COURSE : LOAD FLOW STUDY

REPORT : STUDENT INTERNSHIP ENRICH

DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Load flow study

Submitted by,
N.Chokkanathan,
Student Internship Enrich,
Load Flow Study.

pg. 1
 COURSE : LOAD FLOW STUDY

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Title : Load Flow Study

Chapter 1 - Power System & Load Flow – (Pg no : 3 to 8 )

Chapter 2 - Introduction of ETAP – (Pg no : 9 to 13 )

Chapter 3 - Transmission Line Modelling – (Pg no : 14 to 18 )

Chapter 4 - Transformer Modelling – (Pg no : 19 to 50 )

Chapter 5 - Generator Modelling – (Pg no : 51 to 67 )

Chapter 6 - Load Modelling – (Pg no : 68 to 83 )

Chapter 7 - Modelling of Induction Motor – (Pg no : 84 to 90 )

Chapter 8 - Reactive Power Compensation – (Pg no : 91 to 99 )

Chapter 9 - Solar Panel & Inverter Modelling – (Pg no :100 to113)

Chapter 10 - Wind Turbine Generator Modelling–(Pg no:114to128 )

pg. 2
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Chapter-1
Power System & Load Flow
Power System:
Power system is a network of electrical components which consist of generation,
Transmission, distribution and utilization. Initially, power is generated by generating
stations from energy resources next which is transferred to the transmission line. Finally,
transmission lines are going to give the power to the distribution lines. Distributed lines
are delivering the power to the load. These entire process or network chain is called power
system.

Power System Analysis:

Power system analysis is the process of studying and evaluating the behavior of a
power system under different operating conditions and disturbances. It involves the use of
mathematical models and computer simulations to analyze the performance of the power
system and identify potential problems or areas for improvement. Here are some of the key
aspects of power system analysis.They are two types of power system analysis.

 Steady State analysis

 Transient analysis

Steady State analysis:

This involves analyzing the power system under normal operating conditions, such
as load flow analysis, voltage analysis, and power factor correction. The goal is to ensure
that the system is operating efficiently and within acceptable limits.

 Load flow analysis

 Short circuit analysis
 Static motor starting study
 Relay coordination
 Arc flash
 Harmonic analysis

pg. 3
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Transient analysis:
This involves analyzing the power system under abnormal conditions, such as
faults, switching operations, and other disturbances. The goal is to ensure that the system
can withstand these events without causing damage or disruption.

 RMS
 EMT
Why steady state analysis?
Intialise the transient study

 Equipment rating which is suitable for normal condition.

 Equipment rating which is suitable for abnormal condition for specific time.

pg. 4
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Introduction of load flow Study :

Load flow :
Load flow, also known as power flow analysis or steady-state power analysis,
is a fundamental calculation used in electrical engineering to analyze and determine the
steady-state operating conditions of an electrical power system. It's a mathematical method
used to assess how electrical power flows through a network of interconnected components
such as generators, transformers, transmission lines, and loads under various operating
conditions

Standard for Load flow study :

 IEEE399-1997 – Recommended practice for industrial and commercial power

system Analysis.
 IEEE3002.2-2018 – Recommended practice for conducting load flow study and
analysis of industrial and commercial power system.

Objective of load flow :

A load flow study is also an assessment of the steady-state conditions of the

electrical system. Its goal is to determine the flow of power, current, voltage, real power
and reactive power in a system under any load conditions.

Methods to find the load flow analysis :

 Newton- Raphson
 Adaptive Newton-Raphson
 Gauss- siedel
 Fast decoupled

pg. 5
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Result of load flow analysis :

1. Equipment loading
2. Voltage at all buses
3. System losses
4. Transformer OLTC range
5. Reactive power compensation / power factor correction
6. Generator terminal voltage set point
7. Steady state stability
8. Contingency losses or Emergency condition

9. Types of buses:

a. PQ bus or load bus

b. PV buses or generator bus
c. Slack bus or swing bus or reference bus

Bus types Quantities Specified Unknown values

Generator bus or Pv bus Pg, Pd, Qd, V Qi , &i

Load or PQ bus Pg, Pd, Qg, Qi, Qd Vi , &i

Slack or Swing bus Pd, Qd & V Pi , Qi

pg. 6
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Power Evacuation Studies :

Basics :
 Impedance
 Power
 Actual values , Base Values
 Why Pu ?
 Zpu new vs Zpu old ?

Impedance Triangle : Power Triangle :

Why Pu?

The per-unit system is used in power flow, short circuit evaluation,

motor starting studies etc. The main idea of a per unit system is to absorb large
differences in absolute values into base relationships. Thus, representations of
elements in the system with per unit values become more uniform.
Formula :
Per unit = Actual value / Base value

pg. 7
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Zpu new vs Zpu old :

(Zpu)new = (Zpu)old * (KVbase / KVnew)2 * (MVAnew / MVAold)

Also Zpu = Zactual / Zbase

Zbase = KV2 base / MVAbase

Where,

(Zpu)new = New per unit value of impedance

(Zpu)old = Old per unit value of impedance

silent

KVnew = New base value of voltage

MVAnew = New base value of power

MVAold = Old base value of power

Softwars :
ETAP , PSS/E , Dig Silent , CYME , SKM , Easy Power , EA PSM , ASPEN

pg. 8
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Chapter – 2
Introduction of ETAP

How to start ETAP model of basic information:

1. Project  Standards
 Standards (IEC / ANSI) Select
 Frequency (50 / 60 HZ) Select
 Unit System (Metric / English)
2. Project  Information
3. View  Gridlines
4. Check Ciecuit Continuioty
5. System Dumpter act as recycle bin
6. System Manager  Components
7. Enable online auto build
8. Alignment

Introduction about ETAP :

Step 1: Click the ETAP software icon

In the top left corner there is a version of ETAP 19.0.1 and

if you want to create the file then

Click the file  New project.

