Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Water Process Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwpe

Electrospun nanofiber affinity membranes for water treatment applications:

A review
Romina HMTShirazi a, Toraj Mohammadi a, *, Amir Atabak Asadi a, b,
Maryam Ahmadzadeh Tofighy a
a
Center of Excellence for Membrane Science and Technology, Department of Chemical, Petroleum and Gas Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology
(IUST), Narmak, Tehran, Iran
b
Petroleum Refining Technology Development Division, Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (RIPI), Tehran 14857-33111, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Recent environmental studies reveal that protecting freshwater resources and preventing contamination of
Electrospinning groundwater, surface water, and seawater have become critical issues worldwide. With finite available fresh­
Electrospun Nanofiber Materials (ENMs) water resources on our planet, seawater desalination and wastewater treatment are the only practical options to
Membrane separation
overcome the water shortage crisis. Water reclamation using one-dimensional nanostructured materials, such as
Wastewater treatment
electrospun nanofibers, has recently received considerable attention. Electrospun Nanofiber Materials (ENMs) as
One-dimensional nanostructured materials
membranes provide significantly higher flux and energy efficiency than the conventional phase inversion
membranes due to their highly porous, interconnected pore structure, low transmembrane pressure requirement,
while rejection of contaminants is not compromised, which makes them suitable candidates in a wide range of
applications from biomedical devices to water treatment membranes. Numerous investigations have been carried
out on the electrospun nanofibers' thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties prepared under various
fabrication conditions. In this paper, electrospinning theories, effective synthesis parameters, and different
electrospinning devices were reviewed according to the proposed potentials of the ENMs as adsorptive mem­
branes based on past achievements and future challenges in water treatment processes. That is followed by a
comprehensive discussion about ENMs' modification methods to fabricate unique ENMs architectures. Taking
altogether, outlooks and conclusions are expressed in accordance with recent progress.

1. Introduction (by chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and potassium permanganate)

and electrochemical process, (iii) biological treatment methods such as
One of the major global challenges of the 21st century is the lack of using activated sludge, anaerobic reactors, aerated lagoons, and wet­
access to clean and safe water, which affects about one-fourth of the lands, (iv) membrane filtration processes such as microfiltration (MF),
world's population [1]. Hence, stringent environmental guidelines ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO) and
should be applied to prevent contamination of water resources as much electrodialysis (ED), and (v) hybrid processes such as membrane
as possible, provide clean water, and manage/treat industrial effluents. bioreactor (MBR), micellar enhanced UF (MEUF), coagulation/MF,
Some industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, electronics, biotech­ activated carbon/membrane, activated carbon/oxidation and oxida­
nology, petrochemicals, paints, and coatings, are key sectors of waste­ tion/flocculation/membranes [3]. Among these methods, membrane
water handling [2]. Different contaminants exist in water sources such filtration processes have attracted significant attention due to advan­
as oils, viruses, bacteria, suspended particles, organic particles, colloidal tages such as high-quality water production and a small footprint [4].
particles, cells, and monovalent and divalent ions. Current water treat­ However, pressure-driven membrane processes such as MF, UF, NF, and
ment methods are divided into five main groups, (i) physical treatment RO suffer from moderate to high energy consumption because trans­
methods such as adsorption, media filtration (sand, gravel, walnut membrane pressure is needed to separate water from contaminants [5].
shell), evaporation, distillation, air floatation, and hydro-cyclones, (ii) On the other hand, the adsorption process with various advantages
chemical treatment methods such as precipitation, chemical oxidation such as simple design, cost-efficiency, regeneration ability, and high

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Mohammadi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.102795
Received 26 January 2022; Received in revised form 11 April 2022; Accepted 14 April 2022
Available online 22 April 2022
2214-7144/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 1. a) Documented publications in the field of electrospinning (adapted from lens.org, updated on February 2022), Scopus data of b) documented institutions
working on the electrospinning field taken on February 2022, c) A historic/predictive analysis of various nanofibers market (glass nanofiber, composite nanofiber,
ceramic nanofiber, carbon nanofiber, and polymer nanofiber), d) global nanofibers consumption shares in various sector, Copyright 2019.
Adapted with permission from the IntechOpen [12].

Fig. 2. Network mapping of co-occurrence keywords using the VOS viewer software.

selectivity can be used in water and wastewater treatment applications. would enhance the adsorption capacity of an adsorbent, such as adsor­
Although the adsorption process consumes less energy than the mem­ bate nature, pH level, and ionic strength, which influence electrostatic
brane process, it suffers from low adsorption capacity for most adsor­ and hydrophobic interactions between adsorbent and adsorbate as key
bents and environmental issues and costs associated with disposal, elements of adsorption. The most influential factors are the net surface
cleaning, and regeneration of spent adsorbing media [6–8]. Some factors charge and pH level [9].

2
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Relevant review papers published in recent years (<4 years). Review paper title Year Aim Ref.
Review paper title Year Aim Ref.
process, material selection,
Electrospun nanofibrous 2018 Focused on proteins' separation [13] polymeric nanofibers
composite materials: a and purification mechanisms modification, and proposed
versatile platform for high- utilizing different functional practical applications as an
efficiency protein electrospun materials as high- adsorptive membrane for
adsorption and separation performance protein adsorbent dynamic water filtration.
materials. Also, the factors
which influence the protein's
separation performance were Electrospun Nanofiber Materials (ENMs) as adsorptive membranes
discussed. provide an exciting opportunity to combine the advantages of mem­
Current Trends of Electrospun 2018 Summarized the recent trends [14]
brane and adsorption processes [10]. The interconnected pore structure
Nanofibers in Water and of electrospun nanofibers as
Wastewater Treatment filter media, sensors, and of ENMs provides minimum resistance against water transport so that
adsorbents, focusing on the membrane flux can reach the highest level. Also, due to their large
effective photocatalytic surface-to-volume ratio, ENMs can remove contaminations as adsor­
parameters in wastewater bents effectively, with minimum energy consumption. Adsorption ca­
treatment.
Electrospinning and 2019 Highlighted recent advances [15]
pacity or separation performance of the ENMs-based adsorptive
Electrospun Nanofibers: related to general applications membranes can also be enhanced by functionalizing the ENMs [11].
Methods, Materials, and of electrospun nanofibers by Fig. 1-(a) shows the increasing number of scholarly published
Applications representing the most relevant research works from 1999 to 2021 on electrospinning. The growing
examples.
trend of published research works confirms the importance of this
Electrospun Nanofibers for 2020 Focused on the different [16]
Chemical Separation capture mechanisms of research area. Also, Fig. 1-(b) shows the number of research works
adsorption and their distinctive documented in different countries. Fig. 1-(c) and (d) reveals the market
characteristics. share of nanofibers in 2018 and their predicted market in 2027 and
Electrospun Nanofibrous 2020 Reported recent studies on [17] global nanofibers consumption shares in various sectors, respectively.
Membranes for Water dyes, oil, and heavy metals
Treatment applications removal from water by various
To provide a better perspective on the objective of this paper, the
composite fiber membranes studied field (electrospinning) was visualized using VOSviewer software
with a special look at different by simulating a network of keywords (Fig. 2). Each keyword is repre­
membrane technologies for sented by a node. The size of the node is a measure of how common the
water treatment.
keyword is, and the distance between nodes indicates their relation. The
Functionalized electrospun 2020 Focused on modified [18]
nanofiber membranes for electrospun nanofibers main keywords are classified into 5 clusters distinguished by different
water treatment: A review membranes only through the colors, showing the main areas of electrospinning research. These fields
functionalization method used are 1) applications of electrospun nanofibers for removal of contami­
in different water treatment nants like dyes from wastewater through the adsorption process, 2)
technologies, including
membrane bioreactor, oil/
modification methods of electrospun nanofibers, 3) composite nano­
water separation, heavy metal fibers, 4) applications of ENMs for water and wastewater treatment, and
adsorption, and photocatalytic 5) metal ion (lead, copper, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, Cu(II), and
treatment. Pb(II)) adsorption by ENMs. Research has recently focused on air and
Heavy metal removal 2020 Reported all types of adsorptive [19]
water filtration through the modified electrospun nanofiber membranes
applications using membranes used in heavy
adsorptive membranes metal removal applications based on the represented keywords.
while highlighting the existing To date, numerous review articles have been published with different
technologies as well as the approaches to water treatment applications. Most of the published ar­
interactions between the heavy ticles have been intended for biological treatments, while a few focused
metals and adsorbents.
A critical review on the 2021 Reviewed the research progress [20]
on physical/chemical treatments. To highlight the necessity of this re­
electrospun nanofibrous in providing organic/inorganic view paper, the relevant review papers published in recent years (<4
membranes for the composite ENMs as adsorbents years) were listed in Table 1. Also, the topics covered in these review
adsorption of heavy metals to remove only heavy metals papers and their chief aims were stated. As can be observed, most of the
in water treatment from water.
published review papers have focused on the ENMs fabrication from
Progress in adsorptive 2021 Surveyed the latest progress in [21]
membranes for separation – preparing different adsorptive specific materials or their water treatment applications. A lack of review
A review membranes and their papers in the field of application of ENMs as adsorptive membranes
applications in separating could be seen, which was addressed in this paper. The main objective of
biochemical products from this review paper is to provide insight into electrospinning process and
aqueous solutions and solid-
its controlling parameters, as well as modification methods of ENMs and
phase extraction.
Water desalination and ion 2022 Focused on salt and ion [22] their adsorptive applications in removal of various contaminants, based
removal using mixed matrix removal using mixed matrix on recent advances. This review also gives insight into designing ENMs-
electrospun nanofibrous electrospun nanofiber based adsorptive membranes as high-efficiency separation systems that
membrane materials containing different
combine adsorption and sieving characteristics.
nanoparticles and polymer
matrices.
Electrospun nanofiber affinity 2022 Discussed a compilation of the This 2. Membrane separation processes
membranes for water most relevant information study
treatment applications: A about fundamental aspects of Conventional water treatment methods are subcategorized as floc­
review electrospun materials as a
culation, coagulation, ion exchange, adsorption, and membrane pro­
multi-aspect package of
working theories, influential cesses, as represented in Fig. 3. Some of these treatment technologies
parameters in the fiber-forming have deficiencies such as the need for more purification steps, pH-
dependency, high cost, toxic byproducts, and low efficiency [3].

3
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of removal mechanism of (A) flocculation/sedimentation, (B) coagulation, and (C) membrane filtration for (a) conventional and (b)
adsorptive membranes.

Fig. 4. Separation capability of MF, UF, NF, and RO processes.

Among all water treatment methods, membrane separation processes molecular organic matter and monovalent and divalent ions from water
have been widely applied in industrial water treatment due to their [24]. Fig. 4 shows the separation capability of MF, UF, NF, and RO as
distinct advantages over traditional techniques, such as higher water pressure-driven membrane processes.
product quality and lower operating costs [11]. Besides, membrane MF membranes with pore sizes ranging from 0.1 to 10 μm can
processes' versatility allows combining them with conventional methods remove all the suspended particles, such as bacteria. UF membranes'
to obtain optimum hybrid procedures for water treatment. pore size ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 μm, eliminating macromolecules and
Among all membrane types, adsorptive membranes (also known as most viruses. The permeated water from the UF membranes is viewed as
affinity membranes) can be used as effective, selective, and economical safe water for consumption. NF membranes possess pores in the range of
water treatment methods. Fig. 3-C represents the adsorptive membranes' 1 to 10 nm and are primarily used for water softening or removal of
separation mechanism compared to the conventional membranes. divalent ions. RO membranes are considered non-porous membranes
As depicted in Fig. 3-C (b), the higher the adsorption sites, the higher (pore diameter > 1 nm) and are used to remove almost all monovalent
the amount of contaminant removal. Thus, membrane structures with ions. The required operating pressure rises as the membrane pore size
higher porosity offer higher separation efficiency. decreases [25].
Numerous previous investigators have considered using looser To fabricate MF and UF membranes, phase inversion, electro­
membranes, MF and UF, for oil, viruses, and dye removal from waste­ spinning, sintering, track etching, and stretching methods are commonly
water [23]. Tighter NF and RO membranes are required to separate sub- used, and these membranes separate contaminants through size

4
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 2
Polymeric membrane fabrication methods.
Methods Characteristics

Ease of process/scale-up Pore size distribution Cost Porosity/flux Operational temp. Versatility (material selection) Yield speed

Electrospinning Easy Narrow Low >90% Low High Low

Medium (100 nm–3 μm) High
Phase inversion Easy Wide Low ~80% Low High High
Easy (20 nm–0.5 μm) High
Interfacial polymerization Easy Narrow Low 40–70% Low Limited Low
Hard (0.001–0.01 μm) Medium
stretching Hard Wide Low 60–80% High Limited Low
Hard (0.1–3 μm) High
Track etching Hard Wide High 10% Low Limited Low
Hard (0.02–10 μm) Low
Sintering Hard Narrow High 10–20% High Limited Low
Hard (0.02–10 μm) Low
Temple leaching Complex Narrow High 50–70% Low Limited Low
Hard (0.5–10 μm) High

screening. Interfacial polymerization (IP) is used to synthesize NF and membrane with 0.22 mm pore size) in the aspects of selectivity and
RO thin-film composite membranes. The pros and cons of these mem­ permeability due to their interconnected pore structure and controllable
brane fabrication methods are presented in Table 2 [25]. porosity and thickness. The ENMs are able to provide pure water flux
Phase inversion via immersion precipitation (non-solvent induced 3–7 times higher than the Millipore GSWP membranes. In the case of
phase separation (NIPS)) is a desirable method to fabricate MF and UF selectivity, although the GSWP MF membranes can effectively remove
membranes. In this method, first, a polymer solution is cast on a suitable bacteria (not viruses), but bacteria grow and pass into these filters after
support and then immersed in a non-solvent (mainly water) bath to form long-term operation [27]. However, ENMs compose of antibacterial
an asymmetric membrane. This fabrication process is straightforward, materials and offer controllable pore size, minimizing bacteria growth
scalable, and inexpensive. However, the permeation flux of the fabri­ and penetration throughout the membrane's structure.
cated membranes via the NIPS method is limited due to the formation of The ENM-based adsorptive membranes are the best candidates to
a skin layer on the top surface of membranes. As a competitor, the expel many pollutants from aqueous systems under low operating
nanofiber membranes offer a set of benefits such as higher porosity and pressure [29]. However, the electrospun nanofibers mainly could not
interconnected pores that can overcome the challenges of NIPS mem­ provide the desired mechanical strength because of their small diameter,
branes [26]. Electrospinning is the most effective way of generating so this challenge could be solved using nanofillers in ENMs structure or
polymeric nanofibers with a simple 3-dimensional structure [27]. The multilayer ENMs preparation [28].
ENMs surpass the conventional MF substrates (the Millipore GSWP MF To meet water treatment guidelines, ENMs can be functionalized by

Fig. 5. Electrospinning method's timeline.

