❖ LESSON 1: ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY Ethics and philosophy

ETHICS REVIEWER • Greece is traditionally considered the birthplace of

What is Ethics? philosophy.
• A branch of Philosophy and a social science and • Early Greek thinkers realized they needed more than
academic discipline that aids in understanding and what poets and storytellers could tell about the world
adapting situations that affect lives. around them.
• It is an inquiry into some standard to guide one’s
action, or as a tool to understand a given condition. • These Greek wise men were also recognized as “first
natural scientists” because of their efforts to
Ethics understand the inner workings of nature through
• Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), "relating to theoretical experiments.
one's character", which itself comes from the root word
êthos (ἦθος) meaning "character, moral nature“ SOCRATES:
• Latin as ethica • Appeared in 15th century B.C.
• French as éthique, from which it was transferred into • Though not the first one, yet still recognized for being
English. the first to redirect the focus of philosophy from natural
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human world to the human person.
morality by defining concepts such as: • Roam the street of Athens to teach the importance of
• good and evil, right and wrong critical inquiry beginning from his assumptions about
• virtue and vice, justice and crime human beings.
as a field of intellectual inquiry: PLATO:
Moral philosophy also is related to the fields of:
• moral psychology • He took place after his teacher Socrates was executed.
•Descriptive ethics
• Enhanced the ethical orientation of philosophy, that
•Value theory
is, to live according to a certain idea or form of what life
Rushworth Kidder: ought to be.
states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically
ARISTOTLE:
included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal
human character' or 'the science of moral duty'“. • The student of Plato, who carried on what Socrates
and Plato started as evidenced in the famous
Richard William Paul and Linda Elder
Aristotelian work “Nicomachean Ethics” – that
define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that
happiness is the end of human endeavour.
guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms
sentient creatures" • For him, a happy life is not just merely an at of
doing particular tasks but also knowing what are these
Paul and Elder
for.
state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in
accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs noted Greek Philosophers
and the law and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone • Thales of Miletus – postulated this primal matter to
concept. be water.

ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY •Anaximander – a student of Thales, said this substance

was unidentifiable and called it “apeiron” (infinite)
PHILOSOPHY
• Anaximenes – a student of Anaximander
philia
said it was air.
- love (strong desire for a particular object)
sophia • Anaxagoras – another Greek Philosopher, traced all
natural movements to the ordering power of a cosmic
-wisdom (correct application of knowledge)
mind or “nous”
PHILOSOPHY =love of wisdom
• Pythagoras – described their pursuit as “ philo
PHILOSOPHY
sophia”.
-science that studies beings in their ultimate causes,
PHILOSOPHY
reasons and principles through the aid of human reason
alone. 1. Philosophy – is a rational critical thinking of more or
- all things that exist: material or immaterial less systematic kind about the conduct of life, the
general nature of the world, and the justification of
(STONE, TREE, GOD & SOUL & SPIRIT)
belief. (Encyclopedia Americana, 2003)
Ethics or Moral Philosophy is
2. Philosophy – is the love or pursuit of wisdom, the
a branch of Philosophy that "involves
search for basic principles
• Systematizing
(The new Webster’s Dictionary
• Defending
of the English Language, 1995)
• Recommending concepts of right and wrong
behavior".
3. Philosophy – is the sum of all man’s beliefs and views 5. What are logic and logical reasoning, and how
about the world which guide his actions. reliable is it?
(Ariola,1989) 6. What’s the difference between knowledge and
belief?
4. Philosophy – is the science of the things by their
ultimate principles and causes, as known by natural 1. EPISTEMOLOGY – It is concern with knowledge and
reason alone. problems of knowing
(Pinon, 1995)
Epistemology:
5. Philosophy – is a human search for meaning, an is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge.
intellectual quest that goes beyond the boundaries of Epistemologists study the nature of knowledge,
concrete knowledge, towards the realm of the abstract epistemic justification, the rationality of belief, and
where the inquisitive mind finds some satisfaction and various related issues.
wonder.
(Gualdo, 2000)

6. Philosophy – is the never-ending search for the total

human meaning of our experiences. It is a discipline
that attempts to look for answers to man’s inquisitive
mind that begins in wonder and ends in awe.
(Buazon 2002)

7. Philosophy – is an attempt to see the wonders at our

existence and at our place in the scheme of things.
(Melchert, 1999)

