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Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

Article in Journal of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics · May 2021
DOI: 10.32996/jeltal.2021.3.5.7

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Journal of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
ISSN: 2707-756X
DOI: 10.32996/jeltal
Journal Homepage: www.al-kindipublisher.com/index.php/jeltal

Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

Pham Duc Thuan

MA, English Teacher, Department of Foreign Languges and Information Technology, Hoa Lu University, Ninh Binh Province, Viet
Nam
Corresponding Author: Pham Duc Thuan, E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT

Received: April 09, 2021 Among the attributors to language learners' success, attitude and motivation are
Accepted: May 21, 2021 widely recognized as two important attributors. This article aims to review and discuss
Volume: 3 attitude and motivation in language learning. More specially, the paper sheds light on
Issue: 5 how these two contributors are conceptualized by scholars in the literature and the
DOI: 10.32996/jeltal.2021.3.5.7 configuration of the two elements in language learning. The discussions are expected
to help language educators better understand the two concepts.
KEYWORDS

Attitude, motivation, language

learning

1. Introduction 1
Attitude and motivation are considered two major attributes that influence how well a student learns a language. Defined
traditionally, attitude is a complex and durable tendency that predisposes the individual to act in a certain way. Cakici (2007)
states: “as a socio-psychological factor, the role of attitude on the language learning process should be taken into consideration”
(p.23). Kudo (1999) concludes that attitudes may play an essential role in language learning, as they would appear to influence
students’ success or failure in their learning. Klausmeier (1985), similarly, notes that attitudes influence how well students learn
and how well they behave. Gardner (1985) believes that learners’ attitudes toward learning the target language are expected to
be more relevant to obtaining a high grade in target language proficiency than learners’ interest in learning a foreign language
or the people who speak the target language. Cakici (2007) argues that the learners’ positive attitudes towards a language,
towards the culture of that community make the learning process easier, but an unfavourable attitude hinders learning.

According to Liu (2007), motivation to learn a second language is grounded in positive attitudes toward the second language
community and a desire to communicate with valued community members and become similar to them. The desire is integrative
motivation, which is better support for language learning, while instrumental motivation is associated with a desire to learn a
second language for pragmatic gains such as getting a better job or a higher salary. Motivation plays the role to help lead to a
set of goals, either with a strong interpersonal quality (integrative motivation) or a strong practical quality (instrumental
motivation) (Dörnyei, 1994).

As empirical studies on language learning motivation blossom, it has been found integrative and instrumental motivations are
not opposite ends of a continuum (Dörnyei, 1994). Instead, they are positively related, and both are effectively loaded goals that
can sustain learning. They both maybe, in return, enhanced by better proficiency and higher achievement in the target language
(Dörnyei, 1994). Students’ learning goals also proved to break up into different motivation clusters, the definition of which varies
depending upon the socio-cultural setting in which the data are gathered (Clėment et al., 1994). Thus, new motivation clusters
have been identified, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivations which were proposed in self-determination theory. “Intrinsic
motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation refers to doing
something because it leads to a separable outcome and because of external rewards” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.55). When a learner
has no extrinsic or intrinsic goals for learning a language, demotivation arises, which refers to the state of lacking an intention to

Published by Al-Kindi Center for Research and Development, United

Kingdom. Copyright (c) the author(s). This open access article is distributed
under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license

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 JELTAL 3(5): 64-72

act (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As these concepts have gained popularity, it is claimed that intrinsic motivation plays a central role in
learning a second/foreign language (Liu, 2007).

In conclusion, both integrative/instrumental motivations and intrinsic/extrinsic motivations contribute to learning a

second/foreign language. Nevertheless, which one is more important varies from context to context. Likewise, students in
different contexts may be motivated to learn a second/foreign language by different motivation type. This is why the issue is still
worth further exploration.