5
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 6. Pathway of (A) a jet flowing out in the gravity enhanced electrospinning setup, (B) Schematic diagram of the Taylor Cone formation that depicts forces on the
cone leading to jet stretching and formation. (V represents the whole volume of the conical shape, V1 shows the volume of the jet, and V2 is the empty volume of the
conical shape), Reproduced with permission from the American Institute of Physics [41]. (C) Schematic path of Cone-jet of polyethylene oxide (PEO) in water (2%
solutions), D = 45 cm in all cases: (a) Q = 0.02 mL/min, E = 0.282 kV/cm, (b) Q = 0.10 mL/, E = 0.344 kV/cm min, (c) Q = 0.50 mL/min, E = 0.533 kV/cm, (d) Q =
1.00 mL/min, E = 0.716 kV/cm), Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Books [42].

intensifying their hydrophobic features and increasing their electrostatic material was not honored because of its characterization deficit over
interactions with contaminants to obtain novel membrane systems with those periods. After that, the excellence of electrospinning technology
high efficiency [30]. Different methods have been proposed to improve was proven for nanofibers formation, even at an industrial scale [34]. In
permeation properties of ENMs-based adsorptive membranes, including the 1990s, with the advent of nanotechnology, the possibility of
nanoparticles (NPs) incorporation into a polymer matrix, chemical controlled nanofiber formation was well understood and demonstrated.
modification of membrane surface by functional molecules, and coating After 2010, most research works in electrospinning focused on a wide
separate permselective layers on the top surface of ENMs-based variety of processes such as preparing composite nanofibers containing
adsorptive membranes [31]. These modified membranes exhibit metal oxides and other nanoparticles and functionalized polymers-based
considerable resistance against fouling and are competitive candidates nanofibers. The electrospinning timeline is shown in Fig. 5 [34].
for various applications such as healthcare, environmental, biotech­ Electrospinning was first considered the simplest, most cost-
nology, and energy storage applications [17]. Considering studies in this effective, and most practical electrostatically driven method than the
field, it can be claimed that electrospinning is a novel technology for the other nanofibers fabrication techniques like melt filtration or gas jet
upcoming generation in laboratories and industrial scale. It requires technology. It is implemented in synthesizing one-dimension nano­
more studies on the fabrication of the electrospun nanofibers to obtain structures with lengths smaller than micron-scale, ranging from 100 to
stable and ongoing accomplishments of these practical products. 1000 nm, with tunable diameter and adjustable compositions for sepa­
ration goals [35]. Specifically, ENMs are one of the emerging membrane
3. Electrospinning materials for water treatment applications. They provide advantages
such as higher quality of treated water at lower transmembrane pressure
One-dimensional nanostructures, including nanowires, nanorods, (TMP), more ability to be functionalized, and higher surface area than
nanotubes, belts, and nanofibers, are used for a wide range of applica­ conventional membrane materials [36]. Electrospinning is divided into
tions, such as membranes fabrication, adsorption, electronic devices, two main categories: melt electrospinning and solution electrospinning,
artificial organs in tissue engineering, fuel cells, sensors, protecting which latter is being used more frequently to fabricate ENMs. In solution
clothes, and catalysts [32]. These one-dimensional nanostructures pro­ electrospinning, fibers are made under the electric field force by pulling
vide unique electrical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics that the droplets from the syringe tip toward the metal grounded collector
make them suitable for various applications. Among these nano­ plate. The reduced surface tension results in a very thin fiber being
structures, nanofibers made from polymers, carbon, ceramic, glass, and drawn out. The applied voltage ranges from 8 to 25 kV depending on the
composite materials have received more significant attention due to targeted fiber's structure, polymeric concentration, and tip-to-collector
their distinct properties. Fig. 1-(c) shows that polymeric nanofibers will distance. Electrostatic forces finally draw the fibers toward a conduc­
be more popular than inorganic nanofibers. One of the most versatile tive collector (Fig. 7). These ENMs-based membranes can be effectively
methods to manufacture these polymeric nanofibers is electrospinning. used in water treatment applications [37].
Before moving further, it is better to address this review's central
question, “Why electrospun nanofibers?”. Compared with other tech­
nologies, using electrospinning, fibers can be made much thinner, and 3.1. Electrospinning theories
even nanoscale polymeric fibers can be achieved. Electrospinning is the
most implemented method than other nanofibers fabrication methods There are several fundamental theories on electrospinning, which
because it is a simple process and has tunable parameters [33]. can be classified into a few categories, including theories based on the
The electrospray method rooted in the later 1890s was changed to liquid droplet, fluid charging, high potential difference (Taylor Cone
electrospinning in 1900. The first patent was registered for the elec­ theory), and the theory based on jet-inflight instability [38]. In 1964, Sir
trospinning device by Formhals in 1934. This patent in the nanoscale Geoffrey Ingram Taylor developed the Taylor Cone hypothesis to explain
the deformation of a little volume of Newtonian viscoelastic fluid

6
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 7. Major parts of a horizontal electrospinning setup used for ENMs preparation: a) syringe pump, b) high voltage power supply, and c) collector.

exposed to a strong electric field. By increasing the potential gradient electric field, the jet stream is extremely thinned to nanoscale dimension
beyond the maximum value under which a stable condition can be (Fig. 6-(A)). The more unstable the jet stream, the more whipping mo­
established, a Cone known as the Taylor cone with a half angle of 49.3◦ tions cause violent deflection of the jet pathway [40].
(a whole angle of 98.6◦ ) is formed (Fig. 6-(B(). Based on this theory, the As shown in Fig. 6, the charged jet is quickened from the syringe tip
charged fluid jet is exited in the presence of forces including gravity, in the presence of an electric field made by the potential gradient due to
viscoelastic, surface tension, electrostatic, air drag, and Columbia the collector grounding [41]. Repercussions of polymeric dope flow rate
repulsion (Fig. 6-(B() [39]. As the electrostatic force overcomes the fluid and potential difference in the jet radius are demonstrated in Fig. 6-(C).
surface tension, the polymer solution forms the Taylor Cone that facil­ The characteristic length is one of the affecting parameters on the
itates reaching the thin jet stream to the collector (with the opposite straight jet formation related to the dependency of the jet's radius and
charge) [40]. Finally, fibers are solidified after extending the electrifi­ the axial distance from the tip's center [43].
cation jet due to the electrostatic interactions between the surface
charge and the polymeric solution. The jet stream, which is the charged 3.2. Electrospinning device
fluid launched out from the Taylor Cone, travels through a straight line
and twists due to its instabilities, and under the effect of the extended A wide variety of electrospinning apparatuses with different needles,

Fig. 8. Classification of electrospinning setup based on: a) the needle types and b) the collector types. Collector's configurations involve A) solid rotating cylinder, B)
rotating wire drum, C) solid flat collector, D) guidewire collector, E) rotating disc with sharp and edged forms, F) parallel electrode collector, G) liquid bath, and H)
conveyor. The needle types are classified into two categories: i) single-needle spinnerets and j) multi-needle spinnerets for nanofibers mass productions.

7
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 9. The schematic of influential parameters on the resultant electrospun nanofibers.

Fig. 10. Effects of four different critical solution concentrations and viscosities on the electrospun nanofibers' morphology: formation of (a) droplet-shaped beads in
the lowest concentration, (b) beads with elongated droplet shape in the moderate concentration, (c) beads in the form of the stretched droplet in the moderate
concentration, (d) fine (but thick) nanofibers in the highest concentration © Copyright 2019. Adapted with permission from the IntechOpen [12]. Effect of different
PVDF concentrations on nanofibers diameter (e-16%, f-20%, g-26%), (h) with a distance of 15 cm, and potential difference of 15 kV © Copyright 2015, Reprinted
with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry [53]. Effects of solvent selection on the resulting nanofibers prepared using 4 wt% polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
solutions in (i) ethanol, (j) methylene chloride (MC), (k) dimethylformamide (DMF) © Copyright 2004, Reprinted with permission from John Wiley and Sons [54].
The polyvinylalcohol (PVA) electrospun fiber's SEM images obtained at (m) 2 mL/h, (n) 3 mL/h, (o) 4 mL/h, (p) 5 mL/h flow rates, Reproduced with permission from
Springer Nature [55]. Effect of relative humidity (RH) ranges on the polysulfone (PSf) electrospun nanofibers morphology ((q) 31–38%, (r) 40–45%, (s) 50–59%, (t)
60–72%) Copyright 2004, Reprinted with permission from American Chemical Society [56].

8
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

spinnerets, and collectors' have been designed to obtain optimal nano­ Table 3
fibers structure in targeted applications [44]. However, some devices Effective parameters on size and morphology of electrospun fibers.
are available without any needle on their spinneret. Needleless elec­ Parameters Size/morphology
trospinning apparatus has much potential for large-scale production of
(In lower rate) (In higher rate)
ENMs [45]. The basic form of electrospinning setup can be seen in Fig. 7.
This setup with this configuration consists of three major components: a Solution Concentration Thinner/ Thicker/fine
parameters beaded
syringe pump, a high voltage DC power supply, and a collector, which Viscosity Thinner/ Thicker/fine
this configuration is the most customary one in the market presently. beaded
Electrospinning apparatuses are categorized based on their collector Conductivity Thinner Thinner/fine
and nozzle types. Some ENMs characteristics, including the fiber Solvent volatility Beaded Fine/porous
Surface tension Smooth Beaded
morphology and its final application, have directed researchers to
Process Applied voltage Thicker Thinner/beaded
design specific electrospinning setups [44]. Various spinneret designs parameters Flow rate Thinner/fine Thicker/beaded
could obtain a wide range of electrospinning apparatuses. The coaxial Tip-to-collector Fine Beaded
electrospinning setup is pushing the boundaries of spinning science. It distance
leads to the formation of core-sheath nanofibers (as the most effective Orifice size Thinner Thicker
Ambient Humidity Porous Less adhesive/
form of fibers throughout contaminates adsorption in water treatment), parameters thinner
tri-axial nanofibers (having the most reliable drug delivery perfor­ Temperature Thicker/ Thinner/smooth
mance) [46], hollow nanofibers (if the outer case is filled by certain gas adhesive
for tissue engineering applications) [47] and uni-axial nanofibers [48]
as shown in Fig. 8.
According to numerous studies focused on solubility parameters,
One of the major bottlenecks of the electrospinning process is
solvents with lower vapor pressure and higher solubility (closer to the
transferring the synthesized mat onto other substrates for different ap­
polymer) are more unstable and more likely to lead to beaded fibers.
plications. Typically, Aluminum foil is used to collect electrospun fibers.
Other than the solubility parameter, the surface tension of solvent also
Various types of collectors have been used so far to facilitate the transfer
plays a significant role in the properties of resulting fibers. The mini­
of electrospun mat, as represented in Fig. 8-(a–h) [49]. On a laboratory
mum potential difference to obtain fibers is determined by the surface
scale, rotating drums are the most common collectors because of their
tension of the polymeric solution. Fig. 10-(i–k) shows TEM images of the
potential to produce well-oriented fibers. Li et al. reported that the type
nanofibers prepared via electrospinning of 4 wt% PVP solutions in
of collector affects the morphology of electrospun mats (Fig. 8-(i, j))
dichloromethane (MC) ethanol and N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF). As
[50].
can be observed, the lower the polymer solution's surface tension, the
smoother fibers are obtained instead of the beaded fibers. Typically,
3.3. Influential parameters on electrospinning
polymer solution spinnability is better in lower surface tension, but an
optimized surface tension is required to produce beadles and smooth
Influential parameters on electrospun nanofibers can be divided into
fibers [54,59].
three distinct groups: solution parameters, ambient parameters, and
In summary, ultrathin and robust nanofibers with uniform structure
process parameters, as shown in Fig. 9.
can be obtained by adjusting polymer concentration, dope conductivity,
viscosity, surface tension, and an appropriate solvent selection.
3.3.1. Polymeric solution parameters
The polymer solution concentration, viscosity, conductivity, and
3.3.2. Process parameters
surface tension affect fiber diameter [51]. Shao et al. showed that
To start the electrospinning process, a minimum voltage (known as
increasing the solution concentration from 16% to 26% increased the
an edge-voltage) should be applied for the Taylor-cone formation. Some
fiber diameter from ~0.2 μm to ~0.8 μm. Fig. 10-(a–k) visualizes the
researchers recommended using higher voltage to narrow the fibers
dependency of fiber diameter on solution characteristics [52].
instead of other parameters manipulation [60]. It is worth mentioning
The effects of viscosity and concentration of the polymeric solution
that applying higher voltage was reported to form beaded structures,
on the fibers' morphology are demonstrated schematically in Fig. 10-
likely due to reduced flight time and stretching. However, the effec­
(a–d). As can be seen, the beads' shape highly depends on the viscosity of
tiveness of voltage strongly depends on the distance between the col­
the polymeric dope solution, which is controlled by the polymer con­
lector and the tip, the orifice, and the polymer solution characteristics.
centration. Fig. 10-(e) illustrates ENMs with beaded structures consist­
To provide adequate time for evaporation of the solvent, lower flow
ing of nanoparticles/particles instead of ideal fibers due to the low
rates are preferred. Acik et al. showed that by increasing the flow rate
solution viscosity and high surface tension. Increasing polymer con­
from 2 to 5 mL/h, thicker and beaded fibers are formed (Fig. 10-(m–p))
centration, resulting in higher solution viscosity, reduces the number of
[55]. At lower flow rates, the thinner fibers arrive in the collector [61].
beads significantly and forms uniform fibers, as seen in Fig. 10-(f and g).
The tip-to-collector distance was also found to affect the morphology
Fig. 10-(h) shows that solution concentrations less than 20% lead to the
and diameter of the fibers strongly. At longer distances than a specified
formation of beads in the structure of fibers. However, by increasing the
minimum, the long residence time in the air cause evaporation of the
polymeric solution concentration beyond 20%, surface tension governs
solvent before fibers arrive at the collector. On the other hand, the
the whole process, resulting in thicker fibers with spiral-shaped micro-
beaded fibers are more likely to form for longer distances due to the
strips. This causes losing many nanoscale-related properties. There is a
weakened force field [62]. Hence, tip-to-collector distance must be
strong relationship between polymer concentration and polymer solu­
optimized.
tion viscosity. The higher the polymer concentration, the higher the
viscosity, and thus the more difficult the polymer solution could be
3.3.3. Ambient parameters
injected [57]. It was reported that continuous fibers with even and
Ambient parameters, including relative humidity (RH) and temper­
appropriate arrangements could not be achieved with too low or too
ature of electrospinning chambers, were found to affect the properties of
high viscosities. The higher the polymer solution conductivity, the lower
resulting fibers significantly. As the RH increases, less adhesive and
the fibers' diameter. Zhao et al. reported that the low conductivity of
thinner nanofibers are produced [63]. Fig. 10-(q–t) shows that PSf fibers
polymer solution might lead to the production of low-quality fibers. To
with higher porosity are formed by increasing the RH in the electro­
increase its conductivity, this challenge could be resolved by adding
spinning chamber.
salts, such as KBr, NaCl, and KCl, to the spinning solution [58].

