Stresses

Types of Stresses
1) Load Stresses – those within the elastic limit and induced by external load such as
tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion
- these stresses return to zero when the load is removed.
2) Residual Stresses – stresses that are independent of external loads
Sources:
a) Plastic Deformation
b) Casting and forging – during its cooling, the first part to cool is the
surface layers
c) Quenching
d) Grinding and polishing – because of the very high temperature
reached in normal grinding or polishing, the surface layer becomes
plastic and expands.
e) Carburizing and Nitriding
f) Induction and flame hardening
g) Rolling and peening
h) Electroplating

Factor of Safety – margin against failure

Scritical
Fs =
S allowable

SOURCES OF STRESS:
A). Stresses Due to Axial Loading

1. Tensile Stress – due to tension

P
S=σ= σ = average stress
A
P = axial load
A = cross-section
2. Compressive Stress – due to compression
P
S=σ = σ = average stress
A
P = axial load
A = cross-section

3. Bearing Pressure – “contact pressure” and occurs between two members held in
pressure
P
σ= t = length of pin in contact (thickness of link)
td
d = diameter of pin
P = load on pin

B). Stresses Due to A Bending

My Mc M
1. For Straight Beam, S = σ = = =
I I I
C

Where: S = stress and distance y from neutral axis

I = moment of inertia of cross section
M = bending moment (lb-in)
 I/C = section modules
2. For Curved Beams: (neutral axis of the cross section is shifted toward the center
of curvature of the beam).
KMc
S= ; K = factor depending on the shape and curvature of beam
I

C). SHEAR – caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the force.
4P
1. Direct Shear: S= ; d = diameter
d 2

2. Torsion (Torsional Shear)

Tr
a)  =  = shearing stress
J
r = distance from center to shaft
J = polar moment of inertia
d 4
= = for solid circular shaft
32

=
(d o
4
− di 4)= for hollow circular shaft
32
2T 16T
b) Max  = = (solid circular shaft)
r 3
d 3
2TR 16TD
c) Max  =
(
R −r 4 4
) =
(
 D4 − d 4 ) (hollow circular shaft)

TL
d) θ = ; L = length of the body
JG
G = Modulus of Elasticity of shear
(Modulus of Rigidity, N/m2)
3. For Rotating Shaft:
freq  rad 
a) P = Tω ω = angular speed = = 2πf  
time  time 
= T( 2πf)
P
b) T =
2f

4. Shear Stress for bars with a rectangular cross-section

T
Ss =
bt 2

Where: T = torque, lb-in

b = breadth (width)
t = thickness
α = coefficient depending on ratio b/t

T 3T
For long and narrow cross-section, α = 0.333, thus Ss = 2
=
0.33bt bt 2

5. Shear Stress Due to Bending – minimum (0) at the upper surface and maximum at
neutral axis.

For Rectangular Cross-Section:

3V
 = ; V = vertical shear; A = cross-sectional area
2A
 For Solid Circular Cross-Section:
2V
 =
A
For Thin-Walled Circular Tube:
2V
 =
A
D). COMBINED STRESSES

Compressive and shear, compressive and bending

Tensile and sear, tensile and bending

BUCKLING – failure when the length is greater than 4 to 6 times the least
dimension perpendicular to the axis

Types/Effects of Buckling:
a) Elastic Instability – when column bows sideways while the stresses are within
the elastic limit.
b) Plastic Instability – sideways bowing occurs after the maximum stress reach
the yield point (columns of less slender proportions)
c) Local Buckling – buckling of thin sections such as tubes or built-up columns
Fcrit = π2EI
L2
 S y L2 
Fcrit = ASy 1 −
 2 2
4nn E 

Fcrit – critical load, lb
A – cross-sectional area, in2
I – moment of inertia, in4
L – length of the column, in
ρ – least radius of gyration of cross-section, in.
η – end-fixity coefficient
E – modulus of elasticity of material, psi
Sy – yield point of material, psi

E) CONTACT STRESSES – due to pressure of one elastic solid upon another, where the
pressure is distributed over a small area relative to the size of the
parts.
Common cases:
a) between two parallel cylinders
b) roller bearings

2P
Maximum Pressure, P =
bL
1 −  2 P( 1 / E1 + 1 / E2
;b=2
 L( 1 / R1 + 1 / R2

Where: μ = Poisson’s Ratio for two materials

P = load (external force), lb
E1, E2 = Modulus of Elasticity, psi
R1, R2 = radii of the two materials, in.

Assumption for Analysis:

1. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
 1) The loading acts perpendicular to surface.
2) The dimension of the contact areas are small compared with the surfaces
of the bodies.
3) The radii of the contact areas are large in comparison with the dimension
with these areas.

F) CYCLIC OR FATIGUE STRESSES – stresses in moving, rotating, or vibrating

parts of materials.

G) STRESSE DUE TO SHOCK AND IMPACT LOADING:

P 2ch
=1+ 1+
w w

P
= “shock factor” (represent the magnification of load due to impact)
w

Where: P = impact load

w = falling weight
h = height of free fall
δ = displacement

If w is applied instantaneously and without initial velocity, h in the equation would zero
and the equation would reduce to P =2w.

H) BEAM DEFLECTIONS
1. Strain Energy of Beam in Uniaxial Bending

1 L M2
U= 
2 0 EI
dx (uniaxial stress) ; M = bending moment
EI = flexural rigidity
E = Modulus of Elasticity
I = moment of inertia = ∫y2dA
2. Cantilever Load:
PL3
a. Concentrated Load, δ =
3EI
wL4
b. Uniform Load, δ =
8 EI
PR3
3. Semi-circular Ring, δ =
4 EI

I) ANGULAR DEFORMATIONS
TL
Θ= (If torque is uniform throughout the length of the shaft like for
JG
the angle of twist of a cylindrical shaft)
ML
Θ= (For beam under pure bending)
EI

Where: T = torque (N.m)

L = length (m)
J = polar moment of inertia (m4)
G = modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity on shear)
M = moment or couple
I = moment of inertia (m4)
E = modulus of elasticity (N/m2) (in tension and compression)
Moment of Inertia = differentiated area multiplied by its moment arm and multiplied a
second time by its moment arm.
 = “second moment of inertia”

  dA ; ρ = moment arm perpendicular from dA

2
I=
to the axis of interest
 y dA ,  x dA
2 2
Ix = Iy =
Polar Moment of Inertia = the moment of inertia for an area relative to a line or
axis perpendicular to the plane of the axis
J = I x + Iy
* For any area, the Moment of Inertia with respect to any axis in the plane of the area is
equal to the moment of inertia with respect to the parallel centroidal axis plus a transfer
term composed of the product by the area multiplied by the square of the distance
between the axes.