This resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification OCR Level 3 Advanced Subsidary GCE

in Mathematics B (MEI) (H630) and OCR Level 3 Advanced GCE in Mathematics B (MEI) (H640).
In order to gain OCR endorsement, this resource has undergone an independent quality check.
Any references to assessment and/or assessment preparation are the publisher’s interpretation of the
specification requirements and are not endorsed by OCR. OCR recommends that a range of teaching
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Acknowledgements
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Questions from past AS and A Level Mathematics papers are reproduced by permission of MEI and OCR.
Practice questions have been provided by Chris Little (p316–317), Neil Sheldon (p407–410), Rose Jewell
(p515–517) and MEI (p125–127 and p235–237).
p35 Figure 3.1 data from United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs, Population Division.
World Population prospects: The 2015 Revisions, NewYork, 2015.
p348 Table source: adapted from Table Q1.6(i), Executive summary tables: June 2013, Criminal justice statistics
quarterly: June 2013
p352 Data from TableNTS0905 published by gov.uk, reproduced under the Open Government Licence www.
nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3/
p401 Figure 17.13 data from The World Factbook 2013–14. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2013.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the
Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press,
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ISBN: 978 1 4718 5298 5
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First published in 2017 by
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 Contents

Getting the most from this book v Review: The sine and cosine rules 128
Prior knowledge vii 1 Working with triangles 128
Problem solving: Triples 132
1 Proof 1 6 Trigonometric functions 135
1.1 Problem solving 2 6.1 Reciprocal trigonometric
1.2 Methods of proof 5 functions 135
2 Trigonometry 12 6.2 Working with trigonometric
equations and identities 140
2.1 Radians 12 6.3 Solving equations involving
2.2 Circular measure 17 radians 145
2.3 Small-angle approximations 22 7 Further algebra 148
Review: Algebra 1 27 Review: Pascal’s triangle and
R.1 Surds and indices 27 the binomial expansion 149
R.2 Exponentials and logarithms 29 7.1 The general binomial expansion 151
7.2 Simplifying algebraic expressions 156
3 Sequences and series 35 7.3 Partial fractions 161
3.1 Definitions and notation 36 8 Trigonometric identities 167
3.2 Arithmetic sequences and series 43
3.3 Geometric sequences and series 47 8.1 Compound angle formulae 168
8.2 Double angle formulae 172
Review: Algebra 2 56 8.3 The forms rcos (θ ± α),
R.1 Equations and inequalities 56 rsin (θ ± α ) 175
R.2 Polynomials 61 9 Further differentiation 182
4 Functions 64 9.1 Differentiating
logarithms
exponentials and
183
Review: Graphs and transformations 64 9.2 Differentiating trigonometric
4.1 The language of functions 71 functions 187
4.2 Composite functions 80 9.3 Implicit differentiation 191
4.3 The modulus function 90
10 Integration 195
5 Differentiation 96 Review: Integration 196
Review: Differentiation 97 10.1 Finding areas 200
5.1 The shape of curves 102 10.2 Integration by substitution 209
5.2 The chain rule 110 10.3 Integrating other functions 214
5.3 Connected rates of change 116 10.4 Integration involving the natural
5.4 The product and quotient rules 118 logarithmic function 218
Practice questions: Pure 10.5 Further integration by
substitution 225
Mathematics 1 125 10.6 Integration by parts 228
iii
 Practice questions: Pure 16 Statistical distributions 351
Mathematics 2 235 Review: The binomial distribution 351
Review: Coordinate geometry 238 16.1 Discrete random variables 353
16.2 The Normal distribution 360
R.1 Line segments 238 17 Statistical hypothesis testing 376
stnetnoC

R.2 Circles 241

Problem solving: Eggs 246 Review 376
11 Parametric equations 248 17.1 Interpreting sample data using
the Normal distribution 382
11.1 Graphs from parametric 17.2 Bivariate data: correlation and
equations 250 association 392
11.2 Finding the equation by
eliminating the parameter 253 Practice questions: Statistics 407
11.3 Parametric differentiation 259 18 Kinematics 411
12 Vectors 264 Review: Motion in one dimension 411
12.1 Vectors 264 18.1 Motion in two or three dimensions 420
12.2 Using vectors to solve problems 271 19 Forces and motion 435
13 Differential equations 276 Review: Forces and motion 435
13.1 First order differential equations 277 19.1 Forces in equilibrium 443
13.2 Solving differential equations by 19.2 Finding resultant forces 453
separating the variables 282 19.3 Newton’s second law in two
dimensions 459
14 Numerical methods 289 20 Moments of forces 467
14.1 Solving equations numerically 290
14.2 The Newton–Raphson method 302 20.1 Rigid bodies 468
14.3 Numerical integration 306 21 Projectiles 479
Problem solving: Numerical integration 314 21.1 Equations for projectile motion 480
Practice questions: Pure 21.2 Projectile problems 483
Mathematics 3 316 21.3 Further examples 487
21.4 The path of a projectile 495
Review: Working with data 318 21.5 General equations 496
R.1 Statistical problem solving 318 Problem solving: Fireworks and
Problem solving: Trains 330 aeroplanes 502
15 Probability 332 22 A model for friction 504
Review: Probability 332 22.1 A model for friction 505
15.1 The probability of events from
two experiments 337 Practice questions: Mechanics 515
15.2 Conditional probability 342 Data set 518
Answers 520
Index 581
iv
 Getting the most from this book

Mathematics is not only a beautiful and exciting subject in its own right but also one that underpins many
other branches of learning. It is consequently fundamental to our national wellbeing.
This book covers the content of A2 Mathematics and so provides a complete course for the second of the
two years of Advanced Level study. The requirements of the first year are met in the first book.
Between 2014 and 2016 A level Mathematics and Further Mathematics were very substantially revised, for
first teaching in 2017. Major changes include increased emphasis on
■ Problem solving
■ Proof
■ Use of ICT
■ Modelling
■ Working with large data sets in statistics.
This book embraces these ideas. The first section of Chapter 1 is on problem solving and this theme is
continued throughout the book with several spreads based on the problem solving cycle. In addition a large
number of exercise questions involve elements of problem solving; these are identified by the PS icon
beside them. The ideas of mathematical proof and rigorous logical argument are also introduced in
Chapter 1 and are then involved in suitable exercise questions throughout the book. The same is true of
modelling; the modelling cycle is introduced in the first chapter and the ideas are reinforced through the
rest of the book.
The use of technology, including graphing software, spreadsheets and high specification calculators,
is encouraged wherever possible, for example in the Activities used to introduce some of the topics
in Pure mathematics, and particularly in the analysis and processing of large data sets in Statistics.
Places where ICT can be used are highlighted by a T icon. A large data set is provided at the end
of the book but this is essentially only for reference. It is also available online as a spreadsheet
(www.hoddereducation.co.uk/MEIMathsYear2) and it is in this form that readers are expected to store
and work on this data set, including answering the exercise questions that are based on it. These are found
at the end of each exercise in the Statistics chapters and identified with a purple bar. They illustrate, for
each topic, how a large data set can be used to provide the background for examination-type questions.
Throughout the book the emphasis is on understanding and interpretation rather than mere routine
calculations, but the various exercises do nonetheless provide plenty of scope for practising basic
techniques. The exercise questions are split into three bands. Band 1 questions (indicated by a green bar)
are designed to reinforce basic understanding. Band 2 questions (yellow bar) are broadly typical of what
might be expected in an examination: some of them cover routine techniques; others are designed to
provide some stretch and challenge for readers. Band 3 questions (red bar) explore round the topic and
some of them are rather more demanding. Questions in the Statistics chapters that are based on the large
data set are identified with a purple bar. In addition, extensive online support, including further questions,
is available by subscription to MEI’s Integral website, http://integralmaths.org.
In addition to the exercise questions, there are five sets of questions, called Practice questions, covering
groups of chapters. All of these sets include identified questions requiring problem solving PS ,
mathematical proof MP , use of ICT T and modelling M .
This book follows on from A Level Mathematics for Year 1 (AS) and most readers will be familiar with
the material covered in it. However, there may be occasions when they want to check on topics in the
earlier book; the parts entitled Review allow them to do this without having to look elsewhere. The
five short Review chapters provide a condensed summary of the work that was covered in the earlier
book, including one or more exercises; in addition there are nine chapters that begin with a Review

v
 section and exercise, and then go on to new work based on it. Confident readers may choose to miss out the
Review material, and just refer to these parts of the book when they are uncertain about particular topics.
Others, however, will find it helpful to work through some or all of the Review material to consolidate their
understanding of the first year work.
There are places where the work depends on knowledge from earlier in the book and this is flagged up in
koob siht morf tsom eht gnitteG

the margin in Prior knowledge boxes. This should be seen as an invitation to those who have problems with
the particular topic to revisit it earlier in the book. At the end of each chapter there is a summary of the new
knowledge that readers should have gained.
Two common features of the book are Activities and Discussion points. These serve rather different
purposes. The Activities are designed to help readers get into the thought processes of the new work that
they are about to meet; having done an Activity, what follows will seem much easier. The Discussion points
invite readers to talk about particular points with their fellow students and their teacher and so enhance
their understanding. Callout boxes and Note boxes are two other common features. Callout boxes provide
explanations for the current work. Note boxes set the work in a broader or deeper context. Another feature is
a Caution icon , highlighting points where it is easy to go wrong.
The authors have taken considerable care to ensure that the mathematical vocabulary and notation are
used correctly in this book, including those for variance and standard deviation, as defined in the OCR
specification for A Level in Mathematics B (MEI). In the paragraph on notation for sample variance and
sample standard deviation (page 46), it explains that the meanings of ‘sample variance’, denoted by s , and
2

‘sample standard deviation’, denoted by s, are defined to be calculated with divisor (n – 1). In early work in
statistics it is common practice to introduce these concepts with divisor n rather than (n – 1). However there
is no recognised notation to denote the quantities so derived. Students should be aware of the variations
in notation used by manufacturers on calculators and know what the symbols on their particular models
represent.
Answers to all exercise questions and practice questions are provided at the back of the book, and also online
at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/MEIMathsYear2. Full step-by-step worked solutions to all of the practice
questions are available online at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/MEIMathsYear2. All answers are also available
on Hodder Education’s Dynamic Learning platform.
Finally a word of caution. This book covers the content of Year 2 of A Level Mathematics and is designed
to provide readers with the skills and knowledge they will need for the examination. However, it is not the
same as the specification, which is where the detailed examination requirements are set out. So, for example,
the book uses the data set of cycling accidents to give readers experience of working with a large data set, but
this is not the data set that will form the basis of any examination questions. Similarly, in the book cumulative
binomial tables are used in the explanation of the output from a calculator, but such tables will not be
available in examinations. Individual specifications will also make it clear how standard deviation is expected
to be calculated. So, when preparing for the examination, it is essential to check the specification.
This is a 4th edition MEI textbook so much of the material is well tried and tested. However, as a
consequence of the changes to A Level requirements in mathematics, large parts of the book are either new
material or have been very substantially rewritten.
Catherine Berry
Roger Porkess

vi
 Prior knowledge

This book builds on work from AS/Year 1 A level Mathematics. AS work is reviewed either in
sections at the start of chapters, or in separate review chapters in this A2 book.
The order of the chapters has been designed to allow later ones to use and build on work in earlier
chapters. The list below identifies cases where the dependency is particularly strong.
The Statistics and Mechanics chapters are placed in separate sections of the book for easy reference, but it
is expected that these will be studied alongside the Pure mathematics work rather than after it.
■ The work in Chapter 1: Proof pervades the whole book. It builds on the work on problem solving
and proof covered in Chapter 1 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 2: Trigonometry builds on the trigonometry work in Chapter 6 of AS/Year 1
Mathematics.
■ Review: Algebra 1 reviews the work on surds, indices, exponentials and logarithms from
Chapters 2 and 13 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 3: Sequences and series requires some use of logarithms, covered in Review: Algebra 1.
■ Review: Algebra 2 reviews the work on equations, inequalities and polynomials from Chapters 3,
4 and 7 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 4: Functions begins with a review of the work on transformations covered in Chapter 8
of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 5: Differentiation begins with a review of the work on differentiation covered in
Chapter 10 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Review: The sine and cosine rules reviews the work on triangles covered in part of Chapter 6
of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 6: Trigonometric functions builds on the work in Chapter 2, and uses ideas about
functions from Chapter 4.
■ Chapter 7: Further algebra starts with a review of the work on the binomial expansion from
Chapter 9 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics. It also builds on work on the factor theorem and algebraic
division, covered in Review: Algebra 2.
■ Chapter 8: Trigonometric identities builds on the work in Chapter 2 and Chapter 6.
■ Chapter 9: Further differentiation builds on the work in Chapter 5. It also requires the use of
radians, covered in Chapter 2.
■ Chapter 10: Integration starts with a review of the work on integration covered in Chapter 11
of AS/Year 1 Mathematics. It follows on from the differentiation work in Chapter 9, and also
requires the use of radians, covered in Chapter 2, and partial fractions, covered in Chapter 7.
■ Review: Coordinate geometry reviews the work in Chapter 5 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 11: Parametric equations uses trigonometric identities covered in Chapter 6 and
Chapter 8. You should also recall the equation of a circle, covered in Review: Coordinate
geometry, and be confident in the differentiation techniques covered in Chapter 5 and Chapter 9.
■ Chapter 12: Vectors builds on the vectors work in Chapter 12 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 13: Differential equations uses integration work covered in Chapter 10.
■ Chapter 14: Numerical methods requires some simple differentiation and knowledge of how
integration relates to the area under a graph.

vii
 ■ Review: Working with data reviews the work in Chapters 14 and 15 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics.
■ Chapter 15: Probability starts with a review of the probability work in Chapter 16 of AS/Year 1
Mathematics.
■ Chapter 16: Statistical distributions starts with a review of the work on the binomial distribution
covered in Chapter 17 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics. It involves use of probability covered in
Chapter 15.
■ Chapter 17: Statistical hypothesis testing starts with a review of the work on hypothesis testing
covered in Chapter 18 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics. It requires use of the Normal distribution
covered in Chapter 16.
■ Chapter 18: Kinematics starts with a review of the work on kinematics covered in Chapters 19 and
21 of AS/Year 1 Mathematics. You should be confident in working with vectors in two dimensions
(reviewed in Chapter 12) and in working with parametric equations (Chapter 11).
■ Chapter 19: Forces and motion starts with a review of the work on force covered in Chapter 20 of
AS/Year 1 Mathematics. It requires the use of vectors in two dimensions (reviewed in Chapter 12).
■ Chapter 20: Moments of forces uses work on force covered in Chapter 19, and the use of vectors in
two dimensions (reviewed in Chapter 12).
■ Chapter 21: Projectiles uses trigonometric identities from Chapter 6 and Chapter 8, and work on
parametric equations from Chapter 11. It also requires use of vectors in two dimensions (reviewed in
Chapter 12).
■ Chapter 22: A model for friction uses work on force and moments covered in Chapters 19 and 20,
as well as vectors in two dimensions (reviewed in Chapter 12).

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viii
 1 Proof

Mathematics teaches
us to solve puzzles. Figure 1.1 shows a square of side c inside a square of side a + b.
You can claim to be a b a

mathematician if, and

b
only if, you feel that you a
c
will be able to solve a c
puzzle that neither you,
nor anyone else, has
studied before. That is
the test of reasoning. c
W. W. Sawyer (1911−2008)
a

b c

a b

Figure 1.1
➜ How can you deduce Pythagoras’ theorem (c = a2 2 + b2 ) by finding two ways
of expressing the area of the central square?
1
 Problem solving

1 Problem solving
Mathematical problem solving sometimes involves solving purely mathematical
problems, and sometimes involves using mathematics to find a solution to a ‘real-
life’ problem.
The problem solving cycle in Figure 1.2 shows the processes involved in
solving a problem.

1 Problem specification
and analysis

4 Interpretation 2 Information collection

3 Processing and
representation

Figure 1.2
In purely mathematical problems, the same cycle can often be expressed using
different words, as in Figure 1.3.

1 Problem specification
and analysis

4 Proving or disproving 2 Trying out some cases

the conjecture to see what is happening

3 Forming a conjecture

Figure 1.3
Forming a conjecture
Rob is investigating what happens when he adds the terms of the sequence
2, 1, 1, 1, 1, …
2 4 8
He says:
■ ‘However many terms I add, the answer is always less than 4.’
‘If I add enough terms, I can get as close to 4 as I like.’
A statement that
■

These statements are conjectures. They are Rob’s theories. has not yet been
proved is called
a conjecture.

2
Discussion points
A conjecture may or may not be true, but once you have made a conjecture you
obviously want to know whether it is true. If it is, you will want to convince
other people, and that means you must prove it. 1
➜ How can Rob use Rob draws the diagram in Figure 1.4.
the diagram to prove

foorP 1 retpahC
his conjectures?
➜ How would he make 1
the arguments
watertight? 2
1 1
— —
2 2

Discussion point Figure 1.4

➜ Explain why Here is a well-known conjecture that no one has managed to prove yet.
Goldbach’s
conjecture does not
apply to all integers. Goldbach’s conjecture
Every even integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two prime
numbers.
Most people believe it is true and many have tried to prove it, but so far without
success.