9
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 4
Polymers with their solvents and concentration range in electrospinning for different applications.
Polymer Solvent Concentration (wt%) Applications

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Dimethylacetamide 13–25 Nano-textile

Dimethylformamide Filtration
Ethylene Strong substrates
Metal ion adsorption
Polystyrene (PS) Tetrahydrofuran 18–35 Air filtration
Dimethylacetamide Ion-exchange filter
Dimethylformamide Oil-spill cleanup
Coalescing filtration
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) Dimethylacetamide 10–15 Nanofiber reinforced
Dimethylformamide Protective clothing
Fuel cell
Composite nanofiber
Polyurethane (PU) Dimethylformamide 10–13 Electret filter
Dimethylacetamide Tissue engineering
Protective clothing
Nylon 6 and 66 Formic acid 10–15 Protective clothing
MF membrane
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Dimethylformamide 10–24 Membrane
Dimethylacetamide Flat ribbon
Acetone Protective clothing
Tetrahydrofuran
Polyvinylalcohol (PVA) Distilled water 8–12 Drug delivery
Tissue engineering
Polyetherimide (PEI) Hexafluoro-2-propanol 10–13 Flat ribbon
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Dimethylformamide 10–15 Filters
Tetrahydrofuran Fabrics
Chitosan (CS) Distilled water/acetic acid Antibacterial coating
Drug delivery
Wound dressing
Tissue engineering
Adsorption
Cellulose acetate (CA) Dimethylacetamide 12–20 Membranes
Acetic acid
Acetone
Polyethylenterephthalate (PET) Dichloromethane 4–10 Filters
Trifluoroacetic Fabrics

By increasing the temperature of the electrospinning chamber, fibers adsorptive membranes due to their better surface chemical property.
with a smoother surface and smaller diameter could be obtained due to Fig. 11-(A) shows that different techniques can indirectly perform
the higher solvent evaporation rate [64]. The appropriate range of surface modification, including nanomaterial incorporation into the
electrospinning temperature is determined based on the solvent's vapor polymer matrix and multicomponent and multilayer nanofibers fabri­
pressure [65]. By increasing the chamber temperature, early solidifica­ cation. The most common modification method is the direct grafting of
tion of the nanofibers interrupts the jet stretching. The effective pa­ functional groups on the surface of the adsorptive membrane. This
rameters of electrospun fibers are summarized in Table 3. method can solve the problem of adsorbent falling-off, which leads to
stable and excellent adsorption performance after repeated use or under
3.4. Polymer selection for electrospun nanofibers a harsh environment.

Polymers with different molecular weights can form nanofibers with 4.1. Nanomaterials implementation
a broad range of diameters, depending on processing conditions. The
selection of polymer and other ingredients of the polymeric solution Various nanomaterials have gained prominence to fabricate com­
strongly relies on the application of the resulting electrospun mat posite nanofibers with engineered characteristics. The major challenge
[61,66]. For example, Kim et al. synthesized well-qualified chitosan of nanomaterials' implementation is their appropriate dispersion to
nanofibers for antibacterial purposes [67]. Wang et al. used conductive confer their features to the resulting nanofibers (Fig. 11A-(b)). If nano­
polymers to make nanofibers applicable in sensors or electrodes and materials are uniformly dispersed, they can improve nanofibers' me­
tissue engineering. Conductive polymers are chosen because they chanical strength based on nanoparticles' surface and quantum effects
exhibit much higher electrical conductivity in energy applications. Also, [69]. Nanomaterials are assorted as organic/inorganic-based nano­
ultrafine structures can be obtained by using conductive polymers [68]. particles and composite nanoparticles.
An overview of polymer materials commonly used in electrospinning for Organic-based nanomaterials are subcategorized into carbon-
different applications is provided in Table 4. derivative nanomaterials, which mainly establish non-covalent inter­
action in desired polymeric nanofibers' matrix [70,71]. As Zhou et al.
4. Polymeric nanofibers modification reported, multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and single-walled
carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were embedded on polyethylene oxide)
Despite many advantages of electrospun nanofibers, on the other PEO(nanofibers to obtain more hydrophilic nanofibers with higher
side, they have some pitfalls, such as a lack of strength due to their mechanical strength to be used in high-pressure membrane processes
highly porous structure and small diameter. Most of the non-modified [72,73]. The same result was obtained in another research on poly­
structures of nanofibers possess pore diameters up to 1 μm. By modi­ etherimide (PEI) nanofiber substrate [74], as shown in Table 5. PAN
fying the nanofibers, a reduction in the pore size is inevitable. Modified nanofibers form complexes with MWCNTs, and as a result, molecular
ENMs show higher efficiency in wastewater treatment processes as motions of the fabricated nanofibers are reduced, and thus they can be

10
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 11. A) Different surface modification methods; (a) multicomponent, (b) nanomaterial implementation, (c) layer by layer (LBL), (d) chemical grafting, (e)
functionalization, (f) self-assembly, and (g) plasma treatment, B) Preparation steps of a layered composite membrane on an electrospun nanofiber membrane, and C)
Cross-section schematic of TFN membranes.

handled at higher temperatures [75]. Compared to one-dimensional at lower expenses [67]. Therefore, a combination of components as a
nanomaterials like CNTs, two-dimensional ones like graphene oxide multi-component method can fulfill the design of proper ENM in
(GO) attract more interest due to their thermal and chemical strength accordance with the targeted application (Fig. 11A-(a)).
besides the versatility and processability of their solutions [76,77]. Despite numerous advantages of natural polymers such as chitosan
In the case of inorganic-based nanomaterials, the most prominent and cellulose acetate, most of them are not electrospinnable. These
characteristic of metal nanoparticles is their antibacterial activity, problems can be addressed by implementing guest polymers such as poly
which can be intensified by nanoparticles incorporated into polymeric (vinyl alcohol) and polyethylene oxide to obtain fine multi-component
nanofibers. It is caused by the generation of reactive oxygen species fibers [96]. Abdelgawad et al. reported the fabrication of chitosan/
(ROS), leading to the degradation of microorganisms [78]. Imple­ poly (vinyl alcohol) multicomponent ENM that exhibits superior prop­
mentation of the nanoclays can result in the formation of uniform erties as well as antibacterial effects by combining Ag-NPs into the
composite nanofibers with fewer beads on their structure due to their polymer matrix [87].
higher dope solution conductivity [79]. Xin et al. reported that nano­ Polymers like PES and PAN have unique properties such as spinn­
clays incorporated PVDF nanofibers resulted in a more uniform fiber ability, commercial viability, and eco-friendly that have made their use
structure [80]. In the study of Ji et al., SiO2 incorporation was proved very popular in the electrospinning process [97]. The PES electrospun
the attractive polymer–nanoparticles interfacial interactions, enhancing substrates are the most useful water filters requiring modifications to
the thermal properties of ultrafine PAN/silica composite fibers [81]. The tailor strength, permeability, and wettability. These substrates are
notable cooperative effects of the nanomaterials mentioned above are mainly modified through oxidation and mixed solvent implementation
presented in Table 5. [98]. Cisse et al. implemented the UV photo-oxidation method to in­
crease the surface oxygen content of a fabricated substrate, which causes
its more affinity to wettability [99]. The enhanced hydrophilicity of the
4.2. Multicomponent nanofibers
substrate leads to obtaining higher water flux. However, cake-like
fouling increases after a while, and consequently, the permeation rate
Although the electrospinning method can cover a wide range of
diminishes [100]. As Liang et al. reported, PEI has large amounts of
polymers with different molecular weights, sufficient molecular weight
amino and imino groups, and therefore, it is hard to be implemented in
and appropriate solubility of the polymer in solvent must be considered
the electrospinning process due to the steric hindrance of the related
to fabricate high-quality nanofibers [95]. To broaden the material se­
functional groups. If PES is added to the PEI dope solution, it makes the
lection, if one compound has the minimum requirements of electro­
electrospinning process possible [101].
spinning, it can be appropriate for electrospun nanofibers mat formation

11
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 5
Reported works regarding different implemented nanomaterials and the resultant features.
Nanomaterials Polymer of Resultant features Related reason Ref.
nanofibers

MWCNTs PEO Enhanced the mechanical strength High elastic modulus of MWCNTs [72]
SWCNTs PEO scaffolds Enhanced the mechanical strength Stable dispersion of SWCNTs in aligned PEO crystals [73]
MWCNTs-PEI PAN Enhanced the mechanical strength Large amount of amino functional groups provided by [74]
covalent
immobilization of PEI onto MWCNT nanosheets
MWCNTs PAN Thermal resistant improvement High thermal conductivity and hardness of MWCNTs [82]
MWCNTs PVDF-PDMS Superhydrophobic properties, fouling resistant Vertically oriented and hydrophobic MWCNTs maximized [83]
the surface roughness
GO PVDF Higher water flux, mechanical strength, and anti-fouling Strong hydrogen bond [84]
properties between GO and PVDF, enhanced membrane hydrophilicity
GO-Fe3O4 PAN Magnetic nanofibers with higher adsorption capacity Formation of large-size and recrystallized particles on [85]
nanofibers
Silver PAN, and Ideal antibacterial properties Electrostatic attraction and affinity to sulfur proteins [86]
Chitosan/PVA
Gold or ZnO PVA/CS Enhanced antibacterial properties Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) increased [87,88]
oxidative stress of microbial cells
Nano-clay PVDF Enhanced physical features, more gamma and beta phase, less Nanoclays increased solution conductivity, promoted [80]
alpha phase, and morphology with less bead formation of beta phase and demolished alpha phase
Montmorillonite PVA/CS Higher water flux, mechanical strength, dye removal, and Electrostatic interaction between lone pair of electrons on [89]
(Mt) adsorption capacity nitrogen atom of -NH2 groups and positive charge of cationic
dye
SiO2 PVA/CS Higher water flux and dye rejection Dominant effect of electrostatic interaction rather than [90]
molecular sieving
Silica In any polymer Higher glass transition temperature (tg) Attractive interaction between PAN and silica [81]
SiO2 PEI Improved water flux Increased pore size and porosity [91]
F-TiO2 In any polymer Enhanced the mechanical strength, Ideal antibacterial -Dual-nozzle electrospinning reduced brittleness of [92]
properties, more hydrophobic nature, higher resistance membrane
against heat -TiO2 addition resulted in higher membrane porosity, greater
hydrophobicity, and crystallinity
Ammonia PVDF Adjustable wettability Surface fluoride content [93]
Fe3O4 PS Magnetic nanofibers, higher thermal resistant Nanoparticles acted as magnetic barriers which decreased [94]
thermal transport and volatilization

In the case of multicomponent nanofibers, hollow nanofibers (a form The electrospinning method mainly forms MF substructures, which
of core-sheath fibers) are developed in a wide variety of applications. can be used to make novel thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes
According to their applications, coaxial electrospun nanofibers' outer for Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO), Forward Osmosis (FO), Nano­
and inner surfaces can be functionalized differently by implementing the filtration (NF), and oil/water separation applications [111]. A major
multicomponent method [46]. As Li et al. reported, silica and 3-mercap­ type of TFN electrospun nanofiber membrane is made up of three layers
topropul trimethoxysilane-PAN hollow nanofibers appear as examples containing a non-woven polyethylene terephthalate (PET) layer as the
to be more effective in eliminating mercury from wastewater [102]. substrate, a polyacrylonitrile, or poly (vinylidene fluoride) electrospun
Besides, electrospun fibers' lack of chemical strength has motivated mat as the second layer, and the top layer resulting from interfacial
scientists to address it by using cross-linker agents [103]. Generally, polymerization [112]. TFN electrospun nanofiber membranes with ions
water-soluble polymers such as chitosan, polyamide, poly (vinyl embedded on the top layer have two affecting parameters: ions type and
alcohol), poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG), and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) concentration, which play vital roles in permeation flux rate, mechani­
are more prone to swell and dissolve in the water treatment systems. cal properties, and salt rejection [113]. It was found that higher ions
They need crosslinking agents to stabilize their performance in aqueous concentration and larger ions on the top layer resulted in reduced
solutions implementing the multicomponent method [104]. Aldehyde- permeation flux and improved salt rejection. However, the selective
based materials are the most used crosslinking agents. Zahra et al. layer properties strongly affect the substrate pore diameter and hydro­
exploited dialdehyde as a green and promising crosslinking agent for phobicity. Wang et al. reported that CA and PAN are the most compat­
dissolving polyamide (PI) film in metal ion removal from water treat­ ible polymers for preparing blended dopes to form uniform substrates
ment processes [105]. due to their excellent interactions [114]. As a selective top layer, chi­
tosan can be used considering its hydrophilicity which causes improving
water permeability of the fabricated membrane. As a drawback, the
4.3. Multilayer nanofibers chitosan layer is dissolved in water passing through it. Accordingly,
Kebria et al. revealed that chitosan should be cross-linked by tereph­
Modification methods, mostly known as post-treatments, are used to thaloyl chloride (TPC) or glutaraldehyde (GA) to be stable as the se­
simplify the commercialization of ENMs. Different post-treatment lective top layer of the PVDF substrate and perform excellent separation
methods are used to obtain nanofibers with higher porosity and better in protein/water systems [115]. In this regard, combinations of multi-
mechanical strength, such as plasma treatment, layer-by-layer (LbL), method preparation techniques have been implemented to achieve
self-assembly, and chemical grafting [106], as represented in Fig. 11-A. composite nanofiber membranes by Aliabadi et al. (Fig. 11-(B)) [116].
The major challenge of LBL assembled nanofibers is the layers' stability, As can be seen, the top layer of the chitosan composite is made by novel
and it requires to be investigated in more depth in severe wastewater nanofibers on the ENM surface. The fabricated composite membrane
treatment. Diverse modification methods have been applied to reach exhibits promising rejection and high permeation flux in water/oil
nanofibers with desired properties, like achieving nanofiber membranes separation and heavy metal removal applications [117]. The conven­
with antibacterial properties [107], high ions-metal selectivity [108], tional electrospinning method cannot provide membranes with nano­
and superhydrophobicity [109] or hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity scale pores. Meanwhile, by developing TFN membranes, most of the
[110], in accordance with the targeted applications.

