Lesson 1: Where Do We Find the World's Active

Volcanoes?
Volcano - mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rocks below the surface of the
Earth.

-vent or opening in the ground in which hot gases, rocks and lava are ejected.

-came from a word Vulcano: volcano island in Italy whose name is derived from Vulcan: the
Roman God of Fire.

Shield Volcano - has a sloping but low dome shape caused by lava flowing from one or more
vents.

Stratovolcano - has steep sides tapering to a crater and a nearly symmetrical cone shape built
from layers of lava and ash.

Mount Kilauea - shield volcano found in Hawaii.

Mount Etna - stratovolcano in Italy.

Active Volcano - had atleast one eruption during the past 10,000 years.

-might be erupting or dormant.

a. Erupting Volcano - having an eruption.

b. Dormant Volcano - not erupting, but supposed to erupt again.

According to Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOLCS), a volcano is

considered active when:

a. The volcano has erupted within historical times.

b. Accounts of the eruptions were documented.

c. The volcano has erupted at least once within the last 10,000 years.

Extinct Volcano - has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is not expected to erupt
again.

The Philippines has more than 200 volcanoes and 23 of them are active.

-the most active are: Mayon in Albay, Taal in Batangas and Kanlaon in Negros Oriental.

Ring of Fire - region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes occur.

-horseshoe-shaped belt around 40,000 km long and up to 500 km wide.

-long line of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean.

-large number of volcanoes are found in the region of the Pacific Ocean in the belt.

Active Volcanoes in the Ring of Fire

Mount Saint Helen - Washington - 1980

Mount Tambora - Indonesia - 1815

Krakatoa - Indonesia - 1883

Mount Ruiz - Columbia - 1985

Mount Pinatubo - Philippines -1991

Most volcanoes in the world are located along divergent boundaries. One of the boundaries is
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Volcanoes can also be found in the convergent plate boundaries such as the Mid-Continental
Belt.

Oceanic Ridge - continuous submarine chain of mountain that extend roughly among all
oceans present in the world.

-chain of volcanoes at the sea floor.

-largest features in the ocean basin.

Ocean Basin - any of the several vast submarine regions covers by sea water.

Lesson 2: Where in the World Do Earthquakes

Occur?
Earthquake - trembling movement, rolling or shaking of the Earth's surface.

-natural phenomenon that is characterized by a sudden, violent, shifting of massive plates

underneath the Earth's surface.

-forms of wave energy that are transmitted through bedrock.

-result of a sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.

-caused by tectonic plates getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground.

Triangulation - method that involves taking seismographic measurements from atleast three
seperate seismic stations.

Fault - break in the ground along which movement has taken place.

-crack across which the rocks have been offset first.

West Valley Fault - most feared fault system in the Philippines.

-estimated that it is capable of producing a 7.2 magnitude earthquake which can cause great
damage and loss of lives in the areas along the fault.

Parts of an Earthquake Fault

1. Fault Plane - area where the fault occurs.

2. Fault Trace - line that may be visible or not.

3. Hanging Wall - block of crust above the fault.

4. Footwall - block of crust below the fault.

Kinds of Fault

1. Normal Fault - hanging wall slips down.

2. Strike-Slip Fault - rocks on either side of a strike-slip fault past each other.

3. Reverse Fault - hanging block moves up instead of down.

-high angle compressional faults with dips greater than 45 degrees.

Similar to volcanoes, there are active and inactive faults.

1. Active Fault

a. If it has moved one or more times in the last 10,000 years.

b. Expected to move again in the future and cause earthquake.

c. Likely to become the source of another earthquake sometime in the future.

d. Has displayed recent seismic activity.

2. Inactive Fault

a. Structures that can identify, but does not have earthquake.

b. Seismic structure has not experienced any earthquake activity in the past years.

c. Can no longer generate earthquake, but did so in the past.

Trenches - type of excavation in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide and narrow
compared with its length.

-long, narrow, deep depression in the ocean floor.

-deep canals on the seafloor.

Marianas Trench - deepest trench in the world.

Features of the Ocean Floor

Continental Shelf - area of seabed near and around a large landmass where the sea is shallow
compared to the open sea.

Continental Slope - slope that drops from the outer edge of the continental shelf down to the
deep ocean floor.

Volcanic Arc - chain of offshore volcanoes arranged along an arc.

Abyss - zone of deep ocean at depths of 4km-6km where temperature is very low and where
sunlight does not penetrate.

Mid Ocean Ridge - elevated region with a central valley in the ocean floor.

Abyssal Plain - very large, flat sediment covered area of the ocean floor.

Seamount - underwater mountain rising above the deep sea floor.

Guyots - flat topped seamount totally underwater.

Lesson 3: How Do We Explain the Global Pattern

of Volcanoes and Earthquakes?
Crust - covers the mantle and is the Earth's outer shell, the surface where we live in.

a. Continental Crust - surface of the Earth.

b. Oceanic Crust - gathers a layer of cooled mantle.