Discussion point Rob’s conjectures can be shown geometrically, but many other conjectures need
algebra. Proving a conjecture always requires rigorous, logical argument.
➜ Explain why the
converse statement Here are some symbols and words that are very useful in this:
‘n is a prime number ■ The symbol ⇒ means ‘leads to’ or ‘implies’ and is very helpful when you
⇒ n = 5’ is not true. want to present an argument logically, step by step.
You can say that the statement
n = 5 ⇒ n is a prime number. ‘n = 5’ is a sufficient condition for
Discussion point the statement ‘n is a prime number’.
■ You can write the symbol ⇒ the other way round, as ⇐. In that case, it
➜ Explain why the means ‘is implied by’ or ‘follows from’.
converse statement 2n is even ⇐ n is even.
‘2n is even ⇒ n is
even’ is not true. This statement could also be written in the form
You can say that the statement
n is even ⇒ 2n is even. ‘2n is even’ is a necessary condition
for the statement ‘n is even’.
■ In situations where both the symbols ⇒ and ⇐ give true statements, the
two symbols are written together as ⇔. You can read this as ‘implies and is
implied by’ or ‘is equivalent to’. You can say that
‘necessary
n is an even number’ is a
and sufficient
n is an even number ⇔ n² is an even
number.
condition for the statement
‘n² is an even number’.
3
 Problem solving
Exercise 1.1
① In each case, write one of the symbols ⇒, ⇐ (i) Draw the diagram accurately on graph
or ⇔ between the two statements A and B. paper, using equal scales for both axes.
(i) A: PQRS is a rectangle. (ii) Winnie thinks that the best point for R is
B: PQRS has two pairs of equal sides. (5, 5). Show that her conjecture is wrong.
(ii) A: The point P is inside a circle centre O, (iii) Find the coordinates for the best position
radius 3. of R. Explain carefully how you know
that this is indeed the case.
B: The distance OP is less than 3.
④ Place the numbers from 1 to 8 in a copy of the
(iii) A: p is a prime number greater
grid in Figure 1.6 so that consecutive numbers
than 2.
are not in adjacent cells (i.e. cells that have a
B: p is odd. common edge or vertex).
(iv)
A: (x − 3) (x − 4) > 0
B: x > 4
② Samir writes:
AB is parallel to CD ⇒ ABCD is a
parallelogram.
(i) Is Samir correct? Explain your answer. Figure 1.6
(ii) Write down the converse of Samir’s If you can’t do it, explain why not.
statement. Is the converse true? If you can do it, state in how many ways it
③ Winnie lives in a village in rural Africa; it is can be done, justifying your answer.
marked P on the diagram in Figure 1.5. ⑤ Figure 1.7 shows a square of side 1 m and four
circles.
river The small red circle fits in the gap in the
R
middle.

Figure 1.5
Each day she goes to a river which flows
due east. She fills a bucket with water at R
and takes it to her grandmother who lives in
a nearby village, Q. Winnie wants to know
Figure 1.7
where to fill the bucket so that she has the Show that the diameter of the red circle is
shortest distance to walk. (21 2 − 21 ) m.
Referred to a coordinate system with axes
east and north, P is the point (2, 3),
Q is (8, 1) and the equation of the river is
y = 5.

4
⑥ A game is played using a standard In this game, the ‘doubles’ count as squares
dartboard. and the ‘trebles’ count as cubes.
A player has three darts and must score one
‘single’, one ‘double’ and one ‘treble’ to
make a total of 501.
(i) Find two ways in which a player can
finish (ignoring the order in which
the darts are thrown).
(ii) Prove that there are no other possible
ways.

Figure 1.8

2 Methods of proof
Discussion point
Sarah challenges her classmates to find two consecutive numbers such that the
difference between their squares is even.
➜ What answers do you think she will get?

You have probably found that Sarah’s challenge in the discussion point appears
to be impossible. You have formed the conjecture that the difference between
the squares of two consecutive numbers is always odd. The next step is to prove
that your conjecture is true, and then you will know for certain that Sarah’s
challenge is impossible.
Two of Sarah’s classmates decide to prove that her challenge is impossible.
Jamie writes:

For two consecutive numbers, one must be even and one must be
odd.
An even number squared is even.
An odd number squared is odd.
The difference between an even number and an odd number is always
odd, so the difference between the square of an even number and the
square of an odd number must be odd.
So the difference between the squares of consecutive numbers must be
odd.

5
 Methods of proof
Zarah writes:

Let the first number be n.

So the next number is n + 1.
The difference between their squares = (n + 1)2 − n 2 2n is a multiple
2
= n + 2n + 1 − n
2
of so it is an
2,
even number. So
Discussion point = 2n + 1
2n + 1 is an odd number, so the difference between 2n + 1 must be
an odd number.
➜ Which proof do you the squares of consecutive numbers is always odd.

prefer?
Jamie and Zarah have both proved the conjecture, in different ways.
You have now reached the stage where it is no longer always satisfactory to
assume that a fact is true without proving it, since one fact is often used to
deduce another.
There are a number of different techniques that you can use.

Proof by direct argument

Both Jamie’s proof and Zarah’s proof are examples of proof by direct argument,
or deductive proof. You start from known facts and deduce further facts, step by
step, until you reach the statement that you wanted to prove.

Example 1.1 Prove that the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add
up to 180°).
You may assume the result that the angle subtended by an arc at the centre of
a circle is twice the angle subtended by the same arc at the circumference.

Solution B
y
Figure 1.9 shows a circle centre O and a C
cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
p
∠ADC = x and ∠ABC = y. A
q
The minor arc AC subtends angle x at the
These two statements circumference of the circle, and angle p at the
use the result that you centre of the circle. x
may assume, given in the
question. So p = 2x. D

The major arc AC subtends angle y at the

Figure 1.9
circumference of the circle, and angle q at the centre of the circle.
So q = 2y.

Adding the two angles at O gives p + q = 360°

⇒ 2x + 2y = 360°
⇒ x + y = 180°.
The sum of the four angles of any quadrilateral is 360°, so the sum of each
pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°.

6
 Proof by exhaustion 1
For some conjectures it is possible to test all possible cases, as in Example 1.2.

Example 1.2

foorP 1 retpahC
Prove that when a two-digit number is divisible by 9, reversing its digits also
gives a number that is divisible by 9.

Solution
There are only 10 two-digit numbers divisible by 9:
18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90, 99.
Reversing each of these gives the following:
81, 72, 63, 54, 45, 36, 27, 18, 09, 99.

ACTIVITY 1.1 These numbers are also divisible by 9, so the conjecture has been proved.

Prove the result from

Example 1.2 using Discussion points
direct proof.
Prove the corresponding ➜ Is it true that reversing the digits of a two-digit number that is divisible by 9
result for a three-digit always gives a two-digit number that is divisible by 9?
number. ➜ How is this question different from the one in Example 1.2?
It is important to be precise about wording.

Proof by contradiction
In some cases it is possible to deduce a result by showing that the opposite is
impossible, as in the following examples.

Example 1.3 Prove that the sum of the interior angles x and y for a pair of parallel lines, as
shown in Figure 1.10, is 180°.
A
P B
y

x
Q D
C

Figure 1.10
Solution
If the conjecture is Assume that x + y < 180° as shown in Figure 1.11.
false, then either
x + y < 180° or P A
x + y > 180°. Look y B
at these two cases x E
separately. Q
C D

Figure 1.11
➜

7
 Methods of proof
In this case the lines AB and CD, when extended, will meet at a point E,
where
∠BED = 180° − x − y. Using the sum of the angles in a triangle.
This means that AB and CD are not parallel.
Similarly, assuming that x + y > 180°, as shown in Figure 1.12, will give
angles (180° − x) and (180° − y), with a sum of (360° − (x + y)).

A B
P y
180º–y

R 180º–x x
D
It has now been shown Q C
that assuming that Figure 1.12
either x + y < 180° or
x + y > 180° leads to a 360° − (x + y) < 180°, so now AP and CQ when extended will meet at a
contradiction, so the only point R, showing that AP and CQ are not parallel.
remaining possibility is
that x + y = 180°. Consequently, x + y = 180°.

Example 1.4
Prove that 2 is irrational.

Solution
Assume that 2 is rational, so 2 = 2
m , where m and n have no common
n
factor.

Squaring ⇒ =2 m2
n2
⇒ 2n 2 = m 2 (1) ①

2n² is a multiple of 2 ⇒ 2n² is even

⇒ m² is even
⇒ m is even.
So let m = 2p. As m is even, it can be expressed
In equation ① this gives
as 2p, where p is an integer.
2n 2 = (2 p) 42 = p2
⇒ n2 = 2 p2

2p² is a multiple of 2 ⇒ 2p² is even

⇒ n² is even
⇒ n is even.
You have now shown that both m and n are even numbers, which
contradicts the assumption that m and n have no common factor.
Consequently, 2 is not rational, so it must be irrational.

8
Example 1.5 Prove that there are an infinite number of prime numbers.

Solution
, n .p
Suppose there are a finite number of prime numbers: 2,3, 5, …
Let q = (2 3× 5× × × … pn ) 1+ . q is formed by multiplying
together all the prime numbers
Is q prime? in the list and then adding 1.
■ If q is prime, then it is a new prime number, not in the original list.
■ If q is not prime, then it has a prime factor.
2 cannot be a factor of q, because q is one more than a multiple of 2.
3 cannot be a factor of q, because q is one more than a multiple of 3.
Similarly, none of the primes in the list can be a factor of q.
So if q is not prime, then it must have a prime factor which is not in the list.
So there is another prime number that is not in the list.
So, whether q is prime or not, there is another prime number not in the
list. This contradicts the original assertion that there are a finite number of
prime numbers.

Disproof by the use of a counter-example

Sometimes you may come across a conjecture that looks as if it might be true,
but is in fact false. Always start by checking the result for a few particular values,
to try to get a ‘feel’ for what is happening. Next, if you think that it is true, you
could try to prove it using any of the methods discussed earlier. If you seem to
be getting nowhere, then finding just one case, a counter-example, when it
fails is sufficient to disprove it.

Example 1.6 Hassan says that 1003 is a prime number.

Is Hassan correct? Either prove his conjecture, or find a counter-example.

Solution
Checking for prime factors of 1003:
2 is not a factor of 1003
3 is not a factor of 1003
5 is not a factor of 1003.
…

However, it turns out that 17 is a factor of 1003:

17 × 59 = 1003
Hassan is wrong.

9
 Methods of proof
Exercise 1.2
In questions 1−12 a conjecture is given. Decide whether ⑪ (i) The sum of the squares of any five
it is true or false. If it is true, prove it using a suitable consecutive integers is divisible by 5.
method and name the method. If it is false, give a (ii) The sum of the squares of any four
counter-example. consecutive integers is divisible by 4.
① ( a b+ ) − −
2
( a b )2 = 4 ab , where a and b are ⑫ For any pair of numbers x and y,
real numbers. 2(x² + y²) is the sum of two squares.
⑬ (i) Prove that n n − is a multiple of 6 for all
3
② The triangle with sides of length 2n + 1, n
and (n + 1) is right-angled. positive integers n.
③ No square number ends in 8. (ii) Hence prove that n 3 + 11n is a multiple
of 6 for all positive integers n.
④ The number of diagonals of a regular polygon
with n sides is < n. ⑭ Prove that no number in the infinite sequence
⑤ The sum of the squares of any two consecutive 10, 110, 210, 310, 410, …
integers is an odd number. can be written in the form a n where a is an
⑥ 3 is irrational. integer and n is an integer > 2.
⑦ If T is a triangular number (given by ⑮ Prove that if (a, b, and
c) (A, B, C )
T = 21 n(n + 1) where n is an integer), then are Pythagorean triples then so is
(i) 9T + 1 is a triangular number (aA− bB aB, bA +cC , ).
(ii) 8T + 1 is a square number. ⑯ Which positive integers cannot be written as
the sum of two or more consecutive numbers?
⑧ (i) A four-digit number formed by writing
Prove your conjecture.
down two digits and then repeating them
is divisible by 101. ⑰ An integer N is the sum of the squares of two
different integers.
(ii) A four-digit number formed by writing
down two digits and then reversing them (i) Prove that N ² is also the sum of the
is divisible by 11. squares of two integers.
⑨ The value of (n² + n + 11) is a prime number (ii) State the converse of this result and either
for all positive integer values prove it is true or provide a counter-
of n. example to disprove it.
⑩ The tangent to a circle at a point P is
perpendicular to the radius at P.

10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ understand the problem solving cycle
➤ know that simplifying a problem can help to begin in problem solving
➤ use algebra to formulate and solve problems
➤ interpret your solution in the context of the problem
➤ generalise your solution to extend your understanding of a wider problem
➤ write your Mathematics using appropriate language and symbols such as
❍ necessary and sufficient
❍ ‘if …’ and ‘then …’
❍ ,,⇐
⇔⇒ and ∴
❍ converse of a statement
➤ prove statements by deduction
➤ prove statements by exhaustion
➤ prove statements by contradiction
➤ disprove statements by finding a counter-example.

KEY POINTS
1 ⇒ means ‘implies’, ‘if … then … therefore ...’
⇐ means ‘is implied by’, ‘follows from’
⇔ means ‘implies and is implied by’, ‘is equivalent to’.
2 The converse of A ⇒ B is A ⇐ B.
3 If A ⇐ B, A is a necessary condition for B.
If A ⇒ B, A is a sufficient condition for B.
4 The methods of proof are
■ proof by direct argument
■ proof by exhaustion
■ proof by contradiction.
5 Methods of disproof are
■ disproof by direct argument
■ disproof by the use of a counter-example.

FUTURE USES
You will need to use problem solving and proof throughout this book.

11
 2 Trigonometry

Look at situations from This compass has two scales: the inner scale shows degrees and the outer
all angles, and you will scale shows angular mils. There are 6400 angular mils in 360 degrees.
become more open. Mils are used by the military, in navigation and in mapping because they are
Dalai Lama (1935– ) more accurate than degrees.
➜ A pilot flies one degree off course. How far from the intended position is
the aeroplane after it has flown 10 km?

1 Radians
Have you ever wondered why angles are measured in degrees, and why there are
360° in one revolution?
There are various legends to support the choice of 360, most of them based in
astronomy. One of these is that the shepherd-astronomers of Sumeria thought
that the solar year was 360 days long; this number was then used by the ancient
Babylonian mathematicians to divide one revolution into 360 equal parts.

12
Degrees are not the only way in which you can measure angles. Some
calculators have modes which are called ‘rad’ and ‘gra’ (or ‘grad’); if yours is
one of these, you have probably noticed that these give different answers when
you are using the sin, cos or tan keys. These answers are only wrong when the
calculator mode is different from the angular measure used in the calculation.
The grade (mode ‘gra’ or ‘grad’) is a unit which was introduced to give a means of
angle measurement which was compatible with the metric system. There are 100
grades in a right angle, so when you are in the grade mode, sin 100 = 1, just as when
you are in the degree mode, sin 90 = 1. Grades are largely of historical interest and
are only mentioned here to remove any mystery surrounding this calculator mode.
By contrast, radians are used extensively in mathematics because they simplify
many calculations. The radian (mode ‘rad’) is sometimes referred to as the
natural unit of angular measure. If, as in Figure 2.1, the arc AB of a circle centre
O is drawn so that it is equal in length to the radius of the circle, then the angle
AOB is 1 radian, about 57.3°.
B
r

r 1 radian
A

Figure 2.1
You will sometimes see 1 radian written as 1 c, just as 1 degree is written 1°.
Since the circumference of a circle is given by 2πr, it follows that the angle of a
complete turn is 2π radians.
360° = 2π radians
Consequently
180° = π radians
π
90° = 2 radians
π
60° = 3 radians

45° = π4 radians
π
30° = 6 radians

To convert degrees into radians you multiply by π .

180

To convert radians into degrees you multiply by 180 .

π

13
 Radians
Example 2.1 (i) Express in radians (a) 30° (b) 315° (c) 29°.

(ii) Express in degrees (a) π (b) 8π (c) 1.2 radians.

12 3

Notes Solution
1 If an angle is a simple
fraction or multiple π = π
of 180° and you wish (i) (a) 30° = 30 × 180 6
to give its value in
radians, it is usual (b) 315° = 315 ×
π =π
to leave the answer 180 4
as a fraction of π, for (c) 29° = 29 ×
π
example π6 . 180 = 0.506 radians (to 3 s.f.).
2 When an angle is π = π = 15°
given as a multiple of (ii) (a)
12 12 × 180π
π it is assumed to be 8π = 8π × 180 = 480°
in radians. (b)
3 3 π

(c) 1.2 radians = 1.2 × 180 = 68.8° (to 3 s.f.).

Note π

Angular mils (see

page 12) are derived
from1 the milliradian Trigonometry and radians
( 1000 th of a radian). You can use radians when working with trigonometric functions.
There are approximately Remember that the x–y plane is divided into four quadrants and that angles are
6283 milliradians in
measured from the x-axis (see Figure 2.2).
360° (2π × 1000) and
this number is rounded
to make 6400 angular Anticlockwise angles are
mils, which is a more positive.
convenient unit for �
navigation. �
2 2
Clockwise angles are
negative.
an angle of 3� radians
4
� or +135° �
x x
�
an angle of − radians
6
or –30°

−� −�
2 2

Figure 2.2

14
 You can extend the definitions for sine, cosine and tangent by drawing a unit
circle drawn on the x–y plane, as in Figure 2.3.