In case if you want to see the old project already exist in your
system then

Click file Open project.

pg. 9
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Step 2: Create a new project file

After clicking the new project

they display the project file with name
and directory.
In the name option give the
topics you can proceed in the new
project file
Then in the directory which place
your project file is placed than can
change in your point of you default
location of the file is
C:\ETAP:1901\Load flow analysis.

So the document stored in the C:\ETAP:1901\Load flow analysis.

pg. 10
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Step 3: Give the user information details:

Normally they specified the ETAP

Authentication mode then you select the

User name Full Name And Email address then

Click OK.

Step 4 : Fill the details in Select Access Level :

After giving your project file and

user name they display the access level . In the
access level there is so many option are provided
default setting of the access level is Project master
and Editor.They are eight more options are provided
in the access level they are different procedure can
operate
If you click the checker you cannot edit the
digram only you can read.

pg. 11
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Step 5 : The new OLV1 edit model page is created :

Step 6 : Creat the strong format

There is so many options in the top layer like file, edit,view,projects, defaults etc.. ,

pg. 12
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Step 7: Check the IEC standard or ANSI standard :

In the project standards we assign the standard in the

IEC mode then the frequency convert into 60 t0 50 Hz.

Standard frequency unit system

IEC 50 Metric
ANSI 60 English

Step 8 : Case Study:

They are three methods used in the load flow study they are Adaptive newton
raphson,newton raphson,fast decoupled method.Normally when we take the correct
accuracy we go to adaptive newton raphson but it can take some time. In case of we want
quick time whether athe accuracy is slightly mismatch or not then we move to Fast
decoupled methode.

pg. 13
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Chapter – 3

Transmission Line Modelling

Transmission Line :

Transmission lines carry electric energy from one point to another in an

electric power system. They can carry alternating current or direct current or a system can
be a combination of both. Also, electric current can be carried by either overhead or
underground lines.

They are classified into three types

 Short transmission line
 Medium transmission line
 Long transmission line

pg. 14
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Short transmission line :

A short transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective

length less than 80. km or with a voltage less than 69 kV. Unlike medium transmission
lines and long transmission lines, the line charging current is negligible, and hence the
shunt capacitance can. be ignored.

Medium transmission line :

These lines have an overhead cable length of greater than 50km and
less than 150km. The allowable voltage ranges from 20 to 100 kV. The analysis of
medium transmission lines considers the three lumped line constants: resistance,
inductance, and capacitance. They are classified into two types.
 Nominal pi method
 Nominal T method

pg. 15
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Nominal pi method :

A Nominal π Method is formed when each line's shunt capacitance i.e

phase-to-neutral is split into two equal parts. One section is bunched at the sending
end while the other is bunched at receiving end. Such type of analysis is convenient,
effective, and simple when done in SIMULINK.

Nominal T model :

In a nominal T model of a medium transmission line, the

series impedance is divided into two equal parts, while the shunt admittance is
concentrated at the centre of the line.

pg. 16
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Ferranti effect:

A long transmission line can be considered to

compose a considerably high amount of capacitance and inductance
distributed across the entire length of the line. Ferranti Effect occurs
when current drawn by the distributed capacitance of the line itself
is greater than the current associated with the load at the receiving
end of the line(during light or no load).
This capacitor charging current leads to a voltage drop across the
line inductor of the transmission system which is in phase with the
sending end voltages. This voltage drop keeps on increasing
additively as we move towards the load end of the line and
subsequently, the receiving end voltage tends to get larger than
applied voltage leading to the phenomena called Ferranti effect in
power system.

Surge Impedance Loading :

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) is a term used

in electrical engineering and power systems to describe the
maximum power that can be transferred through a transmission
line without causing significant distortion or reflection of the
voltage and current waveforms. It's a critical parameter in the
design and operation of high-voltage transmission lines.
Z (sil)= sqrt(L/C)

MVA (sil) = Vr*Vr/Zs

Where:

- Z_surge is the surge impedance in ohms (Ω)

- L is the inductance in henries (H).
- C is the capacitance in farads (F).

pg. 17
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Adding Shunt Reactor:

Adding a shunt reactor to a

power system is a common practice in electrical
engineering to improve the system's voltage
stability and control. Shunt reactors are essentially
inductive devices connected in parallel (shunt) with
the transmission lines or substations. They are used
to compensate for capacitive reactive power and
help maintain a stable voltage profile in the
electrical grid.

The shunt reactor standard power rating are 50, 63,

80,125, 300Mvar .
IEC 60076 – 6 Reactor.

pg. 18
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Chapter – 4

Transformer

Transformer :

A transformer is a device that transfers

electrical energy from one circuit to another.
Mutual induction connects two circuits. It is also
utilized for electrical power transmission via
electromagnetic induction. Electric power is
transferred without even any frequency
modification. It works under the principle of
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction.

Transformer
Equivalent
Circuit

Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being

termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively.
Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic isolation between circuits as well as to
couple stages of signal-processing circuits.

pg. 19
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Types of transformers :

 Step up transformer
 Step down transformer
 Three phase transformer
 Single phase transformer
 Shell / core type transformer

Application of transformer :

Transformers are used in a variety of applications, including power generation,

transmission and distribution, lighting, audio systems, and electronic equipment.