8. Philosophy – is a systematic, reflective, critical, Metaphysics (the study of nature of reality)

primarily reason-bound inquiring into the basic Metaphysics deals with the following questions:
assumptions and guiding beliefs that people use to 1. Is there really cause and effect in reality, and if so,
make sense of any dimension of their live. how does it work?
(Christensen, 1999) 2. What is the nature of the physical world, and is
there anything other than the physical, such as the
9. Philosophy – is a process by which men ponder, mental or spiritual?
discuss or argue over the use, application limits or 3. What is the nature of human beings?
meaning of important ideas. 4. Is there freedom in reality or is everything
(Bresman and Martin, 1990) predetermined?
10. Philosophy – is the art of questioning everything, 2. METAPHYSICS – (ONTOLOGY) It is concerned with the
the goal of philosophy is wisdom and wisdom requires nature of being itself its origin and essence.
questioning what is questionable.
(Kolak and Martin, 1990) Metaphysics
is the branch of philosophy that examines the
11. Philosophy – focuses on conceptual clarity and fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship
understanding from ignorance to knowledge. between mind and matter, between substance and
(Earle, 1992) attribute, and between potentiality and actuality.
12. Philosophy – is asking the right question that Logic (the science of correct thinking)
initiates philosophical thinking and direction. Logic asks the following questions:
(Barry, 1983) 1. What is correct reasoning?
ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY 2. What distinguishes a good argument from a bad
one?
Philosophy is concerned with basically four (4) areas: 3. How can we detect a fallacy in argument?
-Epistemology 4. What are the criteria in determining the validity of
-Metaphysics an argument?
-Logic 5. What are the types of logic?
-Ethics Ethics (the study of morality) Ethics deals with what is
EPISTEMOLOGY (The study of knowledge) right or wrong in
human behavior and conduct. It asks such
Epistemology deals with the following questions as:
questions: 1. What constitutes a person or action being good, bad,
1. What is knowledge? right, or wrong, and how do we know (epistemology)?
2. What part does self-interest or the interest of others
2. What are the truth and falsity, and to what do they
play in making moral decisions and judgements?
apply?
3. What theories of conduct are valid or invalid and
3. What is required for someone to actually
why?
knowsomething?
4. Should we use principles or rules or laws, or should
4. What is the nature of perception, and how reliable is
we let each situation decide our morality?
it?
5. Are killing, lying, cheating, stealing, and sexual acts
right or wrong, and why or why not?

Axiology – (teleology)
It is concerned with the problem of purpose and value.
It is divided into two:
a. ethics (deals with the problem of good and evil, right
and wrong and their bearings on morality)
b. aesthetics (deals with the problem of beauty and
value as applied to arts.

The reason for this choice is that the nature of man is

composed of six aspects:

1. Physical – concerned of metaphysics

2. Mental – concerned of epistemology
3. Moral – concerned of aesthetics
4. Spiritual – concerned of epistemology
5. Social – concerned of aesthetics
6. Emotional - aesthetics

Key Terms
1. Ethical – comes from the Greek word “ethos”,
meaning character. Ethics, then seems to pertain to
the individual character of a person or persons.
2. Moral – comes from the Latin word “moralis”,
meaning customs or manners morality seems to
point to the relationships between human beings.
3. Unethical – means wrong.
4. Immoral – means bad.

❖ LESSON 1.1

Ethics and Philosophy

Philosophy is concerned with basically four (4) areas:

• Epistemology Logic (the science of correct thinking)

• Metaphysics Logic asks the following questions:
• Logic
• Ethics 1. What is correct reasoning?

Metaphysics 2. What distinguishes a good argument from a bad

one?
is the branch of philosophy that examines the
fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship 3. How can we detect a fallacy in argument?
between mind and matter, between substance and 4. What are the criteria in determining the validity
attribute, and between potentiality and actuality. of an argument?

5. What are the types of logic?

What is correct thinking?

It is a kind of thinking in which we try to solve a

problem, make a decision, or determine what is
true. It is thinking with a purpose which is to
arrive at a conclusion

Axiology – (teleology)
 It is concerned with the problem of that all values are relative or that people are always
purpose and value. It is divided into two: selfish.

a. ethics (deals with the problem of good and evil, An ethical theory attempts to provide a set of
right and wrong and their bearings on morality) fundamental moral principles in harmony with our
moral intuitions.
b. aesthetics (deals with the problem of beauty
and value as applied to arts. Religious Ethics – an authoritative rule book to tell us
what rules to follow.
ETHICS and MORALITY
Duty Ethics - Fulfill your obligations. Duties and rights
Ethics refers to standards of conduct, standards
are two sides of the same coin.
that indicate how one should behave based on moral
duties and virtues, which themselves are derived from Utilitarianism – There is one and only one supreme
principles of right and wrong. moral principle – that we should seek the greatest
happiness of the greatest number. Maximize
Moral Relativism
happiness. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
Values are determined by the society we grow up in, (1800).
and there are no universal values. Moral values are
Kant’s Approach To Ethics – Can your actions be
simply customs or conventions that vary from culture to
consistently generalized? Ask yourself “What if
culture.
everyone did that?”. According to Kant, if something is
To what extent do you think the following individuals wrong, it is always wrong!
are morally inconsistent?
Utilitarianism
A. an anti-abortionist who supports the death penalty
We care about morality because we care about human
B. a vegetarian who buys leather shoes happiness