12
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 6
Layering method and the resultant features.
Implemented polymers Layering Result Related reason Ref.
method

–COOH on PVDF Plasma- Improved hydrophilicity, magnetic membranes, and Hydrophilic nature of acrylic acid grafting [123]
induced antibacterial
grafting
Argon on PVDF Plasma- Smaller pore-size Activated groups of argon reduced pore-size [123]
induced
grafting
CF4 plasma Plasma- Superhydrophobic ENMs Lowered surface energy of membrane [124]
induced
grafting
Silver on cellulose acetate (CA) LbL technique Rougher surface Electrostatic interaction of silver on CA [125]
Aligned and charged chitosan on LbL technique Producing more biocompatible mats Fluid-infused films composed of biodegradable [126]
the CA materials
Lipase and Dye on TiO2 LbL technique Prevent movement of enzymes Chemical oxidization to immobilization of TiO2 and [127]
functionalized CA covalent crosslinking
Nylon-6 coated on the LbL technique Enhanced mechanical properties Higher degree of alignment and formation of internal [128]
Polyelectrolyte networks
CA functionalized with diethyl Chemical Producing effective nanofibers for bioseparations Highest static binding capacity of functionalized [129]
aminoethyl (DEAE) grafting nanofiber
Amidoxime groups grafted on Chemical Higher affinity for metal adsorption Amidoximated grafted cellulose acted as promising [106]
PAN nanofibers grafting metal ion adsorbent
Dopamine and silver Chemical Higher hydrophobic affinity Higher surface roughness owing to binding of Ag-Au [130]
nanoparticles on the PVDF grafting nanoparticles and surface grafting, via Michael
addition and Schiff base reaction
Polyhexamethylene guanidine Chemical More antibacterial properties Good acid-dyeable properties over wide pH range [131]
hydrochloride on PAN grafting
PVA cross-linked with Chemical Superhydrophobic ENMs Chemical crosslinking and surface fluorination [132]
glutaraldehyde or fluoroalkyl grafting
silane
PVA coating on ENMs scaffolds Coating Develop highly effective TFNC membranes with high Coating of permeable, water-resistant, and [133]
permeability, more biocompatible mats, and more stable crosslinked PVA as top layer on PAN scaffold
overall chemical/thermal features
PVA layer on MWCNTs/ Coating Higher permeation flux Interfacial interaction between filler and matrix [134]
cellulose improved accessible porosity and pore diameter
A PVA layer on PAN nanofiber Coating The higher rate of oil/water separation Improved surface hydrophilicity [135]

Fig. 12. Overall applications of electrospun nanofibers.

13
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of metal ions (or cationic dyes (batch adsorption mechanism on ENMs.

studies have been concentrated on applying this technique for designing particles. Generally, exploring the electrospun nanofibers' filtration
looser membranes with nanoscale pores (Fig. 10-(C)) [110]. potentials addresses global concerns about worldwide polluting sources
Interfacial polymerization (IP) on the electrospun nanofiber sub­ in air and water [141,142]. The evolution of the optimal nanostructures
strate is another effective way of developing TFN membranes. A PAN opens the door to novel applications.
electrospun nanofiber substrate with PA top layer forms a TFN mem­ Water treatment and membrane-based separation technologies are
brane, which exhibits 98% rejection of MgSO4, and its permeation flux is becoming more prominent as potentials of electrospun nanofibers. As
twice as that of commercial NF membranes [118]. depicted in Fig. 1-(d), after medical prosthesis applications, the most
One of the main challenges of layering methods is the penetration of common use of ENMs is in the fields of wastewater treatment filters
the top layer through pores of the substrate and defect formation in the [143]. These processes are developing in different areas such as engi­
membrane matrix [119]. The other modification method, which can neered osmosis (EO), membrane bioreactors (MBR) [117], membrane
reduce the substrate's compaction rate, is the heat pressing process distillation (MD) [109,117], water/oil separation [144], and adsorptive
[120]. In this process, heat and pressure are applied to ENM, and fibers membranes, which are being discussed in the next section. Water con­
melt a little into the fabric [121]. This method can dramatically be taminants include heavy metals (As2+, Cu2+, Cr2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and …),
helpful for minimizing the coated layer's penetration rate into the sub­ bacteria and viruses, dye effluents, microorganisms, and organic
strate for multilayered systems, as reported by Makanjoula et al. [122]. chemicals [145].
Some researchers implemented layering modification methods on the Adsorption is a surface phenomenon during which substances of
polymer nanofibers, which are reported in Table 6. gases or liquids (adsorbate) adhere to the surface of solids or liquids
(adsorbent), which have significant advantages, such as profitability,
5. Applications of electrospun nanofibers availability, and low cost. The key to adsorption technology is to prepare
cheap, environmentally friendly, and efficient adsorbents. Various ad­
The versatility of multi-task and high-tech electrospun nanofibers sorbents such as activated carbon, zeolite, chitosan, and clay have been
makes the electrospinning process a feasible method to form highly studied and developed to remove toxic contaminants from wastewaters.
porous MF substrates and UF membranes for pressure-driven membrane Effective parameters in the adsorption process include adsorbent char­
processes facilely, as reported by Gopal et al. [136]. Electrostatically acteristics, adsorbate nature, pH level, ion strength, and temperature
spun fibers have a wide range of applications, including wastewater [146].
filtration [137], protective clothing, sensors (optical sensors [138]), The most important characteristics of a nanofiber membrane are
energy (battery and cells [76]), biomedical (drug delivery [139]), and wetting properties, fiber structure, pore size distribution, water
tissue engineering [140] as shown in Fig. 12. permeability, and porosity. However, the nature of adsorbate strongly
Today, during the COVID-19 outbreak, the general public and health depends on environmental characteristics such as pH level [147]. The
experts are troubled with a lack of protective clothing, facemasks, and DLVO theory, which describes the interaction between colloidal parti­
virus adsorbents. Electrospun biopolymer nanofibers mats are the best cles and how aggregation occurs, predicts adsorption behavior where
candidates for virus adsorption as a sanitizing agent in air and water adsorbates have a low isoelectric point (IEP—the pH at which the sur­
filtration, with 99.9% efficiency in trapping viruses and aerosol face's electrical charge is neutral) and high sensitivity to pH changes.

14
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

The higher IEP, the more complex modeling, and prediction of the Table 7
adsorption manner [148]. Reported studies in heavy metal ions adsorption by the nanoparticles modified
The net surface charge is one of the important characteristics of the ENMs adsorbents.
adsorbate surface, which plays a significant role in the adsorption pro­ Name Adsorbent Maximum Remarks Ref
cess for heavy metals, viruses, or any other contaminations considering of the adsorption
electrostatic interactions. The net surface charge and its effects on heavy capacity
metal (mg g− 1)
adsorption are mainly determined according to the point of zero charges
(PZC), IEP of particles, and pH level [149]. The pH level less than the Pd(II) Zirconium-MOF (UiO-66- _ Selectivity of [166]
NH2) Pd(II) to Pt(IV)
absolute value for PZC or IEP results in a positive surface charge, while
= 180.8
the negative surface charge is considered at the pH values more than Co(II) Zirconium-MOF-based 270.3 T = 35 ◦ C [167]
PZC. The greater the distance of pH level from PZC, the higher the (Fe3O4@SiO2@UiO-66-
surface charge and the more significant attraction with the opposite Glu)
charge. For instance, Hydrophobic adsorbent surfaces are attractive for Cd2+, Zr-based MOF-808 225.0 – [168]
Zn2+ supported on the PAN
organic contaminants removal. To improve these hydrophobic in­ Pb2+ Phytic acid modified PU 136.5 T = 20 ◦ C [169]
teractions, the strength of hydrogen bonds between polar particles must Pb(II) Core-sheath ENM-CA/ pH = 5 [170]
increase. In this regard, “Anti-chaotropic” salts such as ammonium PMMA(1:1) Rejection =
sulfate and sodium sulfate are used to achieve more hydrophobic ad­ 95%
Pb(II), Zirconium-MOF loaded [164]
sorbents [150]. Improving the adsorption performance of an adsorbent –
Hg into PAN
highly relies on manipulating the ionic strength of the adsorbent/ (II)
adsorbate. The less electrostatically repulse forces between the adsor­ Pb(II), Amine incorporated into 454.5, 476.2 Rejection = [171]
bent/adsorbate, the higher ionic strength and the better adsorption Cd(II) PVA/chitosan 84%, 78%
performance [151]. Permeation =
427.8, 457.9
Pb(II), Zirconium-MOF (UiO-66- 441.2, 372.6 – [165]
5.1. Heavy metal ions adsorption by ENMs-based adsorptive membranes Cr NH2) on PAN/chitosan and 415.6
(VI)
The accumulation of heavy metal ions in living organisms can and
Cd(II)
severely affect the normal functioning of the liver, kidney, and nervous
Cd(II), Hydrolyzed PVA/PAN 66.5, 33.6 Rejection = [172]
system. As non-degradable components, heavy metal ions show high Cr composite ENM 99.3%
affinity to accumulation, leading to the growing importance of heavy (VI)
metal ions elimination [152]. The rate of ions adsorption is determined Cr (VI) Alumina/PVP NFs 6.8 pH = 5 [172]
by available sites in the adsorbent structure for electrically charged Most of PAN(top layer)/chitosan – – [165]
the (bottom layer) on sponge
particles adsorption [153]. ENMs show considerable affinity to heavy metal with Fe3O4-ZSM-5
metal ions adsorption [35]. Heavy metal ions' adsorption relies on ions nanoparticles
electrostatic interactions between the negative charge of functional Cr(VI) ZnO-TiO2 doped PAN – [173]
groups and metal ions with a positive charge [154]. As shown in Fig. 13, ENM
Cr(VI) MOF incorporated into 602.3 Rejection = [162]
the cross-linked ENMs modified by grafting, such as amine-
PVDF/chitosan 95.6%
functionalized β-CD/CS/PVA ENMs, provide effective adsorption sites Permeation =
for divalent ions [155]. 470 LMH
The adsorption capacity of polymeric nanofibers can be improved by Cr(III) PAN/ZnO-Cs 116.5 pH = 4.9 [31]
grafting methods. For example, amidoxime groups could alter PAN Regeneration
efficiency =
nanofibers into more attractive metal ions adsorbents [156]. In another 95%
study, composite nanofibers functionalized with mercapto groups Cu2+ WK/PA 6 or WK/silk – – [17]
showed excellent adsorption behavior after several adsorption- fibroin (SF)
2+
desorption cycles [157]. Cu PAN modified by – – [156]
diethylenediamine
Recycle life as one of the essential assessment criteria of adsorbents, 2+
Cu PVA/SiO2 functionalized 1622.8 – [174]
and a high surface-to-volume ratio is an appealing feature of ENMs as with thiol groups [175]
adsorbents for metal ions removal [158]. As Haider et al. introduced in PVA/ZnO
their work, neutralized electrospun nanofibers effectively remove metal Cu2+ Chitosan/PVA 85.0 pH = 5.5 [176]
ions at the mercy of many ionizable and polar groups in the chitosan Cu2+ Amino based Nylon 6,6 295.6 Rejection = [177]
80%
structure [159]. The neutralized electrospun nanofibers prevent the loss Permeability =
of some instinctive features like non-toxicity, bioactivity, compatibility 5504 LMH/bar
in bio-systems, and non-antigenicity, after using as an adsorbent [160]. Cu(II) Chitosan modified by 2 – [178]
Nanomaterials are another attractive candidate to empower ENMs [-bis-(pyridylmethyl)
aminomethyl]4-methyl-6-
for high-efficiency metal ions adsorption [161]. For instance, ENMs
formyl-phenol
modified with ZnO nanoparticles are highly attractive for heavy metal Cu2+ Chitosan/PVA – Rejection = [163]
ions adsorption due to their hydroxyl groups [31]. Among all nano­ 90%
materials, composite-based nanoparticles such as metal-organic frame­ Hg 2+
PVP/SiO2 functionalized 109.0 [174]
works (MOFs) are highly porous with accessible adsorption sites [162]. with sulfanyl groups
Hg(II) PAN ENMs functionalized [179]
Besides, modified nanomaterials alter the characteristics of resulting
–
with 3-mercaptoppropyl
ENMs. Hezarjaribi et al. implemented mercapto-silane functionalized trimethoxysilane
hydrous manganese oxide (HMO) nanoparticles into PVC ENMs. The Au(III) Polypyrrole (PPy)-coated – [180]
fabricated ENMs showed high flux and superior metal ion removal ef­ PVDF
ficiency because of strong chelating power and high affinity of reactive
thiol groups on the adsorbents [163]. Yang et al. report enhanced
adsorption performance for Zirconium-MOF/PAN ENM [164]. Howev­
er, Jamshidifard et al. use the same nanoparticle with higher Pb (II)

15
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Fig. 14. Schematic of virus-solid interactions representing the DLVO theory; (A) Stern layer, (B) Diffuse layer, (C) Surface hydroxyls, (D) Hydrophobic groups, (E)
Ionizing residues.

adsorption capacity in Zirconium-MOF/PAN/CS ENM due to the better and waterborne viruses. This paper focuses on the waterborne ones
inter-molecular interaction nanoparticle-polymers [165]. Reported because they can be potentially carried to the human body through
studies in heavy metal ion removal by the modified ENMs adsorbents are ecosystem contamination as well as drinking water. They can survive for
shown in Table 7. nearly several weeks in water. The waterborne diseases include
Adenovirus, Astrovirus, Rotavirus, Norovirus, Enterovirus, JC virus, and
Sapovirus [183]. After the COVID-19 pandemic, further studies are
5.2. Adsorption of viruses by ENMs-based adsorptive membranes required about the transmission of COVID-19 through improperly
treated water. There is no evidence that COVID-19 is a waterborne virus,
The leading causes of illnesses are bacteria (E. coli, F. streptococci, though it has been proven about SARS [184]. Most of the viruses have a
C. Perfringens) and viruses, leading to respiratory diseases, conjuncti­ negative charge stems from their low IEP compared to environmental
vitis, and gastroenteritis. These pathogens must be removed from water water, and they have a high affinity toward hydrophobic surfaces. As a
used for drinking, spa, swimming pools, and food preparation [181]. result, anionic membranes offer a higher virus retention rate because
There are two different types of viruses, including airborne and water­ their powerful non-adhesive sites lead to serious fouling problems. In
borne (waste of humans in water). According to the studies on viruses, contrast, cationic ones selectively attract bacteria/viruses through
these pathogenic organisms take over the host's DNA and kill the tar­ electrostatic interactions. Thus, more hydrophobic ENMs with positively
geted cells [182]. charged surfaces or modified with antibacterial nanoparticles such as
ENMs with adjustable porosity, tailored-pore size, and scale-up metal oxide nanoparticles are the best candidates to adsorb waterborne
ability, as adsorptive membranes, can effectively eliminate airborne

Fig. 15. Inhibition zone of (a) E. coli and (b) S. aureus for hybrid nanocomposites decorated by A) Ag and B) CuO NPs.
Reprinted with permission from Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety [191].