 To step up/step down

 Isolation Transformer
 3phase 3wire to 3phase 4wire system
 To limit short circuit
 Impedance making transformer
 Instrument transformer
 To reduced unbalanced
 Center tap transformer (single phase fullwave rectifier)
 Cathodic protection
 Inverter / Welding transformer

As per :

IEC / IEEE TR 60076 – 26 : 2020

Power transformer – part-26 : Functional requirements of insulating liquids for
transformer.
IEC / IEEE 60076 – 57 – 1202 : 2017
Power transformer – part-57 – 1202 : Liquid immersed phase shifting transformer.
IEC / IEEE 60076 – 57 – 129 : 2017
Power transformer – part-57 – 129 : Transformer for HVDC application.

pg. 20
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Requirement of data in Transformer :

1. Two winding
2. Rating
3. HV
4. LV
5. %Z at nominal Tap
6. X / R ratio
7. %Z at other taps
8. SLG ( Winding configuration )
9. Protection study ( Thermal damage curve )
10. Harmonic ( K factor )
11. Data sheet :
 Ambient temp
 Voltage tolerance
 Altitude
 Cooling type
 Standard

Rating of transformer :

Rated frequency (Fr) :

The frequency at which the transformer is designed to operate.

[ IEC/ 60050 – 1990 , 421 – 04 – 03, modified ]
Rated power (Sr) :

Conventional value of apparents power assingned to a winding which,

together with the rated voltage of the winding determines its rated current
Rated current :

The current flowing through a line terminal of a winding which a drived

from rated power Sr and rated voltage Ur for the winding
[ IEC/ 60056 – 421 : 1990 , 421 – 04 – 05 , modified ]

pg. 21
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%Z value of different types of rated power in transformer :

Types of Cooling – ONAN / ONAF / OFAF / ODAF, AN / AF, KNAN / KNAF

 Liquid type cooling :

1. ONAN – Transformer rating less than 10 MVA

2. ONAN / ONAF - >10 MVA but less than 100 MVA (60 MVA)
3. ONAN / ONAF / OFAF - >100 MVA (60 MVA)
4. ONAN / ONAF / ODAF >100 MVA

pg. 22
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OFAF transformer for 250kv ??

 If temp is less than 70 deg C Switch off the FAN

 If temp is more than 80 deg C Switch on the FAN
 If temp is more than 90 deg C Switch on the Pump
 If temp is less than 85 deg C Switch off the Pump

 Dry type cooling :

 Altitude and Temperature Derating – Refer Excel

Transformer Temp Raise Test :

pg. 23
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Transformer Altitude and Ambient Temperature :

At the normal height condition the transformer does not effect with
altitude and temperature but when the transformer fitting height more than 1000
meter from the sea level. For every 100 meter increase the derating value is
decreased by 2%.

At normal height :

pg. 24
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Height increased by 1600 meter :

pg. 25
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Ambient temperature :

In ambient temperature the degree increases then the rating power of

the transformer decreased when the decreases degree increase the power rating.

At normal temperature :

pg. 26
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At 40 degree celcius :

pg. 27
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Simple Example
Here the transformer rating is in 25 MVA and then the HV side is 132KV
and then the LV side is 11KV and then the impedance of the transformer is 10%

HV current = (80.6/109.3)*100 = 83.612%

pg. 28
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Transformer X/R calculation :

In the transformer data sheet the impedance value are given but
R value cannot be given at the time they specifically mention that load loss value
in KW. With the help of load loss value we find the X/R ratio.

 R= load loss in KW / MVA rating of transformer

For eq : load loss = 17.9 MVA = 2.5 %Z=6

= (17.9 * 10^3 )/ (2.5* 10^6)

R= 0.00716 ( %R= 0.716)

Z= sqrt(X*X + R*R)

X= sqrt(Z*Z – R*R)

=sqrt(36-0.512)

%X = 5.95

So we find the %X value the X/R = 5.95/0.716

= 8.39

pg. 29
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Transformer paralleling :

Transformer paralleling refers to the connection of multiple

transformers in a parallel configuration to supply a common load. This type of
connection is used when the load demand exceeds the capacity of a single transformer
or for increased reliability and flexibility in power supply.

Connection:
 The primary windings of the transformers are connected to a common supply
 The secondary windings are connected to a common load.

Why do we need parallel transformer :

There are several reasons why we might need to parallel transformers, including:

1. Increased capacity: Paralleling transformers allows for the combined capacity

of multiple transformers to meet the load demand.
2. Improved reliability: If one transformer fails or requires maintenance, the other
transformers can continue to supply power, minimizing downtime.
3. Future expansion: If additional load is required in the future, transformers can
be added to the parallel configuration.
4. Efficiency: Paralleling transformers can maximize electrical system efficiency
by operating at full load, which is when they operate at almost full efficiency.
5. Cost savings: It can be more economical to install multiple smaller transformers
in parallel than to install a single larger transformer.

Important condition in parallel transformer :

 Vector shift
 Impedance
 Transformer tap changing
 X/R ratio
 Transformer rating

pg. 30
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Vector Shift :

Vector shift, also known as phase shift, is the difference in phase angle between
the high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) windings of a transformer. The vector group
designation of a transformer indicates the winding configurations and the difference in
phase angle between them.

For example, a transformer with a vector group of Yd11 has a star HV

winding and delta LV winding with a 30-degree lead. The phase angle of the LV winding
lags the HV by 30 degrees.

Same vector group with same phase shift :

pg. 31
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Same vector group with different phase shift :

In situations of parallel operation, where more than one transformer has to be

connected together, both or all of the connected transformers have to have the same vector
groups, else this results in circulating currents and other issues that could cause adverse
operation of the system and subsequent failure.

pg. 32
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Different vector group with same phase shift :

Therefore, it is important to specify the vector group of transformers to ensure

proper operation and avoid issues such as circulating currents and phase shift problems.
The vector group of a transformer is determined by the winding connections, and it is
essential to ensure that the vector group of transformers to be connected in parallel is the
same to avoid issues.

pg. 33
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Changing Impedance :

When the impedance makes the important role in the transformer if the
impedance less the power flow will be more or otherwise the impeadance is more the power
flow will be less.

pg. 34
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Here one transformer T4 impedance is more than automatically the

power flow will be reduced another transformer T5 impedance is less then the
higher power flow flowing in the transformer T4.

pg. 35
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Changing in X/R ratio :

During transformer paralleling X/R ratio plays an important role if X

value is less that side the real power flows high then the R value is increased that side the
reactive power flow is high. The simple power flow equation is

P = Evsin & / X

Where E = Receiving end voltage

V = Receving end voltage
& = Angle of the busses
X = Reactance

Transformer number T5 :

pg. 36
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Transformer number T4 :

pg. 37
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Changing in voltage :

When the transformer HV and LV voltsge also necessary condition in

the parallel operation when we inject the LV voltage slightly increased then the
affect you can see

pg. 38
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During no load condition the real power flows from transformer 48 to

transformer 47 there is a circulating current are created in the parallel operation. When we
connect the load that time load is sharing the power. But the high real power flow froms
the higher voltage side.