C. a socialist who educates his children at a private What do you think is the relationship between pleasure
school and happiness? Is happiness just the sum of pleasures,
or can you have many pleasures and still be unhappy?
D. A politician who advocates family values and has an
affair Are the richest nations of the world home to the
happiest people in the world?
E. An environmental activist who drives an SUV
According to Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), “To be
F. Someone who thinks stealing is wrong but makes without some of the things you want is an indispensable
illegal copies of computer software or music. part of happiness.” What did he mean? Do you agree?
How do I know what to do? Kant’s Approach to Ethics
Can you choose three values which are universal for all In Kant’s view, happiness does not equal morality. Only
humans? a good will has ultimate moral value. Moral rules
Why do you think so? should be universal.

How do I know what to do? • Special pleading – rationalizing to

ourselves
We have clearly made scientific progress over the last
three hundred years. Does it also make sense that we • The golden rule - treat others the way
have made moral progress? you wish to be treated

Self Interest Theory • Veil of ignorance - imagine the

situation from both points of view
Human beings are always and everywhere selfish. Even
if there are objective moral values, we are incapable of Which of the following is a special case that justifies
living up to them. breaking a generally accepted rule?

1. Definitional argument – we are selfish when we do 1a. You should respect the highway code, but it is ok to
what we want to do, and we always do what we want drive through a red light if you are late for work.
to do. 1b. You should respect the highway code, but it is ok to
2. Evolutionary argument – humans are naturally drive through a red light if you are taking a critically
selfish- programmed (biologically) to survive. 2a. You should keep your word, but it is ok to break a
3. Hidden benefits argument – selfish benefits to social engagement if something more interesting
helping others. comes up.

4. Fear of punishment argument – what if I get caught? 2b. You should keep your word, but it is ok to break a
social engagement if you have just contracted an
Theories of Ethics infectious disease. ill person to the hospital.
While it may be that some values are relative and that 3a. You should pay your taxes, but it is ok not to pay
people are often selfish, we do not have to conclude them if you are short of money that year.
3b. You should pay your taxes, but it is ok not to pay ❖ LESSON 2: ETHICS_METAETHICS AND
them if they are being spent on a nuclear arms NORMATIVE ETHICS
program.
The Three Main Branches of the Philosophical Study of
4a. Murder is wrong, but it would have been ok to Ethics
assassinate Hitler in 1942.
1.Meta-ethics
4b. Murder is wrong, but it would be OK to kill someone 2.Normative Ethics
planning a terrorist attack. 3.Applied Ethics

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Metaethics

is a branch of analytic philosophy that explores the
Although it has been questioned as to whether it
status, foundations, and scope of moral values,
applied equally to different genders and different
properties, and words.
cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of moral
development is the most widely cited. It breaks our
development of morality into three levels, each of
which is divided further into two stages:

Pre-conventional Level (up to age nine): ~Self Focused

Morality~

1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding

negative consequences. Children in this stage see rules
set, typically by parents, as defining moral law.

2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good

and moral. Normative ethics
is the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what
Conventional Level (age nine to adolescence): ~Other makes situations or events good or bad and what
Focused Morality~ makes people virtuous or vicious.
3. Children begin to understand what is expected of
them by their parents, teacher, etc. Morality is seen as
achieving these expectations.

4. Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations

are seen as moral law for children in this stage.

Postconventional Level (adulthood): ~Higher Focused

Morality~

5. As adults, we begin to understand that people have

different opinions about morality and that rules and
laws vary from group to group and culture to culture.
Morality is seen as upholding the values of your group
or culture.