The point P can be anywhere

y
on the unit circle.
P(x, y)

1
y

θ
O x x

Figure 2.3
For any angle (in degrees or radians):
y sinu
sinu = , y cosu = , x tanu =
x and tan u = cosu , cosu0.≠

Graphs of trigonometric functions

The graphs of the trigonometric functions can be drawn using radians.
The graph of y sinu
= is shown in Figure 2.4.
● Period is 2π radians.
● Rotational symmetry y
y = sin
of order 2 about the 1

origin.
● Oscillates between 0.5

−1 and 1, so
−1 sin 1. – 2� – 3� –� – � 0 � � 3� 2�
2 2 2 2
–0.5

–1

Figure 2.4
The graph of y cosu
= is shown in Figure 2.5.
y
Period is 2π radians.
Symmetrical about
● 1
● y = cos
y-axis.
● Oscillates between 0.5

−1 and 1, so
−1 cos 1. – 2� – 3� –� –� 0 � � 3� 2�
2 2 2 2
–0.5

–1

Figure 2.5
15
 Radians

● Period is π2 radians. The graph of y tanu

= is shown in Figure 2.6.
Rotational symmetry of y
order 2 about the origin.
●
y = tan

● Asymptotes at ± π2 ,
± 3π
2
,…

Note – 2� – 3�
2
–� –�
2
0 �
2
� 3�
2
2�

If you wish to fi nd the

value of,πsay, sin 1.4 c

or cos 12 , use the

‘rad’ mode on your
calculator. This will give Figure 2.6
the answers directly –
in these examples, The diagrams in Figure 2.7 can be used to help you remember the sign of sin ,
0.9854… and
cos and tan in each of the four quadrants.
0.9659…
You could convert the
angles into degrees (byquadrant 2nd1stsinquadrant
2nd
Only sin θ positive OnlyAll
quadrant
positive
θ positive
1st quadrant
All positive S A S A
multiplying by 180π ) but This is
called
this would usually be a CAST
a clumsy method.Only It istan θ positive Only diagram.C
much better to get 3rdintoquadrant Only tan
cosθ θpositive
positive Only cos θ positive
T C T
the habit of working in 3rd
4thquadrant
quadrant 4th quadrant

radians.
Figure 2.7
Exercise 2.1
① Express the following angles in radians, leaving ③ In Figure 2.8, ABC is an equilateral triangle.
your answers in terms of π where appropriate. AB = 2 cm. D is the midpoint of BC.
(i) 45° (ii) 90° A

(iii) 120° (iv) 75° Exact means you

(vi) 23° should leave your
(v) 300° answer in surd
(vii) 450° (viii) 209°
2 cm
form (e.g. 2) or
(x) 7.2° as a fraction, so
(ix) 150° you probably don’t
② Express the following angles in degrees, using a need to use your
suitable approximation where necessary.
B
D
C calculator.
(i) 10π (ii) 3π
4
Figure 2.8
(iv) 4π (i) Find the exact lengths of
(iii) 2 radians 9 (a) BD (b) AD.
(v) 3π (vi) 4π 3 (ii) Write down each of these angles in
radians.
(vii) 0.5 radians (viii) 5π2 (a) ABD (b) BAD

(ix) 7π 3 (x) 3π 7

16
 (iii) Hence find the exact values of the ⑥ Draw the graph of y = sin x for
following.
T 0 ¯ x ¯ 2π.
(a) sin π 3 (b) cos π 3 Use your graph to find two values of x, in
radians, for which sin x = 0.6.
(c) tan π 3 (d) sin π 6 You can use a graphical calculator or
graphing software.
(e) cos π 6 (f) tan π 6
⑦ Draw the graphs of y = sin x and
④ By drawing a suitable right-angled triangle,
y = cos x on the same pair of axes for
0 ¯ x ¯ 2π.
prove that
Use your graphs to solve the equation
π = 2 π = 2 sin x = cos x.
(i) sin 4 2 (ii) cos 4 2
⑧ Write down the smallest positive value of
(iii) tan 4π = 1 k, where k is in radians, to make each of the
following statements true.
⑤ Match together the expressions with the same
value.
(i) sin (x − k) = −sin x
Do not use your calculator.
(ii) cos (x − k) = sin x
(iii) tan (x − k) = tan x
cos
5π ( 4)
cos π− tan 3π sin
5π tan
4π (iv) cos (k − x) = −cos (k + x)
3 4 6 3 5π
⑨ (i) Given that sin x = sin 7 where
π
0 < x < 2 , find x.
cos π sin
9π ()
tan −
5π sin
2π
cos
11π
4 3 3 6
(ii) Given that cos y = cos (− 2π)5 where

3 1 2 π < <y 2π , find y.

3 −1
(iii) Given that tan kπ = tan (− )3
2 2 2 5π

where <0 < k 1

2, find k.

2 Circular measure
The length of an arc of a circle
From the definition of a radian (see p. 13), an angle of 1 radian at the centre of a
circle corresponds to an arc of length r (the radius of the circle).
Similarly, an angle of 2 radians corresponds to an arc length of 2r and, in general,
an angle of radians corresponds to an arc length of r, which is usually written
r (Figure 2.9).
arc length rθ

θ
r
Figure 2.9
17
 Circular measure
The area of a sector of a circle
A sector of a circle is the shape enclosed by an arc of the circle and two radii
(Figure 2.10).

A minor sector is smaller A major sector is larger

than a semicircle. than a semicircle.

minor major sector

sector

Figure 2.10
The area of a sector is a fraction of the area of
the whole circle. The fraction is found by writing
the angle u as a fraction of one revolution, i.e. 2π r

(Figure 2.11). So the area of the shaded sector is θ

u
2π of the area of the whole circle.
r

Figure 2.11

ACTIVITY 2.1
You can work out the length of an arc and the area of a sector using degrees
instead of radians, but it is much simpler to use radians. Copy and complete
Table 2.1 to show the formulae for arc length and sector area using radians and
degrees.
Table 2.1
Radians Degrees

Angle c
(
α ° α = u× 180
π
)
Arc length
Area of sector

Note
A chord divides a circle into two regions called segments.
minor segment

major segment

Figure 2.12

18
 Example 2.2 (i) Calculate the exact arc length, O
perimeter and area of a sector
2π 6cm 6cm
of angle and radius 6 cm. 2π
3 3
A B

Figure 2.13
(ii) Calculate the area of the segment bounded by the chord AB and the
arc AB.

Solution
(i) Arc length = ru Draw a sketch if
one is not given in
= ×6 2π
3
the question.
= 4π cm
Don’t forget to add
Perimeter = 4π + 6 + 6 on the two radii.
= (4π + 12) cm
Area = 1 r 2u
2
= ×1 2π =
62 × 12π cm2
2 3
(ii) O

6 cm 6 cm
2π
3
A B

Figure 2.14
Area of segment = area of sector AOB − area of triangle AOB
Area of a triangle = 1
2×
base × height
Using OA as the base, the height of the triangle is 6 sin 2π .
3
Area of triangle AOB = 1 In general, the area of a
2× 6 × 6 sin 2π3 triangle is 12 ab sin C,
2π = π 3 3 where a and b are two
sin
3
sin =
3 2 = ×18
2 sides and C is the angle
From part (i), the area of =93
between them.
the sector is 12π cm .2

Area of segment = 12π 9− 3 22.1= cm2 to 3 s.f.

19
 Circular measure
Exercise 2.2
① For each sector in Figure 2.15 find ④ The perimeter of the sector in
(a) the arc length (b) the perimeter +
Figure 2.16 is (5π 12) cm.
(c) the area.
(i) 3cm
B

π
3

6 cm
(ii) 7π
4

Figure 2.16
4cm
Find the exact area of
(i) the sector AOB
(ii) the triangle AOB
(iii) the shaded segment.
Figure 2.15 ⑤ A circle, centre O, has two radii OA and
OB. The line AB divides the circle into
② Each row of Table 2.2 gives dimensions of
a sector of a circle of radius r cm. two regions with areas in the ratio 3 :1. The
angle AOB is (radians).
The angle subtended at the centre of the
circle is radians, the arc length of the Show that
sector is s cm and its area is A cm2.
u − sinu = .π
Copy and complete the table. 2
Table 2.2 ⑥ (i) Show that the perimeter of the shaded
r (cm) (rad) s (cm) A (cm 2
) ( )
segment in Figure 2.17 is r u + 2 sinu2 .
4 2
π π
3 2 r
5 10 θ

0.8 1.5
2π
4π
3
③ In a cricket match, a particular cricketer Figure 2.17
generally hits the ball anywhere in a sector
of angle 100°. If the boundary (assumed (ii) Show that the area of the shaded
circular) is 80 yards away, find
segment is 1 r 2( usinu−) .
(i) the length of boundary which the 2
fielders should patrol
(ii) the area of the ground which the
fielders need to cover.

20
⑦ The silver brooch illustrated in Figure 2.18 is Grass paths of equal width are cut
in the shape of an ornamental cross. symmetrically across the circles.
The brown areas represent flower beds.
BQ and AP are arcs of the circles.
Triangle OAB is the same triangle as
shown in Figure 2.19.

Given that angle POA = π , calculate the

4
area of
(i) sector OPA
Figure 2.18 (ii) sector OQB
(iii) the flower bed PABQ.
The dark shaded areas represent where the ⑩ (i) Find the area of the shaded segment in
metal is cut away. Each is part of a sector of a Figure 2.21.
circle of angle π and radius 1.8cm.
4
The overall diameter of the brooch is 4.4 cm,
and the diameter of the centre is 1 cm. The
brooch is 1 mm thick. A
Find the volume of silver in the brooch.
5π
⑧ In the triangle OAB in Figure 2.19, 6 O 4cm
B

OA = 3 m, OB = 8 m and angle AOB = π.

12 Figure 2.21
A
not to scale
(ii) Figure 2.22 shows two circles, each
3m of radius 4 cm, with each one passing
π through the centre of the other.
12
O B A
8m

Figure 2.19
Calculate, correct to 2 decimal places
(i)
the length of AB
(ii)
the area of triangle OAB.
⑨ The plan of an ornamental garden in B
Figure 2.20 shows two circles, centre O,
with radii 3 m and 8 m. Figure 2.22
Q Calculate the shaded area.
⑪ Figure 2.23 shows the cross-section of
three pencils, each of radius 3.5 mm, held
P
together by a stretched elastic band.
� A Find
4
O
�
B (i) the shaded area
12 (ii) the stretched
length of the
band.

not to scale

Figure 2.20 Figure 2.23

21
 Small-angle approximations

3 Small-angle approximations
Figure 2.24 shows the graphs of y = , y = sin and y = tan on the same axes,
π
for 0 ¯ ¯ .
2
y
In this graph, θ is measured
in radians, and the same scale
2 y = tan θ y=θ
is used on both axes.

1 y = sin θ

O π θ
2

Figure 2.24
From this, you can see that for small values of , where is measured in radians,
both sin and tan are approximately equal to .
To prove this result, look at Figure 2.25. PT is a tangent to the circle, radius
r units and centre O.
T
Q

r r tan θ

θ
O r P

Figure 2.25 u must be in radians for this

Area of sector OPQ = 1 r 2u formula to work!
2

Area of triangle OPQ = 1 r 2sin u Area of triangle is 12 ab sin C.

2
Area of triangle OPT = 1 r 2tan
Discussion point 2
u
Using 12 × base × height.
➜ Why does need to When is very small, these three areas are very close in size.
be in radians?
θ
r
Figure 2.26
So r1 2u ≈ 1 r 2 sinu ≈ ×1 × r r tanu
2 2 2
⇒u ≈ sinu ≈ tanu

22
 TECHNOLOGY
Use a graphic calculator or graphing software to draw y = , y = sin and
y = tan on the same axes, for 0 < < 0.2 radians. Notice how close the graphs
are (you can also see this by looking at Figure 2.24). This suggests that for
small values of , sin ≈ and tan ≈ .

The small-angle approximation for cos

The result for cos can be derived by considering a right-angled triangle drawn
on a unit circle (Figure 2.27).The angle is small and in radians.

The length of the arc

PQ is 1 × θ = θ as
Q
the radius is 1 unit.
1
sin θ θ OP is the radius which
θ is 1, so RP = 1 − cos θ.
O cos θ PR

1 − cos θ.

Figure 2.27
In the right-angled triangle PQR, PQ ≈ when is small. The length
Using right-angled trigonometry of the arc is
approximately
= OR ⇒ OR cos
= the same as
Discussion points
cos 1
u
the hypotenuse
of triangle
= RQ ⇒ RQ sin
➜ What do you think and sin 1
= u PQR.
is meant by the Expand brackets.
expression ‘very Pythagoras’ theorem gives PQ = PR 2 + RQ 2
2

good’ here? u 2 ≈ −(1 cos ) usin2 + 2

u
➜ Quantify this u 2 ≈ −1 2cos cos u +sin u+
2 2
u
by calculating u 2 ≈ −1 2cos 1 u + sin2 + cos ≡ 1,
the maximum
2

2 cosu ≈ −2 u 2
see p 137.
percentage error.
Make cos the subject.
2
≈ − u
cosu 1 2

All of these approximations are very good for −0.1 < < 0.1 radians.

23
 Small-angle approximations
Example 2.3 (i) Find an approximation for cos − cos 2 when and 2 are both small.
(ii) Hence find
This means ‘the limit as lim cosu − cos 2u .
tends to zero’. θ →0 u2

Solution
(i) When and 2 are both small
2
cosu ≈ −1 2 u

and
2
(2u)
cos 2u ≈ −1
2
≈ −1 2 u 2

Using these approximations, when is small

⎛ u2 ⎞
− ≈ −
cosucos 2 u ⎜1 2 ⎟ − −
⎝ ⎠
(1 2 u2)
2
≈ 3u
2
− 2
(ii) cosu 2cos 2u ≈ 3u 2
u 2u
Check this result by
≈3 substituting in values of
2 (in radians) starting with
− = 0.2 and decreasing in
Hence lim cos u 2cos 2u = 3
u →0 u 2 steps of 0.02.

Exercise 2.3
① When is small, find approximate ③ (i) Find an approximate expression for
expressions for the following. sin 2 + tan 3 when is small enough
(i) u tanu for 3 to be to be considered as small.

(ii) 1 cosu
− (ii) Hence find
+
u tan u
(iii) cos 2u lim
u →0
sin 2
u
3
(iv) sin u + tanu ④ (i) Find an approximate expression for
② When is small enough for 3 to be 1 − cos when is small.
ignored, find approximate expressions for (ii) Hence find
the following. −
lim 1 cos u
sin
(i) 1u−cos
u →
u 0
4usin
u
u
(ii) cos cosu 2 u

(iii) 1 u−costan
u
2 u

(iv) cos4u − cos 2u

sin 4u − sin 2u

24
⑤ (i) Find an approximate expression for
(a)
1 − cos 4 when is small enough for
4 to be considered as small. ¯1 cm

(ii) Find an approximate expression for (b)

tan2 2 when is small enough for 2
¯4 cm
to be considered as small.
(iii) Hence find
− u
lim 1 cos4
2
u →0 tan 2 u
(c) E

⑥ Use a trial and improvement method to

find the largest value of correct to 2 D
decimal places such that u = sinu = tanu
where is in radians. A B
C
⑦ Use small-angle approximations to find the
smallest positive root of
r
cos x + sin x + tan x = 1.2 θθ
Why can’t you use small-angle
O
approximations to find a second root to this
equation? Figure 2.28
⑧ There are regulations in fencing to ensure
that the blades used are not too bent. Suppose that a blade AB is bent to form
For épées, the rule states that the blade an arc of a circle of radius r, and that AB
must not depart by more than 1 cm from subtends an angle 2 at the centre O of the
the straight line joining the base to the circle. Then with the notation of Figure
point (see Figure 2.28a). For sabres, the 2.28c, the épée bend is measured by CD,
corresponding rule states that the point and the sabre bend by BE.
must not be more than 4 cm out of line, i.e. (i) Show that CD = r (1 − cos ).
away from the tangent at the base of the
blade (see Figure 2.28b).
(ii) Explain why angle BAE = .
(iii) Show that BE = 2r sin 2 .
(iv) Deduce that if is small, BE ≈ 4CD
and hence that the rules for épée and
sabre amount to the same thing.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ convert between degrees and radians
➤ know and use exact values of sin and cos for =u 0, 6π, 4π , 3π , 2π ,π and
multiples of these
know and use exact values of tan for u = 0, π , π , π ,π and multiples
➤
of these 6 4 3

➤ know and use the graphs of sin , cos and tan , working with radians
➤ find the arc length and area of a sector of a circle, working with radians
➤ use the small–angle approximations for sin, cos and tan.

25
 Small-angle approximations

KEY POINTS
1 2π radians = 360°
To convert degrees into radians you multiply by π180 .
To convert radians into degrees you multiply by 180π .
2 Table 2.3
° 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
π π π π
radians 0 6 4 3 2
1 2 3
sin 0 2 1
2 2
3 2 1
cos 1 2 0
2 2
tan 0 3 1 3 undefined
3
3 y = sin θ
Period2isabout
order 2� radians. Rotational symmetry of
the origin. Oscillates between
–1 and 1, so –1 р sin θ р 1.
y
2

– 3�
2
–� –� 0 � � 3�
2
2�
2 2

–1

–2

y = tan θ y = cos θ
Period is radians.
�
Rotational Period is 2π radians.
OscillatesSymmetrical
2
symmetry of order 2 about the about y-axis. between
origin. Asymptotes at ± �2±, ... 32� –1 and 1, so –1 р cos θ р 1.
Figure 2.29
FUTURE USES 4 Area of a sector= 21=r u21 r u
2

You will often need

2
n
to use radians in Arc length = ru= ru r

the trigonometry
work in Chapters 6
θ
r
and 8. Figure 2.30
Radians are also 5 For small angles where −0.1 ¯
important when
n
¯ 0.1 radians, you can use the following
you differentiate approximations.
and integrate sin ≈
trigonometric tan ≈
functions (covered in u 2

Chapters 9 and 10). ≈ −

cosu 1 2

26
 R Review: Algebra 1
1 Surds and indices
Surds
Sometimes you need to simplify expressions A surd is a number
involving a root (such
containing surds. as a square root) that
cannot be written as a
Remember
rational number.