But the high current flows through the high voltage side compare to the
another side of the transformer.

pg. 39
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If there is a slight changes like 0.01 or 0.02 they can match the value.

pg. 40
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Changing in transformer tap changing :

Generally transformer tap changes are provided to regulate the
voltage with in the limit . Manually the DETC (de- energized tap changing) brings that
fixed tap provided in the transformer.

From above the picture transformer T1 is provided the tap setting

of 2.5 and another transformer T2 is not provided the tap setting that time the heavy reactive
power flows in the transformer T2. In the parallel operation under tap setting both the
transformer have the same tap setting value. It act as the master slave method.

pg. 41
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So both the transformer has a same tap setting range.

Let parallel operation is completed.

pg. 42
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Transformer rating :

The power rating of a transformer is the maximum amount of power that it

can handle. It is usually expressed in kilovolt-amperes (kVA) or megavolt-amperes
(MVA).

pg. 43
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pg. 44
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Three winding transformer :

Where do we need three winding transformer ?
 Generator – Stopping to grid as well as beeding aux.
 Two generators using common step up.
 If your power in LV is too high handle.
 12 pulse drive ( Solar plant ).
 Load at two different V.

pg. 45
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Modeling of OLTC :
Power transformer equipped with on-load tap changers(OLTC)
have been the main components of electrical network and industrial
applications for nearly 90 years. OLTC enable voltage regulation and
phase shifting y varying the transformer ratio under load without
interruption.
It is located always at HV side of the transformer to get the lowe
current which will help to get desired lower rated compoents such as tap
changer contacts leads etc.. and the HV winding wound outside of the
core which will help us to tap the HV winding easily.

Set the value in the tap :

Step 1 : go the transformer tap setting side

pg. 46
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Step 2 : go to tap calculation side

Here the bus ID denote which bus you want

to regulate the voltage maximum it always LV side
bus . Then the min,max, step value are provide step
value always 1.25 and the band is half of the step
value

Formula to find how many taps

Tap=[Max-Min/step]+1

Example :

pg. 47
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Lets find the worst case in the transformer which the maximum load with minimum grid
voltage and minmum load with maximum grid voltage

MIN grid voltage with MAX load :

pg. 48
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MAX grid voltage with MIN load :

Here we provide the OLTC methode to regulate the bus voltage in LV side of the
transformer to meet the load value.

pg. 49
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Here the tap can be adjusted with respect to the

LV bus side so in the minimum load with
maximum grid voltage the tap can be 10% and
the minimum grid voltage with maximum load
the tap can be -22.5%

110.8-100 = 10.8

73.08-100 = -26.92.

pg. 50
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CHAPTER – 5

Generator Modeling

Generator plays an important role in the load flow and also real time project
because we use the DG for backup protection. So how many real power is
flow to the load from the generator is given. The standard is IEC 60034

They are four mode of operation:

 Swing mode

 Voltage control mode

 Mvar control mode

 Power factor control mode

Generator selection is important things because which type of MW we want with

proper power factor provided.

pg. 51
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Here there is a one example

which generator rating is 50 MW and
connected to the cable in 11 kv and load
which as 48 MVA with 0.85 pf then the
grid is connected in parallel.

When the grid is open the 48

MVA load is taken power from the
generator which as 40.8 MW and
remaining 9MW which has to capable to
generate from the generator.

At the same time when the grid

circuit breaker is closed the remaining 9
MW power flow through the grid side
which as generator over load condition

Here we notice the reactive power

also the generator delivered and absorbed
condition.

pg. 52
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How to find Qmax and Q min :

pg. 53
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Generator equivalent circuit :

Three phase synchronous generator :

A three-phase synchronous machine consists of an inner rotating cylinder called the rotor
and an outer stationary housing called the stator. A shaft runs through the rotor and it is
balanced on bearings.

pg. 54
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V/F mode :
V / F mode is where a generator operates in an stand alone condition
It try to operate independently.

Generator has two devices :

1. AVR
2. Governor

AVR :
Control the field voltage (EF) / Field control (IF) / Reactive power generator / Voltage (Vt)

 Voltage control mode

 MVAr control mode
 Power factor control mode
Governer :
 Constant power mode
 Droop mode
(Load changing with respect to time)
 Constant frequency mode.

Generator droop load sharing :

pg. 55
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Droop :
How much % change in frequency makes the power output change by 100% 500MW
Generator Which is generating 500MW at 50Hz is reducing its power output to zero at 52 Hz
droop – 4% ?

Change in power output – 100%

Change in frequency – 4%

Isochronous – operates the system at rated frequency.

Qn Shall we operate the generator in isochronous mode if they are grid connected ?

Number of droops mode

Because the generator tends to change the power output to meet the total change in the load.

 India : 396GW Installed capacity

 200GW peak demand
 150GW min variation
 Single largest generator – 1000MW

Grid frequency – 49.86 Hz

pg. 56
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Voltage control mode :

Here generator is connected to the grid then the voltage control mode is used to regulate
the bus voltage whenever the demand is increased or decreased.