2. Attitude and motivation in language learning

2.1 Factors affecting l2 learning in socio-educational model

Many studies have been carried out in the field of second or foreign language (L2) learning, which explains the factors affecting
L2 language learning. Gardner's Socio-educational Model is the most distinguishable work from most research into language
learning. The model was first presented in 1979 (Jenkins, 2005). Since then, a number of revisions have been made. The latest
model presented in the current paper was made in 1992 and cited in Ushida (2005). Figure 1 below demonstrates the model.

Socio-cultural milieu

Antecedent Individual difference Language Outcomes

factors variables acquisition
contexts

Intelligence

Language
aptitude
Formal

Strategies

Linguistic

Biological
Experimental

Non-
linguistic
Language
attitudes
Informal

Motivation

Language
anxiety

Figure 1: Representation
Figure of1: the Socio-educational
Representation ofmodel
the of second-language acquisition
Socio-educational Model of (Gardner and MacIntyre, 1992, cited in
second-language
Ushida, 2005, p.51)
acquisition (Gardner and MacIntyre, 1992, cited in Ushida, 2005, p.51)

The model consists of four sections. Firstly, the socio-cultural milieu overrides all aspects of the model, i.e. the milieu in which
“learners grow up determines their beliefs about language learning and culture” (Jenkins, 2005, p.11). The model suggests that
there are two categories of antecedent factors: biological and experiential. These factors are important when investigating the
role of variables in the process of language learning, including such categories as gender, age, previous language-learning
experience, study abroad experience and so on.

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Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

The second section covers individual difference variables, which are split into two groups: cognitive and affective. The cognitive
individual difference variables are intelligence, language aptitude and strategies. Gardner considers them to be almost
independent of each other. In contrast, the individual difference variables - language attitudes, motivation and language anxiety
- are related. The model shows that language attitudes have an influence on motivation.

The third section is known as language acquisition contexts. The first sub-section, formal language acquisition contexts, are
influenced directly by all the individual difference variables and indirectly through motivation by language attitudes. The second
sub-section, informal language acquisition contexts, is directly influenced by motivation. Jenkins (2005) assumed that only
motivated students would voluntarily seek out extra opportunities to practice the language. However, once in the informal
situation, the other individual difference variables will have some influence over success in language learning. Finally, both formal
and informal contexts have direct effects on both linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes. In addition, linguistic outcomes
influence non-linguistic outcomes. However, Ushida (2005) suggests that more research needs to be done into the various
variables and potential other variables associated with the model throughout the presentation of this model.

2.2 Attitude

2.2.1 Definition of attitude

There have been a number of definitions of attitude proposed by researchers. One of the most influential definitions of attitude
is provided by Allport (1935, cited in Gibb, 1998), who describes attitude as a mental or neutral state of readiness, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence on the individual’s response to all objects and situations with
which it is related. Focusing more on attitudes as explaining human behaviour, Kudo (1999) holds that an attitude is a disposition
to respond favourably or unfavourably to an object, person, institution, or event. Baker (1992) also sees attitude as a hypothetical
construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behaviour. Meanwhile, Gardner (1985) gives a definition of an
individual’s attitude as “an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs
or opinions about the referent” (p.5).

Baker (1992) describes a similar three-part model of attitudinal components as presented in Figure 2.

ATTITUDE

Cognition Affect Readiness for

Actions

Figure 2: Attitudinal Components (Baker, 1992, p.13)

Field (1999) points out that the cognitive components of attitude refer to the beliefs and thoughts about the object. The
cognitive components include belief about the language and belief about the people and community of that language. The
affective components encompass more specific sentiments towards the object concerned. They refer to emotional reactions;
they imply one’s likes or dislikes concerning the attitudinal object or their degree. To make the explanation more convincing,
Field takes an example that an individual who states that the position of English as a world language is desirable for effective
cross-cultural communication will have positive attitudes towards learning English in terms of cognition.