( )x = x
2
■

■ xy = xy

Addition, subtraction and multiplication follow the same rules as any other
algebraic manipulation.

■ Addition: (2 + + −4 3) 5 3 3 = −
3) (3
■ Subtraction: (2 + − −4 3) 1 5 3 = − +
3) (3
■ Multiplication: (2 + 3)(3 4− 3) 6 3 3= 8+ 3 4 3 3 − −
= −6 5 3 12 − Notice that in
this case the final
Seeing that there = − 6− 5 3
term is a rational
is nothing that is
When dividing by a surd you need to rationalise the
number.
so troublesome to
denominator as shown in Example R.1 overleaf.
mathematical practice,
nor that doth more molest
and hinder calculations,
than the multiplications,
divisions, square and
cubical extractions of
great numbers ... I began
therefore to consider in
my mind by what certain
and ready art I might
remove these hindrances.
John Napier (1550–1617),
the inventor of logarithms

27
 Surds and indices
Example R.1 Simplify the following by rationalising the denominator.
5 2− 3
(i) (ii)
23 1+
3

TECHNOLOGY Solution
Most calculators will 5 = 5 × 3
simplify expressions (i) Multiply top and bottom by 3.
involving surds for you. 23 23 3
You can use a calculator = 53
to check your work. (2 3) 3 2 3 3 2 3=6× =

= 53 6 is a rational number.
6

(ii) To rationalise this denominator you can make use of the result
( a b+ a b)( a b− =)− 2 2 .
2 − 3 = 2 − 3 × 1− 3 Multiplying top and
1+ 3 1+ 3 1− 3 bottom by (1 −3) .
− 3)(1 3)
−
= (2
(1 + 3)(1 3)−
− 3 2− 3 3 +
= 2 The denominator
1−
−
3
is now rational.
= 533
−2
−
= 335
2

Indices
The rules for manipulating indices are: Add the indices.
n Multiplication: a man ×am n= +

n Division: a man ÷am n= −

Subtract the indices.
n Power of a power: ( a)m n mn= a
n Power zero: a0 = 1 Multiply the indices.
n Negative indices: a −m
= 1
am
n Fractional indices: a n1 = n a

Example R.2 Simplify the following.

(i) (2 x) 2 3 (ii) 16 x 4y6
−

Solution
(2 x) = 2 3 × ( x) 2 3 16 x 4y6 = 16 × x y 4 6
−2 3 −
(i) (ii)
= 8x = x4 y2 3
−6

28
 Exercise R.1
① Simplify the following. ④ Simplify the following, writing your answers in
(i) (4 2+ 3) (2 3+3)− the form x n.

(ii) (2 3+ 2) (3 2−2)−
(i) x 4x3×
(iii) (3 2− 2) 2
(ii) x 4x3÷
(iii) (3 2− 2)(3 2 2) + (iii) ( x)
−3 2

② Simplify the following by rationalising the (iv) x8

denominator.
(v) x
3 12

(i) 9 (ii) 5 − 5
3 5 ⑤ Simplify the following.
(iii)
4 2+ 2 (iv) 5 (i) 2x 2y3 × 3x 3y2
3− 2 3 5 4−
③ Evaluate the following.
1
(ii) x 2y3 × x 2y5
(i) 2 −5
(ii) 27 3 (iii) 12x 6y5 ÷ 4 x 2y3
(iii) 25
3
2 (iv) ()
16
9
−1
2 (iv) (1 +) 2+x(13 ) x x + 2

2 Exponentials and logarithms

Exponentials
Exponent is another name for power or index: for example, when you write
x a= n , a is the base and n can be referred to using any of the names power,
index or exponent.
A function of the form =y a x
, where a is positive and x is the variable, is called
an exponential function.

y
y = ax
All exponential functions have
similar graphs:
■ allanhave the negative x-axis as
asymptote
1
■ all pass through the point (0,1)
O x
■ allevery
havepoint.
a positive gradient at

Figure R.1

29
 Exponentials and logarithms
Logarithms
A logarithm is the inverse of an index:
x a= n ⇔ =n log a x for a (the base) > 0 and >x 0.
y
All logarithmic functions have
y = log ax similar graphs:
nallanhave the negative y-axis as
asymptote
all pass through the point (1,0)
O 1 x
n
n allevery
havepoint.
a positive gradient at
Figure R.2
When using the same scale on both axes, the graphs of =y a x and =y log a x
are reflections of each other in the line =y x. This is because log a xand a x are
inverse functions.
y
y = ax

1 y = log a x

O 1 x

Figure R.3
The rules of logarithms are derived from those for indices:
n Multiplication: log xy = log xlog+ y
⎛x ⎞
Division: log ⎝ ⎠ = log xlog− y
n
y
n Powers: log x nn =x log
n Logarithm of 1: log 1 =0
⎛1⎞
Reciprocals: log ⎝ ⎠ = − log y
n
y
1 log
log n x =
n Roots:
n x
n Logarithm to its own base: log a a = 1
Any positive number can be used as the base for a logarithm, but the two most
common bases are 10 and the irrational number 2.718 28…, which is denoted
by the letter e. Logarithms to base e are written as ln and on your calculator you
will see that, just as log and 10 x are inverse functions and appear on the same
button, so are ln and e x.

30
Example R.3
Solve the equation 3x = 2 , giving your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

Solution
Taking logarithms of both sides:
xx
33 ==⇒2⇒
xx
log33 ==log You can use logs
2 log log22
to any base.
⇒ xx log
⇒ log 33==
log
log 22
log 2 log 2
⇒ =x x⇒ =
log 3 log 3
= 0.631 (3 s.f.)

Example R.4 The number of people infected with a disease varies according to the
formula
N 200(1
= e − 0.004 t )
−

where N is the number of people infected and t is the time in weeks from
the first detection of the disease.
(i) How many people had the disease when it was first detected?
(ii) How many months did it take until there were only 10 people
infected?

Solution
(i) Initially, t = 0.
Substituting this into N
−0.004 t
= 200(1 e ) − gives N 200.
=
(ii) When N 10,
=
−0.004 t
=
10 200(1 e − )
−0.004 t
⇒ 0.05 1= e−
−0.004 t
⇒e = 0.95

⇒ − 0.004t = ln(0.95)

⇒ t 12.8233
=

So it took around 3 months for only 10 people to be infected.

Reducing to linear form

Logarithms are particularly useful when trying to find an equation to fit
experimental data, since this often involves an exponential relationship, such as
y kx
= n or =y×a b x . Equations of this form can be written in linear form,

which makes it easier to plot a graph and estimate its equation.

31
 Exponentials and logarithms
Example R.5 In an experiment, Yuen obtains the data in Table R.1.

Table R.1
t 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 1.3 3.4 6.2 9.8 13.3 17.5

Yuen thinks that the relationship between y and t is given by an equation of

the form y kt= n.
(i) Show that if Yuen is correct, then plotting log y against log t will give
an approximately straight line graph.
(ii) Plot this graph and use it to estimate the values of n and k.

Solution
(i) Taking logarithms of both sides:
log y = log kt n Logarithms to base 10 have
been used here, but any base
= log k + log t n can be used.
= log k n+ t log
= n log
t log
+ k
This is of the form y = mx + c, so plotting a graph of log y against
log t should give a straight line with gradient n and vertical axis
intercept log k.
(ii) Table R.2
t 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 1.3 3.4 6.2 9.8 13.3 17.5
log t 0 0.301 0.478 0.602 0.699 0.778
log y 0.114 0.531 0.792 0.991 1.124 1.243

1.5
x
logy

x
1 x
x
0.5 x

x (17, 10)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
log t

TECHNOLOGY Figure R.4

Use a spreadsheet or Gradient of graph ≈ 1.5 so ≈n 1.5.
graphing software to
verify that the1.5 equation Intercept ≈ 0.1 ⇒ log k0.1≈
y = 1.26 × t is a good k0.1
⇒ ⇒log klog≈⇒ ≈ k0.1
≈ 10 0.1
fit for the original data. 10 k 1.26 (3 s.f .)
⇒ ⇒k ≈ k10≈0.1
0.1 0.1 ≈

k ≈ k1.26
≈ 1.26
(3 s.f(3.)s.f .)
32
 If the relationship is of the form =y ×a b x
, then taking logs of both sides gives
log y = log( a b× x )
= log a + log b x
= log a x+ log b Compare this with y = mx + c.
In this case you would plot log y against x to obtain a straight line with gradient
log b and intercept log a.

Exercise R.2
① Write the following expressions in the form ⑦ During a chemical reaction, the concentration
log xwhere x is a number. C (kg m−3) of a particular chemical at time t
(i) log 3 +log 6 log− 2 minutes is believed to be given by an equation
of the form C
= ×p q t .The data in Table R.3
(ii) 1 log 9 +2 log 4
2 are obtained.
(iii) log 1 +log 2 log− 3 Table R.3
② Write the following expressions in terms of
log x. t 0123456

(i) log x 4 − 2log x C 1.32 1.23 0.95 0.76 0.62 0.51 0.38
(ii) 3 log x + log x 3
(iii) log( ) x 3 (i) Explain why, if this relationship is correct,
plotting a graph of log C against t will
③ Solve the following equations. give an approximate straight line.
(i) 102 x + 3 = 5 (ii) 101 − x = 6 (ii) Plot the graph and use it to estimate the
values of p and q.
(iii) e 3x2− = 5 (iv) e4 −2 x = 1
⑧ The data in Table R.4 are obtained in an
④ Solve the following equations, giving exact experiment.
solutions.
(i) log( x + =1) 5 Table R.4
(ii) log( x + +2) log( x − 2) 0= r 1.2 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.9
s
(iii) ln( x + =3) 4 5.4 7.6 8.3 9.0 9.8

(iv) ln( x + +2) ln( x − 2) 0= The relationship between r and s is believed to

⑤ Make x the subject of the following formulae. be of the form =s kr n.
(i) a = log c( x b− ) (i) Explain why, if this relationship is correct,
(ii) e px +q = s plotting a graph of log s against log r will
give an approximate straight line.
⑥ The number N of bees in a hive is given
by N 200 = e 0.1t where t is the number of days (ii) Plot the graph and use it to estimate the
values of k and n.
since observations began.
(i) How many bees were in the hive initially?
(ii) Sketch the graph of N against t.
(iii) What is the population of the hive after
30 days?
(iv) How good do you think this model is?
Explain your answer.

33
 Exponentials and logarithms

KEY POINTS
1 The laws of nindicesm n
m
n a ×a =a +
n a m ÷ a n = a m −n
n ( a)m n = a mn
n a0 = 1
n a − m = 1m
a
1
n a n = n
a
2 n ( )x
2 = x
xy = xy
3 When simplifying expressions containing square roots you need to
make the number under the square root as small as possible
n

rationalise
4 A function
n
of thetheform
denominator if necessary.
a x is described as exponential.
5 A logarithm is the inverse of an index:
y = log a x ⇔ ay = x
6 The laws of logarithms to any base
n log xy = log x + log y

n log (xy ) =log− x log y

n log 1 =0
n log x n = n log x
⎛1⎞
log ⎝ ⎠ = − log y
n
y
1
log n x = log x n = 1 log x
n
n
n log a a = 1
7 The function e x, where e is the irrational number 2.718 28…, is called the
exponential function.
log x is called the natural logarithm of x and is denoted by ln x.
e
8 Logarithms may be used to discover the relationship between variables in
two types ofn situation.
n y kx
= ⇔ log y n= x log log+ k
Plotting log yagainst log xgives a straight line where n is the gradient
and logxkis the y-axis intercept.
y ka
= ⇔ log y x= a log log
+ k
Plotting log yagainst x gives a straight line where is the gradient
n
log a
and log kis the y-axis intercept.

34
 3 Sequences and series

Population, when 10
unchecked, increases 2043
Population(billions)

in a geometrical 8 2024
ratio. Subsistence 2011
increases only in an 6 1999
arithmetical ratio. A 1987
slight acquaintance with 4 1974
numbers will show the 1960
immensity of the first 2 1930
1800
power in comparison
with the second. 0 0 1600 1650 1700 1750
Thomas Malthus 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050

(1766–1834) Year

Figure 3.1 Human population, 1600–2050 A.D. (projections shown by red crosses)
➜ What was the approximate world population when Malthus made his
famous statement that is quoted on the left?
➜ Look at the graph and comment on whether things are turning out the way
he predicted. What other information would you find helpful in answering this
question?
35
 Definitions and notation

1 Definitions and notation

Discussion point
A

Figure 3.2
➜ Each of the following sequences is related to one of the pictures in Figure 3.2.
(i) 5000, 10 000, 20 000, 40 000, …
(ii) 8, 0, 10, 10, 10, 10, 12, 8, 0, …
(iii) 5, 3.5, 0, −3.5, −5, −3.5, 0, 3.5, 5, 3.5, …
(iv) 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, …
➜ For each of these sequences:
(a) identify which picture it goes with
(b) give the next few numbers in the sequence
(c) describe the pattern of numbers
(d) decide whether the sequence will go on for ever, or come to a stop.
A sequence is an ordered set of objects with an underlying rule. Each of the
numbers or letters is called a term of the sequence. It can be finite or infinite.
Examples of sequences are:
■ 1, 3, 5, 7, …
■ 1 …
2 , 41 , 81 , 16
1 ,
■

■ Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, …

36
 Notation
When writing the terms of a sequence algebraically, it is usual to denote the
position of any term in the sequence by a subscript, so a general sequence may
be written as
a1a,2 ,3a4,a, …
In this case the general term could be written as a k.
For the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, … ,
the 3rd term is 5 = (2 × 3) − 1
the 4th term is 7 = (2 × 4) − 1.
Continuing this pattern, the general term a k is written as 2k − 1.

Series
When the terms of a sequence are added together, like
1+3+5+7+…
the resulting sum is called a series. The process of adding the terms together is
called summation and is indicated by the symbol Σ (the Greek letter sigma),
with the position of the first and last terms involved given as limits.
k=5 5 5

ACTIVITY 3.1 You can write a1, + a2 + +a 3+ a4a

5 as ∑
k =1
a k or just as ∑ a k or even ∑ a .k
k1=

Look at the series for

1

π and for sin x. If all the terms of a sequence are to be added, the sum may be written as ∑ a k.
1 How many terms A sequence may have an infinite number of terms, in which case it is called an
would you expect
to need in each infinite sequence and the corresponding series is called an infinite series.
of these to give a For example This series has a
result accurate to finite number of
2 decimal places? x + 10x 2 + 10 x 3 + 5x 4 + =x 5+ x5
1+
5 (1 ) terms (6).
2 See how good your ( )= π
estimates are by 4 1 − +13 − +51 1
7… Both of these series have an
adding terms on x3 x5 infinite number of terms.
your calculator. and −x
3!
+
5!
− … = sin x.

Defining sequences x is measured in radians.

Definitions which give the value of ak directly are called deductive definitions
(position to term). Alternatively, there is an inductive definition (term to
term), where each term is defined by relating it to the previous one. Look
at the sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, … .This sequence, and many others, can be
written algebraically in more than one way. Try out the following formulae for
yourself.
This formula has the advantage
ak = +2 3 k for k = 1, 2, 3, … that it contains both the number
5, which is the first term, and the
■

■ ak = +5 3( k − 1) for k = 1, 2, 3, …
number 3, which is the difference
■ a1 = 5 ; ak + 1 = ak + 3 between the terms.
In this case, substituting =k 1 gives = +a a= 3+ 5=3 8 ,
substituting k= 2 gives = +a = + a= 3 8 3 11 , etc.
21

3 2

37
 Definitions and notation
Example 3.1 A sequence is defined deductively by =ak− 3k1 for k 1,2,3,
= … .
(i) Write down the first six terms of the sequence, and describe the
sequence.
k=6

(ii) Find the value of the series ∑ a k.

k =1

Solution
(i) Substituting k = 1, 2, 3, … 6 in a=k − 3k1 gives
a1 = 3(1) −1 =2
a2 = 3(2) 1− 5=
a3 = 3(3) 1− 8=
a4 = 3(4) 1− 11
=
a5 = 3(5) 1− 14
=
a6 = 3(6) 1− 17
=

So the sequence is 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, which starts with 2 and then
adds 3 each time.
k=6
(ii) ∑ a k = a a+a +a +a a+ +
1 2 3456
k =1
= 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17
= 57

Arithmetic sequences
A sequence in which consecutive terms differ by the addition of a fixed (positive
or negative) number is described as arithmetic. This number is called the
common difference.
The general form of an arithmetic sequence is a a, ,d2+a ,+
d3a+,…
d , where
the first term is a and the common difference is d.
Thus the sequence 5 8 11 14 … is arithmetic with = a 5 and = d 3.
+3 +3 +3
You will look at arithmetic sequences in more detail later in the chapter.