By increasing or decreasing the reactive power bus voltage is maintained in the generator
bus terminal voltage
In a typical electrical grid, the basics of the voltage control are provided by the synchronous
generators. These generators are equipped with automatic voltage regulators that adjust the
excitation field keeping the voltage at the generator's terminals within the target range.

pg. 57
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MVAr and power factor control mode :

In both power factor and MVAr control mode both are acted as the same
way in MVAr mode they inject the full reactive power and in power factor mode the full
PF is injected so that time the generator terminal bus voltage is increased.

When both mode the real power should be same then only we that
MVAr and PF mode is same. If real power is not same both are different mode of operation.

pg. 58
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In this dig there is an error is occured because when the generator

and grid are connected with the help of circuit breaker that time when grid side breaker is
open there is no swing source

because here generator is operated in the voltage controlled mode so every diagram there
is an one swing source is necessary wheather we change the generator as swing source the
flow of power is given by the simulation.

pg. 59
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How to create the study case for different load and generating cateagery :
Step 1 : Create the model :

Step 2 : design the generating and loading

category :

Click the load flow study case and enter

the nine scenario cases for grid voltage is
maintained in 95%,100%,105 %.

Then the generator side is created by

95%,100%,105%.

pg. 60
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Step 3: Create the scenario wizard :

In the scenario wizard presentation are created by
OLV1 to OLV9 for different cases and also
create the separate output report by different
OLV sheet here case study and output report
should be same.

Step 4: Create the study wizard :

In the study wizard the new ID created . and

that ID the nine scenario are created and
click the run option in the study wizard.

pg. 61
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How to inject or extract the reactive power in generator :

Case 1 : Grid voltage is reduced by 5%

When the grid voltage is reduced by 5% then the generator generate some
reactive power to maintain the generator terminal bus voltage and also bus
terminal voltage.

pg. 62
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Case 2 : Grid voltage is maintained by 100%

When the grid voltage is maintained in the 100% then there is low reactive power is
generated by the generator.

pg. 63
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Case 3: Grid voltage is maintained by 105%

When the grid voltage is maintained by 105% our generator reactive power is exceed
so the generator terminal bus voltage is increased by 100 to 101%

pg. 64
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Isochronous Load sharing mode :

The distributed controllers exchange information and regulate the generators to maintain
frequency during load unbalances.

This mode is always act on the swing mode only.

When the multiple generators connected in the parallel in island mode in the common bus
is called as isochronous load sharing.

pg. 65
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Generator Capability Curve :

 In the under excitation the leading power factor is occurred and in the over
excitation the lagging power factor is occurred
 Generator operates in 1st and 4th quadrant only because the real power is
input to the system
 In under excitation particular area only it operates when they operate in the
other region the stator end region
 In over excitation also particular area only operates if they operate above
the region the field current limit may leads any damage
 Then in front region also they cannot operate with the full speed because
that area limits the armature current and turbine speed limit is occurred.

pg. 66
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Equivalent circuit of generator :

Earthing transformer :

Ungrounded to a grounded

pg. 67
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Chapter – 6
Load Modelling

ZIP load :
Loads: where the electrical energy is converted into other form of energy is
called as the loads. Generally, including the constant-impedance and constant-power
load model in the optimal power flow (OPF) problem is typically straightforward in
convex formulations.

Generally zip loads are classified into three types

 Constant impedance load

 Constant current load
 Constant power load

pg. 68
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Here all the diagrams are with respect to voltage

In constant power I= P/V where the current flowing through the load is inversely proportional to
the voltage with constant power.
In constant current P=VI where power is directly proportional to the voltage
In constant impedance load where p is directly proportional to the square of the voltage
p=V*V/R
General formula is

P=Po(V/Vo)^a

Where

 a=0 – Constant power load

 a=1 – Constant current load
 a=2 – Constant impedance load

pg. 69
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Constant Impedance Load :

 Load impedance remains constant irrespective of the applied voltage.

 Current flowing through the load is directly proportional voltage.
 Impedance remains constant.

Formula :
I2 * I2 * R
Voltage = 100V , resistance = 10 I , power = 100*100/10 , P = 1000watts
Power :
Power consumption of load is propotional to square of voltage.
Real time examples :

 Heater
 Incandescent lamps
 R , L , C loads
Formula : P = (V/Vo)2 or P = (V/Vo)^a
P = Actual power consumption at actual voltage V
Po = Rated power consumption at rated voltage Vo
V = Instant voltage
Vo = Rated voltage
a = 2 – Constant impedance load.

pg. 70
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pg. 71
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Constant Current load :

 Load current remains constant irrespective of the applied voltage.
o Voltage has changing.
o Current remains same value.
 Power consumption of load is proportional to voltage.

Formula : P = (V/Vo)1 or P = (V/Vo)^a

P = Actual power consumption at actual voltage V
Po = Rated power consumption at rated voltage Vo
V = Instant voltage
Vo = Rated voltage
a = 1 – Constant current load.

Real time examples :

 Charger
 UPS
 Any power electronics devices

Simple Calculation :

UPS – 800W , 230V , 210V

Po = 800W , P = 230V , V = 210

= 800*( 210 / 230 )^1

P = 730.4348 Watts

pg. 72
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pg. 73
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Constant power load :

 Load power remains constant irrespective of the applied voltage.
 Current flowing through the load is inversely proportional voltage.

Formula :
I=P/V ----- P = Po
P = Po ( V / Vo )^a or P = Po ( V / Vo )^0

P – Actual power consumption at actual voltage V

Po – Rated power consumption at rated voltage Vo
a = 0 – constant power load

Real time example :

 Induction motor

pg. 74
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Reactive power :
When respect to voltage the way of the behavior of the power consumption of
load could be different from the behavior of the reactive power consumption of same load.
Q = Qo ( V/Vo )b
Where :
b=2 for constant impedance load ,b=1 for constant current load ,b=0 for constant power load
Q=Actual reactive power consumption at actual voltage
Qo=Rated reactive power consumption at rated voltage
V=Actual voltage
Vo=Rated voltage

pg. 75
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Polynomial load :
The polynomial load model is also called as ZIP load model. Z stands for constant
impedance, I represent constant current and P refers to constant power. The polynomial
model for active and reactive power.