16
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 8 surface roughness, the higher the viruses capturing due to the more
Reported studies in bacteria/viruses adsorption. adhesion to the adsorbent surface [189].
ENMs Eliminated Removal/ Characteristics Ref. Teheran et al. fabricate a water purifying instrument comprised of
target retention antibacterial electrospun polyacrylonitrile/chitosan membrane, PAN/
(%) biochar electrospun mat, and Laccase membrane that removed 77% of
PAN electrospun Bacteria PVP ➔ make [194] turbidity, 83% of micro-pollutant, and 99% of microorganisms after 5
nanofibers (E. coli) hydrophilic min contact time [190]. Moreover, incorporating antimicrobial agents
embedded with Virus (MS2) Gentamicin ➔ like metal oxide or metal nanoparticles in ENMs' structure enhances the
PVP and bacteria and
gentamicin microorganism
antibacterial activities. For instance, the antimicrobial activity of PAN
removal- ENMs decorated with ZnO, Ag, and CuO nanoparticles were evaluated as
eliminate fouling a hybrid composite membrane to guarantee free-pathogen-drinking
TiO2- MS2 95 [150] water by Shalaby et al. [191].
Functionalized
As can be seen in Fig. 15, the addition of metal oxide NPs into the
PVDF ENM
Pure PVDF MS2 58 polymer matrix suppresses bacteria's activity due to the effective inter­
DDBAC- MS2 100 action of hybrid composite and bacteria. Metal oxide NPs have the
Functionalized catalytic effect that can produce a higher amount of produced H2O2,
PVDF ENM which kills bacteria. Between conventional metal oxide NPs, Ag-based
VEVIMIBr/PAN- E. coli 99.9999 Pore size = 0.22 [193]
based MS2 99.99 μm
hybrid NPs have excellent antibacterial activity due to their impres­
2 or 3 times sive surface area, size, and generation of free radicals [191]. Naragund
higher et al. reported the distinctive properties of PAN ENMs in bacteria
elimination than removal [192]. In the other study, Ma et al. combined the excellent
modified PAN
potential of PAN substrate with vinyl monomer and an imidazolium
(UFCN)/PAN NFs E. coli 100 [195]
based on PET cation in bacteria and virus removal [193]. A series of studies were
substrate filter carried out on the bacteria/viruses adsorption implementing different
Ammonium tetra- Virus 97.2 No bead/ [189] ENMs, as presented in Table 8.
thriomolybdate (Semilki roughness = 20
(ATTM) Forest Pore size =
(SFV)) (300–370 nm)
5.3. Dye adsorption by ENMs-based adsorptive membranes
(TEOS)/PAN SFV 98.9 No bead/
electrospun roughness = 75 Wastewater containing organic dyes is one of the most concerning
web Pore size = threats to the natural environment and human health. Also, marine life
(1700–2400 nm)
suffers from dye wastewaters as a severe threat to its existence. Some
Pristine PAN SFV 34.7 Beaded
nanofibers/ industries, such as cosmetics, paper, leather, and textile, are the leading
roughness = 8 producers of dye effluents. The dye contaminants include ionic dyes and
Pore size = non-ionic dyes. Generally, ionic dyes, such as heavy metal ions, are
(220–360 nm) removed by forming a dye-adsorbent complex using the chelation
PAN E. coli 99.9997 Flux = 1.5 L/m3 h [192,196]
Bacteria Pore size =
method [198]. This type of adsorption is based on the electrostatic and
(S. aureus) (320–420 nm) intermolecular interactions known as physical adsorption. However, the
Chitosan/PEO on E. coli 6 h of contact [197] non-ionic dyes are mainly removed by chemical adsorption [199].
polypropylene time Organic ionic dyes are intrinsically complex molecules, and filtration
substrate
is the best way to remove a wide range of this type of contaminant as
well as heavy metals, bacteria, and viruses. As mentioned above, elec­
viruses [185]. ENMs were also implemented to detect and eliminate trospun nanofibers are the most preferred choice for dyes removal
viruses in water [14]. Viruses are captured on the ENMs' surface in this because of their advantages, including high porosity, tunability, and
system, and detection is performed through electric readout. In the way complex texture over the other filters. Filtration/adsorption processes
to inactivation of viruses, MBRs showed high but inefficient omission using adsorptive electrospun nanofiber membranes are facilely imple­
results [186]. mentable in the removal of crystal violet (CV) [200], methylene blue
Interactions of viruses with the solid surface were successfully (MB) [201], and methyl orange (MO) [202].
explained by the DLVO theory, which could lead researchers to design a It has been reported that any nanofiber functionalization, including
more effective ENM as a superabsorbent of viruses [146]. Accordingly, a nanoparticles addition or having thin-film coating, could offer higher
negatively charged virus is surrounded by the stern layer consisting of adsorption/filtration efficiency [203]. Common materials such as
positive charges. The diffuse layer, consisting of exceeding anions and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), polydopamine (PDA), GO, and magnetic nano­
reducing cations, appears by getting away from the virus surface (as a particles are extensively used for dye removal from water. For instance,
result of cations transition to the stern layer and repulsion of anions by GO addition could increase water flux, adsorption capacity, and rejec­
the virus). The denser diffuse layer is obtained by increasing viruses' tion due to its hydrophilic nature and functional groups, as reported by
ionic strength due to the electrostatic repulsion. The double-layer is also Kang et al. [204]. In the other study, PAN/alpha-Fe2O3 hybrid photo­
formed around the solid surface. The net charge of surfaces depends on catalytic composite showed higher water flux, adsorption capacity, and
the surface nature, including the surface hydroxyls of solid materials and rejection than PAN ENMs [205]. In this regard, Dursun et al. synthesized
ionizing residues of viruses [187] (Fig. 14). the combination of WO3 nanofibers with different amounts of CuO
As a result of viruses' interaction with solid nanoparticles, they create nanoparticles as Hybrid multifunctional nanomaterials, which exhibit
particle-virus complexes. The primary assumption of the DLVO theory is improved dye adsorption and degradation behavior [206]. However, the
the smooth surface assumption, while most viruses like COVID-19 have accumulation of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix leads to inappro­
irregular and rough surfaces, which cause unexpected surface attach­ priate charge distribution, which causes unexpected adsorption capacity
ments [188]. Control of adsorption affecting parameters in viruses' reduction. This challenge can be solved by exposing the polymer solu­
adsorption such as pH, adsorbent nature, and dissolved organic matter's tion to an ultrasonic bath before electrospinning. As reported by Ghaffar
content results in better virus removal technologies. The higher the virus et al., the incorporation of GO as nanofiller in PVDF ENMs forms an
adsorptive membrane, which separates dyes through electrostatic

17
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Table 9
Reported works implemented different electrospun nanofibers in dyes adsorption/filtration.
Electrospun filter/adsorbate Dye type Maximum ads. Dye removal More details Ref.
capacity (mg/g) (%)

GO/PU based membrane Methylene blue 109.9 95.4 Water flux = 17.706 Lm− 2 h (at 0.41 bar) [209]
(MB) Rejection rate (%) = 99.99
Rhodamine B (RB) 77.1 92.4
MgSiFM based membrane Methylene blue 609.7 94.8 Robust and versatile MgSi nanofibers provide much more [90,210]
(MB) adsorption sites
MgSi/PAN Methylene blue 433.0 61.5
(MB)
SiO2FM Methylene blue 204.1 8.9
(MB)
CuO-WO3 hybrid membrane Methylene blue 14.33 -A higher adsorption site (+38.4%) [206]
(MB)
2
Mt. loaded PES or GO/PES Basic blue cationic 352.1 95.0 Water flux = 1765 L m− h [211]
dye
Mt. loaded PVA/CS Basic blue 41 95.0 Water flux = 1765 L m− 2 h
(at 0.4 bar)
PVDF/GO Cationic and 99.0 -Negatively charged surface [207]
anionic dyes -Strengthen Mechanically
-A higher value of surface energy − 100% rejection of ionic
dyes
Diatomite/oyster shell (DS) Methylene blue 243.44 96.4 -Negatively charged surface [212]
incorporated into PAN (MB) -Good physicochemical stability
PANI/SiO2 loaded CS/PVA Congo red (CR) 110 The optimum uptake of anionic dye (CR and MO) at pH = 5, [213]
Methyl orange 90 for the cationic dye (MB), at pH = 9
(MO)
Methylene blue 45.2
(MB)
PAN functionalized with a Malachite Green 1038.0 99.0 [208]
carboxylate anion (MG)
Oxime grafted poly(acrylonitrile) Methylene blue 102.1 [214]
(Ox-g-PAN) (MB)
Rhodamine B (RB) 221.2
Safranin T (ST) 118.3

interaction [207]. Patel et al. found that adsorption capacity of PAN from aqueous systems were critically reviewed. The modified nanofibers
substrate can be upgraded using carboxylic anion modifiers for cationic could provide a promising platform as the adsorptive membranes for
dyes removal applications [208]. Table 9 presented some reported water treatment applications due to their reusability and anti-fouling
works that used different electrospun nanofibers as adsorptive mem­ properties. Regarding their low reusability, dynamic adsorption pro­
branes for removing dye from water. In most of the studies, electrospun cesses could also be recommended. However, further studies are
nanofibers' adsorption efficiency was assessed by Langmuir adsorption required to investigate the cross-influence of affecting parameters,
isotherm and pseudo-order kinetics models and water flux and dye theoretical modeling, and a better understanding of the electrospinning
rejection. process to broaden their applications in water treatment.
The main bottlenecks in the commercialization of the ENMs are their
6. Conclusion and outlook mass production challenges, low mechanical properties, and reusability.
Despite the mass production of single-material ENMs with good spinn­
On the laboratory scale, researchers are focused on synthetic mate­ ability, there are few reports on the mass production of composite
rials to make nanostructures using a versatile process known as “elec­ nanofibrous membranes. Additionally, electrospun nanofibers' stability
trospinning”, in which primarily electricity is used to force synthetic/ under high-pressure gradients and harsh environments needs more
natural polymer solutions to flow across an electric field. By controlling studies to provide the optimal conditions. Therefore, further develop­
affecting electrospinning parameters, including polymeric, process, and ment of efficient large-scale electrospinning equipment is still required
ambient parameters, fibers with tailored patterns, can be generated. to realize the mass production of high-quality and composite nanofibers
Finding optimum values of affecting parameters can improve the as the hotspot of future research in addressing the world's freshwater
implementation of the ENMs on an industrial scale for water treatment crisis. The new studies' target is to boost the nanofibers' production rate
applications. Different modification methods can be implemented to and control their morphology while reducing power consumption.
tune the properties of resulting ENMs, such as wettability, porosity, and
surface roughness. Declaration of competing interest
ENMs-based adsorptive membranes seem to act more successfully
than conventional membranes because of their interconnected pore The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
structure and cost-effectiveness. Due to low-pressure drops arranged in a interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
multi-stage filtration process, they can dramatically reduce operating the work reported in this paper.
costs. Different variables, including ion strength, temperature, dissolved
organic content, and pH, strongly affect the performance of the ENMs- Acknowledgment
based adsorptive membranes. In this review, firstly, the basics of the
electrospinning process and the influences of affecting factors on the Prof. Toraj Mohammadi would like to thank Iran National Science
polymeric nanofibers were explored. Secondly, the current modification Foundation (INSF) for supporting the research (Grant number:
methods enabling nanofibers' production as adsorptive membranes with 96008182).
targeted morphologies and their last progress to remove contaminants