Geometric sequences
A sequence in which you find each term by multiplying the previous one
by a fixed number is described as geometric; the fixed number is called the
common ratio.
The general form of a geometric sequence is a ,ar, ar
, , ar2 3 … , where the first
term is a and the common ratio is r.
Thus the sequence 10 20 40 80 … is a geometric sequence with = a 10
and r=2 . ×2 ×2 ×2

38
 It may be written algebraically as

ak = ×5 2 for =k 1, 2, 3, …
k
(deductive definition)
or as a1 = 10; ak + 1 = 2ak for k = 1, 2, 3, … (inductive definition).

Example 3.2 Find the common ratio for the geometric sequence 2, ,−, 21−, 1 1
8 32 …

Solution
The first term, a = 2 and the second term ar = − .21 Hence
r = ar
a
− 21
=
2
⇒ common ratio = − 1 .
4

Geometric sequences are also dealt with in more detail later in the chapter.

Periodic sequences
A sequence which repeats itself at regular intervals is called periodic. In the case
of the pizza take-away in Figure 3.2, the number of hours it is open each day
forms the sequence
a = 8 , a2 = 0 , a3 = 10 , a = 10 , a5 = 10 , a = 10 , a = 12 ,
1 4 6 7

(Sun) (Mon) (Tues) (Wed) (Thurs) (Fri) (Sat)

a8 = 8 , a9 = 0 , …
(Sun) (Mon)
There is no neat algebraic formula for the terms of this sequence but you can
see that a8 = a1a,9 = a
2 and so on.
In general, this sequence can be written as

ak + 7 = ak for k = 1, 2, 3, …
This sequence is periodic with period 7 since each term is repeated after seven terms.
A sequence for which
ak +p = ak for k = 1, 2, 3, … (for a fixed integer p)
is periodic. The period is the smallest positive value of p for which this is true.

Increasing and decreasing sequences

A sequence is increasing if each term of the sequence is greater than the term
immediately preceding it.
For example
■ 2, 5, 8, 11, … is an increasing arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3.
■ 2, 6, 18, 54, … is an increasing geometric sequence with a common ratio of 3.

39
 Defi nitions and notation
■ 1, 4, 9, 16, … is the increasing sequence of the squares of positive integers.
■ 0.9, 0.909, 0.90909, 0.9090909, … is an increasing sequence which converges
to 10 .
11
Similarly a sequence is decreasing if each term of the sequence is smaller than
the term immediately preceding it.
For example
■ 9, 5, 1, −3, … is a decreasing arithmetic sequence with a common difference
of −4. This sequence diverges. The terms take greater and greater negative values.
The terms get closer and
closer to zero without ■ 1 , ,1 , ,1 1 … is a decreasing geometric sequence with a common ratio of21.
ever getting there. 2 4 8 16

However small a number This sequence converges to zero.

you can think of, there
comes a point when all 1,2 ,3 ,4 ak =+ k .
the subsequent terms ■
2 3 4 5 ,… isan increasing sequence with general term k1
are closer to zero. This sequence converges to 1.

Example 3.3 A sequence is defined by ak = −( 1) k for k = 1, 2, 3, …

(i) Write down the first six terms of the sequence and describe its
pattern in as many ways as you can.
5
(ii) a k.
Find the value of the series ∑
2

(iii) Describe the sequence defined by =b+k − ×5 ( 1) 2 k for k = 1, 2, 3, …

Solution
Note (i) a1 = −( 1)
= −1
a2 = −( 1) 2 = 1
1

Multiplying an
expression for a k by a3 = −( 1) 3 = − 1
(-1) ensures that the
k
signs of the terms a4 = −( 1) 4 = 1
alternate between a5 = −( 1) 5 = − 1
positive and negative. It
is a very useful device. a6 = −( 1) 6 = 1
The sequence is −1, +1, −1, +1, −1, +1, … .
It is periodic with period 2.
It is also geometric with first term −1 and common ratio −1.
5

(ii) ∑ ak = a2 + +a 3a+ a 45
2
= (+1) + (−1) + (+1) + (−1)
=0

40
 Discussion point
Identify some more (iii) b1 = +5 −( 1)
× =2 3
examples of each b2 = +5 −( 1)
×= 2
27
of these types of
sequence: arithmetic, b3 = +5 −( 1)
× =2 33
geometric, periodic, b4
increasing and = +5 −( 1)
× =2 47
decreasing. Try to find and so on, giving the sequence 3, 7, 3, 7, … which is periodic with
some examples that
fit into more than one period 2.
category, and for each
of your sequences Sequences with other
define a k. patterns
There are many other possible
patterns in sequences. Figure 3.3
shows a well-known children’s toy
in which blocks with a square
cross-section are stacked to make a
tower. The smallest square shape has
sides 1 cm long, and the length of the
sides increase in steps of 1 cm.
The areas of these squares, in cm 2,
form the sequence
12, 22, 32, 42, 52 …
or 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … Figure 3.3
This is the sequence of square numbers and it does not fit any of the patterns
described so far. If you subtract each term from the next, however, you will find
that the differences form a pattern.

Sequence 1 4 9 16 25 …
Difference 3 5 7 9…
These differences form an arithmetic sequence with common difference 2.
The next difference in the sequence will be 9 + 2 = 11, and so the next term in
the areas sequence will be 25 + 11 = 36, which is indeed 6 2.
Looking at the differences between the terms often helps you to spot the pattern
within a sequence. Sometimes you may need to look at the differences between
the differences, or go even further.

Exercise 3.1
① For each of the following sequences, write (iv) 3, 6, 12, 24, …
down the next four terms (assuming the same
pattern continues) and describe its pattern as
(v) 64, 32, 16, 8, …
fully as you can. (vi) 1, −2, 4, −8, …
(i) 7, 10, 13, 16, … (vii) 2, 2, 2, 5, 2, 2, 2, 5, 2, 2, 2, 5, …
(viii) 1, 3, 5, 3, 1, 3, 5, 3, …
(ii) 8, 7, 6, 5, …
(iii) 4.1, 3.9, 3.7, 3.5, …
41
 Definitions and notation
② Write down the first four terms of each of the 10
(k 2k ( 1) ) 2
sequences defined deductively below. In each (iv) ∑ 1− −
case, k takes the values 1, 2, 3, … .
10

(i) ak = 2k + 1 (v) ∑1 ((+k1)− −( 1) ) k

2 2

(ii) ak = ×3 2 k
⑦ The Fibonacci sequence is given by 1, 1, 2, 3,
(iii) ak = 2k + 2k
5, 8, … .
(iv) a k = k1 (i) Write down the sequence of differences
between the terms of this sequence, and
(v) ak = +5 −( 1) k
comment on what you find.
③ Write down the first four terms of each of the (ii) Write down the next three terms of the
sequences defined inductively below. Fibonacci sequence.
(i) ak + 1 = ak + 3; a1 = −125 (iii) Write down the sequence formed by the
(ii) ak + 1 = − ak ; a1 = − 5 ratio of one term to the next,
ak + 1 , using
ak
(iii) ak + 1 = 21 ak ; =a1 72 decimals. What do you notice about it?
(iv) ak + 1 = ak + 2k + 1; =a1 1 ⑧ The terms of a sequence are defined by
(v) ak + 2 = ak ; =a1 4, a2 = 6 ak = +4 −( 1)
× 2k .
(i)
4
④ Find the value of the series ∑ a k in each of the Write down the first six terms of this
following cases. 1 sequence.

(i) ak = +2 5 k (ii) Describe the sequence.

(ii) ak = ×3 2 k (iii) What would be the effect of changing the

sequence to
(iii) ak = 12 k (a) ak = +4 −( 2) k

(iv) ak = +2 −( 1) k
ak = +4 −( ) 1 k
(v) ak + 1 = 3a,ka 1
=1 (b)
? 2

⑨ A sequence of numbers t t,t, ,

⑤ Expressn each of the following series in the 1 2 3 … is formed
by taking a starting value of t 1 and using the
form ∑ a ,k where n is an integer and a k is an result
1
algebraic expression for the kth term of the
tk + 1 = −tk2 2for k = 1, 2, 3, …
series.
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 10
(i) If =t1 2 , calculate t 2, t 3 and t 4.
Show that =t5 2 , and write down the
(ii) 21 + 22 + 23 + … + 30
value of t 100.
(iii) 210 + 220 + 230 + … + 300
(iv) 211 + 222 + 233 + … + 310 (ii) If =t1 2 , show that all the terms of the
sequence are the same.
(v) 190 + 180 + 170 + … + 100
Find the other value of t 1 for which all the
⑥ Find the value of each of the following. terms of the sequence are the same.
5
(i) ∑ k (iii) Determine whether the sequence
1 converges, diverges or is periodic in the
20 19 cases where
(ii) ∑ k 2 − ∑k 2
(a) t1 = 3 (b) t1 = 1
1 1
−
5
(c) t1 = 521 . [MEI]
(k 2 5k)
(iii) ∑ 0−

42
⑩ Throughout time there have been many attempts
to find a series that will calculate π, two of which
are the following:
(i)
(ii)
Which of these would you expect to
converge more quickly? Why?
Use a spreadsheet to find out how many
terms of each are needed to give an
3
π = −1 +
1− 1 1 … (James Gregory 1671
4 3 5 7 and Gottfried Liebnitz approximation to π which is correct to
1674) (a) one d.p.
2
(b) two d.p.
π = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 (c) three d.p.
.
6 12 22 32 4 2 + …
(Leonhard Euler 1748)
(d) four d.p.

2 Arithmetic sequences and series

When the terms of an arithmetic sequence are added together, the result is called
an arithmetic series, or arithmetic progression.

Notation
The following conventions will be used:
■ first term, a = a
1
■ number of terms =n
■ last term, an = l
■ common difference = d
■ the general term = a k, i.e. the term in the kth position.
For the arithmetic sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, 17,20,
a = 5, n = 6, l = 20 and d = 3.
To find an expression for the general term, look at how the terms are formed:

a1 = a =5
a2 = +a d =5+3 =8
a3 = +a 2d = 5 + 2(3) = 11
The 4th term is the first a4 = +a 3d = 5 + 3(3) = 14
term (5) plus three times a5 = +a 4d = 5 + 4(3) = 17
the common difference (3).
In each case, the number of differences that are added is one less than the
position number of the term you are finding. This gives rise to the formula
ak = +a −
k( 1)d .
For the last term this becomes
l a=n+ − ( 1)d.
These are both general formulae which apply to any arithmetic sequence.

43
 Arithmetic sequences and series
Example 3.4 How many terms are there in the arithmetic sequence 14, 18, 22, … , 162?

Solution
This is an arithmetic sequence with first term a = 14, last term l = 162 and
common difference d = 4.

Using the result =l a+n− d

( 1) gives
162 = 14 + 4(n − 1)
= 1)n −
⇒ 148 4(
⇒ 37 = −n 1
⇒ n = 38
There are 38 terms.

Example 3.5 Find the 25th term in the arithmetic sequence 7, 4, 1, … .

Solution
In this case a = 7 and d = −3 (negative since the terms are decreasing).

Using the result ak = +a −

k ( 1) d gives
a25 = +7 (25 1) −( 3)
×−
= −65
The 25th term is −65.

Historical note

When Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was at school he was always quick to
answer mathematical questions. One day his teacher, hoping for half an hour
of peace and quiet, told his class to add up all of the whole numbers from 1 to
100. Almost at once the 10-year-old Gauss announced that he had done it and
that the answer was 5050.
Gauss had not, of course, added the terms one by one. Instead he wrote the
series down twice, once in the given order and once backwards, and added the
two together:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 98 + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + … + 3 + 2 + 1
Adding,
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + … + 101 + 101 + 101
Since there are 100 terms in the series,
2S = 100 101
×
⇒ =S 5050.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, … , 100 form an arithmetic sequence with common
difference 1. Gauss’ method gives rise to a formula which can be used to find
the sum of any arithmetic sequence.

44
 The sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence
It is common to use the letter S to denote the sum of the terms of a sequence.
When there is any doubt about the number of terms that are being summed,
3
this is indicated by a subscript: S4 indicates 4 terms and Sn indicates n terms.

Example 3.6 Find the sum of the arithmetic series 10 + 7 + 3 + … + (−20).

Solution
This arithmetic series has a first term of 10 and a common difference of −3.
Using the formula =l a+n− ( 1) , d
−20 = 10 + (n − 1)(−3)
⇒ − 30
= −( − n 1)( 3)
⇒ 10 = −n 1
so there are 11 terms.
Writing down the series both forwards and backwards gives
S = 10 + 7 + … + (−17) + (−20)
and S = (−20) + (−17) + … + 7 + 10
Adding gives 2S = (−10) + (−10) + … + (−10) + (−10)
Since there are 11 terms this gives
2S = (−10) × 11
⇒ =S − 55.

Obviously it would be rather tedious to have to do this each time, so this

method is generalised to give a formula for the sum of n terms of the arithmetic
sequence that has a first term a and a common difference d:

TECHNOLOGY S = [a] + [a + d] + … + [a + (n − 2)d] + [a + (n − 1)d]

S = [a + (n − 1)d] + [a + (n − 2)d] + … + [a + d] + [a]
Use a spreadsheet to
generate an arithmetic 2S = [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d] + … + [2a + (n − 1)d] + [2a + (n − 1)d]
sequence and to Since there are n terms it follows that
calculate the sum of the
terms. Verify that the S 1 n[2
a n( + 1)d] .
formula gives the same =
2
−
answers. This result may also be written as

l = a + (n − 1)d is the S = 1 n(a l+ ).

last term. 2

45
 Arithmetic sequences and series
Example 3.7 The arithmetic sequence 2, 1 ,2 1 , 11, … has 60 terms. Find the sum of the
3 3
sequence.

Solution
This is an arithmetic series of 60 terms with first term 2 and common
difference (−)1 .
3
Using =S 1 n[2
2
a n( +1)−] d gives

S= 60 ⎡⎣4
2
+×−
59 ( )13 ⎤⎦
= −470.

Example 3.8 Catherine has just completed her degree and her starting salary with her
first employer is £21 000 per annum. She has been promised an increase of
£1200 each year for the first five years and then a salary review at that point.
(i) What is her salary in her fifth year?
(ii) What will her total earnings be after five years?

Solution
(i) Using ak = +a0− (k1) d ,
a 5 = 21 000 + 4(1200)
= 25 800.
Catherine’s salary is £25 800.

(ii) Using S = 1 n(a

2
l+ ) ,
5 (21 000 +25 800)
total salary = 2
= £117 000.
Her total earnings are £117 000.

Exercise 3.2
① Are the following series arithmetic? If so, state ③ The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 3,
the common difference and the tenth term. the common difference is −2 and the last term
(i) 5, 8, 11, 14, … is −71. How many terms are there?
(ii) 1, 4, 8, 12, … ④ The first term of an arithmetic sequence is −5
and the sixth term is 10.
(iii) 5, 2, −1, −4, …
(iv) 3, 7, 11, 15, … (i) Find the common difference.
(v) −1, 2, 3, 4, … (ii) Find the sum of the first 20 terms.
(vi) 2, 3.5, 5, 6.5, … ⑤ The kth term of an arithmetic sequence is
given by ak = − 7+ 4 k .
② The first term of an arithmetic sequence is −10
and the common difference is 4.
(i) Find the common difference.
(i) Find the twelfth term. (ii) Write down the first four terms of the
sequence.
(ii) The last term is 102. How many terms are (iii) Find the sum of the first 15 terms.
there?

46
⑥ The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is
twice the third term and the first term is 3.
(i) Find the common difference.
⑫ A piece of string 10 m long is to be cut into
pieces, so that the lengths of the pieces form
an arithmetic sequence. The lengths of the
longest and shortest pieces are 1 m and 25 cm
3
(ii)Find the sum of the first 100 terms.
respectively.
⑦ In an arithmetic sequence, the third term
is 7 and the common difference is 2.
(i) How many pieces are there?
(i) Find the sum of the first ten terms. (ii) If the same string had been cut into
20 pieces with lengths that formed an
(ii) After how many terms does the sum equal arithmetic sequence, and if the length of
528? the second longest had been 92.5 cm, how
⑧ (i) Find the sum of all the odd numbers from long would the shortest piece have been?
49 to 149 inclusive.
⑬ The sum of the first n terms of a
(ii) Find the sum of all the even numbers sequence is S n where Snn =n −2 2 .
from 50 to 150 inclusive.
(i) Prove that the sequence is arithmetic,
(iii) Explain how you could deduce the answer stating the first term and the common
to (ii) from the answer to (i). difference.
⑨ A ball rolls down a slope. The distances it (ii) Find the sum of the terms from the 3rd to
travels in successive seconds are 4 cm, 12 cm, the 12th inclusive.
20 cm, 28 cm, … .
⑭ (i) Rewrite the formula
How many seconds elapse before it has
travelled a total of 36 metres? Sn = 21 n[2a n( +1)
d −] in the form
⑩ In an arithmetic sequence the 8th term is Snpn= qn, 2 + where p and q are
twice the 4th term and the 20th term is 40. constants, stating the values of p and q in
(i) Find the first term and the common terms of a and d.
difference. (ii) Explain why the nth term of the sequence
is given by S−nS , and hence find a
(ii)
Find the sum of the terms from the 10th
−
n1
formula for the nth term in terms of p and
to the 20th inclusive.
q.
⑪ 50 m of adhesive tape is wound onto a reel of
circumference 12 cm. Owing to the thickness (iii) Show that any sequence where S n is of
of the tape, each turn takes 0.5 mm more tape the form pn 2qn+ is arithmetic and find
than the previous one. the first term and common difference in
terms of p and q.
How many complete turns are needed?