Formula :
P = Po ( P+i(V/Vo) + Z(V/Vo)^2
Z+I+P=1
Where,
Z – Impedance load
I – Current load
P – Power load

pg. 76
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pg. 77
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Exponential load :

pg. 78
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pg. 79
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Load factor :
Ratio of average load to maximum demand. Load factor < 1. Lower the load
factor good for the system.

Diversity factor :

 Load diversity factor is applied in bus. LDF < 1 always

 Higher system higher the diversity factor good for the system.

pg. 80
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Frequency depends load :

The polynomial mode of the Lumped load Uses the following equation to determine the
real and reactive power components of the load.

Where P and Q are the real and reactive components of the load when the bus
voltage magnitude is V and where ∆F is the frequency deviation (f – fo) / fo .
Ratings :
Po
 This is the initial operating real power in MW / KW.
Qo
 This is the initial operating reactive power in Mvar / Kvar.
p1,q1,p2,q2,p3,q3
 The polynomial mode is composed of constant impedance , constant current
and constant power components. Each portion is defined by these constant
respectively.
Kpf
 This is the real power equation constant. This constant typically range
between 0 and 3.0.
 The change in Kpf value doesn’t creat any effect in load flow (Steady State)
analysis ,it creates the impact in transient state analysis.
Kqf

 This is the reactive power equation constant. This constant typically ranges b/w-
2.0 to 0.
Converged >>> It doesn’t mean our result are right.
Not Converged >>> it doesn’t mean our result are wrong.

pg. 81
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Modelling of squirrel cage induction motor :

Power factor curve of induction motor :

The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90
at full load to as low as about 0.20 at no-load. At no load, an induction motor draws a large
magnetizing current and a small active component to meet the no-load losses.

During no – load pf is not zero. Because of internal losses of the motor it consumes some
real power. Lightly loaded induction motor causes the power factor is less or bad.

Industry – 1

↓
2 no. of 90kw motor

↓
2 – 100% of working design

↓
1 Motor standby & 1 Working

pg. 82
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Industry – 2

↓
2 no. of 90kw motor

↓
2 – 100% of working design

↓
Working together with 50% load

% of Q in
Kw loading PF effi P in KW S in KVA KVAr

Industry-1 90 100 0.92 0.93 96.77419 105.1893 41.22563

Industry-2 90 50 0.8 0.87 51.72414 64.65517 38.7931

90 50 0.8 0.87 51.72414 64.65517 38.7931
Total 103.44483 129.3103 77.58621

When the two load with 50% of loading the reactive power consumption & apparent
power is high or huge.

pg. 83
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Chapter - 7
Modelling of induction motor

Induction motor :
 An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the
electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can
therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor.
 The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as
the induction motor. The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which
the electromotive force induces across the electrical conductor when it is placed in
a rotating magnetic field.
In one simulation the one motor is act as motor the other is act as generator so what
is the real and reactive power consumption in both ?

pg. 84
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Motor 1 act as generator and motor 2 act as an induction motor

Calculation of Motor 2

pg. 85
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Motor 1 act as generator and motor 2 act as an induction motor

Calculation of Motor 1

pg. 86
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Synchronous motor :
 Synchronous motors depends on the interaction of the magnetic field of the stator
with the magnetic field of the rotor. The stator contains 3 phase windings and is
supplied with 3 phase power. Thus, stator winding produces a 3 phased rotating
Magnetic- Field.
 Rotor type is would rotor, which receives the excitation current from its excitation
system.
 The motor rotates at a constant speed.

Where it is used for,

 Power factor is poor

 Voltage stability is an issues
 Could not control the power factor linearly
 Off grid
 On-grid – where the rating is much higher
 Synchronous motor FLMA starter.

Variable frequency drive (VFD) :

VFD :
 A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric
motor by varying the frequency and voltage of its power supply. The VFD also has the
capacity to control ramp-up and ramp-down of the motor during start or stop,
respectively.
 A VFD is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by varying thye
frequency and voltage of its power supply.

Can a VFD be used on a synchronous motor?

 For existing synchronous motors to operate with a VFD, the synchronous motor must
have its direct current (DC) field available at zero speed in order to develop starting
and accelerating torque.

pg. 87
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Need for VFD :

 Process for speed control

 Energy efficiency
 Power factor
 It is able to support the input power factor unit.

Hence,

 Reduce the losses

 Support the voltage
 Reducing size of the equipment.

VFD 6 pulse

pg. 88
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It reduces losses and control the voltage drops :

Without VFD simulation With VFD simulation

pg. 89
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VFD able to support input power factor :

Without VFD simulation With VFD simulation

pg. 90
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Chapter – 8
Reactive power compensation
Reactive power compensation :
Reactive power compensation is one of the well recognized
methods for its contribution to the reduction of energy losses, along with other
benefits such as power factor correction, increase of the transport and operation
capacity of lines and devices of the grid voltage stability and improvement of
the voltage.

 To control the voltage levels.

 Electrical block outs
 Proper working of various devices / Machines.
Proper working of various devices / machines :
Transformer, motor, generators, and other electrical devices required reactive
power to produce magnet flex.

pg. 91
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Real and reactive power flow in a network :

 Real power flow from higher angle to lower angle.

 Reactive power flows from high voltage to low voltage.

Effects of reactive power :

 Increases in losses, power dissipation in the form of heat, current.

 Reduce the equipment or plant life time.

