Analytical Chemistry

o Diluent*(dilutes)* + Aliquot*(diluted)*
I. INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY o Commonly expressed as one part of the original solution to the total
pats of final solution
• Analytical chemistry, stoichiometry calculations with the general concepts
and application of chemical equilibrium Dilution=Solute/Total Volume
• Sampling and preparation, analytical measurements and data analysis
• Qualitative and Quantitative Chemistry Dil=1/x

Concentration

• Serial Dilutions
Typical Quantitative Analysis
o Simple Dilution but diluted serially
• Choosing a Method o Always have the same final volume
• Eliminating the Interferences
• Calculating the Results o
TUBE 1 TUBE 2 TUBE 3 TUBE 4
• Acquiring a Sample
• Calibrating and Measuring Concentration DF SOLUTE 1mL 1mL 1mL 1mL
• Processing a Sample 3 NSS 2mL 2mL 2mL 2mL
• Evaluating Results by Estimating Reliability
TOTAL
DIL 3mL 3mL 3mL 3mL
VOLUME
1/3 FINAL DIL 1/3 1/3x1/3=1/9 1/3x1/9=1/27 1/3x1/27=1/81
II. LABORATORY MATHEMATICS FINAL 3mL-1mL= 3mL-1mL= 3mL-1mL= 3mL-1mL=
VOLUME 2mL 2mL 2mL 2mL
Concentration
• Dilution Factor
• Dilution (has no unit)
DilutionFactor=TotalVolume/Solute DF=x
c1v1=c2v2
BLOOD is a Suspension PLASMA is the liquid portion of the anti-coagulated
• Simple Dilutions blood SERUM is the liquid portion of the coagulated blood (Aliquot) NSS is normal
o weaker solution is made from a stronger solution saline solution 0.85-0.90% NaCl Solution (Diluent)

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Analytical Chemistry

o Meets or exceeds requirements of the United States Pharmacopeia

(USP); used for most lab purposes. Reviewed prior to beginning to
III. CHEMICALS, APPARATUS, & UNIT OPERATIONS OF ensure the grade is appropriate for that methodology
▪ High Performance Liquid Chromatography
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
• NF Grade
Selecting and Handling Regeants and Other Chemicals o National Formulary; meets of exceeds NF Standards
• Laboratory Grade
2A-1 Classifying Chemicals
o Most popular grade used in educational applications; exact levels of
impurities are unknown. It is not pure enough to be offered for food,
• Reagent Grade
drug, of medicinal use of any kind.
o conform to the minimum standards set forth by the Reagent
• Purified Grade
o Chemical Committee of the American Chemical Society (ACS)1 and are
o practical grade; meets no official standard. Not pure enough for food,
used whenever possible in analytical work
drugs, and medicinal use.
o Some suppliers label their products with the maximum limits of
• Technical Grade
impurity allowed by the ACS specifications while others print actual
o Commercial purposes
concentrations for the various impurities.
• Special-Purpose Reagent Chemicals
Equipment Associated with Weighing
o Chemicals that have been prepared for a specific application are also
available.
• Desiccant and Desiccators — for removing moisture from solids
o Included among these are solvents for spectrophotometry and high-
• Hygroscopic — ability to absorb water
performance liquid chromatography. Information pertinent to the
• Weighing Bottles — for drying and storing solids
intended use is supplied with these reagents.
• Crucible — convert a precipitate into a suitable weighing form
o Data provided with a spectrophotometric solvent, for example, might
• Filtering Crucible — containter and a filter
include its absorbance at selected wavelengths and its ultraviolet
• Sintered-Glass Crucible — fritted-glass crucible; has a filter.
cutoff wavelength.
Fine/Medium/Coarse Porosities (200‘C)
• ACS GRADE
• Gooch Crucibles — a perforated bottom that supports fibrous mat. (500’C)
o American Chemical Society; meets or exceeds purity standards.
Acceptable for food, drug, or medicinal use; require stringent quality Heating Equipment
specifications and a purity of 95%
• USP Grade • Drying Oven — capable of maintaining a constant temperature to within 1’C;
max ranges from 140’C-260’C
• Microwave Laboratory Oven — shorten drying cycles