However, as Field (1999) explains, the same individual may possess negative attitudes towards English in terms of effect; it is
often the case that learners have had prior bad experiences at learning the language or are not interested in the cultures of
English-speaking countries themselves. Therefore, it is clear that the components of attitude may be at odds with each other.
Field also clarifies that the cognitive component refers, as is evident in the model shown above, to the willingness the individual
possesses. To continue the example, he believes a learner who is hoping to find employment in an American company may be
prepared to enrol in a language program, despite the negative affective component of attitude.

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2.2.2 Language learning attitude

2.2.2.1 Concept of attitude in the language learning context

In the section above, definitions of attitude in the literature are given. However, these definitions seem to be conceptualized in
rather general terms and are not specific to the language learning context. In this section, attitudes will be seen in the language
learning context.

It is claimed that, concerning attitudes in the language learning context, attitudes control an individual’s motivation and are
especially relevant for language learning because language learning includes many different aspects besides simply learning
skills (Kudo, 1999). Kudo (1999) concludes that “attitudes may play a very important role in language learning, as they would
appear to influence students’ success or failure in their learning” (p.7). Klausmeier (1985), similarly, notes that attitudes influence
how well student learn and how well they behave.

In his studies on Canadian students learning French, Gardner (1985) designates five dimensions of attitude with regard to second
language achievement, which are: 1) attitudes toward learning French; 2) interest in foreign languages; 3) attitudes toward
French Canadian; 4) evaluative reactions toward the French teacher; 5) evaluation of the French course. Among these five
dimensions, learners’ attitudes towards learning French and interest in foreign languages always seem to be more important
than others.

Gardner (1985) believes that learners’ attitudes toward learning the target language are expected to be more relevant to
obtaining a high grade in target language proficiency than learners’ interest in learning a foreign language or the people who
speak the target language. He also proposes that there are crucial types of attitudes in the language learning context, and one of
them is an attitude to the target language society. He considers that this type of attitude is essential, as learning a language
requires students to incorporate another culture.

Stern (1983, cited in Rahman, 2005) distinguishes three types of attitudes in second language learning situation: (a) Attitudes
towards the community and people who speak the L2 (group-specific attitudes), (b)Attitudes towards learning the language
concerned; and (c) Attitude towards languages and language learning in general.

Baker (1992) also proposes that attitudes toward the language should be included in the concept of attitudes in the language
learning context, claiming that successful learners tend to acquire positive attitudes toward the target language. Besides that,
Cakici (2007) argues that the learners’ positive attitude towards a language and towards the culture of that community facilitates
learning, but an unfavourable attitude impedes learning.

Tremblay and Gardner (1995) expand Gardner’s (1985) concept of attitudes in the language learning context by including
attitudes toward the language learning situation in their measures of students’ attitudes. Tremblay and Gardner also claim that
attitudes toward the learning situation influence other elements of attitudes and motivation, stating that in the language
learning situation, especially in schools, this type of attitude seems very important for students’ success because students may
perform better in the classroom if they have positive attitudes toward the learning situation.

According to Lightbown & Spada (1999), the term ‘attitude’ in foreign language learning is generally used to refer to the attitude
of the learners towards the target language society. This attitude is “a factor of learners’ attitudes towards their own native
culture the degree of ethnocentrism and the extent to which they prefer their own language over the one they are learning as a
second language” (Brown, 1994, p.168). Crookes and Schmidt (1991) point out that this type of attitude may determine students’
success in learning the language.

2.2.2.2 Attitudes relevant to language learning research areas

In his book titled ‘Attitude and Language’, Baker (1992) states that the phrase ‘language attitudes’ is an umbrella term. The
question is which attitudes should be highlighted in a specific language situation for specific research. Language attitudes might
be researched in language teaching, language learning, language communities, language itself, parents’ language attitudes, or
other aspects. Coming to his extensive studies on language attitudes from his interest in bilingualism and the conservation of
minority languages, Baker lists various attitudes of interest to foreign language learning (FLL) research: (1) attitude to language
variation, dialect and speech style; (2) attitude to learning a new language; (3) attitude to a specific minority language (e.g. Irish);
(4) attitude to language groups, communities and minorities; (5) attitude to language lessons; (6) attitude to the uses of a
specific language; (7) attitude of parents to language learning; (8) attitude to language preference.