Methods of reactive power compensation :

 By using capacitor bank

 By using APFC
 By using SVC
 By using synchronous condenser

pg. 92
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By using capacitor bank :

Capacitor banks are used to regulate the power factor in electrical

system and can be installed parallel to a load to reduce the amount of reactive
power flowing through lines. This improves the power factor by reducing the
phase difference between voltage and current.

pg. 93
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When the load is connected to the 2.5 MVA in 80% power factor
that time some reactive power are produced in the inductive load so our grid
side power factor is suddenly reduce

By the way we add the capacitor bank parallel to the load whenever we want
reactive power we cannot taken from the grid so we take from the capacitor bank which is
connected parallel to the loads. Here the grid side power factor is maintained properly.

pg. 94
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By using Synchronous Condenser :

Unlike a static capacitor bank, the amount of reactive
power from the synchronous condenser can be continuously adjusted.
Reactive power from the static capacitor bank decrease when the grid
voltage decrease , while a synchronous condenser can increase reactive
current as voltage decrease.

pg. 95
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By using the synchronous condenser the generator connected in parallel to the load
so the reactive power taken from the generator not from the grid.

pg. 96
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Automatic power Factor controller (APFC) :

APFC panel are electrical control panel used for control the reactive power
compensation. Being efficient, these panel maintain the power factor of an electrical
system by automatically regulating the reactive power required by inductive load.

At normal operation

There is some condition in adding the APFC where the cable is present
above the load and in the capacitor bank we changes into the switching mode and
in the control mode we select the power factor mode to maintain the power factor.
In the control logic we select the cable

pg. 97
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pg. 98
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Effectiveness of shunt reactive power device to regulate the voltage.

 If system weak, FACTS devices are active

 If system is strong, Controller are not effective.

pg. 99
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Chapter – 9

Solar panel and Inverter modelling

Solar Panel :

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called "solar"
panels because most of the time, the most powerful source of light available is the Sun,
called Sol by astronomers. Some scientists call them photovoltaic which means, basically,
"light-electricity."

Major types of solar Panels :

Solar panel type Advantages Disadvantages

Monocrystalline High efficiency and performance Higher costs

Polycrystalline Lower costs Lower efficiency and performance

Thin-film Portable and flexible Lower efficiency and performance

pg. 100
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Solar Inverter :
A solar inverter is a balance of system (BOS) component of a photovoltaic system
and can be used for both grid-connected and off-grid (standalone) systems. Solar inverters
have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power
point tracking and anti-islanding protection.
There are three kinds of inverters :
String inverters, micro inverters, and power optimizers.

World largest solar inverter manufacture :

 Huawei
 Sun grow
 SMA
 Power Electronics
 FIMER
 EATON
 Growah
 SCHNEIDER

pg. 101
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REPORT : STUDENT INTERNSHIP ENRICH

DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Advantages:
 Solar inverters are more efficient, which means they convert more electricity and don't
have high losses during the conversion process.
 Solar inverters can help reduce global warming and greenhouse effect, as the solar energy
usage in photovoltaic systems mainly depends on the inverter.
 Solar inverters can save money by reducing electricity bills or totally eliminating them.
They can also be used as an AC power source to sell electricity to electric power utility
and other users.
 Solar inverters are cost-effective when compared with diesel generators.
 Solar inverters can provide relief from long and frequent power cuts.
 Hybrid inverters are a good option for people who are considering energy storage options
or have plans to add an electric vehicle that they want to charge with the sun.

Disadvantages:
 Solar inverters can be expensive to purchase and install.
 Standard string inverters are subject to the shading effect, which means that if one panel is
shaded or damaged, the overall production of the system decreases.
 String inverters do not have the ability to monitor each panel individually.
 Inverters with built-in solar inputs can be limiting in terms of system size and expansion
capabilities.
 Built-in solar charge controllers in inverters can be too small for power-converting needs,
which can limit system expansion options.

String Inverter VS Central Inverter :

String Inverter Central Inverter

MPPT
(Maximum Multiple Number of MPPT Less Number of MPPT
PowerPoint
Tracking)
1 to 12 1 to 2

pg. 102
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PV Curve and IV Curve :

Efficiency Curve :

pg. 103
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

MPPT – Maximum Power Point Tracking :

MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge

controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain
conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called
maximum power point (or peak power voltage).

It works by averaging the PV power value so that the response is lower when
the system is below its optimal power point. Similarly, a maximum power point tracking
system will require a high-speed tracking device to keep up with changes in the irradiance.

pg. 104
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Solar Modelling Case Study :

1. Grid meets the entire load without solar & DG (Example at night) – Base Case .

2. Grid is still there – 100% load is met by solar and power exchange with the grid is

zero.

a. What is Power Factor ?

3. Grid is still there – Solar is higher than the demand .

a. Export the power to the grid

b. BECOM – Prevent the power reversal

4. PV meets the partial load and grid meets the balanced load (PV meets 1000Kw

and balanced 800Kw met by grid )

5. DG meets the complete load

6. DG + Solar meets the complete .

a. Diesel generator is running it has a least with its P min

(25%&30%).

b. Ramping requirements of DG – 300Kw met DG + 1500Kw by

solar .

i. Sudden cloud event – solar output goes down to 150Kw

ii. Battery storage.

pg. 105
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PV Panel Selection – Library – Choose Manufacture, Model, Size

pg. 106
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PV Array

Inverter Selection – inverter Size

pg. 107
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Case 1 : Grid meets the entire load without solar & DG (Ex at night) – Base Case

Case 2 : Grid is still there – 100% load is met by solar and power exchange with the grid is zero.
But total reactive power Consumed from grid so power factor is zero.

pg. 108
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So need to maintain the grid power factor but in ETAP there is no secondary controller so we need
adjust the solar inverter PF and extract the reactive power and meet the grid power factor.

pg. 109
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pg. 110
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 Solar inverter run as power factor mode set the 85% it injects the 1.47Mvar each inverter
to meet the grid power but bus voltage uncontrolled.
 Each and every small change in the system need to adjust the individual inverter in
ETAP.
 Change in the irradiance it change the output power.