18
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

Appendix A. Supplementary data [28] Y. Liu, R. Wang, H. Ma, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, High-flux microfiltration filters based
on electrospun polyvinylalcohol nanofibrous membranes, Polymer 54 (2) (2013)
548–556.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. [29] L. Qalyoubi, A. Al-Othman, S. Al-Asheh, Recent progress and challenges on
org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2022.102795. adsorptive membranes for the removal of pollutants from wastewater. Part I:
fundamentals and classification of membranes, Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 3
(2021), 100086.
References [30] R.J. Beck, Y. Zhao, H. Fong, T.J. Menkhaus, Electrospun lignin carbon nanofiber
membranes with large pores for highly efficient adsorptive water treatment
[1] M.A. Tofighy, T. Mohammadi, M.H. Sadeghi, High-flux PVDF/PVP applications, J. Water Process Eng. 16 (2017) 240–248.
nanocomposite ultrafiltration membrane incorporated with graphene oxide [31] M. Makaremi, et al., Electrospun functionalized polyacrylonitrile–chitosan bi-
nanoribbones with improved antifouling properties, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 138 (4) layer membranes for water filtration applications, RSC Adv. 6 (59) (2016)
(2021) 49718. 53882–53893.
[2] S. Thenmozhi, N. Dharmaraj, K. Kadirvelu, H.Y. Kim, Electrospun nanofibers: [32] X.-Q. Wu, Z.-D. Shao, Q. Liu, Z. Xie, F. Zhao, Y.-M. Zheng, Flexible and porous
new generation materials for advanced applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. B 217 TiO2/SiO2/carbon composite electrospun nanofiber mat with enhanced
(2017) 36–48. interfacial charge separation for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants
[3] E.T. Igunnu, G.Z. Chen, Produced water treatment technologies, Int. J.Low- in water, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 553 (2019) 156–166.
Carbon Technol. 9 (3) (2014) 157–177. [33] D. Gugulothu, A. Barhoum, R. Nerella, R. Ajmer, M. Bechelany, Fabrication of
[4] B. Al-Ghafri, W.-J. Lau, M. Al-Abri, P.-S. Goh, A.F. Ismail, Titanium dioxide- nanofibers: electrospinning and non-electrospinning techniques, in: Handbook of
modified polyetherimide nanofiber membrane for water treatment, J. Water Nanofibers, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2019.
Process Eng. 32 (2019), 100970. [34] N. Tucker, J.J. Stanger, M.P. Staiger, H. Razzaq, K. Hofman, The history of the
[5] F. Behdarvand, E. Valamohammadi, M.A. Tofighy, T. Mohammadi, Polyvinyl science and technology of electrospinning from 1600 to 1995, J. Eng. Fibers
alcohol/polyethersulfone thin-film nanocomposite membranes with carbon Fabrics 7 (2_suppl) (2012), 155892501200702S10.
nanomaterials incorporated in substrate for water treatment, J. Environ. Chem. [35] Y. Bagbi, A. Pandey, P.R. Solanki, Electrospun nanofibrous filtration membranes
Eng. 9 (1) (2021), 104650. for heavy metals and dye removal, in: Nanoscale Materials in Water Purification,
[6] M. Ahmadzadeh Tofighy, T. Mohammadi, Methylene blue adsorption onto Elsevier, 2019, pp. 275–288.
granular activated carbon prepared from harmal seeds residue, Desalin. Water [36] A.M. Nasir, et al., Recent progress on fabrication and application of electrospun
Treat. 52 (13–15) (2014) 2643–2653. nanofibrous photocatalytic membranes for wastewater treatment: a review,
[7] S. Zarghami, M.A. Tofighy, T. Mohammadi, Adsorption of zinc and lead ions from J. Water Process Eng. 40 (2021), 101878.
aqueous solutions using chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol membrane incorporated via [37] M.K. Selatile, S.S. Ray, V. Ojijo, R. Sadiku, Recent developments in polymeric
acid-functionalized carbon nanotubes, J. Dispers. Sci. Technol. 36 (12) (2015) electrospun nanofibrous membranes for seawater desalination, RSC Adv. 8 (66)
1793–1798. (2018) 37915–37938.
[8] M.A. Tofighy, T. Mohammadi, Copper ions removal from aqueous solutions using [38] A.L. Yarin, S. Koombhongse, D.H. Reneker, Taylor cone and jetting from liquid
acid-chitosan functionalized carbon nanotubes sheets, Desalin. Water Treat. 57 droplets in electrospinning of nanofibers, J. Appl. Phys. 90 (9) (2001)
(33) (2016) 15384–15396. 4836–4846.
[9] C.-M. Zhang, L.-M. Xu, P.-C. Xu, X.C. Wang, Elimination of viruses from domestic [39] G.R. Williams, B.T. Raimi-Abraham, C. Luo, Nanofibres in Drug Delivery, UCL
wastewater: requirements and technologies, World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 32 Press, 2018.
(4) (2016) 69. [40] A. Cisquella-Serra, M. Magnani, Á. Gual-Mosegui, S. Holmberg, M. Madou,
[10] R. Gopal, S. Kaur, Z. Ma, C. Chan, S. Ramakrishna, T. Matsuura, Electrospun M. Gamero-Castaño, Study of the electrostatic jet initiation in near-field
nanofibrous filtration membrane, J. Membr. Sci. 281 (1–2) (2006) 581–586. electrospinning, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 543 (2019) 106–113.
[11] S. Santangelo, Electrospun nanomaterials for energy applications: recent [41] A.L. Yarin, S. Koombhongse, D.H. Reneker, Bending instability in electrospinning
advances, Appl. Sci. 9 (6) (2019) 1049. of nanofibers, J. Appl. Phys. 89 (5) (2001) 3018–3026.
[12] S. Haider, A. Haider, A.A. Alghyamah, R. Khan, W.A. Almasry, N. Khan, [42] L. Wang, A. Ryan, Introduction to electrospinning, in: Electrospinning for Tissue
Electrohydrodynamic processes and their affecting parameters, in: Regeneration, Elsevier, 2011, pp. 3–33.
Electrospinning and Electrospraying-Techniques and Applications, IntechOpen, [43] J.-H. He, Y. Wu, W.-W. Zuo, Critical length of straight jet in electrospinning,
2019. Polymer 46 (26) (2005) 12637–12640.
[13] Q. Fu, et al., Electrospun nanofibrous composite materials: a versatile platform for [44] Y.-Z. Long, X. Yan, X.-X. Wang, J. Zhang, M. Yu, Electrospinning: the setup and
high efficiency protein adsorption and separation, Compos. Commun. 8 (2018) procedure, in: Electrospinning: Nanofabrication and Applications, Elsevier, 2019,
92–100. pp. 21–52.
[14] A.D. Sekar, M. Manickam, Current trends of electrospun nanofibers in water and [45] L. Wei, R. Sun, C. Liu, J. Xiong, X. Qin, Mass production of nanofibers from
wastewater treatment, in: Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies, needleless electrospinning by a novel annular spinneret, Mater. Des. 179 (2019),
Springer, 2019, pp. 469–485. 107885.
[15] J. Xue, T. Wu, Y. Dai, Y. Xia, Electrospinning and electrospun nanofibers: [46] A. Khalf, Coaxial and Triaxial Structured Fibers by Electrospinning for Tissue
methods, materials, and applications, Chem. Rev. 119 (8) (2019) 5298–5415. Engineering and Sustained Drug Release, Oklahoma State University, 2016.
[16] M. Najafi, M.W. Frey, Electrospun nanofibers for chemical separation, [47] S.A. Tuin, B. Pourdeyhimi, E.G. Loboa, Interconnected, microporous hollow fibers
Nanomaterials 10 (5) (2020) 982. for tissue engineering: commercially relevant, industry standard scale-up
[17] Y. Liao, C.-H. Loh, M. Tian, R. Wang, A.G. Fane, Progress in electrospun manufacturing, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 102 (9) (2014) 3311–3323.
polymeric nanofibrous membranes for water treatment: fabrication, modification [48] Y. Zhong, et al., Flexible electrospun carbon nanofiber/tin (IV) sulfide core/
and applications, Prog. Polym. Sci. 77 (2018) 69–94. sheath membranes for photocatalytically treating chromium (VI)-containing
[18] H. Chen, M. Huang, Y. Liu, L. Meng, M. Ma, Functionalized electrospun nanofiber wastewater, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (42) (2016) 28671–28677.
membranes for water treatment: a review, Sci. Total Environ. 739 (2020), [49] Y. Wang, et al., Inch-sized aligned polymer nanofiber films with embedded
139944. CH3NH3PbBr 3 nanocrystals: electrospinning fabrication using a folded
[19] T.S. Vo, M.M. Hossain, H.M. Jeong, K. Kim, Heavy metal removal applications aluminum foil as the collector, Nanotechnology 31 (7) (2019), 075708.
using adsorptive membranes, Nano Converg. 7 (1) (2020) 1–26. [50] Z. Li, C. Wang, Effects of working parameters on electrospinning, in: One-
[20] F. Zhu, Y.-M. Zheng, B.-G. Zhang, Y.-R. Dai, A critical review on the electrospun dimensional Nanostructures, Springer, 2013, pp. 15–28.
nanofibrous membranes for the adsorption of heavy metals in water treatment, [51] A.H. Hekmati, A. Rashidi, R. Ghazisaeidi, J.-Y. Drean, Effect of needle length,
J. Hazard. Mater. 401 (2021), 123608. electrospinning distance, and solution concentration on morphological properties
[21] S. Hao, et al., Progress in adsorptive membranes for separation–a review, Sep. of polyamide-6 electrospun nanowebs, Text. Res. J. 83 (14) (2013) 1452–1466.
Purif. Technol. 255 (2021), 117772. [52] F. Lopresti, F.C. Pavia, I. Vitrano, M. Kersaudy-Kerhoas, V. Brucato, V. La
[22] H. Sanaeepur, A.E. Amooghin, M.M.A. Shirazi, M. Pishnamazi, S. Shirazian, Carrubba, Effect of hydroxyapatite concentration and size on morpho-mechanical
Water desalination and ion removal using mixed matrix electrospun nanofibrous properties of PLA-based randomly oriented and aligned electrospun nanofibrous
membranes: a critical review, Desalination 521 (2022), 115350. mats, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 101 (2020), 103449.
[23] P. Jin, et al., Erythritol-based polyester loose nanofiltration membrane with fast [53] H. Shao, J. Fang, H. Wang, T. Lin, Effect of electrospinning parameters and
water transport for efficient dye/salt separation, Chem. Eng. J. 406 (2021), polymer concentrations on mechanical-to-electrical energy conversion of
126796. randomly-oriented electrospun poly (vinylidene fluoride) nanofiber mats, RSC
[24] Z. Yao, H. Guo, Z. Yang, W. Qing, C.Y. Tang, Preparation of nanocavity-contained Adv. 5 (19) (2015) 14345–14350.
thin film composite nanofiltration membranes with enhanced permeability and [54] Q. Yang, et al., Influence of solvents on the formation of ultrathin uniform poly
divalent to monovalent ion selectivity, Desalination 445 (2018) 115–122. (vinyl pyrrolidone) nanofibers with electrospinning, J. Polym. Sci. B Polym. Phys.
[25] B.S. Lalia, V. Kochkodan, R. Hashaikeh, N. Hilal, A review on membrane 42 (20) (2004) 3721–3726.
fabrication: structure, properties and performance relationship, Desalination 326 [55] G. Acik, C.E. Cansoy, M. Kamaci, Effect of flow rate on wetting and optical
(2013) 77–95. properties of electrospun poly (vinyl acetate) micro-fibers, Colloid Polym. Sci.
[26] G.R. Guillen, Y. Pan, M. Li, E.M. Hoek, Preparation and characterization of 297 (1) (2019) 77–83.
membranes formed by nonsolvent induced phase separation: a review, Ind. Eng. [56] C.L. Casper, J.S. Stephens, N.G. Tassi, D.B. Chase, J.F. Rabolt, Controlling surface
Chem. Res. 50 (7) (2011) 3798–3817. morphology of electrospun polystyrene fibers: effect of humidity and molecular
[27] Y. Liu, et al., Electrospun three-dimensional nanofibrous structure via probe weight in the electrospinning process, Macromolecules 37 (2) (2004) 573–578.
arrays inducing, Micromachines 9 (9) (2018) 427.

19
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

[57] R.M. Nezarati, M.B. Eifert, E. Cosgriff-Hernandez, Effects of humidity and [87] A.M. Abdelgawad, S.M. Hudson, O.J. Rojas, Antimicrobial wound dressing
solution viscosity on electrospun fiber morphology, Tissue Eng. Part C Methods nanofiber mats from multicomponent (chitosan/silver-NPs/polyvinyl alcohol)
19 (10) (2013) 810–819. systems, Carbohydr. Polym. 100 (2014) 166–178.
[58] R. Zhao, X. Lu, C. Wang, Electrospinning based all-nano composite materials: [88] R. Ahmed, et al., Novel electrospun chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol/zinc oxide
recent achievements and perspectives, Compos. Commun. 10 (2018) 140–150. nanofibrous mats with antibacterial and antioxidant properties for diabetic
[59] C. Luo, M. Nangrejo, M. Edirisinghe, A novel method of selecting solvents for wound healing, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 120 (2018) 385–393.
polymer electrospinning, Polymer 51 (7) (2010) 1654–1662. [89] S.A. Hosseini, M. Vossoughi, N.M. Mahmoodi, M. Sadrzadeh, Clay-based
[60] A. Mirek, P. Korycka, M. Grzeczkowicz, D. Lewińska, Polymer fibers electrospun electrospun nanofibrous membranes for colored wastewater treatment, Appl.
using pulsed voltage, Mater. Des. 183 (2019), 108106. Clay Sci. 168 (2019) 77–86.
[61] B. Zaarour, L. Zhu, X. Jin, Maneuvering the secondary surface morphology of [90] S.A. Hosseini, M. Vossoughi, N.M. Mahmoodi, M. Sadrzadeh, Efficient dye
electrospun poly (vinylidene fluoride) nanofibers by controlling the processing removal from aqueous solution by high-performance electrospun nanofibrous
parameters, Mater. Res. Express 7 (1) (2019), 015008. membranes through incorporation of SiO2 nanoparticles, J. Clean. Prod. 183
[62] S. Jang, Y. Kim, S. Lee, J.H. Oh, Optimization of electrospinning parameters for (2018) 1197–1206.
electrospun nanofiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators, Int. J. Precis. Eng. [91] M. Tian, Y.-N. Wang, R. Wang, A.G. Fane, Synthesis and characterization of thin
Manuf.Green Technol. 6 (4) (2019) 731–739. film nanocomposite forward osmosis membranes supported by silica nanoparticle
[63] H. Fashandi, M. Karimi, Pore formation in polystyrene fiber by superimposing incorporated nanofibrous substrate, Desalination 401 (2017) 142–150.
temperature and relative humidity of electrospinning atmosphere, Polymer 53 [92] E.-J. Lee, A.K. An, P. Hadi, S. Lee, Y.C. Woo, H.K. Shon, Advanced multi-nozzle
(25) (2012) 5832–5849. electrospun functionalized titanium dioxide/polyvinylidene fluoride-co-
[64] J. Zhou, Q. Cai, X. Liu, Y. Ding, F. Xu, Temperature effect on the mechanical hexafluoropropylene (TiO2/PVDF-HFP) composite membranes for direct contact
properties of electrospun PU nanofibers, Nanoscale Res. Lett. 13 (1) (2018) 1–5. membrane distillation, J. Membr. Sci. 524 (2017) 712–720.
[65] A. Rianjanu, A. Kusumaatmaja, E.A. Suyono, K. Triyana, Solvent vapor treatment [93] Z. Liu, H. Wang, E. Wang, X. Zhang, R. Yuan, Y. Zhu, Superhydrophobic poly
improves mechanical strength of electrospun polyvinyl alcohol nanofibers, (vinylidene fluoride) membranes with controllable structure and tunable
Heliyon 4 (4) (2018), e00592. wettability prepared by one-step electrospinning, Polymer 82 (2016) 105–113.
[66] H.-F. Tan, B. Ooi, C. Leo, Future perspectives of nanocellulose-based membrane [94] K. Hedayati, M. Goodarzi, D. Ghanbari, Hydrothermal synthesis of Fe3O4
for water treatment, J. Water Process Eng. 37 (2020), 101502. nanoparticles and flame resistance magnetic poly styrene nanocomposite,
[67] S.S. Kim, J. Lee, Antibacterial activity of polyacrylonitrile–chitosan electrospun J. Nanostruct. 7 (1) (2017) 32–39.
nanofibers, Carbohydr. Polym. 102 (2014) 231–237. [95] B.M. Baker, N.L. Nerurkar, J.A. Burdick, D.M. Elliott, R.L. Mauck, Fabrication and
[68] J. Wang, H.E. Naguib, A. Bazylak, Electrospun porous conductive polymer modeling of dynamic multipolymer nanofibrous scaffolds, J. Biomech. Eng. 131
membranes, in: Behavior and Mechanics of Multifunctional Materials and (10) (2009).
Composites 2012 8342, International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2012, [96] R.M. Soares, N.M. Siqueira, M.P. Prabhakaram, S. Ramakrishna, Electrospinning
p. 83420F. and electrospray of bio-based and natural polymers for biomaterials
[69] Q. Wu, W.-S. Miao, H.-J. Gao, D. Hui, Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: a development, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 92 (2018) 969–982.
review, Nanotechnol. Rev. 9 (1) (2020) 259–273. [97] N. Sabzroo, T. Rohani Bastami, M. Karimi, T. Heidari, Optimization of
[70] Y. Liu, et al., Non-covalent self-assembly of multi-target polystyrene composite electrospinning conditions for magnetic poly (acrylonitrile-co-acrylic acid)
adsorbent with highly efficient Cu (II) ion removal capability, Colloids Surf. A nanofibers, J. Nanostruct. 9 (2) (2019) 301–315.
Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 577 (2019) 674–682. [98] K. Yoon, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, Formation of functional polyethersulfone electrospun
[71] T. Mohammadi, M.A. Tofighy, A. Pak, Synthesis of carbon nanotubes on membrane for water purification by mixed solvent and oxidation processes,
macroporous kaolin substrate via a new simple CVD method, International Polymer 50 (13) (2009) 2893–2899.
Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering 7 (1) (2009). [99] I. Cisse, et al., Surface modification of polyethersulfone (PES) with UV photo-
[72] W. Zhou, Y. Wu, F. Wei, G. Luo, W. Qian, Elastic deformation of multiwalled oxidation, Technologies 9 (2) (2021) 36.
carbon nanotubes in electrospun MWCNTs–PEO and MWCNTs–PVA nanofibers, [100] S. Zarghami, T. Mohammadi, M. Sadrzadeh, Preparation, characterization and
Polymer 46 (26) (2005) 12689–12695. fouling analysis of in-air hydrophilic/underwater oleophobic bio-inspired
[73] W. Salalha, Y. Dror, R.L. Khalfin, Y. Cohen, A.L. Yarin, E. Zussman, Single-walled polydopamine coated PES membranes for oily wastewater treatment, J. Membr.
carbon nanotubes embedded in oriented polymeric nanofibers by electrospinning, Sci. 582 (2019) 402–413.
Langmuir 20 (22) (2004) 9852–9855. [101] S. Liang, J. Tang, S. Yao, W. Zhu, Removal characteristics of two anionic dyes by a
[74] S. Deng, X. Liu, J. Liao, H. Lin, F. Liu, PEI modified multiwalled carbon nanotube polyethylenimine/poly (N, N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) gel, RSC Adv. 9
as a novel additive in PAN nanofiber membrane for enhanced removal of heavy (40) (2019) 22907–22920.
metal ions, Chem. Eng. J. 375 (2019), 122086. [102] S. Li, X. Yue, Y. Jing, S. Bai, Z. Dai, Fabrication of zonal thiol-functionalized silica
[75] J. Namsaeng, W. Punyodom, P. Worajittiphon, Synergistic effect of welding nanofibers for removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater, Colloids Surf. A
electrospun fibers and MWCNT reinforcement on strength enhancement of Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 380 (1–3) (2011) 229–233.
PAN–PVC non-woven mats for water filtration, Chem. Eng. Sci. 193 (2019) [103] X.-F. Hao, L.-P. Du, H.-G. Cai, C.-Y. Zhang, X.-Q. Zhang, H.-X. Zhang, Preparation
230–242. of superhydrophobic cross-linked syndiotactic 1, 2-polybutadiene membranes by
[76] C. Shan, Y. Wang, S. Xie, H.Y. Guan, M. Argueta, Y. Yue, Free-standing nitrogen- electrospinning, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 12 (10) (2012) 8077–8080.
doped graphene-carbon nanofiber composite mats: electrospinning synthesis and [104] V.G. Kadajji, G.V. Betageri, Water soluble polymers for pharmaceutical
application as anode material for lithium-ion batteries, J. Chem. Technol. applications, Polymers 3 (4) (2011) 1972–2009.
Biotechnol. 94 (12) (2019) 3793–3799. [105] M. Zahra, S. Zulfiqar, W.G. Skene, M.I. Sarwar, Crosslinking of polyamides using
[77] C.S. Tshangana, A.A. Muleja, A.T. Kuvarega, T.J. Malefetse, B.B. Mamba, The dianhydrides, diacid chloride and dialdehyde: a promising approach for water
applications of graphene oxide quantum dots in the removal of emerging treatment, Polym. Int. 69 (1) (2020) 50–60.
pollutants in water: an overview, J. Water Process Eng. 43 (2021), 102249. [106] A. El-Khouly, Y. Takahashi, A. Saafan, E. Kenawy, Y. Hafiz, Study of heavy metal
[78] N. Singh, R.K. Gupta, Modifications in metal oxide electrospun nanofibers for ion absorbance by amidoxime group introduced to cellulose-graft-
environmental applications, in: Electrospun Polymers and Composites, Elsevier, polyacrylonitrile, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 120 (2) (2011) 866–873.
2021, pp. 621–639. [107] D. Edikresnha, T. Suciati, M.M. Munir, K. Khairurrijal, Polyvinylpyrrolidone/
[79] S. Das, A. Barui, A. Adak, Montmorillonite impregnated electrospun cellulose cellulose acetate electrospun composite nanofibres loaded by glycerine and garlic
acetate nanofiber sorptive membrane for ciprofloxacin removal from wastewater, extract with in vitro antibacterial activity and release behaviour test, RSC Adv. 9
J. Water Process Eng. 37 (2020), 101497. (45) (2019) 26351–26363.
[80] Y. Xin, et al., Full-fiber piezoelectric sensor by straight PVDF/nanoclay [108] V. Krstić, T. Urošević, B. Pešovski, A review on adsorbents for treatment of water
nanofibers, Mater. Lett. 164 (2016) 136–139. and wastewaters containing copper ions, Chem. Eng. Sci. 192 (2018) 273–287.
[81] L. Ji, X. Zhang, Ultrafine polyacrylonitrile/silica composite fibers via [109] M. Khayet, C. García-Payo, T. Matsuura, Superhydrophobic nanofibers
electrospinning, Mater. Lett. 62 (14) (2008) 2161–2164. electrospun by surface segregating fluorinated amphiphilic additive for
[82] Q. Dong, et al., Thermal conductivity of diamond packed electrospun pan-based membrane distillation, J. Membr. Sci. 588 (2019), 117215.
carbon fibers incorporated with multi wall carbon nanotubes, J. Nanosci. [110] S. Zarghami, T. Mohammadi, M. Sadrzadeh, B. Van der Bruggen,
Nanotechnol. 16 (2) (2016) 1843–1847. Superhydrophilic and underwater superoleophobic membranes-a review of
[83] S. Madaeni, S. Zinadini, V. Vatanpour, Preparation of superhydrophobic synthesis methods, Prog. Polym. Sci. 98 (2019), 101166.
nanofiltration membrane by embedding multiwalled carbon nanotube and [111] P. Suja, C. Reshmi, P. Sagitha, A. Sujith, Electrospun nanofibrous membranes for
polydimethylsiloxane in pores of microfiltration membrane, Sep. Purif. Technol. water purification, Polym. Rev. 57 (3) (2017) 467–504.
111 (2013) 98–107. [112] V. Polisetti, P. Ray, Nanoparticles modified Polyacrylonitrile/
[84] W. Jang, J. Yun, K. Jeon, H. Byun, PVdF/graphene oxide hybrid membranes via Polyacrylonitrile–Polyvinylidenefluoride blends as substrate of high flux anti-
electrospinning for water treatment applications, RSC Adv. 5 (58) (2015) fouling nanofiltration membranes, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 138 (16) (2021) 50228.
46711–46717. [113] B. Yalcinkaya, F. Yalcinkaya, J. Chaloupek, Thin film nanofibrous composite
[85] S.K. Sahoo, G.K. Panigrahi, J.K. Sahoo, A.K. Pradhan, A.K. Purohit, J.P. Dhal, membrane for dead-end seawater desalination, J. Nanomater. 2016 (2016).
Electrospun magnetic polyacrylonitrile-GO hybrid nanofibers for removing Cr [114] X. Wang, et al., Development of hydrophilic barrier layer on nanofibrous
(VI) from water, J. Mol. Liq. 326 (2021), 115364. substrate as composite membrane via a facile route, J. Membr. Sci. 356 (1–2)
[86] S.K. Mishra, J. Ferreira, S. Kannan, Mechanically stable antimicrobial (2010) 110–116.
chitosan–PVA–silver nanocomposite coatings deposited on titanium implants, [115] M.R.S. Kebria, A. Rahimpour, G. Bakeri, R. Abedini, Experimental and theoretical
Carbohydr. Polym. 121 (2015) 37–48. investigation of thin ZIF-8/chitosan coated layer on air gap membrane distillation
performance of PVDF membrane, Desalination 450 (2019) 21–32.