Examining a variety of research on attitudes in 2LL and FLL, Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991), identify the five areas: (1) Parents:
parents’ attitudes towards the target language community affect not only children’s attitudes but also achievement; (2) Peers:
the attitudes of peers affect learners’ acquisition of a second language; (3) Learning situation: the learners’ attitudes towards the

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Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

learning situation affect their degree of success; (4) Teachers: teachers’ attitudes towards learners affect the quality and quantity
of the learning which takes place; (5) Ethnicity: ethnicity can determine attitudes and behaviour toward members of other
groups, and these, in turn, might affect achievement.

With so many relevant or possibly relevant attitudes to consider in the course of researching ‘attitudes to and motivation for
learning English’, Seki (2004) suggests that it is necessary to determine which sort of attitudes will be focused upon clearly.

2.3 Motivation

2.3.1 Definition of motivation

‘Motivation’ is a term frequently used in both education and research fields. Different interpretations of the definition of
motivation depend on various psychological perspectives of human behavior. In spite of the numerous definitions of motivation
that have been proposed, “it is rather surprising how little agreement there is in the literature with regard to the exact meaning
of this concept” (Dornyei, 1994, p.274). Therefore, the definitions of motivation from contemporary research representing
different points of view will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

Brown (1994) gives the definition of motivation as “inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action”
(p.152). Keller (1983, cited in Chang, 1994) believes that ability and motivation are the major factors of variation in educational
success: ability refers to what a person can do; motivation, to what a person will do. Similarly, Demir (2000) defines motivation as
the tendency to expend effort to achieve goals. Harmer (1991) also states that motivation is some kind of “internal drive that
encourages somebody to pursue a course of action” (p.3).

Some psychologists define motivation in terms of certain needs. Maslow (1954, cited in Abisamra, 2001) categorizes five specific
human needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belonging and love needs, self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs.
Ausubel (1968, cited in Brown, 1994, p.152) identified six following needs undergirding the construct of motivation proposed by
(1) The need for exploration, for seeing “the other side of the mountain,” for probing the unknown; (2) The need for
manipulation, for operating on the environment and causing change; (3) The need for activity, movement and exercise, both
physical and mental; (4) The need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the environment, by other people, or by ideas,
thoughts, and feelings; (5) The need for knowledge, the need to process and internalize the results of exploration, manipulation,
activity, and stimulation, to resolve contradictions, to quest for solutions to problems and for self-consistent systems of
knowledge; (6) Finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be known and to be accepted and approved by others.

Meanwhile, the psychologist Keller (1983, cited in Chang, 1994) defined motivation as the choices people make as to what
experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect. Keller’s theory of
motivation includes four major determinants of motivation: (a) interest, (b) relevance, (c) expectancy and (d) outcomes.

Relating motivation to learning a second language (L2), Gardner (1985) proposed “motivation is a term which is often used with
respect to second language learning as a simple explanation of achievement” (p.10). Continuously, Dornyei (1994) indicated that
L2 motivation was “a multi-faceted construct and describing its nature and its core features requires particular care” (p.274).
Gardner’s (1985) definition of motivation in language learning was the “effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the
language plus favourable attitudes toward learning the language” (p.10). Similarly, Dornyei (1994) conceptualized language
learning motivation as including three components: motivational intensity, desire to learn the language and an attitude towards
the act of learning the language.