6. Understanding your own personal beliefs allow adults

to judge themselves and others based upon higher
levels of morality. In this stage what is right and wrong
is based upon the circumstances surrounding an action.
Basics of morality are the foundation with independent
thought playing an important role.
Applied ethics
Integrity
refers to the practical application of moral
What does integrity mean to you? Do you aspire to be a considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world
virtuous person? actions and their moral considerations in the areas of
private and public life, the professions, health,
Has someone of high moral principles been an
technology, law, and leadership.
inspiration to you?
A. What is applied ethics?
Reflection – Integrity
Deals with difficult moral questions and
1.Have you had ethical dilemmas in your own life? How controversial moral issues that people actually
did you reason your way through them? What ethics face in their lives
theory best matches your approach?
Examples:
2. What does integrity mean to you? Do you aspire to
the moral issues regarding... abortion giving to the poor
be a virtuous person? Has someone of high moral
the death penalty gay/lesbian marriage (or other rights)
principles been an inspiration to you?
war tactics censorship so-called “white lies”
The difference between normative ethics The Goal of the Normative Ethics of
and applied ethics: Behavior
Normative ethics - studies what features 1. Primary question: What makes actions
make an action right or wrong. right or wrong?
Applied ethics - attempts to figure out, in
actual cases, whether or not certain acts 2. An important distinction:
have those features. an act type is a category of actions
an act token is a specific action
2. If we agree that slavery is wrong...but disagree about performed by a specific
what makes it wrong... person on a specific occasion
...then our disagreement is a matter of normative a) Jaywalking is an act type
ethics.
b) My act of jaywalking across North
3. If we agree that morality is whatever
Pleasant Street on my way to campus
produces the best consequences...
this morning at 10:37am is an act
but disagree about whether the death
token
penalty produces the best
consequences... c) Two different people can each perform
...then our disagreement is a matter of actions of the same type
applied ethics. I can jaywalk at the same time that you
jaywalk
The Goal of Axiology
1. Axiology studies what makes things good d) a given act token will be an instance
(or have value) or bad (or have disvalue) of many different
kinds of act types
2. A distinction is made between: The same act token can be an instance
Intrinsic good: good in and of itself (inherently good) of:
Extrinsic good: good because it can be used to obtain (i) jaywalking
other things that are (ii) walking
good (instrumentally good) (iii) crossing the street
a) E.g., having money is extrinsically good (iv) doing something before noon
b) If money could not be used to obtain other things, (v) doing something wearing pants
money would have no value (vi) breaking the law, etc.

3. Much of axiology investigates what things Ethics and Critical thinking

are intrinsically good • A critical thinker is someone who has acquired the
a) Many believe that pleasure has intrinsic value disposition and the skills to be his or her own critic.
b) It is good whether or not it leads to anything else
c) Does anything else have intrinsic value? knowledge? • Critical thinking
friendship? love? is not confined to the ability to analyze
d) Some things might be both intrinsically and a given issue.
extrinsically good It can be used as a tool that can provide
better understanding of the close
4. A distinction can also be made between things that connection between acting and thinking.
are intrinsically bad or extrinsically bad
• Richard Paul and Lina Elder (2014).
a) pain is intrinsically bad
-they defined critical thinking as a mode of thinking,
b) Drug use is probably only extrinsically
about any subject, content or problem – in which the
bad; if it didn’t have bad consequences it
thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking
wouldn’t be bad
skills by skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards
5. Some things can be both intrinsically good but
upon them.
extrinsically bad (e.g., the pleasure taken in unprotected
sex) • Thinking in ordinary mode such as when one thinks of
what to eat or what to include in a schedule for
6. Other things can be both intrinsically bad but the next morning is described as first-order thinking.
extrinsically good. (e.g., pain from exercise) It is the kind of thinking that makes people aware of a
particular object of thought.
7. Related questions:
• The moment a person turns his or her attention to
a) Is there a fact of the matter as to which is worse: my
how he or she is thinking instead of simply what he or
headache or your toothache?
she is thinking, then he or she is ready to engage in the
b) Are certain kinds of pleasure better than others?
second – order thinking.
c) What is the relationship between goodness and
badness? Is badness just the absence of goodness, or Examples:
is it something distinct? • “Drug addiction is wrong”
• “Murder is against the law”
• To think about the how and not just what is to engage 2. Broad concepts
in reflection, assessment and interpretation. - The inability to differentiate subjective and objective
• Therefore, it is not enough to simply state perspectives
that, “Drug addiction is wrong”, or “Murder is - It encompasses
illegal’’. One must be able to understand as well as the realism
thought processes that lead to this conclusion. animism
artificialism
• “Unless one commits himself or herself to
the practice of constantly improving the Egocentrism and Development
way he or she thinks, one cannot yet
Four stages of egocentrism and development
consider himself or herself a critical
1. The sensory motor period
thinker “Try to have a reflection with this...
2. Preoperational thought
Example: Covid19 3. Concrete operation
Try to have a reflection with this... 4. Formal operation
• Reference:
Adolescent Egocentrism
Corona Virus Disease 2019 (Covid19). (20.
The characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads
February 2020), retrieve from:
young people (teenagers) to focus on themselves to the
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
exclusion of others
ncov/about/prevention-treatment.html
A young person might believe that his or her thoughts,
• What: Prevention and Treatment?
feelings and experiences are unique, more wonderful or
• How: How to avoid?
awful than anyone else.

