ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

Endogenic processes are internal processes that occur beneath Earth. These result in reshaping of
Earth’s landforms.

TECTONIC PROCESSES: THEORIES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

Tectonics (forces that move the ground) is the study of the processes that deform Earth’s crust.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

Early in the twentieth century, most geologists

believe that the geographic position of the ocean
basins and continents were fixed. However, data
proved that continents move. A revolutionary
explanation, called continental drift was proposed by
Alfred Wegener.

Wegener suggested that the continents were

all originally part of a huge landmass called Pangaea
that was surrounded by a single ocean, Panthalassa.
A few hundred million years ago, Pangaea was supposed to have begun to break up and
the continents slowly drifted to their present location.

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY, which prposes that the lithosphere consists of seven large segments and numerous
smaller one called plates. The plates rest upon the soft layer of the asthenosphere. The plates move relative to
each other. The driving force for plate movement is the convection flow, in which warm buoyant rocks rise
and cooler materials sink. The Plate tectonic theory is supported by the following evidence:

1. Paleomagnetism or Fossil magnetism – refers to the study of the fossils (especially rocks) formed
million of years ago that contain record of the direction of the magnetic poles at the time of their
formation.

2. Distribution of earthquakes – earthquakes often occur along faults. Faults are breaks in a rock mass
where plate movement has occurred. Faults are associated with plate boundaries.

PLATE BOUNDARIES

A plate boundary is a fracture separating one plate from other. All major interactions among individual
plates occur their boundaries. There are three distinct types of boundaries based on the type of movement.

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY – occurs when two plates move toward each other. Crust is when destroyed
when two plates converge.

1. Oceanic-continental convergence forms trenches,

destructive earthquakes, and rapid uplift of mountain
ranges, as well as the building of volcanic arc.

2. Oceanic-oceanic convergence also forms trenches

(Marianas Trench) and volcanic arc.

3. Continental-continental convergence forms mountain

ranges like that Himalayan range.
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY – occurs when two plates
move away. Most divergent boundaries occur along the
crest of oceanic ridges. When the plates move apart,
there is upwelling of magma from the hot mantle below.
As the magma cools, new seafloor is created called
seafloor spreading. The spreading rate is too slow
considering that human time is rapid enough to have
created the earth’s ocean basin.

TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY – occurs when

plates slide horzontally past one another. Most
transform faults occur witin the ocean basin, but there
are a few that can be found in continental plates.
Transform faults coomonly effects the active spreading
ridgee, producing zig-zag plate margins they are
generally defined by shallow eartquakes. The San
Andreas fault is one of the few transform faults found
on land.

OCEAN BASIN: EVOLUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS

TECTONIC FORCE AND PROCESSES

Rocks may undergo deformation. Deformation

refers to the change in the original shape and size of a
rock. The deformation is caused by tectonic forces.

FOLDING OR FOLDS occur when rocks are pushed towards each other from opposite sides. The rock layers
bend into folds. Folds are produced by horizontal compressive stresses, such as continent-continent collisions
or collusions ate any convergent plate boundary. They may occur in groups and may be large scale or small
scale.

2 TYPES OF FOLDING

SYNCLINE – fold upward

ANTICLINE – fold downward

FAULTING is the fracturing and displacement of brittle rocks strata along a fault plane. Fault are fractures
along the crust in which displacement has occurred. There are different fault based on the relative movements
of the blocks on either side of the fault. Strike-slip fault occurs when the dominant desplacement is horizontal
and parallel. A special kind of strike-slip fault is the transform fault. Some transform faults cut the oceanic
crusts.

3 TYPES OF FAULTING

In a normal fault, the blocks are In a reverse fault, the blocks are In a strike-slip or transform fault,
pulled apart so one block slides pushed together, so one block is two blocks slide past one
down the other. pushed up the side of the other. another.

VOLCANISM

A volcano is a vent or a series of vents on the

crusts. The vent is like a chimmey; it is where magma,
ash, and gases aree released. The mouth of the vent is
referred to as crater. The large, almost circular
depression formed eaither by the collapse or explosion
of the volcano is caldera.

Magma production as the subduction zone occurs due to the following conditions:

1. Increased temperature due to friction – friction heats rock as one plate moves downward.

2. Addition of water to the asthenosphere – a subducting plate is covered by oceanic crust which is
soaked in water.

3. Pressure relief melting – melting due to pressure relief happens when rocks in the asthenosphere
flow upward as a subconducting plate descends.