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Analytical Chemistry

• Heat Lamp — used to dr precipitate that has been collected on ashless paper • Classification of Analytical Balance
and to char the paper as well o Macrobalance — a maximum capacity ranging between 160 and 200 g
• Burners — Convenient sources of intense heat; Meker/Tirrill/Bunsen o Semi-Microanalytical Balance — maximum loading of 10 to 30 g with
• Heavy-Duty Electric Furnance(Muffle Furnace) — capable of maintaining a precision of +-0.01 mg
controlled temperatures of 1,100’C or higher o Microanalytical Balance — Maximum loading of 1-3g with a precision
of +_0.001g
IVD — invitro diagnosis • Types of Analytical Balance
o Equal Arm Balance — tedious and time consuming.
Standard Solutions o Single Pan Analytical Balance
o Two pan Analytical Balance
• Primary-Standard Grade o Electronic Analytical balance — provides unprecedented speed and
o Primary-standard reagents have been carefully analyzed by the ease of use
supplier, and the results are printed on the container label. o Triple Beam Balance — precise measurement; +_0.05g error
o The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an
excellent source for primary standards. A servo system is a device in which a small electric signal causes a mechanical
o This agency also prepares and sells reference standards, which are system to return to a null position.
complex substances that have been exhaustively analyzed.2
o ultrapure compound; high purity General Categories of Glass
o reference material for titration or for another type of analysis
o atmospheric stability • Low Actinic Glass — used to reduce light exposure to its contents; amber
o absence of hydrated water colored glass
o modest cost, reasonable solubility, reasonably large molar mass • High Silica Glass — similar to quarts, accurate spectophotometer cuvettes
• Secondary-Standard Grade • Borosilicate Glass — most heat resistant, thermal shock and alkaline
o purity has been determined by chemical analysis corrosion; melts at temperature between 750’C and 1100’C.
o Used for situations in involving sudden changes in temperature, an
o working standard material for titration and for may other analyses
o higher error rate
open flame, or electric heating elements.

Apparatus for Measuring Mass Pyrex 515’C

high-impact, extremely strong glass; with
• Analytical Balance Corex
aluminosilicate
o measure masses with high accuracy
o precision of at least 1 part in 10^5>1 part in 10^6

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Analytical Chemistry

Pyrex 515’C ▪ Mohr Pipette — does not have graduation to the tip; no touch
tip
use in high-temperature, drastic heat shock, and
▪ Serologic Pipette — has graduation marks to the tip and is
Vycor extreme chemicals; ashing and ignition techniques.
generally a blowout pipette
900’C
▪ Micropipette — smaller version of all pipettes; less than 1mL
Soda-Lime Glass (Flint has high coeffecien t of expansion; readily attacked of holding volume
Glass) (Soda-sodium; by alkaline solution. Used in making volumetric ▪ Transfer Pipette — dispense one volume without further
Lime-calcium) flasks, stirring rods, and single use pippettes/tubes subdivisions; Ostwald-Folin Pipette
Measuring Volumes ▪ Automatic and Semi-Automatic Pipette — commonly ised in
the clinicla laboratory
• Liter — describes as one cubic decimeter
• Apparatus for precisely measuring volume
o Graduated Cylinder — semi accurate measuring device; extremely
convenient for rapid measurement of liquid volumes(should never be
heated)
o Volumetric Flask — preparation of standard solutions and for dilution
of samples to a fixed volume
o Burette — consists of a calibrated tube to hold titrant; can deliver any
volume to its maximum capacity.
▪ Acid Buret - glass stopcock
▪ Base - rubber stopcock
o Pipettes — transfer of accurately known volumes from one container
to annother
▪ TC pipettes (to contain) — holds or contains a particular
volume but does not dispense the exact volume
▪ TD pipettes (to deliver) — made by weighing necessary
volume of water when allowed to flow by gravity will deliver
the exact volume
▪ Blowout pipette — those with double rings by pushing a small
amount of air out of the pipette completly emptying it
▪ Self Draining Pipette — without frosted rings; touch tip