3 Geometric sequences and series

Prior knowledge When the terms of a geometric sequence are added together, the result is called
a geometric series, or geometric progression.
You need to know how
to use logarithms.
These are covered in
Notation
Review: Algebra (1) on The following conventions will be used:
page 30. ■ first term a = a
common ratio = r
1
■
■ number of terms = n
■ the general term = a k, i.e. the term in the kth position.

47
 Geometric sequences and series
For the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48,
a = 3, r = 2 and n = 5.
To find an expression for the general term, look at how the terms are formed:
a1 = a =3
a2 = ar = 3 2× =6
a3 = ar 2 = 3 2× 2
= 12
a4 = ar 3 = 3 2× 3
= 24
a5 = ar 4 = 3 2× 4
= 48
In each case, the power of r is one less than the position number of the term, for
example a4 = ar 3 .This can be written deductively as
ak = ar k −1 (the general term).
The last term is
an = ar n −1 .
These are both general formulae which apply to any geometric sequence.

Example 3.9 Find the eighth term in the geometric sequence 5, 15, 45, 135, … .

Solution
In the sequence the first term a = 5 and the common ratio r = 3.
The kth term is given by akar= k 1 .
−

⇒ a8 = ×5 3 7
= 10 935

Example 3.10 How many terms are there in the geometric sequence
0.2, 1, 5, 25 … , 390 625?

Solution
The last (nth) term of a geometric sequence is given by =an×a r n −1
.
In this case, a = 0.2 and r = 5, so
n −1
0.2 5× = 390 625
390 625
5n
−1
⇒ =
= 1 953 125
0.2
⇒ log 5n 1 = log 1 953 125
−
You can solve the equation
by taking logarithms of both
⇒ (n − 1) log 5 =log 1 953 125 sides. Alternatively, you can
log 1 953 125 use trial and improvement
⇒ n − =1 log 5
=9 to solve the equation.
⇒ n = 10
There are 10 terms.

48
 The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence
The next example shows you how to derive a formula for the sum of a
geometric sequence.
3
Example 3.11 Find the value of 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + … + 1 062 882.

Solution
This is a geometric series with first term 2 and a common ratio of 3.
Let S = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + … + 1 062 882 ①
Multiplying by the common ratio 3 gives
3S = 6 + 18 + 54 + … + 1 062 882 + 3 188 646 ②
Subtracting ① from ②
3S = 6 + 18 + 54 + … + 1 062 882 + 3 188 646
− S = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + … + 1 062 882
⇒ 2S = −2 + 0 + 0 + 0 + + 0 + 3 188 646
⇒ 2S = 3 188 644
⇒ S = 1 594 322

Applying this to the general geometric series to give a formula for the sum:
S a=ar+ ar+ 2 +
.....ar n 1
−
①
Multiplying by the common ratio r gives
②
rS ar= ar
+ 2 + ar 3 ++
.... ar n
Subtracting ① from ② as before gives
( r − 1)S = − a+ ar n

= ar n − a
= a(r n − 1)

= a(r
n −
⇒ 1)
S r 1−

The sum of n terms is usually written as S n and that for an infinite sum as SSor. ∞
For values of r between −1 and +1, the sum of n terms is usually written as:

Sn = a(11 − rr ) This means that you are working with

− n.
positive numbers inside the brackets.

TECHNOLOGY
Use a spreadsheet to generate a geometric sequence and to calculate the sum of
the terms. Verify that the formula gives the same answers.

49
 Geometric sequences and series
Example 3.12 A geometric sequence has terms 4, 8, 16, … 1024.
(i) How many terms are there in the sequence?
(ii) Find the sum of the terms in this sequence.

Solution
(i) nth term = ar n −1
⇒ 4 2×
n −1 = 1024 a = 4, r = 2 and nth term = 1024.
⇒ n −1 = 256
2
⇒ n −1
= log 256
log 2
⇒ −(n 1) log 2 =log 256
log 256
⇒ n − =1 log 2
⇒ n − =1 8
Note There are 9 terms in the sequence.

= a(r
n −
−1 < r < 1 is sometimes (ii) S r −1
1)
written as |r | < 1. |r| is the
modulus of r (or mod r ) 4(2 9 −
1)
and is the absolute value =
2 1−
or magnitude of r. = 2044
For1example, |−1| = 1,
| | 1
− 2 and |1| = 1. Infinite geometric series
So 2if the= magnitude of In the general geometric series a ar + +ar+ 2 … , the terms become
the common ratio is less progressively smaller in size if the common ratio, r, is between −1 and +1.
than 1 then the sequence
converges. For −1 < r < 1, r→
n
0 as n→ ∞ and so the formula for the sum of a
geometric series,
a(1 − r n )
Discussion point Sn =
1− r
➜ What happens to an may be rewritten for an infinite series as
infinite series if r = +1 S = 1 −a r or S∞ = 1 −a r .
or r = −1? For an infinite series to have a finite sum, the value of r must be such that −1< r <1.
Example 3.13 Find the sum of the infinite series +2 +1 +1 + +2 1 1 ….
You saw this example in 4 8

Chapter 1, on page 2. Solution

This series is geometric with a = 2 and =r 1
2 so the sum is given by
S = 1 −a r where a = 2 and =r 1 2 .

S =− 2
11 2

=2
1
2
= 4.

50
Discussion point
You saw a diagram like
Figure 3.4 on page 3. 2
2

1
3
➜ How does it illustrate –1 2
Example 3.13? 1
–1 8
–1 4 1
–6 –
1
16

Figure 3.4
Example 3.14 The first term of a geometric progression is 20 and the sum to infinity is 13 1 .
3
Find the common ratio.

Solution
S = a
1− r
⇒ 13 13 = 20
1− r
⇒ 40 (1 −
3
r
=
) 20
⇒ r
1−= 20 × 3
40
= 3
2
⇒ r =− 1
2

Example 3.15 The first three terms of an infinite geometric sequence are 2, 1.6 and 1.28.

TECHNOLOGY (i) State the common ratio of the sequence.

Use a spreadsheet to (ii) Which is the first term of the sequence with a value less than 0.5?
generate this sequence (iii) After how many terms will the sum be greater than 9?
and the sum of the
series. How quickly does Solution
it converge? Try some
other geometric series (i) a 2= and ar 1.6
=
for which −1 < r < 1. ⇒ =r 1.6⇒ =r 1.6
2 2
⇒ =r 0.8⇒ = r 0.8

(ii) The nth term = × 2 0.8 n 1 .

−

× n −1 <
2 0.8 0.5
n −1 <
⇒ −(n ⇒1) log
0.8 0.8 <log0.25
0.25
The log of any number ⇒ −(n⇒ log
1) log n 1 <<
0.80.8
−
loglog
0.25
0.25
less than 1 is negative, ⇒ −(−(nn
⇒ 0.8<log
<log 0.25
so you need to reverse 1)
1) log
log 0.8 0.25
the inequality since you ⇒ −(n> 1) log 0.25
are dividing by a negative ⇒ −(n 1) log 0.8 <loglog
0.25
0.8
amount.
⇒ −(n (n −0.8
1) log > <6.21
1) log 0.25…
⇒ −(n n <7.21
1) log 0.8 >log 0.25 … n is a number of
terms so it must be
So it is the 8th term. a whole number. ➜
51
 Geometric sequences and series
− n
(iii) Sn = 2(1 0.8 ) = 10(1 −0.8 ) n
(1 −
0.8)
10(1 −0.8 ) n9 >
⇒ −1 ⇒ n > n >
0.8−1 0.8 0.9 0.9

Note ⇒ −1 0.8 ⇒ n >

0.1 >
0.90.8
n

Logarithms have been

n >
⇒ −1 0.8
⇒ log 0.9>log 0.8 n
0.1
used in this solution ⇒ −1 0.8 n >
⇒ log 0.9>n log 0.8
0.1
but since the numbers
are small, it would also ⇒ log 0.1 log 0.8 is negative so
have been reasonable to n
⇒ −1 0.8 log>0.8
0.9
<n
reverse the inequality.
find the answer using a n 10.31…
trial and improvement ⇒ −1 0.8 n > 0.9 >
method. The sum will be greater than 9 after 11 terms.

Discussion point
You need to be very careful when dealing with infinite sequences.
Think about the following arguments:
(i) S = 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 + 64 − …
⇒ S = 1 − 2(1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32 …)
⇒=S=S−− 1122 SS
⇒
⇒ =3SS− =112 S
S 1= 3
(ii) S = 1 + (−2 + 4) + (−8 + 16) + (−32 + 64) + …
⇒⇒=S=S−+1 1+2 2+8 …S
16
So S diverges towards + `.
(iii) S = (1 − 2) + (4 − 8) + (16 − 32) + …
⇒⇒=S=S−−−−−1−1−4−41616… …
So S diverges towards −`.
➜ What is the sum of the series: is it 13 , +, `− ` or something else?

Modelling using sequences and series

Compound interest is an example of geometric growth: investing £100 at a rate
of interest of 4% p.a. compounded annually will yield £100 × 1.04 after one
2
year, £100 × 1.04 after two years and so on. In this example it is the geometric
Discussion point sequence that is important; the series has no practical relevance.

➜ What factors are Although population growth may be thought to follow a similar pattern, the
likely to affect the annual percentage rate is unlikely to be constant, since it is affected by many
annual percentage external factors.
rate for population Similarly, radioactive decay follows a geometric sequence, as shown in the next
growth? example.

52
 Example 3.16 A sample of radioactive material is decaying. Initially, the sample contains N
nuclei. The probability that any nucleus will decay in the course of one year
is p. What is the expected number of nuclei remaining after y years?

Solution
At the end of the first year N 0 × p nuclei will have decayed.
Number remaining, N 1 = N 0 − N 0 p
= N 0 (1 − p).
Similarly, after the second year, N2N= 1(1 −) p
= N 0(1 − p) 2.
Continuing this, the expected number of nuclei remaining after y years is
N 0(1 − p) y.

Exercise 3.3
① Are the following series geometric? If so, state ⑤ For each of the geometric sequences below,
the common ratio and the sixth term. (a) find the common ratio and the
(i) 5, 10, 20, 40, … number of terms
(ii) 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, … (b) find the sum of the sequence.
(iii) 2, 4, 6, 8, … (i) 5, 10, 20, … 10 240
(iv) 1, 1.1, 1.11, 1.111, … (ii) 2, 6, 18, … 118 098
(v) 6, 3, 1 1 2 , 34 , … (iii) 8, −4, 2, …, − 14096
(vi) 2, −4, 8, −16, … ⑥ The value of a car when new is £10 000 and
② Write down the fifth term, the common ratio each year its value depreciates by 15%. Use
and the nth term of the following geometric logarithms to find how many complete years it
progressions. will be before the car is worth less than £500.
(i) 3, −6, 12, … ⑦ The fifth term of a geometric sequence of
(ii) 2, 1, 1 2 , … positive numbers is 48 and the ninth term is 768.
(iii) a,ab, ,ab 2 … (i) Find the common ratio.
③ Which of the following geometric series (ii) Find the first term.
converge? For each one that converges, find (iii) Find the sum of the first ten terms.
the sum to infinity. (iv) How many terms are needed if the sum is
(i) First term 8 and common ratio 1− 2 greater than a million?
(ii) First term 4 and second term 2 ⑧ The first three terms of an infinite geometric
(iii) First term 0.1 and second term 1 sequence are 9, 6 and 4.
(iv) First term 3 and sixth term 1 81 (i) Find the common ratio.
(v) First term 4 and common ratio −1 (ii) Find the position of the first term in the
④ (i) Find how many terms there are in the sequence that is less than 1.
geometric sequence 2, 4, 8, … 2048. (iii) After how many terms is the sum greater
(ii) Find the eighth term of this sequence. than 25?
(iii) Find the sum of all the terms of this (Iv) Find the sum to infinity of the terms of
sequence. the sequence.

53
 Geometric sequences and series
⑨ A geometric series has first term 20 and ⑭ The first two terms of a geometric sequence
common ratio r. Find how many terms of the are sin and tan where0 < u < π.
2
series are required for the sum to be within
(i) State the common ratio.
1 × 10 −6 of the sum to infinity in each of the
following cases. (ii) When u = π3 , find the sum of the first
(i) r = 0.8 five terms, leaving your answer in surd
(ii) r = −0.8 form.
⑩ Find the sum to n terms of each of the A second series has first term tanθ and second
following series. term sin where 0 < u < π.
2
(i) x x+ + 2+ x 3 … (iii) Find the sum to infinity of this series
(ii) 1 − +y y− +2 y 3 … π
when u = , leaving your answer in surd
3
(iii) 1 −2 +a 4 a 2 − 8a 3 + …
form.
⑪ The first three terms of an arithmetic A third series has first term sec and second
sequence, a, a + d and a + 2d, are the same term cos where 0 < u < π.
2
as the first three terms a, ar, and ar 2 of a (iv) Find the sum to infinity of this series.
geometric series. (a≠0).
Show that this is only possible if r = 1 and (v) Is it possible for this sum to equal 1?
d = 0. ⑮ Figure 3.5 shows the steps involved in
constructing a snowflake pattern.
⑫ A tank is filled with 20 litres of water. Half the
water is removed and replaced with antifreeze
and thoroughly mixed. Half this mixture is (a) (b)
then removed and replaced with antifreeze.
The process continues.
(i) Find the first five terms in the sequence of
amounts of water in the tank at each stage. (c) (d)
(ii) After how many operations is there less
than 5% of water remaining in the tank?
(iii) Find the first five terms of the sequence of
amounts of antifreeze in the tank at each
stage.
Figure 3.5
(iv) Is either of these sequences geometric?
(a) This shows an equilateral triangle
Explain your answer.
with each side of length 9 cm.
⑬ A pendulum is set swinging. Its first oscillation
is through an angle of 30° and each succeeding
(b) Here each side is trisected and the
centre section replaced with an
oscillation is through 95% of the angle of the
equilateral triangle.
one before it.
(i) After how many swings is the angle through (c) The procedure is repeated for each of
the six small triangles around (b).
which it swings less than 1°?
(d) This construction is repeated until
(ii) What is the total angle it has swung you have an infinite sequence.
through at the end of its tenth oscillation?
(i) Calculate thelengthof the perimeter of the
(iii) What is the total angle it has swung figure for the first five steps, starting with the
through before it stops? original equilateral triangle.
(ii) What happens to the length of the
perimeter as the number of steps
increases?
(iii) Does the area of the figure increase
without limit? Justify your answer.

54
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ know the language and notation of sequences and series:
❍ finite sequence
❍ infinite sequence
❍ series
❍ sigma notation
❍ increasing and decreasing sequences
❍ periodic sequences
❍ convergent and divergent sequences
➤ use arithmetic sequences and be able to find
❍ the nth term
❍ the sum of the first n terms
➤ use geometric series and be able to find
❍ the nth term
❍ the sum of the first n terms
❍ the condition for a geometric series to be convergent
❍ the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series.

KEY POINTS
1 A sequence is an ordered set of numbers, a a, ,a, , , … akan
,, … where a k is
the general term. It may be finite or infinite.
123

2 A series is the sum of the terms

kn
of a sequence:
=

a1 + +a2+ +a=3 … an ∑ ak
k =1
3 In an arithmetic sequence, ak = +akd where d is a fixed number called the
common difference.
+1

4 In a geometric sequence, ak = rak where r is a fixed number called the

common ratio.
+1

5 In a periodic sequence, ak p k for =a

a fixed integer, p, called the period.
+

6 In an oscillating sequence the terms rise above and fall below a middle value.
7 For an arithmetic sequence with first term a, common difference d and n
terms:
■ the kth term, ak = +a −k ( 1) d
■ the last term, =l a+n− ( 1) d
■ the sum of the terms, Sn = 21 n(a) l+ = 21 n[2a n( +1)d −] .
8 For a geometric sequencek with first term a, common ratio r and n terms:
■ the kth term, =ak = ar n −1

■ the last term, an ar −1

■ the sum of the terms, Sn (r1)−

= a(r n − 1) = a(1 r ) n
−
.
) r
(1 −
9 For an infinite geometric series to converge, −1 < r < 1.
In this case, the sum of all the terms is given by S= (1 −)a r .
`

55
 R Review: Algebra 2
1 Equations and inequalities
Quadratic functions and equations
A quadratic equation is any equation which can be
written in the form ax 2bx+ c+0= with a ≠ 0.
TECHNOLOGY
There are a number of ways of solving these: Your calculator may have
an equation solver which
■ Factorising: 3x 2 − + 8 x=
40 can be used to find the
⇒ 3⇒ x( x3x−2 −2)− 2(
6 x −x 2−x=2)
+=04 0 roots of a quadratic
equation. You can use
⇒⇒3x(3x( x− −2)−2)
2( 2( x −
x =−2)=2)0 0 this to check answers.
⇒ 3x( x⇒− (3 x −x =−2)=2)0 0
−2)x2(− 2)( 3 × 4 = 12

x2) 2( 23
⇒ 3x( x⇒− =− x or
− =2) 0x 2= Find two numbers that multiply to give 12
and add to give −8. These are −6 and −2.
The quadratic formula: The roots of the general quadratic
This formula
■

. is derived
−b±b−ac 2
4
equation ax + +bx=c 0
2
x
are given by =
2a using the
b 4ac is referred to method
In the quadratic formula, the expression − 2 of
completing
as the discriminant, since it discriminates between the types the square.
of solutions:
❍ If b 2 − 4 ac > 0 then the square root can be found and
Algebra is generous; she there are two distinct roots.
often gives more than is ❍ If b 2 − 4 ac = 0 then both roots of the equation are equal.
asked from her. ❍ If b − 4 ac < 0 there is no real value of the square root, so there are no
2

Jean le Rond d’Alembert real roots.