20
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

[116] M. Aliabadi, M. Irani, J. Ismaeili, S. Najafzadeh, Design and evaluation of condition optimization using response surface methodology, Polym. Adv.
chitosan/hydroxyapatite composite nanofiber membrane for the removal of Technol. (2020).
heavy metal ions from aqueous solution, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 45 (2) (2014) [145] S. Bairagi, S.W. Ali, Conventional and advanced technologies for wastewater
518–526. treatment, in: Environmental Nanotechnology for Water Purification, 2020, p. 33.
[117] Y. Qi, Fabrication and Evaluation of PVA Modified Hydrophilic Cellulose [146] C.P. Gerba, Applied and theoretical aspects of virus adsorption to surfaces, in:
Membrane and TiO2/FAS Modified Superhydrophobic PVDF Electrospun Advances in Applied Microbiology 30, Elsevier, 1984, pp. 133–168.
Nanofiber Membrane for Applications in Membrane Bioreactor and Membrane [147] L.R. Rad, M. Anbia, Zeolite-based composites for the adsorption of toxic matters
Distillation, 2019. from water: a review, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. (2021) 106088.
[118] X. Wang, D. Fang, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, Nanofiltration membranes based on thin- [148] A.D. Monfared, M. Ghazanfari, M. Jamialahmadi, A. Helalizadeh, Adsorption of
film nanofibrous composites, J. Membr. Sci. 469 (2014) 188–197. silica nanoparticles onto calcite: equilibrium, kinetic, thermodynamic and DLVO
[119] M.M.A. Shirazi, S. Bazgir, F. Meshkani, A novel dual-layer, gas-assisted analysis, Chem. Eng. J. 281 (2015) 334–344.
electrospun, nanofibrous SAN4-HIPS membrane for industrial textile wastewater [149] B. Zhu, P. Xia, W. Ho, J. Yu, Isoelectric point and adsorption activity of porous g-
treatment by direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD), J. Water Process Eng. C3N4, Appl. Surf. Sci. 344 (2015) 188–195.
36 (2020), 101315. [150] S. Liegey, Novel DDBAC and TiO2 Functionalized Hydrophobic Electrospun
[120] M. Yao, et al., Effect of heat-press conditions on electrospun membranes for Nanofibrous Membranes for Virus Adsorption in Drinking Water Applications,
desalination by direct contact membrane distillation, Desalination 378 (2016) 2018.
80–91. [151] S. Thomas, S. Rafiei, S. Maghsoodlou, A. Afzali, Foundations of Nanotechnology,
[121] N. Nor, et al., Effects of heat treatment of TiO2 nanofibers on the morphological Volume Two: Nanoelements Formation and Interaction, CRC Press, 2014.
structure of PVDF nanocomposite membrane under UV irradiation, J. Water [152] A.R. Esfahani, Z. Zhang, Y.Y.L. Sip, L. Zhai, A.A. Sadmani, Removal of heavy
Process Eng. 20 (2017) 193–200. metals from water using electrospun polyelectrolyte complex fiber mats, J. Water
[122] O. Makanjuola, F. Ahmed, I. Janajreh, R. Hashaikeh, Development of a dual- Process Eng. 37 (2020), 101438.
layered PVDF-HFP/cellulose membrane with dual wettability for desalination of [153] S.-S. Hossaini-Zahed, et al., Evaluation of process condition impact on copper and
oily wastewater, J. Membr. Sci. 570 (2019) 418–426. lead ions removal from water using goethite incorporated nanocomposite
[123] F. Huang, Q. Wang, Q. Wei, W. Gao, H. Shou, S. Jiang, Dynamic wettability and ultrafiltration adsorptive membranes, Water Sci. Technol. 85 (4) (2022)
contact angles of poly (vinylidene fluoride) nanofiber membranes grafted with 1053–1064.
acrylic acid, Express Polym. Lett. 4 (9) (2010). [154] C.L. Fausey, I. Zucker, E. Shaulsky, J.B. Zimmerman, M. Elimelech, Removal of
[124] Y.C. Woo, et al., CF4 plasma-modified omniphobic electrospun nanofiber arsenic with reduced graphene oxide-TiO2-enabled nanofibrous mats, Chem. Eng.
membrane for produced water brine treatment by membrane distillation, J. 375 (2019), 122040.
J. Membr. Sci. 529 (2017) 234–242. [155] J.-P. Fan, et al., A novel electrospun β-CD/CS/PVA nanofiber membrane for
[125] T. Ogawa, B. Ding, Y. Sone, S. Shiratori, Super-hydrophobic surfaces of layer-by- simultaneous and rapid removal of organic micropollutants and heavy metal ions
layer structured film-coated electrospun nanofibrous membranes, from water, Chem. Eng. J. 378 (2019), 122232.
Nanotechnology 18 (16) (2007), 165607. [156] P.K. Neghlani, M. Rafizadeh, F.A. Taromi, Preparation of aminated-
[126] K. Manabe, K.-H. Kyung, S. Shiratori, Biocompatible slippery fluid-infused films polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membranes for the adsorption of metal ions:
composed of chitosan and alginate via layer-by-layer self-assembly and their comparison with microfibers, J. Hazard. Mater. 186 (1) (2011) 182–189.
antithrombogenicity, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 (8) (2015) 4763–4771. [157] D. Alipour, A.R. Keshtkar, M.A. Moosavian, Adsorption of thorium (IV) from
[127] G. Li, et al., Laccase-immobilized bacterial cellulose/TiO2 functionalized simulated radioactive solutions using a novel electrospun PVA/TiO2/ZnO
composite membranes: evaluation for photo-and bio-catalytic dye degradation, nanofiber adsorbent functionalized with mercapto groups: study in single and
J. Membr. Sci. 525 (2017) 89–98. multi-component systems, Appl. Surf. Sci. 366 (2016) 19–29.
[128] J.H. Park, B.S. Kim, Y.C. Yoo, M.S. Khil, H.Y. Kim, Enhanced mechanical [158] M. Fan, B. Zhang, L. Fan, F. Chen, Q. Fu, Adsorbability of modified PBS nanofiber
properties of multilayer nano-coated electrospun nylon 6 fibers via a layer-by- membrane to heavy metal ions and dyes, J. Polym. Environ. (2021) 1–11.
layer self-assembly, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 107 (4) (2008) 2211–2216. [159] S. Haider, S.-Y. Park, Preparation of the electrospun chitosan nanofibers and their
[129] L. Zhang, T.J. Menkhaus, H. Fong, Fabrication and bioseparation studies of applications to the adsorption of Cu (II) and Pb (II) ions from an aqueous solution,
adsorptive membranes/felts made from electrospun cellulose acetate nanofibers, J. Membr. Sci. 328 (1–2) (2009) 90–96.
J. Membr. Sci. 319 (1–2) (2008) 176–184. [160] J. Quirós, K. Boltes, R. Rosal, Bioactive applications for electrospun fibers, Polym.
[130] L.Q. Xu, J.C. Chen, R. Wang, K.-G. Neoh, E.-T. Kang, G.D. Fu, A poly (vinylidene Rev. 56 (4) (2016) 631–667.
fluoride)-graft-poly (dopamine acrylamide) copolymer for surface [161] V. Kumar, S. Dwivedi, S. Oh, A critical review on lead removal from industrial
functionalizable membranes, RSC Adv. 3 (47) (2013) 25204–25214. wastewater: recent advances and future outlook, J. Water Process Eng. 45 (2022),
[131] C. Yang, B. Wang, Y. Zhang, H. Wang, Preparation and properties of 102518.
polyacrylonitrile fibers with guanidine groups, Fibers Polym. 16 (8) (2015) [162] M. Pishnamazi, S. Koushkbaghi, S.S. Hosseini, M. Darabi, A. Yousefi, M. Irani,
1611–1617. Metal organic framework nanoparticles loaded-PVDF/chitosan nanofibrous
[132] Z.-Q. Dong, B.-J. Wang, X.-H. Ma, Y.-M. Wei, Z.-L. Xu, FAS grafted electrospun ultrafiltration membranes for the removal of BSA protein and Cr (VI) ions, J. Mol.
poly (vinyl alcohol) nanofiber membranes with robust superhydrophobicity for Liq. 317 (2020), 113934.
membrane distillation, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 7 (40) (2015) 22652–22659. [163] M. Hezarjaribi, G. Bakeri, M. Sillanpää, M. Chaichi, S. Akbari, Novel adsorptive
[133] K. Yoon, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, High flux ultrafiltration nanofibrous membranes membrane through embedding thiol-functionalized hydrous manganese oxide
based on polyacrylonitrile electrospun scaffolds and crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol into PVC electrospun nanofiber for dynamic removal of cu (II) and ni (II) ions
coating, J. Membr. Sci. 338 (1–2) (2009) 145–152. from aqueous solution, J. Water Process Eng. 37 (2020), 101401.
[134] M. Zulfiqar, S.Y. Lee, A.A. Mafize, N.A.M.A. Kahar, K. Johari, N.E. Rabat, Efficient [164] F. Yang, J.E. Efome, D. Rana, T. Matsuura, C. Lan, Metal–organic frameworks
removal of pb (II) from aqueous solutions by using oil palm bio-Waste/MWCNTs supported on nanofiber for desalination by direct contact membrane distillation,
reinforced PVA hydrogel composites: kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (13) (2018) 11251–11260.
modeling, Polymers 12 (2) (2020) 430. [165] S. Jamshidifard, S. Koushkbaghi, S. Hosseini, S. Rezaei, A. Karamipour, M. Irani,
[135] S.S. Ray, S.-S. Chen, N.C. Nguyen, H.T. Nguyen, Electrospinning: a versatile Incorporation of UiO-66-NH2 MOF into the PAN/chitosan nanofibers for
fabrication technique for nanofibrous membranes for use in desalination, in: adsorption and membrane filtration of Pb (II), Cd (II) and Cr (VI) ions from
Nanoscale Materials in Water Purification, Elsevier, 2019, pp. 247–273. aqueous solutions, J. Hazard. Mater. 368 (2019) 10–20.
[136] A. Agrawal, K. Gopal, Biomonitoring of Water and Waste Water, Springer Science [166] S. Lin, et al., Selective adsorption of pd (II) over interfering metal ions (Co (II), ni
& Business Media, 2013. (II), pt (IV)) from acidic aqueous phase by metal-organic frameworks, Chem. Eng.
[137] M. Bahmani, S. Zarghami, T. Mohammadi, A.A. Asadi, S. Khanlari, PES J. 345 (2018) 337–344.
electrospun fibrous membrane for oily wastewater treatment: fabrication [167] X. Meng, B. Gui, D. Yuan, M. Zeller, C. Wang, Mechanized azobenzene-
condition optimization using response surface methodology, Polym. Adv. functionalized zirconium metal-organic framework for on-command cargo
Technol. 32 (2) (2021) 886–899. release, Sci. Adv. 2 (8) (2016), e1600480.
[138] E. Sapountzi, M. Braiek, J.-F. Chateaux, N. Jaffrezic-Renault, F. Lagarde, Recent [168] J.E. Efome, D. Rana, T. Matsuura, C.Q. Lan, Insight studies on metal-organic
advances in electrospun nanofiber interfaces for biosensing devices, Sensors 17 framework nanofibrous membrane adsorption and activation for heavy metal ions
(8) (2017) 1887. removal from aqueous solution, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (22) (2018)
[139] J.S. Choi, H.S. Kim, H.S. Yoo, Electrospinning strategies of drug-incorporated 18619–18629.
nanofibrous mats for wound recovery, Drug Deliv. Transl. Res. 5 (2) (2015) [169] Y. Fang, X. Liu, X. Wu, X. Tao, W. Fei, Electrospun polyurethane/phytic acid
137–145. nanofibrous membrane for high efficient removal of heavy metal ions, Environ.
[140] R. Khajavi, M. Abbasipour, A. Bahador, Electrospun biodegradable nanofibers Technol. (2019) 1–8.
scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 133 (3) (2016). [170] L. Zang, R. Lin, T. Dou, J. Ma, L. Sun, Electrospun superhydrophilic membranes
[141] O. Das, et al., The need for fully bio-based facemasks to counter coronavirus for effective removal of pb (II) from water, Nanoscale Adv. 1 (1) (2019) 389–394.
outbreaks: a perspective, Sci. Total Environ. (2020) 139611. [171] R.H.M.T. Shirazi, T. Mohammadi, A.A. Asadi, Incorporation of amine-grafted
[142] M.E. Verbyla, J.R. Mihelcic, A review of virus removal in wastewater treatment halloysite nanotube to electrospun nanofibrous membranes of chitosan/poly
pond systems, Water Res. 71 (2015) 107–124. (vinyl alcohol) for Cd (II) and Pb (II) removal, Appl. Clay Sci. 220 (2022),
[143] M.M.A. Shirazi, S. Bazgir, F. Meshkani, Electrospun nanofibrous membranes for 106460.
water treatment, in: Advances in Membrane Technologies, IntechOpen, 2020. [172] A. Mahapatra, B. Mishra, G. Hota, Studies on electrospun alumina nanofibers for
[144] M. Bahmani, S. Zarghami, T. Mohammadi, A.A. Asadi, S. Khanlari, PES the removal of chromium (VI) and fluoride toxic ions from an aqueous system,
electrospun fibrous membrane for oily wastewater treatment: fabrication Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52 (4) (2013) 1554–1561.