2.3.2 Distinction between attitude and motivation

Rahman (2005) distinguishes between attitude and motivation, defining ‘attitude’ as the persistence shown by the learner in
striving for a goal, whereas ‘motivation’ is seen in terms of the overall goal or orientation. Raman (2005) argues one should not
necessarily expect a relationship between the two. However, Gardner (1985) suggests that attitudes are related to motivation by
serving as supports of the learner’s overall orientation.

Baker (1992), discussing the distinction between ‘attitude’ and ‘motive’ in foreign language education, notes that these two
terms “often appear without discussion of the extent of overlap and difference” (p.14). Gardner & Lambert (1972, cited in Seki,
2004) define ‘motivation’ as the second-language learner’s overall goal and orientation and ‘attitude’ as the learner’s persistence
in striving to the goal. However, Seki (2004) views that ‘motivation’ and ‘attitude’ are not thereby clearly delineated from one
another, in that the learner’s motivation for language study would be determined by his attitudes and readiness to identify and
by his orientation to the whole process of learning a foreign language.

Obviously, it is widely accepted that attitudes are object-specific, and motivation has particular actions as its goals (Baker, 1992;
Seki, 2004; Ushida, 2005). Johnstone (2001), for example, wrote that “attitudes have objects as their points of reference, e.g., a

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 JELTAL 3(5): 64-72

positive attitude to school, and continues that ‘motivation has goals rather than objectives as its point of reference” (p.120).
Therefore, individuals are assessed on whether they have negative or positive attitudes to a certain object. On the other hand,
motivation is either present (at some strength) or absent, rather than negative or positive.

Figure 2: Distinction between attitude and motivation (Seki, 2004, p.58)

2.3.3 Motivation in language learning

2.3.3.1 Gardner’s motivation theory

Much of the research on second language learning motivation has been inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Gardner and
Lambert and depends primarily on a social-psychological explanation of motivation since the 1950s (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991).
The study of L2 motivation became a distinctive research topic after Gardner and Lambert published a comprehensive summary
of the result of a more than ten-year-long research program. They constructed a framework for L2 motivation which has
dominated the language learning motivation scene for about three decades (Chang, 1994). There are three areas in Gardner’s
model: (a) the construct of the integrative motive; (b) the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) and (c) the socio-educational
model (Dornyei, 1994).

Using Gardner’s (1985) concept, attitudes relating to the language itself play an important role in motivation. The language
features could shape attitudes such as its sound, the way of writing and so forth. Other components, such as the learner
attitudes toward learning a language in general and feelings toward the teacher, affect learner motivation to learn the language.
Gardner (1985) believed that “motivation in the present context refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the
goal of learning the language plus favourable attitudes toward learning the language” (p.10).

Orientation is another concept that Gardner (1985) proposed in the discussion of motivation. Motivation refers to the directed,
reinforcing effort individual learners make to learn the language; orientation is a class of reasons for studying a second language.
Gardner (1985) pointed out that motivation is goal-directed; orientation explains why a learner has a goal.

Gardner and Lambert (1972, cited in Chang, 1994) delineated the dichotomy between integrative and instrumental orientation.
Integrative orientation is identified with the individual’s desire for culture or linguistic integration. Gardner (1985) asserted that
since integrative orientation reflects a “positive non-ethnocentric approach to the other community” (p.134), it probably relates
as strongly to attitudes toward the community as it does to motivation to learn their language. Instrumental orientation refers to
learning the language for an instrumental purpose, such as getting a better job, earning more money, passing an examination
and so on (Gardner, 1985). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) considered integrative and instrumental orientations as independent
of each other. They could be treated as two separate variables.

