulf chooses not to refuse the call.
4. Meeting with the mentor - King Hrothgar becomes Beowulf’s mentor,
helping him learn what it is to be a good king.
5. Crossing the first threshold - Beowulf sails across the sea to Denmark.
6. Tests, allies, and enemies - Beowulf battles Grendel.
7. Approach - Beowulf learns that Grendel’s mother lives.
8. Ordeal - Beowulf must fight the swamp hag.
9. Reward - Beowulf receives treasures as a reward.
10. The road back - Beowulf becomes the king.
11. Resurrection of the hero - Beowulf fights a dragon to defend his
kingdom.
12. Return with the elixir - Beowulf dies a hero’s death and is remembered
by his people.