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Analytical Chemistry

Quality Management & Quality Assurance 3. Quality Assurance

• Quality from the perspective of end-user
• Requires that causes of problems be identified through quality
1. Quality
improvement (qi) & eliminated through quality planning (QP)
• Conformance of the requirements of users/customers
• Also requires for quality control (qc) to detect problems in order to
• Satisfactions of the needs & expectations of users/customers
prevent them
• Improvements in quality (which requires care) can lead to long-term
• Planned & systematic activities to provide adequate confidence that
reduction of cost
requirements for quality will be met
• Balance must be obtained so that a net reduction in cost and an
• Measurement of the broader dimension of quality from the
improved quality in services can be obtained
perspective of the endorser (client)
• Majority of errors are in the pre-analytical (32-75%) and post-
4. Why Is Quality Assurance Important?
analytical phase (9-55%)
• Public Expects High Quality
• Analytic phase (forms of earlier quality management schemes)
• Defines Quality Goals & Parameters
accounts for only 4-32% of errors
• Evaluation & Improvement System
2. Quality Cost
• Assures Reliability & Comparability Of Results
• Cost of Conformance
a) Prevention — Preventing the error • Cost-Effective
b) Appraisal — Detecting the error • Even The Simplest Of Testing Is Not Foolproof
• Cost of Non Conformance
5. Benefits Of Laboratory Quality Assurance
a) Internal Failure — defects before the consumer acquires the
product • Provides evidence of good performance
b) External Failure (More Costly) — defects after consumer • Laboratory mistakes are prevented
acquires the product
• Significant improvements in testing performance can be achieved

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Analytical Chemistry

6. Quality Assurance Model Qc results in the lab are used to validate (confirm) whether the instrument is
• Staffing/Personal Components operating within pre-defined specifications, concluding that patient test results
• Quality Control are reliable
• Proficiency Testing (External QA) How Does Basic QC Work?
A. Staffing 1. Run a control sample
• Executive Responsibility 2. Compare results with expected range of values
• Appropriate Educational Credentials & Experience 3. Check to see if the results are right
• Receive Training 4. If yes - system is working - report good patient results
• Competency Assessments 5. If no - system is not working - do not report any bad data
B. Quality control
• Systematic Monitoring Of The Analytic Processes & Detect QC - PATIENT - PHYSICIAN - TREATMENT – RESULT
Analytic Errors & To Ultimately Prevent The Reporting Of
Incorrect Patients Test Result • Application of multiple systems; Westgard rule
• Testing Designed To Assess The Health Of Analytical Method • Plotting data; Levey-Jennings chart
• Error Detection • Statistical concepts; SD, CV, Mean
• Error Prevention Calibration Vs. Quality Control
• Measure Performance (Bias, Impression, Total Error) 1. Calibration
• Monitor Performance • "setting" the analyzer to give correct results
• Validate Performance • Uses calibrators (standards)
2. Quality control
• "Checking"
a) If the analyzer is producing correct results (expected values)

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Analytical Chemistry

b) The instrument's calibration & other analytical processes • Consistency (degree of replication) of a series of test results
Calibrators vs. Controls • Closeness of agreement between independent test results
1. Calibrators obtained under prescribed condition
• Solution that contains a known amount (standard) of an analyte 3. Reliability
used to calibrate an assay method • Accuracy & precision
• Run prior to qc • Capacity of a method to maintain both accuracy & precision
• Manually by the laboratory analyst over time
• Automatically by the microprocessors controlling the 4. Proficiency testing
instrument • External Quality Assurance
2. Controls • Central organization sends out challenge specimens for testing
• Qc materials/solutions used to monitor the performance (precision • Laboratory results are evaluated
& accuracy) of an assay method once it has been calibrated • Early warning-system for problems
• Run along-side patient samples • Measures of laboratory quality
• Results are calibrated from calculation data in the same manner • Valuable benchmarking tool (standardization & traceability)
that patient results are calculated • Indicator of where to direct improvement efforts
3. Preventive Maintenance is regular quality Control • NEQAS- national external quality assessment scheme
4. Corrective Maintenance is after a machine fault • QA activity conducted by the NRL's to assess the quality
Terminologies Relevant To Quality Control of performance & accuracy of test results of the
1. Accuracy laboratories
• Closeness of a test value to the actual target/true value • Doh Department Order 2020-0820; institutionalizing &
• Closeness to the mean value strengthening the national reference laboratories in the
2. Precision Philippines