The thrid environment in which magma forms but its not related to plate boundaries is called hot spot or
mantle plumes. Sometimes, the magma does not reach the surface. It cools a various depths. Giving rise to
magma bodies called pluton ot intrusive igneous.

GASES

Volcanic eruptions emits a variety of gases. In addition

to water vapor and carbon dioxide, toxic gases, such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric
acid are emitted.

LIQUID (LAVA)

Lava refers to magma that flows out Earth’s surface. It tempearature maybe from 500°C to over
1400°C. because of its high temperature, combustible materials like houses, trees, and gases burn when
engulfed by lava.

Lava consists of mixture of oxides, generally silicon dioxide (SiO 2). Depending on the percentage of SiO2, lava
maybe classified as:

1. Granitic – SiO2 content is greater than 65%.

2. Andesitic – SiO2 content is between 555 to 65%.

3. Basaltic – SiO2 content is less than 55%.

VISCOSITY

Viscosity, which is resistance to flow, is affected bu the composition of the lava. Granitic lava has more
viscous. It is solidifies within the crust before reaching the surface, resulting in explosive aruptions.

SOLID

The solid particles thrown out in volcanic eruption are known as pyroclasts (fire-broken fragments).
Depending on the side and shape, that may be named as follows:

 Volcanic Blocks are large volcanic rocks within size greater than 32mm in diameter.

Cinders or Lapili are medium sized particles about 4 to 32 mm in diameter.

Volcanic Ash consists of small particles that are less than 2 mm in diameter.

Volcanic Dust consists very small particles that are less than 0.25 mm in diameter.

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES & HAZARD

REBUBLIC ACT 10121 – known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010.

There are important defines in RA 10121

1. DISASTER is a serious disuption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human
environmental losses and impacts.

2. DISASTER MITIGATION s the lessening or limitation of adverse effects of hazards and related disaster.

3. DISASTER PREPAREDNESS includes the knowledge and capabilities needed by an institution and/or an
individual to anticipate and respond to and recover for the impacts of the hazards.

4. DISASTER RESPONSE is the provision of service and assistance during and immediately after a disaster.

5. HAZARD is a dangerous phenomenon, human activity or conditions that may cause loss in life.

6. REHABILITATION ensures that the affected community is able to restore their normal functioning ability.

7. RISK is the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.

8. RISK MANAGEMENT is the systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainly to minimize potential
harm and loss.

9. VULNERABILITY means the characteristics and circumtances of a community, system or assets, that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.

THE FOLLORING ARE SAMPLE OUTCOMES FOUND IN THEPRIMER (NDRRMP 2011-28). There are twenty four
outcomes from the four priority areas of th NDRRMC.

PREVENTION AND MIGITATION:

-Increases resilience of infrastructure system (DPWH).

-Enhanced monitoring, forecasting, and hazard warning (DOST).

Disaster Preparedness:

-Increased level of awareness and enhanced capacity of the community to deal with hazard threats and
impacts(Philippine Information Agency or PIA)

-Communities are equipped with necessary skills and capability to cope with impacts as disaster (DILG
to coordinate and OCD to implement)

Disaster Response:

-Well-established disaster response operation (DSWD)

-Safe and timely evacuation of affected communities (LGU’s)

Rehabilitation and Recovery:

-Damages, losses, and needs assessment (OCD)

-Disaster- and climate-change-resilient infrastructure construction or reconstruction (DPWH)

The top ten provinces that are at risk to EARTHQUAKES are:

-Surigao Del Sur

-La Union

-Benguet

-Pangasinan

-Pampanga

6. Tarlac

7. Ifugao

8. Davao Oriental

9. Nueva Vizcaya

10. Nueva Ecija

The top ten provinces that are at risk to VOLCANIC ERUPTION are:

-Camiguin-Mt. Hibok-Hibok

-Sulu-Jolo Volcano

-Biliran-Biliran Volcano

-Albay-Mt. Mayon

-Bataan-Mt. Natib

6. Sorsogon-Bulusan Volcano

7. South Cotabato-Parker

8. Laguna-Mt. Banahaw

9. Camarines Sur

10. Batanes

BASIC UNDERSTANING ABOUT THE PHENOMENA/EVENT

-what to do before the event

-what to do during the event

-what to do after the event