(1717–1783) x 2 + −2x=5 0 This method
■ Drawing a graph: The roots of the equation
will only
can be found by drawing the graph of y x= + −2 2x5 and give a very
finding the x coordinates of the points where it crosses the approximate
x-axis. solution.
■ Using your calculator: Some calculators have the facility to solve quadratic
equations. If you have such a calculator, make sure you know how to use it. It
will be helpful for checking your answers. However, the three methods given
above are all important and you must be able to carry them out without a
calculator.

Completing the square

Example R.1 shows how the method of completing the square can be used to find
the line of symmetry of a quadratic curve and the coordinates of its turning point.

56
 Example R.1 Find the coordinates of the turning point and the equation of the line of
symmetry for the curve =y 2 x − −4 x 7 and hence sketch the curve.
2
R
Solution
y = 2 x 2 − 4 x − 7 ⇒ =y 2[x 2 − −2 x] 7
The least value of this
is when the squared =term ⇒ =y 2[x − +2 x−
2
1−1] 7 Add 1 to make
is zero, i.e. when x 1 ⇒ =y 2[(x1)−1]− 7− x − 2x into a
2
and =y − 9.
2
perfect square,
⇒ =y 2(x1)−9− 2 and subtract 1
to compensate.
Notes So there is a minimum turning point at(1,
− 9).
1 When the coefficient
of x is negative,
2 The line of symmetry passes through the turning point, and so it is the line
the procedure is the x 1.=
same, but in this case When x = 0, y = −7, so the graph passes y
there is a maximum
turning point. through (0, −7).
2 This method can
also be used to
sketch the graph of O 1 x
a quadratic function
which does not cross
the x-axis.

TECHNOLOGY –7
(1, –9)
Your calculator may
have an equation solver Figure R.1
which can be used to
solve simultaneous
equations. You can use
this to check answers. Sometimes an equation needs to be re-written to form a quadratic equation
before you can solve it.

Example R.2 Solve the equation 5 2x + 5x − 6 = 0

Solution
This is a quadratic equation in disguise. 52x = (5x)2
Let y = 5 x (5x)2 + 5x − 6 = y 2 + y − 6
So y 2 + y − 6 = 0
⇒ (y + 3)(y − 2) = 0
y = −3 ⇒ 5x = −3
⇒ y = −3 or y = 2 which has no solutions.
y = 2 ⇒ 5x = 2 5x is always positive.
So log 5x = log 2
x log 5 = log 2
x = log 2 = 0.431 (3 s.f.)
log 5

57
 Equations and inequalities
Simultaneous equations
The elimination method is suitable for solving two linear simultaneous equations.
Example R.3
(i) Solve the simultaneous equations 3x2y−17=
7 x3 y−28=
(ii) Check your answer.

Solution
You might prefer to write (i) 9 x − 6 y = 51 Multiply the first equation by 3 and
the equations in the the second by 2 to give equations
opposite order before 14 x − 6 y = 56 with the same coefficient of y.
subtracting. −5 x =− 5
x =1 Subtract.
Substituting =x 1 into either of the original equations gives = −y 7.
The solution is x = 1, y = −7.
(ii) Substitute x = 1, y = −7 into 7x − 3y = 28.
Substitute your answers LHS = (7 × 1) − (3 × −7) = 7 − (−21)
into the other one of the = 28
original equations you
were given as a check = RHS as required
that your values are
correct. The substitution method is used to solve simultaneous equations for which
one is linear and the other is quadratic, although it may be used to solve two
linear simultaneous equations.
To find the point(s) of intersection of two curves or lines you need to solve their
equations simultaneously, using one of these two methods.

Example R.4 Find the points of intersection of the line −x =y 1 and the curve
x 2 + 2y 2 = 17.
Solution Replace x
Make x the subject of the first equation: x y=1+ with y + 1.
Substitute into the second equation: ( y1)+2+17
2=
y2
Expand and simplify: y 2 + +2y+1 =2 17 y 2
⇒ 3y 2⇒+ −32y=16 0 2 y16 0
2 + − =

⇒ 3y 2 − + 6 y8−y16
= 0
⇒ 3y( y2)−8(+ 2) − =0 y
⇒ (3 y⇒ 2)y8)(
+ (3
8)( 0y+ −2)=0y − =
⇒ =y − or =
8 y2
3
Substituting each value in turn into the original linear equation gives the
(
points of intersection as (3, 2) and − 53−,. 83 )

58
 Inequalities
The rules for solving inequalities are similar to those for solving equations, but if
you multiply both sides of an inequality by a negative number, then you need to
R
change the direction of the inequality.
When dealing with quadratic inequalities, the easiest method is to sketch the
associated graph.

Example R.5 Solve x 2 + 6x + 2 > x + .8

Solution
x 2 + 6x + 2 > x + 8 Collect terms on one side.
⇒⇒x x2 2++5x5x−−>
6>
60 0 Factorise.
⇒ +( x 6)( x − 1) > 0
y
This curve cuts the
Sketch the graph of x-axis when x = –6
y = ( x + 6)( x − 1) and when x = +1.
–6 O1 x

Note You need the region

This may also be Figure R.2 where y у 0.
expressed as
{x:x < −6} ∪ {x:x >1}. The solution is x < −6 or x 1> .

Notice that the points where x = −1 and x = 6 are marked with a solid circle
in Figure R.2, to show that these values are included in the solution set. If you
were asked to solve x 2 + 6 x + >2 + x 8 then the values −6 and +1 would not be
included in the solution set and you would show those points using an open circle.
Inequalities may also be used to define regions, as in Example
Example R.6 R.6.
Sketch the curve =y x 2 + −5x6 and indicate by shading the region where
y > x 5x 6.
2 + −

Solution
y x= 2 + 5x − =6 ( x + 6)( x1)−
y

The curve cuts the x-axis at x = –6 and

x = 1, and cuts the y-axis at y = –6.
–6 1 x For all the points on the graph
itself, the y coordinate is equal
–6
to the value of x² + 5x – 6.
For all the points in the shaded region,
the y coordinate is greater than the
value of x² + 5x – 6.
Figure R.3
59
 Equations and inequalities
The region where y x > 5x6
2 + −
includes the shaded region and the
curve itself, so the curve is drawn with a solid line in Figure R.3. If the
inequality had been > and not ˘ then the curve would have been drawn
with a broken line.

Review exercise R.1

① Solve the following equations by factorising. ⑥ Solve the following pairs of simultaneous
(i) x 2 − 8x + 12 0= equations using the substitution method.
(ii) a 2 + 11a + 30 0= (i) x y= 2
(iii) 16 − x 2 = 0 x 2y2−xy+ = 20
(iv) 2 p 2 + 5 p + =2 0 (ii) x y+ = 5
(v) 4c 2 + −3c= 7 0 x 2y2+ = 17
(vi) 3x 2 = 14 x − 8 (iii) 2x y− + = 3 0
② Solve the following equations by using the y 2 − 5x 2 = 20
quadratic formula, giving your answers correct
to 2 d.p. ⑦ Express the following inequalities using set
notation and illustrate them on number lines.
(i) x 2 + −x =8 0 (i) −2< < x 4
(ii) 2x 2 − 8x + =5 0 (ii) −1 > > x −7
(iii) x 2 + =x 10 (iii) x > or
0 x < −4
③ Write in the form a(x + b) 2
+ c.
⑧ In each case draw a sketch of the associated
(i) 3x2 − 12x + 7 curve and identify the interval(s) on the x-axis
(ii) 2x 2 + 6x + 5 where the inequality is true. Illustrate the
(iii) 5 + 8x − x 2
interval(s) on number lines.
④ Find the equation of the line of symmetry (i) x 2 − −2x>8 0
and the coordinates of the turning point for (ii) 2 + −x x 2 > 0
the following curves and sketch their graphs,
including the line of symmetry.
(iii) 6x 2 − +13<x6 0
(i) y x= 2 + 4 x − 8 ⑨ (i) Sketch the curve y= x+ x−2
2
1 and
the line =y x+ 2 9 on the same axes
(ii) y = 2x 2 + 8x − 3 and find their points of intersection.
(iii) y = +4 2 x x− 2 (ii) On your graph, shade the region for
⑤ Solve the following pairs of simultaneous y x x2 2 + − 1 and <y x+ 2 9.
which >
equations using the elimination method. ⑩ Solve the following equations.
(i) 3x − 2y = 6 (i) x4 − 5x 2 + 4 = 0
5x + 6 y = 38 (ii) 4x 4 − 13x 2 + 3 = 0
(ii) 3x + 2 y = 12 (iii) 2x − 13 x + 15 = 0
4 x y+ = 11 ⑪ Solve the following equations.
(iii) 4 x − 3y = 2 (i) 32x − 4 × 3x + 3 = 0
5x − 7 y = 9 (ii) 3 × 2 2x + 5 × 2 x − 2 = 0
(iii) 6 × 7 2x + 7 × 7 x − 3 = 0

60
 2 Polynomials R
Adding and subtracting polynomials
(3 x 3 + 2 x 2 − +
x + 4) ( x 3 + −5x6)
= 3 x 3x3+x+x−x +2+ −2 546
Collect like terms. = 4x 3 + +2 x−
42x2
(3 x 3 + 2 x 2 − +x − 4) ( x3 5x=
+− 6) 3 x 3x3−x+x −x −2+ +2 546
= 2 x 3 + −2 x+
62x10

Multiply each Multiplying polynomials

term in the first ( x + 2)( x 2 + 3x − =
4) xx( 2 + −3x+4) 2( 3 4) x 2x+ −
polynomial by each
term in the second. = +x 3 3x 2 − + 4 x2+x6−x8 2
= +x 3 5x 2 + − 2 x8

Dividing polynomials
You can divide one polynomial by another to give a lower order polynomial.

Example R.7 Divide (2 x 3 − 5x 2 − 7 x + 12) by (−x3).

Solution
x × 2x2 = 2x3
Method 1: By inspection
2 x 3 − 5x 2 − 7 x + 12 (= −x 3)(2 x 2ax+ − 4) −3 × −4 = 12
= −( x 3)(2 x 2x + − 4)
(2 x 3 − 5x 2 − 7 x + 12) (÷ −x= 3) 2 x 2x + − 4 Work out the
coefficient of the
Method 2: Long division middle term by
thinking about the
2 x222xx+ 22 −
x++−x−x 4 44 terms in x .
2

x ) ))
−xx3−−233x232x−x3 35−−x525x−x2 27−−x77+xx12
++12
2 x232x−x3 36−−x626xx2 2
x 2 x−x2 27−−x77xx
x 2 x−x2 23−−x33xx
− 4+−x−4+4+xx1212
12
−4+−x−4+4x+x1212
12
0 00 There is no remainder.
(2 x 3 − 5x 2 − 7 x + 12) (÷ −x= 3) 2 x 2x + − 4

The factor theorem

The factor theorem is given by:
f (a) 0= ⇔ ( x a− ) is a factor of xf ( ).
The factor theorem is useful in solving polynomial equations.

61
 Polynomials
Example R.8 (i) Show that x = − 1is a root of the equation x x 3x − +4 +2 = 60
and hence solve the equation.
(ii) Sketch the graph of y x = − 4x x+ + . 6
3 2

Solution
(i) f (x) = x3 − 4 x 2 + +x 6
f (−1)= (−1)− 4(
− +1)
3 − +
( 1) 6 2

= − 1− 4− 1+ 6
=0

So x = − 1is a root of x f ( ) 0= , and hence (x + 1) is a factor of x f ( ).

x3
− 4 x 2 + +x = 6 0 The factorising is done
by inspection here,
⇒ ( x + 1)(x 2 − +5x=6) 0
but it could be done by
⇒ ( x + 1)(x − 2)( x − =3) 0 long division instead.
= x=2,x. 3
The roots of the equation are x = − 1,
(ii) The graph crosses the x-axis at x = − 1,
== x2,. 3 x
The graph crosses the y-axis at y 6= .
y

–1 O 2 3 x

Figure R.4
Review exercise R.2
① (i) Add x (3 2 − 2 x + 4) to x( 3
+ −x . 3) ③ Sketch the following polynomial curves.
(ii) Add x (5 4 + 2 x 2 − −x to 1) (i) y x= −( 1)( 2)( x3)+ − x
( x 3 + 2 x 2 − −x . 3) (ii) y x= x 2 ( 3)−
(iii) Subtract x (2 2 − 3x + from
4) (iii) y x= x−x(2 )( 3) +
(x 3 +
3x − .2)
2
④ (i) Show that x = − 2is a root of the
equation x2 x73 x4+4+0−2 = and
(iv) Subtract x (3 − 7 x + from
3
2)
hence solve the equation.
(6 x 3 +
7x 2 −
10 x + .3)
② (i) Multiply x (2 2 − 3x + by 4) x ( + .3)
(ii) Sketch the graph of
y x= 2 3
+ +7 x−42x.4
(ii) Multiply x ( 2 + 2x + by 1) x ( 2 − 2 x + .1)
(iii) Divide x ( 3 + 2x 2 − −x by 2)x ( − .1)
(iv) x
Divide (2
3
4) x (2 + .1)
− 5x 2 − 11x − by

62
⑤ Find the equation of the curve shown in
Figure R.5. Give your answer in the form
y ax
= 3 + bx 2 + +cx. d
y
⑥ Solve the following cubic equations.
(i) 4 x 3 − 8x 2x + + = 3 0
(ii) 3x 3 − 2x 2 − −19=x6 0
R
⑦ Leanne is dividing x4 − 16 by x + 2.
She draws this table.
x3
x x4
–4 –1 O 3 x
+2 −16

Copy and complete the table and hence write

–24 down the result of dividing x 4 − 16 by x + 2.

Figure R.5

KEY POINTS
1 For the quadratic equation ax bx+c+0= , the discriminant is given
2

b − 4ac .
2 by
If the discriminant is positive, the equation has two real roots.
If the discriminant is a perfect square, these roots are rational and the
■

equation can be factorised.

■If the discriminant is zero, the equation has a repeated real root.
If the discriminant is negative, the equation has no real roots.
2 Quadratic equations can be solved by
■

■factorising, in cases where the discriminant is a perfect square

using the quadratic formula x = −b±b 2a − 4ac .
2
■

3 The vertex and the line of symmetry of a quadratic graph can be found by
completing the square.
4 Simultaneous equations may be solved by
■substitution
■elimination
■drawing graphs.
5 Linear inequalities are dealt with like equations but if you multiply or divide by
a negative number, you must reverse the inequality sign: < reverses to > and
< to >.
6 When solving a quadratic inequality, it is helpful to start by sketching a graph.
7 The order of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x which appears in the
polynomial.
8 The factor theorem states that if x( a − is)a factor of a polynomial x f ( ) then
f (a) 0= and a is a root of the equation x f ( ) 0= .

63
 4 Functions

Still glides the stream Sometimes auto-tuning is used to improve a vocal track by correcting notes
and shall forever glide; which are off-key.
The form remains, the The pitch of a musical note depends on the frequency of the sound wave.
function never dies.
William Wordsworth ➜ How would the sound wave need to be transformed to change the pitch of
(1770–1850) a note?
Review: Graphs and transformations
Graphs of polynomial functions
The order of any polynomial function is the highest power of the variable, so
f (x) 3= x 2 − is4 of order 2 and x f ( ) 5= − x x
3
is of order 3, etc.
The graph of a polynomial function of order n can have up to n − 1 turning
points, although often not all of these materialise. The general shape of a
polynomial curve is as in Figure 4.1.

64
 TECHNOLOGY
4
n even n odd

Graphing software or a
graphical calculator is coefficient of

useful for exploring the

xn positive

shapes of curves and

for checking sketches.
However, you should be coefficient of
familiar with the different xn negative
types of curves covered
in this review section, so
that you can recognise
and sketch them without Figure 4.1
using technology.
If a polynomial function xf ( ) can be factorised, then each factor will give a root
of the associated polynomial equation xf ( ) 0= . If there is a repeated factor then
this will correspond to a repeated root.

Example 4.1 (i) (a) Solve x( x − 2)( x + =4). 0

Remember that in a sketch, the
(b) Sketch y x= x ( − 2)( x + .4) graph does not need to be drawn
to scale, but it should show the
(ii) (a) Solve (x + 1)2 (5 − =x ). 0 main features, such as the points
where the curve crosses the
(b) Sketch y = ( x + 1) (5 )− .x
2
coordinate axes.

Solution
(i) (a) x x( − 2)( x + =4)⇒
0= x 0, 2 or −4.
(b) y

y = x(x − 2)(x + 4) Cubic with +ve x term.