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Analytical Chemistry

◼ Personnel
NEQAS Reference Laboratories For Different Laboratory Sections ◼ Equipment
1. East Avenue Medical Center ◼ Purchasing and Inventory
• Toxicology ◼ Process Control
2. Lung Center Of The Philippines - Pre Analytical
• Clinical Chemistry - Analytical
3. National Kidney & Transplant Institute 1. Calibration
• Hematology 2. Maintenance
• Urinalysis 3. Quality Control
4. Philippine Heart Center 4. PT/EQA
• Cardiac Markers - Post Analytical
5. Research Institute For Tropical Medicine ◼ Information Management
• Microbiology ◼ Occurrence Management
• Parasitology ◼ Assessment
6. STD AIDS Central Cooperative Laboratory (SACCL- San Lazaro ◼ Process Involvement
Hospital) ◼ Service and Satisfaction
• HIV ◼ Facilities and Safety
• Other Blood Transmitted Diseases Quality Control Procedures
Quality Control • Using Unassayed Control Material
• Quality Management System ◼ Get the mean (accurate)
◼ Documents and Records ◼ Get the Sample SD (precise if small SD)
◼ Organizations

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Analytical Chemistry

◼ Compute for the Confidence Limits – Limits between which we - Inconsistent change in the test system that causes change
expect precision
◼ Observe for Errors • Systemic Error
Run the control at least 20 times - Consistent change in the system
Come up with 20 values ◼ Shift – abrupt change in the control mean
Once per day, for 20 days ◼ Causes of shifts
Compute for the Mean for the Control Materials 1. Sudden failure or change in the light source
Compute for the Standard Deviation of the Control Materials +-2sd is the 2. Change in reagent formulation
standard 3. Change of reagent lot

Get Confidence Interval 4. Major instrument maintenance

5. Sudden change in incubation temperature

• Using Assayed Control Material 6. Change in room Temperature

◼ Every value is given ◼ Trend – indicates gradual loss of reliability in test system

• Levey-Jennings Chart ◼ Causes of Trend

◼ Evaluates whether a procedure is in control or out of control 1. Deterioration of instrument light source

◼ All testing is subject to variation – error 2. Gradual accumulation of debris In the sample or

◼ The question is whether the error is acceptable or not reagent tubing

Types of Errors 3. Aging of reagents

• Random Error 4. Gradual deterioration of control materials

- Any random away from the laboratory mean 5. Gradual accumulation of debris on electrode

- It may occur in any direction due to chance surfaces

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Analytical Chemistry

How to Monitor QC Data? ◼ 22s – 2 consecutive controls exceed the mean by either +-2sd
• Use Levey-Jennings chart ◼ 41s – 4 consecutive controls on one side of the mean exceeds +-1Sd
• Plot control values each run then make decisions whether to accept or ◼ 10x – 10 consecutive controls on one side of the mean
reject a run
D. Random Error:
• Monitor every time to evaluate the precision and accuracy of repeated
◼ 13s – any QC result outside +-13s
measurements
◼ R4s – 4s difference between control
• Review charts at defined intervals, take necessary action, and
document
• Ideally control values should cluster around the mean in the
upwards or downward direction
• Imprecision is a large amount of scatter about the mean and is
usually caused by errors in technique
• Inaccuracy may see as a trend or a shift, usually cause by change in
testing process
Westgard Rules
A. This will determine if the result of quality control will be accepted or
rejected. Data will be plotted and there is a possibility that one of these
will be violated. If there would be a violation, a corresponding action
will be done.
B. Warning rule:
◼ 12s – when a single control observation is outside the +-2s limits
C. Systematic Errors:

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Analytical Chemistry

Chemical Reactions Subscript – no. of atoms

• A process in which one or more substances, the reactants, Coefficient – no. of molecules
are converted to one or more different substances, the Chemical Equations Give Some Information:
products. • Identities of reactants and products
Substances = either chemical elements or compounds • Relative amount of the reactant or product
• Physical Reaction - properties will change identity remains • Physical states of the reactant and products
the same • Stoichiometry
• Chemical Reaction – reactant disappear and new Types of Chemical Reaction
substance form • Synthesis Reaction (Combination)
Evidence of Chemical Reactions 𝐴 + 𝐵 => 𝐴𝐵
• Color Changes 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 => 2𝐻2 𝑂
• A Solid Is Formed (Precipitation) • Decomposition
• Bubbles Form (Gas) 𝐴 𝐵 => 𝐴 + 𝐵
• Heat and or Flame Is Produced Or Absorbed 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 => 2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2
Chemical Equations • Single Replacement Reaction
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐶+𝐷 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 => 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵
𝐴 + 𝐵 <=> 𝐶 + 𝐷 • Double Replacement Method
Reactants yields products 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 => 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐵
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 => 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙

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Analytical Chemistry

• Combustion Specific Chemical Reactions

𝐴𝐵 + 𝑥𝑂3 => 𝑦𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑧𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) • Oxidation Reduction
𝐶3 𝐻8 + 5𝑂2 => 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) 1. Electron Transfer: OIL RIG
Balance a Chemical Reaction - Oxidation: Loss
• All chemical equations should be balanced - Reduction: Gain
• Law of Conservation of Mass 2. Oxygen Transfer:
◼ Mass is neither created nor destroyed on chemical - Oxidation: Gain
reactions - Reduction: Loss
◼ The mass of any one element at the beginning of a 3. Hydrogen Transfer:
reaction will equal the mass of that element at the end - Oxidation: Loss
of the reaction - Reduction: Gain
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 => 𝐻2 𝑂 > 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 => 2𝐻2 𝑂 > 𝟐𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 => 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 E. Hydrolysis
Example: 1. Salt and Water Hydrolysis
𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝑂2 => 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 > 𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝑂2 => 𝟑𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 2. Acid and Base Hydrolysis

𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝟓𝑂2 => 𝟑𝐶𝑂2 + 𝟒𝐻2 𝑂 - Acid: Donates

𝑍𝑛𝑆 + 𝑂2 => 𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂2 > 𝟐𝑍𝑛𝑆 + 𝟑𝑂2 => 𝟐𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝟐𝑆𝑂2 - Base: Accepts
F. Carboxylation: Addition of CO2
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 => 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 G. Decarboxylation: Release of CO2
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝟐𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 => 𝟐𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 H. Neutralization: Acid and Base react to form water and salt

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Analytical Chemistry

Acid, Bases and Buffer Solutions acid will donate it’s hydrogen ion to a base in an acid-base