Mohorovicic Discontinuity - division between the crust and the mantle.

Mantle - made up of heavy materials in which the highest temperature occurs with heat-
producing core.

Hotspot - source of molten rock

-thought to be stationary, but the plate above it is moving.

Geothermal Gradient - increase in temperature with depth, responsible for different rocks
behavior.

Lithosphere - uppermost part of the mantle which is also the hardest part.

Asthenosphere - layer that is said to be plastic like the viscosity of aspalt.

Core - densest layer

-composed mainly of iron and nickel alloy.

-Earth's source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials which release heat as
they break down into more stable substances.

-divided into two parts:

a. Outer Core - liquid

b. Inner Core - solid

Gutenberg Discontinuity - boundary between the core and the mantle.

Types of Plate Boundaries

1. Convergent Boundary - destructive boundary.

-two tectonic plates are moving towards each other, one will be subducted.

-crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another.

-plates collide with each other, resulting in the formation of volcanoes and mountain ranges to
relieve the stress build up.

-denser lithosphere sinks into the mantle, causing destruction of the old lithosphere in a process
called subduction.

-many geologic processes take place along convergent boundaries: volcanism, earthquakes and
mountain-building.

Oceanic Plate - oceanic crust

Continental Plate - continental crust

Subduction - downward movement of the edge of the plate.

-process of pulling something down.

-long narrow belt where a plate sinks into the mantle.

Types of Convergent Boundary

a. Oceanic-Continental Convergent - oceanic plate pushes into and moves underneath a
continental plate.

b. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent - two oceanic plates meet and one oceanic plate is pushed
underneath the other.

-continental plate that overrides the oceanic plates lift up to create mountain ranges.

c. Continental-Continental Convergent - two continents meet head on.

-result of this convergence is the formation of tall mountain ranges.

2. Divergent Boundary - constructive boundary

-two plates are moving apart from each other.

-characterized by tensional stress that normally produces a long rift zone, normal faults and
basaltic volcanism.
-responsible for seafloor spreading.

Example of Divergent Boundary

a. East Pacific Rise - rate of 15 cm a year

b. Atlantic Ocean - grows from a tiny inlet of water between Europe, Africa and America.

3. Transform Boundary - conservative boundary

-zone between two plates that slides horizontally past one another.

-neither creates nor destroys a crust.

-this movement results in a crack or fracture in the Earth's crust called fault.

-responsible for earthquake

Example of Transform Boundary

a. San Andreas Fault

b. North American Plate

c. Pacific Plate

Triple Junctions - described and assessed using the properties of a ridge, trench and faults that
are involved in the junction.

Lesson 4: What Makes the Plates Move

Tectonic Plate - also called a plate: is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock , generally
composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.

-the word tectonic comes from a Greek word tektonikos meaning to build.

Types of Plates
1. Oceanic Plates - crust in the ocean basins that is characterized by a thin but dense
lithosphere composed of silica-magnesia rich materials (basalt).

2. Continental Plates - plate thicker than the oceanic plate but less dense and composed
primarily of silica-alumina materials (granite).

Continents have deep roots to support their elevations.

Theory of Plate Tectonic - scientific theory that describes how the lithosphere is divided into
continuously moving plates.
-describes Earth's lithosphere and geologic processes: particularly volcanism, earthquakes and
the formation of various surface features on Earth.

-states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small
plates that are moving relatively one another.

-theory that the Earth's lithosphere is composed of a mosaic of rigid plates that are in relative
motion.

-also states that the lithosphere is broken into a number of rigid moving slabs called plates.

Alfred Lothar Wegener - published the Continental Drift Theory, which states that the
continents are moving.

Continental Drift Theory - suggests that Earth has one large continent that eventually
seperates into parts that gradually drifts apart to form the present continents.

-the super continent is called Pangaea that began to break up into smaller pieces and slowly
drifted away.

Wegener was right about the seperation of continents but he was unable to explain precisely
how and why regions of the Earth broke apart. It took more than 50 years for Wegener's theory
to be accepted.
Convection Current - driving mechanism for the plate tectonics.

-transfer of heat by the mass movement heated particles.

Thermal Convection - transfer of heat through fluid motion.

Convection - circulation of fluid due to contrast in density.

Ridge Push - force that comes from the heat expelled by the magma.

Slab Pull - force that the sinking edge of the plate exerts on the rest of the plates.

Harry H. Hess - proposed the concept of Seafloor Spreading.

Mid Atlantic Ridge - undersea mountain in the Atlantic Ocean.

Lesson 5: What Happens to Our Water Supply?

December 2010 - International Tear of Water of Water Corporation was declared by the United
National Assembly.