Gardner and his associates believed integrative orientation would be a better predictor of eventual proficiency than would
instrumental orientation. Gardner and Lambert developed the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) in 1959 (Chang, 1994). In
1975, Gardner and Smythe redeveloped the test and it became the instrument of choice in second language studies involving
motivation (Chang, 1994). The influence was such that other potential theories of motivation were almost completely ignored.
However, since 1990 second and foreign language researchers have started to challenge Gardner’s motivation theory and
discussed other theories of motivation in language learning (Dornyei, 1994; Noels et al., 1999; Skehan, 1989). While numerous
dominant models have been constructed, Gardner’s AMTB keeps still widely used in many studies. The results were mixed and
led to much discussion about the applicability of integrative and instrumental motivation in second and foreign language
learning.
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Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

Gardner’s theory is essential to keep in mind but as several researchers have pointed out “its emphasis is clearly on the social
aspects of motivation rather than on the role of motivation in the classroom” (Dornyei, 1994, p.274). Thus, many researchers have
attempted to modify and adapt Gardner’s theory and other theories of motivational psychology and apply them to educational
situations.

2.3.3.2. Crookes and Schmidt’s approach

Researchers Crookes and Schmidt (1991) were some of the first to question Gardner’s approach stating that the empirical
evidence is not clear enough to support the notion that integrative motivation is a cause and affects the second language
achievement. They also stated that its emphasis on social aspects is a limiting feature and discusses the need for more suited
approaches to L2 education. Crookes and Schmidt identified a clear need to research and classify L2 learning motivation as it
relates directly to the classroom.

Crookes and Schmidt (1991) identified four areas of L2 motivation: (1) the micro-level, (2) the classroom level, (3) the syllabus
level, and (4) the fourth level involving factors from outside the classroom. The micro-level involves the cognitive processing of
L2 input. At the micro level, learner motivation is evidenced by the amount of attention given to the input. The classroom level
includes the techniques and activities employed in the classroom. Crookes & Schmidt apply tenets of expectancy-value and self-
deterministic theories to this level stating that the expectancy of success and amount of control over activities contributes to
learner motivation. The syllabus level refers to the choice of the content presented and can influence motivation by the level of
curiosity and interest aroused in the students. Finally, factors from outside the classroom involve informal interaction in the L2
and long-term factors.

2.3.3.3 Dornyei’ framework of motivation

Dörnyei (1994) following Crookes’ and Schmidt’s initiative, developed yet another framework of motivation, which dealt
specifically with motivation in the language classroom presented in Table 1.

His taxonomy of motivation is comprised of three levels: (1) the Language Level, (2) the Learner Level, and (3) the Learning
Situation Level. The Language level is the most general level which focuses on “orientations and motives related to various
aspects of the L2” (p.275). At this level, the motives and orientations determine the language studied and the most basic learning
goals. Dornyei identifies motivation at this level using the concept of orientation introduced by Gardner. The Learner level
involves the influence of individual traits of language learners. Motivation is influenced at the Learner Level by the learner’s need
for achievement and self-confidence. The Learner Level is concerned with internal, affective characteristics of the learner related
to expectancy. Motivation at the Learning Situation Level is influenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic motives that are course-
specific, teacher-specific, and group-specific.

Table 1: Components of foreign language learning motivation (Dornyei, 1994, p.280)

LANGUAGE LEVEL Integrative Motivational Subsystem
Instrumental Motivational Subsystem
LEARNER LEVEL Need for Achievement
Self-Confident
*Language Use Anxiety
*Perceived L2 Competence
*Casual Attributions
*Self-Efficacy
LEARNING SITUATION LEVEL
Course-Specific Motivational Components Interest
Relevance
Expectancy
Satisfaction

Teacher-Specific Motivational Components Affiliative Drive

Authority Type
Direct Socialization of Motivation
*Modelling
*Task Presentation
*Feedback

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Group-Specific Motivational Components Goal-orientedness

Norm & Reward System
Group Cohesion
Classroom Goal Structure

The course specific motivational components relate to the class syllabus, the materials used, the teaching method, and the
learning task. Dornyei uses the conditions presented by Keller and later by Crookes and Schmidt (1991) to describe these
conditions: Interest, Relevance, Expectancy, and Satisfaction. The teacher specific motivational components are the characteristics
of the teacher and the teaching style that affect learner motivation. The group specific motivational components refer to the
social influences on motivation from the collective group that the learner is a part of.