21
R. HMTShirazi et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 47 (2022) 102795

[173] Ş. Parlayıcı, A. Yar, E. Pehlivan, A. Avcı, ZnO-TiO 2 doped polyacrylonitrile nano [195] A. Sato, R. Wang, H. Ma, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, Novel nanofibrous scaffolds for water
fiber-mat for elimination of cr (VI) from polluted water, J. Anal. Sci. Technol. 10 filtration with bacteria and virus removal capability, J. Electron Microsc. 60 (3)
(1) (2019) 1–12. (2011) 201–209.
[174] S. Wu, F. Li, H. Wang, L. Fu, B. Zhang, G. Li, Effects of poly (vinyl alcohol)(PVA) [196] I. Tlili, T.A. Alkanhal, Nanotechnology for water purification: electrospun
content on preparation of novel thiol-functionalized mesoporous PVA/SiO2 nanofibrous membrane in water and wastewater treatment, J. Water Reuse
composite nanofiber membranes and their application for adsorption of heavy Desalin. 9 (3) (2019) 232–248.
metal ions from aqueous solution, Polymer 51 (26) (2010) 6203–6211. [197] K. Desai, K. Kit, J. Li, P.M. Davidson, S. Zivanovic, H. Meyer, Nanofibrous
[175] A. Razzaz, S. Ghorban, L. Hosayni, M. Irani, M. Aliabadi, Chitosan nanofibers chitosan non-wovens for filtration applications, Polymer 50 (15) (2009)
functionalized by TiO2 nanoparticles for the removal of heavy metal ions, 3661–3669.
J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 58 (2016) 333–343. [198] H. Shayesteh, A. Rahbar-Kelishami, R. Norouzbeigi, Evaluation of natural and
[176] M. Managheb, S. Zarghami, T. Mohammadi, A.A. Asadi, S. Sahebi, Enhanced cationic surfactant modified pumice for Congo red removal in batch mode:
dynamic cu (II) ion removal using hot-pressed chitosan/poly (vinyl alcohol) kinetic, equilibrium, and thermodynamic studies, J. Mol. Liq. 221 (2016) 1–11.
electrospun nanofibrous affinity membrane (ENAM), Process Saf. Environ. Prot. [199] M. Peydayesh, T. Mohammadi, O. Bakhtiari, Effective treatment of dye
146 (2020) 329–337. wastewater via positively charged TETA-MWCNT/PES hybrid nanofiltration
[177] C.Y. Foong, et al., COSMO-RS prediction and experimental investigation of amino membranes, Sep. Purif. Technol. 194 (2018) 488–502.
acid ionic liquid-based deep eutectic solvents for copper removal, J. Mol. Liq. 333 [200] S. Jia, D. Tang, J. Peng, Z. Sun, X. Yang, β-cyclodextrin modified electrospinning
(2021), 115884. fibers with good regeneration for efficient temperature-enhanced adsorption of
[178] K.C. Justi, M.C. Laranjeira, A. Neves, A.S. Mangrich, V.T. Fávere, Chitosan crystal violet, Carbohydr. Polym. 208 (2019) 486–494.
functionalized with 2 [-bis-(pyridylmethyl) aminomethyl] 4-methyl-6-formyl- [201] Q. Wang, et al., Controlled synthesis of sodium alginate electrospun nanofiber
phenol: equilibrium and kinetics of copper (II) adsorption, Polymer 45 (18) membranes for multi-occasion adsorption and separation of methylene blue,
(2004) 6285–6290. Carbohydr. Polym. 205 (2019) 125–134.
[179] S.A.A.N. Nasreen, S. Sundarrajan, S.A.S. Nizar, R. Balamurugan, S. Ramakrishna, [202] U. Habiba, T.A. Siddique, J.J.L. Lee, T.C. Joo, B.C. Ang, A.M. Afifi, Adsorption
Advancement in electrospun nanofibrous membranes modification and their study of methyl orange by chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol/zeolite electrospun
application in water treatment, Membranes 3 (4) (2013) 266–284. composite nanofibrous membrane, Carbohydr. Polym. 191 (2018) 79–85.
[180] H. Wang, J. Ding, B. Lee, X. Wang, T. Lin, Polypyrrole-coated electrospun [203] S. Koushkbaghi, A. Zakialamdari, M. Pishnamazi, H.F. Ramandi, M. Aliabadi,
nanofibre membranes for recovery of Au (III) from aqueous solution, J. Membr. M. Irani, Aminated-Fe3O4 nanoparticles filled chitosan/PVA/PES dual layers
Sci. 303 (1–2) (2007) 119–125. nanofibrous membrane for the removal of cr (VI) and pb (II) ions from aqueous
[181] A. Venugopal, et al., Novel wastewater surveillance strategy for early detection of solutions in adsorption and membrane processes, Chem. Eng. J. 337 (2018)
COVID–19 hotspots, Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health 17 (2020) 8–13. 169–182.
[182] A. Merenda, et al., Hybrid polymer/ionic liquid electrospun membranes with [204] X. Kang, Y. Cheng, Y. Wen, J. Qi, X. Li, Bio-inspired co-deposited preparation of
tunable surface charge for virus capture in aqueous environments, J. Water GO composite loose nanofiltration membrane for dye contaminated wastewater
Process Eng. 43 (2021), 102278. sustainable treatment, J. Hazard. Mater. 400 (2020), 123121.
[183] Y. Qiu, et al., Assessment of human virus removal during municipal wastewater [205] S. Mohammadreza Miraboutalebi, M. Peydayesh, M. Bagheri, and T. Mohammadi,
treatment in Edmonton, Canada, J. Appl. Microbiol. 119 (6) (2015) 1729–1739. "Polyacrylonitrile/α-Fe2O3 Hybrid Photocatalytic Composite Adsorbents for
[184] Y. Xu, et al., Characteristics of pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection and potential Enhanced Dye Removal," Chemical Engineering & Technology.
evidence for persistent fecal viral shedding, Nat. Med. 26 (4) (2020) 502–505. [206] S. Dursun, S.N. Koyuncu, İ.C. Kaya, G.G. Kaya, V. Kalem, H. Akyildiz, Production
[185] S.S. Ray, S.-S. Chen, C.-W. Li, N.C. Nguyen, H.T. Nguyen, A comprehensive of CuO–WO3 hybrids and their dye removal capacity/performance from
review: electrospinning technique for fabrication and surface modification of wastewater by adsorption/photocatalysis, J. Water Process Eng. 36 (2020),
membranes for water treatment application, RSC Adv. 6 (88) (2016) 101390.
85495–85514. [207] A. Ghaffar, L. Zhang, X. Zhu, B. Chen, Porous PVdF/GO nanofibrous membranes
[186] Y. Ye, R.M. Ellenberg, K.E. Graham, K.R. Wigginton, Survivability, partitioning, for selective separation and recycling of charged organic dyes from water,
and recovery of enveloped viruses in untreated municipal wastewater, Environ. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52 (7) (2018) 4265–4274.
Sci. Technol. 50 (10) (2016) 5077–5085. [208] S. Patel, G. Hota, Adsorptive removal of malachite green dye by functionalized
[187] R. Al-Wafi, M. Ahmed, S. Mansour, Tuning the synthetic conditions of graphene electrospun PAN nanofibers membrane, Fibers Polym. 15 (11) (2014) 2272–2282.
oxide/magnetite/hydroxyapatite/cellulose acetate nanofibrous membranes for [209] S.P. Sundaran, C. Reshmi, P. Sagitha, O. Manaf, A. Sujith, Multifunctional
removing cr (VI), se (IV) and methylene blue from aqueous solutions, J. Water graphene oxide loaded nanofibrous membrane for removal of dyes and coliform
Process Eng. 38 (2020), 101543. from water, J. Environ. Manag. 240 (2019) 494–503.
[188] F. Meder, et al., The role of surface functionalization of colloidal alumina particles [210] R. Zhao, et al., Highly flexible magnesium silicate nanofibrous membranes for
on their controlled interactions with viruses, Biomaterials 34 (17) (2013) effective removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution, Chem. Eng. J. 359
4203–4213. (2019) 1603–1616.
[189] R. Al-Attabi, et al., Catalytic electrospun nano-composite membranes for virus [211] Y. Xu, et al., Functionalized polyethersulfone nanofibrous membranes with ultra-
capture and remediation, Sep. Purif. Technol. 229 (2019), 115806. high adsorption capacity for organic dyes by one-step electrospinning, J. Colloid
[190] M. Taheran, et al., Development of an advanced multifunctional portable water Interface Sci. 533 (2019) 526–538.
purifier, Nanotechnol. Environ. Eng. 4 (1) (2019) 7. [212] L. Hao, W. Gao, S. Yan, M. Niu, G. Liu, H. Hao, Functionalized diatomite/oyster
[191] T. Shalaby, H. Hamad, E. Ibrahim, O. Mahmoud, A. Al-Oufy, Electrospun shell powder doped electrospun polyacrylonitrile submicron fiber as a high-
nanofibers hybrid composites membranes for highly efficient antibacterial efficiency adsorbent for removing methylene blue from aqueous solution:
activity, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 162 (2018) 354–364. thermodynamics, kinetics and isotherms, J. Mol. Liq. 298 (2020), 112022.
[192] V.S. Naragund, P.K. Panda, Electrospinning of polyacrylonitrile nanofiber [213] A. Bayat, A. Tati, S. Ahmadipouya, S.A. Haddadi, M. Arjmand, Electrospun
membrane for bacteria removal, J. Mater. Sci. Appl. 4 (2018) 68–74. chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol nanocomposite holding polyaniline/silica hybrid
[193] H. Ma, B.S. Hsiao, B. Chu, Functionalized electrospun nanofibrous microfiltration nanostructures: an efficient adsorbent of dye from aqueous solutions, J. Mol. Liq.
membranes for removal of bacteria and viruses, J. Membr. Sci. 452 (2014) 331 (2021), 115734.
446–452. [214] S. Haider, F.F. Binagag, A. Haider, W.A. Al-Masry, Electrospun oxime-grafted-
[194] A.R. Alharbi, I.M. Alarifi, W.S. Khan, R. Asmatulu, Highly hydrophilic electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane and its application to the adsorption of
polyacrylonitrile/polyvinypyrrolidone nanofibers incorporated with gentamicin dyes, J. Polym. Res. 21 (3) (2014) 371.
as filter medium for dam water and wastewater treatment, J. Membr. Sep.
Technol. 5 (2) (2016) 38–56.

22