I. Power of Hydrogen pH reaction

3. Lewis Acid – An electron pair acceptor
A. How basic or acidic a solution is
- Bases are substances that will dissociate into hydroxide ions in an
- 0-7 acidic
aqueous solution
- Pure water: 7-neutral
1. Arrhenius Base – Increases the concentration of Hydroxide
- 7-14 basic
ions in solutions usually by dissociation factor
- Water is neutral
2. Bronsted-Lowry Base – Defined as a hydrogen ion
- Lowest pH has the highest hydrogen concentration
acceptor; in an acid-base reaction, the base accepts the
B. Is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a given substance
hydrogen ions from the acid
- pH= -log(H+)
3. Lewis Base – An electron pair donor
- pH= -log(𝐻3 𝑂+)
[The Lewis definition includes all of the Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry acids and
- Logarithm of 10
bases includes substances such as 𝐵𝐹3 and Boric Acid which do not fit under the
C. Identification of Acids and Bases
other definition]
[The Arrhenius definition was limited to substances which were soluble in water]
D. Acid Dissociations
- Hydrogens must be part of a polar bond in order to dissociate; not all
- Monoprotic can give up one hydrogen ion
hydrogens are acidic
- Diprotic can give up 2 hydrogen ions and is a 2-step dissociation
- Acids are substances that will dissociate into hydrogen ions in an
E. Autoionization of Water and Hydronium Ion
aqueous solution
- At 1 atm of pressure and 25 degrees Celsius, water undergoes the
1. Arrhenius Acid – Increases the concentration of hydrogen
following equilibrium dissociation
ions in solutions usually by dissociation factor
- The 𝐻2 𝑂+ is called the hydronium Ion and is used synonymously with the
2. Bronsted-Lowry Acid – Defined as a molecule or ion that is
symbol for a proton H+
a hydrogen ion donor; also known as a proton donor. The

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Analytical Chemistry

- Any substance which can act as both an acid and a base is termed Perchloric Acid (𝑯𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟒 ) Nitrous Acid
Amphoteric or Amphiprotic. Sulfuric Acid (𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 ) Acetic Acid
F. Acid-Base Equilibria Hydrobromic Acid (HBr)
- Acids and bases dissociate in water under equilibrium conditions Hydrolodic Acid (HI)
- As such, we can assign an equilibrium constant; Ka for acids and Kb for
bases - Strong acids have very large Ka’s (100% Ionization) and is pH= -log(H+)
- The higher the Equilibria Constant, the stronger the acid is -
- Strong acids and strong bases (these tend to dissolve completely) are
defined on the basis of their Ka’s and Kb’s respectively and the percent
ionization.
(𝑯+ )𝑨 − (𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)
𝑲𝒂 =
𝑯𝑨 (𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅)

G. Bronsted-Lowry Theory Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

- A conjugate acid of a base is the species that results from the addition of
a proton to the base
- A conjugate base of an acid is the species that results from the addition
of proton from the acid
H. Strong Acids and Weak Acids
Strong Acids Weak Acids
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Hydronium Ion
Nitric Acid (HN𝑶𝟑 ) Hydrofluoric Acid

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Analytical Chemistry

Classical Methods - Light source, Entrance slit, Monochromator, Exit Slit, Cuvette,
- Separation of analytes by precipitation, extraction, or distillation. Photo detector. (Light source, Collimator, Monochromator, Wavelength
- Qualitative analysis (Presence or absence) selector, Sample Solution, Detector, Digital Display)
- Quantitative analysis Flame Photometry (I or Q)
• Gravimetric Methods – the mass of the analyte or some - Measurement of amount of light emitted as ions are excited by the
compound produced from the analyte was determined. flame = concentration of unknown substance.
• Titrimetric methods – the volume or mass of a standard reagent - For monoatomic ions like Na+, K+, and Cl-
required to react completely from the analyte that was measured. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (I or Q)
Instrumental Methods - Determination of chemical elements using the absorption of
- Measures of physical properties of analyte: optical radiation
Detection - For diatomic ions like Na2+
Quantification Ion-Selected Electrode (I or Q)
Analytical Signals - Is a transducer that converts the activity of a specific ion
Data Domain – information encoded dissolved in a solution into an electrical potential.
Non-electrical Domains - (scale, number, chemical) - The voltage is theoretically dependent on the logarithm of the
Electrical Domains – (volts, current, charge) ionic activity, according to the Nernst equation.
Analog Domains – continuous quantities (volts, current) Mass Spectroscopy (Identify)
Time Domains – (pulses, slopes) - Mass to change ratio.
INSTRUMENTS - A mass spectrum measures the masses.
Spectrophotometry (I or Q) Fluorometer
- Measurement of light transmitted (indirectly proportional to the -
light absorbed) =concentration of unknown substance Turbidimetry and Nephelometry

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Analytical Chemistry

Turbidimetry – Light block

Nephelometry – Light scattering

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