2.3.3.4 Self-determination theory of motivation

Deci and Ryan’s (1985) self-determination theory has a prevailing influence on both psychology and language education
(Liuoliene and Metiuniene, 2006). Self-determination theory was divided into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The self-
determination approach identifies two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation to
perform an activity simply for the pleasure and satisfaction that accompany the action and is considered to be highly self-
determined in the sense that the reason for doing an activity is linked solely to the individual’s positive feelings while performing
the task (Noels et al. 1999). People who are intrinsically motivated feel that they are doing an activity because they have chosen
to do so voluntarily and because the activity represents a challenge to their existing competencies and requires them to use their
creative capabilities (Carreira, 2005). Another example of an intrinsically motivated student is that he or she finds delight in
learning a new way to express an idea in the L2.

Ryan and Deci (2000) demonstrate that an intrinsically motivated person does an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than
for some separable consequence. They also claim that “when intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or
challenged entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures or rewards” (p.56). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation
implies a lack of self-determination, which leads to the behaviours performed not because of inherent interest but because of
extrinsic stimuli (Chang, 1994). In brief, extrinsic motivation is motivation based on external rewards. These external rewards can
be “money, prizes, grades, and even certain types of positive feedback” (Brown, 1994, p.156). The rewards can also be expected
in the future for an EFL learner, being able to immigrate and so forth. Ryan and Deci (2000), meanwhile, remarked that “extrinsic
motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome” (p.60). They
accentuate that extrinsic motivation contrasts with intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation can vary greatly in the degree to
which it is autonomous. To support their argument, Ryan and Deci (2000) give two examples of extrinsic motivation: The first one
is about a student who does his homework only because he is doing the work in order to attain the separable outcome of
avoiding sanctions; the other example of an extrinsically motivated student is that she does the work because she personally
believes it is valuable for her chosen career, so she does the work for its instrumental value rather than because she finds it
interesting.

The final motivational concept proposed by Deci & Ryan (1985, cited in Ryan and Deci, 2000) in theory is a motivation or lack of
any kind of motivation. This differs from demotivation, which “refers to a loss of motivation rather than the state of lacking any
motivation” (Seki, 2004, p.65). A person is considered motivated when he or she does not see a relation between his or her
actions and their consequences but rather sees the consequences as arising from factors beyond his or her control (Noels et al.
1999).

In general, some researchers agree that extrinsic motivation may undermine intrinsic motivation, particularly if a learner receives
the rewards as controlling rather than as providing information about his/her competence. Intrinsic motivation is worth
promoting in L2 learning in that it can foster creativity, conceptual learning, desire for challenges, and enjoyment. Accordingly,
an individual learner who has an intrinsic or extrinsic motivation is likely to feel positive about the activity and put in more effort
over a longer period of time (Chang, 1994).

3. Conclusion

As discussed above, it was confirmed by the researchers that attitude and motivation play a crucial role in language learning and
that attitude and motivation affect how well students learn a language. If students possess a good attitude toward learning the
language, it will accelerate learning. And if learners are well motivated, they will perform well in learning.

Among the motivational theories, self-determination theory and Gardner’s theory attract the most attention. According to
Gardner’s theory, there are two types of motivation: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation refers to a desire to
communicate with community members and become similar to them. Instrumental motivation is associated with a desire to
learn a language for pragmatic gains such as getting a job. Meanwhile, self-determination theory differentiates intrinsic and
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Attitude and Motivation in Language Learning: A Review

extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation to do an activity simply for pleasure and satisfaction, and extrinsic
motivation is the motivation that based on external rewards such as money, prize or grades. Hopefully, this paper's review will
help clarify and shed light on the theory about attitude and motivation in foreign language learning on these aspects.

References

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