March 22, 2013 - World Water Day

World Water Day - established to seek water cooperation.

2.5% of Earth's water is freshwater. Not all of it is easily accessible.

0.007% of the Earth's water can be used by mankind.

Water Cycle - also called the hydrologic cycle: is the continuous movement and storage of
water across the Earth in all forms: solid, liquid and gas.
Solar Radiation - electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun.

Precipitation - any kind of weather condition where something's falling from the sky (rain,
snow, sleet, or hail).

Evaporation - liquid to gas

Condensation - gas to liquid

Transpiration - can be thought of as plants sweating.

Melting - solid to liquid

Solidification - liquid to solid

Aquifer - water storage underground

-formation of rocks and soil that stores enough water and supplies wells or springs.

-body of porous rock or sediment saturated with groundwater.

Watershed - area where runoff drains into river, streams, lakes.

-includes everything in the area: from the various structures of plants and animals.

-also called a drainage basin.

Lesson 6: What Health Concern are Related to
Drinking Water?
Contaminants - substances in water that could potentially put the health of people at risk.

Aerobic Bacteria - bacteria that lives in the presence of oxygen.

Major Groups of Contaminant

1. Microbial Pathogens - causes or can cause diseases.

-a germ

a. Bacteria

b. Viruses

c. Parasites

Leptospirosis - bacterial disease associated with contaminated flood water.

-comes from the urine of infected animals.

-symptoms: high fever, severe headache, muscle pain, vomiting, abdominal pain and skin
hemorrhage.

2. Organics - can cause chronic illness.

a. Pesticides

-Herbicides

-Insecticides

-Fungicides

3. Inorganics - can cause acute poison and cancer

-toxic metals like metal lead, mercury, silver, barium, chromium and arsenic can contaminate
drinking water from natural sources, industrial processes and plumbing system.

4. Radio Active Elements - when uranium in soil and rocks "decay", it produces radon: a
radioactive contaminant.

-radon in air can cause lung cancer.

Sources of Water Contaminants

Lesson 7: How is Our Water Supply Kept Clean?

Stage 1 - starts with predicting or measuring the properties of water sources.

-done by climatologists, hydrologists, hydrogeologists and limnologists: careers involved in

finding water and removing or extracting water from the source.

Climatology - study of the atmosphere.

a. Climatologist - studies about the long-term trends or patterns.

Hydrology - study of water occurrence.

b. Hydrologist - strives to understand the water system in the Earth.

-finding water supplies for farms or cities, controlling jobs from rivers, preventing pollution due
to soil erosion and cleaning up sites for safe disposal of hazardous waste.

-advocates public awareness and responsible use of groundwater.

Hydrogeology - deals with groundwater science

c. Hydrogeologist - does research on ground water system to determine where and how big
underground water reservoirs are.

Limnology - study of inland water.

d. Limnologist - study the bodies of water like ponds, streams, lakes or marsh.

-studies the productivity and functional relationship of communities that live near bodies of
fresh water.

Stage 2 - water is treated.

-careers involved removes impurities from water at a water treatment plant.

-people involved are:

a. Watershed Planners - deals with regional water source issues.

b. Engineers - develop plans for storing and transporting water from the water source to the
treatment plant and to our homes.

c. Water Pollution Technologist - study how potable the water is.

d. Municipal Planner - helps in determining current and future community needs.

Stage 3 - water is transported to a storage water tank where it remains until it needs to be
distributed to homes.

a. Government Administrators - helps insure that water areas for fisheries and wetlands
remain intact.

b. Computer Technician - store vital information and data in every stage.

c. Sanitarians, Wastewater Engineers and Wastewater Operators - makes sure that water is
suitable for use.

Basic goal of water treatment is to remove contaminants from water.

Processes Involved in Water Treatment
1. Setting and Filtration - to physically seperate the solid contaminants.

2. Disinfection and Coagulation - to chemically remove the contaminants.

3. Slow Sand Filter - biological treatment of wastewater.

Five Processes in a Big Treatment Plant

The government agency in charge of the water supply of Metro Manila and the surrounding
areas is the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System. The water comes from the
watersheds of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa Water System.

Maynilad Water and Manila Water - two water companies that are responsible for treating the
collected water to make it safe to drink.

Manila Water - monitors the cleanliness of the water daily by taking water samples and testing
them for safety.

Ways to Make Drinking Water Safer or Cleaner by Yourself

1. Sterilizing water with sunlight

2. Collecting rainwater

3. Filtering

4. Boiling

5. Water Purification Tablet - these tablets have chlorine or iodine as their main active
ingredient.

Adsorption - adhesion of molecules, ions or atoms to a surface.

Lesson 8: How Can We Conserve Clean Water

Problems in Water:
Fresh water is not equally distributed among the countries in the world.

Water pollution: whether natural or anthropogenic.

Tips for Conserving Water While Doing Certain Activities