Social development
❖ LESSON 4: EGOCENTRISM AND
SOCIOCENTRISM

Egocentrism
is the tendency to think about the world entirely from
their own personal perspective.

Egocentric behaviors are less prominent

in adulthood, the existence of some forms of
egocentrism in adulthood indicates that overcoming
egocentrism may be a lifelong development that
never achieves completion. Characteristics of an egocentric person
1. Selfish
Adults appear to be less egocentric than children 2. Self-assertive
because they are faster to correct from an initially 3. Self-interested thinking
egocentric perspective than children, not because 4. Superior
they are less likely to initially adopt an egocentric 5. Self-serving bias
perspective.
PROBLEMS FACED BY EGOCENTRIC PERSONS

EGOCENTRIC THINKING

Concepts Egocentrism
1. Narrow concepts
- A lack of differentiation between some
aspect of self and other
- The tendency to see reality as centered on oneself.
HOW TO OVERCOME THE EGOCENTRICISM ➢ Johnny Bravo

➢ SELF AWARENESS

➢ Cobra Commander

EGOCENTRICITY

➢ Lex Luther
IF YOU ARE EGOCENTRIC, WHAT CAN YOU DO?

➢ Stewie

KINDS OF EGOCENTIC PERSON

➢ Scrappy Doo

➢ Duckman

➢ Duffy Duck

➢ Brainy Smurf
 want to consider the opinions of others; due
to their self-absorption they are consumed
by their own point of view, self-image,
desires and preferences.
8. They do not have long lasting relationships.
Since their relationships are built around the
idea of quantity and using people as tools to
get what they want, they do not have long
lasting relationships or quality ones.
9. They do not have a real sense of empathy.
Since their display of sympathy or
compassion is usually conditional, it is
➢ Brain
difficult for them to understand the depth of
true empathy or what this concept really
means.
10. They hide their insecurities behind a cloak of
success.
The truth is that no matter what sort of
success they have, they will always feel
inadequate internally. While they may
appear successful or confident based on
appearances and external achievements,
internally, they have fears relating to
self-esteem.
Signs of self-absorbed people: 11. They devalue others.
Constructive criticism is okay, but self-
1. They are always on the defensive.
absorbed people always take criticism too far
They do not see the world from another
and use it as a weapon to allow them to
person’s eyes. They would rather see it from
devalue others.
theirs and protect their flaws and image with
12. 13. They hide who they are.
everything they’ve got.
They will present the best and most
2. They don’t see the big picture.
captivating part of their personality to you. As
A self-absorbed person thinks the world is just
they are so self-absorbed, they do not want
about them. Thus, the world, from their point
you to see the hidden elements that make
of view, is a place comprising them and
them feel secretly insecure. This can lead to
perhaps a few persons around them who they
them coming across as pretentious and them
can control. How the world affects other
failing to be vulnerable in relationships.
people really doesn’t concern them.
13. . 14. They are extremely selfish
3. They are imposing.
Every human is selfish. But there are certain
They frequently use words like “should” or
occasions when you have to make
“must.” They want to dominate in any
exceptions and take actions without
relationship because they see relationships
expecting anything in return. This is not so
as a tool for getting what they want and
for the self-absorbed person.
making themselves the center of attention.
14. 15. They think they are great and the world
4. They feel insecure sometimes.
out
They are not complete. They always have a
there is wrong.
missing gap in their world. And you may be
They do not self-heal. If they have been hurt,
the person they try to use to fill those gaps.
they would rather rebuke the world for this
5. They always think they are superior to others.
rather than self-heal.
They are so consumed by their own world
and self image that it is near impossible for
other people to measure up to their For the self-absorbed person, the problem is either
standards. They maintain a superiority “you” or the “other”- never “me”. Most of the time, it
complex that most commonly leads to them will seem like no form of self-healing or therapy would
devaluing others. suit them as they are focused on all the wrongs the
6. They consider friendships a tool for getting world has done to them, never accepting any
what they want. responsibility
Don’t assume that they are overly concerned
with the friendship that they have with you.
This is why they have so many friends and
are not overly concerned with the number of
friends they have: they view friends as tools
for getting what they want.
7. They are extremely opinionated.
It is always about their opinions. They do not
In some situations, scapegoating first starts as
Sociocentrism’s.

Egocentric & Socioeconomic