pg. 111
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Gen category normal 850 irradiance output power :

pg. 112
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 In this case DG run only 2% but DG at least run with 30% of the load.

pg. 113
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Chapter – 10
Modelling of wind turbine Generator

Wind turbine :
A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical
energy, which is then used to generate electricity. Wind turbines are commonly used in
wind farms and for individual power generation in areas with sufficient wind resources.
They are two types of turbine
Horizontal Wind turbine Vertical Wind turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbine, the axis of rotation of turbine is parallel to the wind stream.
For the vertical axis wind turbine, the axis of rotation of the turbine is perpendicular to the
wind stream. In the horizontal axis wind turbine, the electric generator is installed at the
top of the tower.

pg. 114
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Wind Turbine Generator :

A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic
force from the rotor blades, which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade.
When wind flows across the blade, the air pressure on one side of the blade decreases.
Wind Turbine – Generate the electricity / Chemical energy of coal – Heat – Mechanical –
Electrical.

Compounds of wind turbine :

(1) Blades
(a) Predominantly 3 blade.
(2) Nacelle
(a) Anemometer
(b) Wind value – Direction of the wind
(c) Gear box
(d) Generator
(3) Tower
Terminologies
1. Yawing – The wind turbine yaw mechanism is used to turn the wind turbine rotor
against the wind.
2. Pitch control – Its is used for blades twisting front & black.

pg. 115
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Pitch control curve :

What is wind power equation ?

Power = 1/2 * р * π * r² * Cp * Cf * V3 * NG * NB

P = power generated in Watts

V = velocity of the wind in m/s

rho = density of the wind in kg / (m ^ 3)

π * r2 = swept area, where r = blade length in m

CP = Power Coefficient

CF = Capacity Factor
NG = generator efficiency

NB = gearbox efficiency.

pg. 116
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Betz law :
According to bet’z law , no turbine can capture more than 16 / 27 (59.3%) of kinetic energy
in wind.
The factor 16 / 27 (0.593) is known as co-efficient. Practically utility – scale Wind turbine
achieves at peak 75% - 80% of the bet’z limit the bet’z limit is based on an open – disk actuator.

Efficiency :

Cut in wind speed – 2 to 3.5 m/s :

This is minimum win speed required the generating the power , wind speed goes
below the cut in need to switch off , otherwise it’s act as motor its consume the power.
Rated wind speed – 12 to 14 m/s :
The speed at which its generate the rated power.
Cut – out wind speed – 25 m/s :
After the cut off wind speed need to switch off the turbine generator because
safety concern.

pg. 117
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Types of wind turbine generators :

pg. 118
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Type 1 or Type A Wind turbine Generator ( Fixed Speed ) :

A Type 1 wind turbine is characterized by a Squirrel-cage Induction Generator

(SCIG), which is connected directly to the step up transformer. The turbine rotates at a
speed that closely follows the electrical grid frequency.

What is the major different between any other generator and WTG ?
 Input is Intermittent
 Speed
 Ns = 120 f / p
 Hence you can n’t use synchronous generator.

Reactive power :
Reactive power is really power , which can be converted from any other form to
electrical form and vice versa. Meaning outside power system.

Reactive power :
Reactive power is not really power , which can not be converted from any other
form to electrical form and vice versa.

pg. 119
 COURSE : LOAD FLOW STUDY

REPORT : STUDENT INTERNSHIP ENRICH

DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Reactive power sources :

 Over Exited Generator
 Transmission lines loaded less the surge impedance loading
 Cables
 Shunt capacitors
 Shunt VAR control device.

Advantages :
 Rugged
 Efficient
 Life time
 Cost

Disadvantages :
 Consumes reactive power
 Voltage Stability
 It can not support LVRT
 Obsolete

pg. 120
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

pg. 121
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Type 2 or Type B Wind turbine generator ( Doubly – Fed IG ) :

A Type 2 wind turbine makes use of wound rotor induction generators, which
are connected directly to the WTG step-up transformer. The stator circuit is similar to that
of the Type 1 turbine, with the addition of a variable resistor.

Advantages :

 Simple and low Cost

 Rugged , Low Maintenance

Disadvantages :

 Poor voltage control ability

 Large starting in rush ; Required capacitor and Stagger starts
 Difficult to control output per schedule
 No speed control in type 1 , Very limited in type 2.

pg. 122
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

pg. 123
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Type 3 or Type C – Wind turbine generator ( Variable Slip ) :

Type 3-Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind

turbines: Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by variable-speed, pitch regulated wind
turbines. Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) turbines is by employing a back-to-back
AC/DC/AC converter in the rotor circuit to recover the slip power.
 15 MW offshore / 7.5 MW onshore
 Converter rating is about 30% of Generator rating.

 It can independently control the reactive power output and real power output.

pg. 124
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Four different modes :

 Sub Synchronous Motor
 Sub Synchronous Generator
 Super Synchronous Motor
 Super Synchronous Generator

 Above the synchronous speed act as generator and below the speed also act as a generator .
This will able to control voltage , frequency and field current also.
 Independently control the real and reactive power.
 In induction motor if there reduction in the voltage at terminal then the reactive power
consumes will increase.
 Type – 3 Generator operate the voltage control and MVar control mode.

Doubly Fed induction Generator capability curve

pg. 125
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

TYPE 1 & 2 – Do not have voltage regulation capability

TYPE 3 – Voltage regulation capability.

pg. 126
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Type 4 or Type D Wind turbine generator ( Full Converter – IG/PM/SG) :

The Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) wind turbine is one
of the variable-speed turbines that is used in wind energy conversion due to its higher
efficiency and power factor, absence of a gearbox system, no regular maintenance, flexible
active and reactive power control, and dissipation.

If need 100 % reactive power PMSG inject the 100% reactive power when the real
power zero.

pg. 127
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

pg. 128
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DATE : 16.08.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Thank you…!!

For giving this opportunity..!!

pg. 129