Crosses x-axis at –4, 0
3

and 2.
–4 O 2 x

Figure 4.2
(ii) (a) x( + 1)2 (5 − =x )⇒ x 1 or x 5
0 = − (repeated) =.
(b) y
Cubic with –ve x3 term.
Crosses x-axis at
y = (x + 1) 2(5 − x) 5 and touches at –1.
Crosses y-axis at 5
5 (when x = 0).
-1 O 5 x

Figure 4.3

65
 Review: Graphs and transformations
Graphs of reciprocal functions
Reciprocal functions have the form xf ( ) =
a , f (x ) = a , etc.
x x2
For both these functions, the Asymptotes are usually shown
lines x = 0 and y = 0 are on a sketch using a dotted line
Discussion point asymptotes for the curve.
The curve approaches an
but in this case the asymptotes
are already there as the
➜ Figure 4.4 shows asymptote ever more closely, coordinate axes.
curves of the form but never actually reaches it.
y x= 1n for y y

the cases n = 1 and

n = 2. Describe the
shapes of the curves 1
y= x
for other positive
integer values of n. O x
1
y = x2

O x

Figure 4.4

Proportional relationships and their graphs

Two variables x and y are said to be (directly) proportional if y kx= where k
In both cases k is k
the constant of is a constant. They are inversely proportional if y = .
x
proportionality. The relationship y kx
= n can be described by saying that y is proportional to xn .
In the same way, the statement ‘y is inversely proportional to x n ’ is represented
k
by the equation y = n .
x
Exponential and logarithmic functions
An exponential function is a function of the form y a= , where
x a 0 > , which
has the variable as the power. (An alternative name for ‘power’ is ‘exponent’.)
All exponential functions a( ≠ have
0) graphs that have a similar shape.
■ They all cross the y-axis at the point (0,1).
■ They all have the x-axis as an asymptote.
y y=ex
y = 3x y = 2x
y = 1.5x

Notice that the function

y = 0.5x, i.e. y = 12 ,
x
y = 1x = 1
can also be written as
y = 0.5x
y = 2–x .
O x

Figure 4.5

66
 4
x
Although there are many exponential functions, the function y e= , where
e is an irrational number approximately equal to 2.718, is referred to as the
exponential function; the curve y e= hasx the special property that for any

value of x the value of y is the same as the gradient of the curve.

A relationship of the form y e= , where
kx k 0 > , is described as exponential
growth. If k 0< the relationship is described as exponential decay.
Just as exponential graphs for a positive index are all very similar, so are the
graphs of the logarithm function for different bases.
y
y = log 1.5 x
4
3 y = log 2 x
y = log e x
2
y = log 3 x
1

O 12345678 x
–1
–2 y = log 0.5 x

Figure 4.6
The logarithm function is the inverse of the exponential function.

Notation
In general the= inverse of y = isa x y
written as y log a xbut there are two y=ex
special cases:
The inverse of y = isexy = log x
y=x
■ e
which is more often written as
y ln x .
= y = ln x

■ The= inverse of y = 10x is

y log x which is often written
10
just as y = log x . O
x

Figure 4.7

67
 Review: Graphs and transformations
Transformations of graphs
A transformation is a relationship that is used in curve sketching. You can use
stretches, translations and reflections to transform the graph of any function.
Table 4.1
TECHNOLOGY Function Transformation
Use graphing software f (x) → f( x t− +) s ⎛t ⎞
to explore these Translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝s⎠
transformations.
f (x) → af(x ) One-way stretch, parallel to y-axis, scale factor a
1
f (x) → f( ax
) One-way stretch, parallel to x-axis, scale factor a

f (x) → − f( x) Reflection in x-axis

f (x) → −f( ) x Reflection in y-axis

Example 4.2 Starting with the curve y = cos x, show how transformations can be used to
sketch the curves
(i) y = cos 3x (ii) y = (x (iii) y = cos (x −) π3 . x2
(iv) y = −cos
cos 2 )
Solution
(i) The curve with equation y = cos 3x is obtained from the curve with
equation y = cos x by a stretch of scale factor 13 parallel to the x-axis.
y = cos 3x has a period
y
of instead
2�
3 of 2�.
1 y = cos x y = cos 3x

0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x
2 2

–1

Figure 4.8
(ii) The curve of y = (x is obtained from that of y = cos x by a
cos 2 )
stretch of scale factor 2 in the x direction.

y = cos x2 has a period

y of 4� instead of 2�. x
y = cos —
2
1

0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ 5ϖ 3ϖ 7ϖ 4ϖ x
— — 2 2
2 2
–1 y = cos x

Figure 4.9

68
 (iii) The curve of y = cos
⎛ ⎞
⎜π⎟
(x −) π3 is obtained from that of y = cos x
4
by a translation of ⎜ 3 ⎟ .
⎝0⎠
y ϖ
y = cos x− 3
—
1 y = cos x

0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ 5ϖ 3ϖ 7ϖ 4ϖ x
— —
2 2 2 2

–1

Figure 4.10
(iv) The curve of y = cos x − is2 obtained from that of = cos x by a
⎛ 0⎞
y
translation of −⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 2⎠
y
1 y = cos x

0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ 5ϖ 3ϖ 7ϖ 4ϖ x
— — 2 2
2 2

–1
y = cos x–2

–2

–3

Figure 4.11

Review exercise
① Sketch the following curves. ③ Sketch, using the same scale on both axes, the
following sets of curves.
(i) y = ( x + 1)(2x − 1)(x − 3)
(ii) y = (2 − x )(2 + x )(3 + x ) (i) y x= y , e = x
and y x= ln

(iii) y = ( x + 1)2 ( x − 3)2 (ii) y = 1x, y2 = x

and y 3=
x

② Sketch the following pairs of curves on the ④ Sketch, on the same axes, the following sets of
same axes, taking care to clearly label each curves.
graph of the pair.
(i) y x= y x2 , = + 2and 3y x = +( 3) 2

1 yx
(i) y x= and = 3 (ii) y = sin x , y = sin x2 − and
(ii) y x= 12 and y x= 14
y = sin (x −) π2

69
 Review: Graphs and transformations
⑤ Each part of Figure 4.12 shows the curve ⑥ A new moisturiser is being marketed in
y = ( x − 2)2( x + (in
1) red) and one jars which have different sizes: 30 ml, 50 ml and
cubical
other curve which has been obtained from 100 ml. The price £C is directly
y = ( x − 2)2( x + by
1) one of the following to the height of the jar and the price of the
proportional
transformations: translation, stretch or 50 ml jar is £36.
reflection. In each case write down the (i) Find the height of the 30ml jar.
equation of the blue curve and state the
relationship between the two curves.
(ii) Find the price of the 30ml jar.
(iii) Find the price of the 100ml jar.
(i) y
(iv) Sketch a graph to show the relationship
between price and volume.
⑦ The cost £C of my electricity bill varies
inversely with the average temperature Cθ°
over the period of the bill. One winter, when
–3 O x the average temperature was 8 °C, my bill was
£365 for the 3-month period.
(i) How much would I expect to pay in the
(ii) y
summer, when the average temperature is
12 20°C?
(ii) Sketch a graph to show the relationship
between temperature and electricity cost.

O x (iii) How realistic is this model?

⑧ A curve has the equation fx( ) 1=ln+ x.

(i) Sketch the curve.
(iii) y (ii) Find the exact coordinates of the point
where the curve crosses the x-axis.

2
(iii) Verify that the curve meets the line y x=
at the point (1, 1).

x
⑨ (i) On a single set of axes, sketch the curves
O
y e=1− xand y 2e = − x, indicating any
asymptotes.
(ii)Find the exact coordinates of the point of
(iv) y
intersection of these two curves.
⑩ Starting with the curve y = sin x , show how
transformations can be used to sketch the
following curves.

O x (i) y = sin 2x
(ii) y = sin (x +) π2
–4

Figure 4.12

70
 1 The language of functions 4
A mapping is any rule which associates
two sets of items, which are referred to mapping
object image
as the object and image or the input (input) (output)
and output.
For a mapping to make sense or to have Figure 4.13
any practical application, the inputs and
outputs must each form a natural collection or set.
The set of possible inputs is called the domain of the mapping and the set of
possible outputs is called the range of the mapping.

Mappings
In mathematics, many (but not all) mappings can be expressed using algebra. A
mapping can be one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one or many-to-many.
Here are some examples of mathematical mappings.
(a) Domain: integers Range: integers
One-to-one Objects
−1
Images
3
0 5
1 7
2 9
3 11
General rule: x 2x + 5

(b) Domain: integers Range: real numbers

Objects Images
One-to-many 1.9
2 2.1
2.33
2.52
3 2.99
π
General rule: Rounded whole numbers Unrounded numbers
(c) Domain: real numbers Range: real numbers
y: −1 ¯ y ¯ 1
Many-to-one Objects Images
0
45 0
90 0.707
135 1
180
General rule: x° sin x°

71
 The language of functions
(d) Domain: quadratic Range: real numbers
equations with real roots
Many-to-many Objects Images
x2 − 4x + 3 = 0 0
x2 − x = 0 1
x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 2
3
x = − −b−b ac
2
4
General rule: ax 2
+ bx + c = 0 2a
= − +b−b ac
2
4
x 2a

Functions
Mappings which are one-to-one or many-to-one are of particular importance,
since in these cases there is only one possible image for any object. Mappings
of these types are called functions. For example, x → x² and x → cos x are
both functions, because in each case for any value of x there is only one possible
output.
The mapping of rounded whole numbers on to unrounded numbers is not a
function since, for example, the rounded number 5 could map to any unrounded
number between 4.5 and 5.5.

Notation
There are several different but equivalent ways of writing a function. For example,
the function which maps x on to xcan be written in any of the following ways:
2

■ f(x) = x 2
■ f: x → x 2 Read this as ‘f maps x on to x ’.
2

It can also be written as y = x but this is not using function notation.

2

A function y = f (x) may be defined for all values of x or only for a restricted
set of values.
Strictly, when a function is written it should always be accompanied by its
domain. When you write this, it is often helpful to use one of the following
symbols to denote different types of numbers:
■ » + is the set of counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, … .
■ » is the set of natural numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, … .
■ » is the set of integers: … −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … .
■ » is the set of rational numbers, i.e. fractions such as − 43 and 23
5
, together
with everything in ».
■ » is the set of real numbers, i.e. irrational numbers such as π and 2 ,
together with everything in ».
If a function is written without its domain, the domain is usually taken to be the
real numbers.
It is often helpful to represent a function graphically, as in the following example,
which illustrates the importance of knowing the domain.

72
Example 4.3 Sketch the graph of
by
(i) x »∈
y = 3x + 2 when the domain of x is given
This means ‘x is in the set of real numbers’. 4
x »∈ This means ‘x is in the set of positive real numbers’.
+
(ii)
(iii) x ».∈

Solution y

(i) When ∈ x », all values of y are possible. The

range is therefore », also.

y = 3x + 2, x ∈

O x

Figure 4.14
When x ∈ » , so that x is restricted
+
(ii) y
to positive values, all the values of y
are greater than 2, so the range is
y > 2. y = 3x + 2, x ∈ +

The open circle

shows that (0, 2) is
not part of the line.
O x

Figure 4.15
y
(iii) When x∈», the range is the set of
{2, 5, 8,points
…}.These are all of the form
3x + 2 where x is a natural number
y = 3x + 2, x ∈
(0, 1, 2, …).This set can be written
x »}.
neatly as {3x + 2 : ∈

O x

Figure 4.16

73
 The language of functions
When you draw the graph of a mapping
■ thex coordinate of each point is an input value
■ they coordinate is the corresponding output value.
Table 4.2 shows this for the mapping x → x², or y = x², and Figure 4.17 shows
the resulting points on a graph.

Table 4.2 y
Input (x) Output (y) Point plotted
–2 4 (–2, 4) 4
3
–1 1 (–1, 1)
2
0 0 (0, 0)
1
1 1 (1, 1)
2 4 (2, 4) –1 –200 1 2 x

Figure 4.17
If the mapping is a function, there is a unique value of y for every value of x
in the domain. Consequently the graph of a function is a simple curve or line
going from left to right, with no doubling back.
Figure 4.18 illustrates some different types of mapping.

(a) One-to-one (b) Many-to-one

These two mappings
are functions. y y y = x3 – x

y = 2x + 1

–1
O 1 x
O x

These two mappings

are not functions as
in each case there are (c) One-to-many (d) Many-to-many
two possible values y y

of y corresponding 5 y = ±√
25 – x2
to some or all values y = ±2x
of x. 1

O x –5 O 5 x

–1

–5

Figure 4.18

74
 Using transformations to sketch the curves of
functions
In the review section you used translations and one-way stretches to relate the
4
equation of a function to that of a standard function of the same form. This then
allowed you to sketch the curve of your function.
It is possible to combine translations and stretches, but you must be careful over
the order in which these are applied, as you will see in Activity
4.1.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Copy the triangle in Figure 4.19 and, for each of parts (i) to y3
(v), perform the transformations in both of the orders given.
In each case comment on whether the end results are the
same or different.
(i) (a) Translate the triangle by⎛⎜⎜⎝3⎞⎟⎟⎠ and then stretch the O 2 x
0 Figure 4.19
image with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis.
(b) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and
then translate the image by ⎜⎜⎝3⎟⎟⎠ .
⎛ ⎞

(ii) (a) Translate the triangle by and then stretch the image with a
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ 3⎟⎟
⎝0 ⎠
scale factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis.
(b) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis and
then translate the image by ⎜⎜⎝0⎟⎟⎠ .
⎛ 3⎞

(iii) (a) Translate the triangle by ⎛⎜⎜⎝03⎞⎟⎟⎠ and then stretch the image with a
scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis.
(b) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and
Activity 4.1
then translate the image by ⎜⎜⎝0⎟⎟⎠ .⎛ ⎞

3
should have
emphasised to (iv) (a) Translate the triangle by ⎛⎜⎜0⎞⎟⎟ and then stretch the image with a
you the importance ⎝ 3⎠
of performing the scale factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis.
transformations in the (b) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis and
correct order. It is a
then translate the image by ⎜⎜⎝3⎟⎟⎠ .
⎛0 ⎞
good idea to check
your results using a
(v) (a) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis and
graphical calculator then stretch the image with a scale factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis.
or graphing software (b) Stretch the triangle with a scale factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis and
whenever possible. then stretch the image with a scale factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis.

75
 The language of functions
Example 4.4 Starting with the curve y = cos x, show how transformations can be used to
sketch the following curves.

(i) y = 2cos 3x (ii) y = cos 2 x −()

π
3

Solution
(i)
y The curve with equation
1 y = cos 3x y = cos x y = cos 3x is obtained
from the curve with
equation y = cos x by 1
a stretch of scale factor 3
0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x parallel to the x-axis.
2 2 There will therefore be
one complete oscillation
–1
of the curve in 23�
(instead of 2�).
y
y = 2cos 3x
2

The curve of y = 2cos 3x

1 is obtained from that of
y = cos 3x by a stretch of
scale factor 2 parallel to
the y-axis. The curve
0 ϖ
2
ϖ 3ϖ
2
2ϖ x
therefore oscillates
y = cos 3x
between y = 2 and
–1 y = –2 (instead of
between y = 1 and y = –1).
–2

Figure 4.20
(ii)

y ϖ
1
y = cos x –
3 The curve with equation
y = cos x y = cos x – —3�
is obtained from the curve
0 ϖ
— ϖ 3ϖ
— 2ϖ x with equation y = cos�x
by a transation of —3 .
2 2

–1 0

ϖ
y
y = cos x–
3 y = cos 2x–
ϖ
3
The curve of
1 y = cos 2x – —3�
is obtained from that of
0 ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x
y = cos x – —�
3
—
2
—
2 by a stretch of scale factor 1

–1
parallel to the x-axis. 2

Figure 4.21

76
 Example 4.5 (i)
(ii)
Write the equation =y + −1 4 xx 2 in the form =y +a +x p[( q) ]
Show how the graph of =y + −1 4 x x 2 can be obtained from
the graph of y = x 2 by a succession of transformations, and list the
2
.
4
transformations in the order in which they are applied.
(iii) Sketch the graph.

Solution
(i) If 1+ 4 x x− 2 ≡ a[(x p+ )2 + q ]
then − x+2 4 x + ≡1 ax 2 + 2apx a+p (q 2 + ) .
Comparing coefficients of x 2: a = −1.
Comparing coefficients of x: 2ap = 4, giving p = −2.
Comparing constant terms : a(p2 + q) = 1, giving q = −5.
The equation is y = −[(x − 2) 2 − 5].
(ii) The curve y = x 2 becomes y
the curve y = (x − 2) 2 − 5 by
y = x2
applying the translation
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2⎟ as shown in Figure 4.22.
⎜− ⎟
⎝ 5⎠ y = (x-2) 2-5

O x

(2,-5)

Discussion point Figure 4.22

➜ In Example 4.5,
you could write The curve y = (x − 2) 2 − 5 y
(2,5)
the=equation becomes the curve y = (x-2) 2-5
y +1 4 x x− 2
y = −[(x − 2) 2 − 5] by
in the form applying a reflection in
y 5 −(2
= − x) .
2
the x-axis (see Figure 4.23).
Describe a
different set of O
transformations, x

suggested by this
form, which would y =-[(x-2) 2-5]
map= +=y x to−
2
(2,-5) = 1 + 4x-x2
y 14 xx . 2

Figure 4.23
(iii) The blue curve in Figure 4.23 shows the graph.

77
 The language of functions
Exercise 4.1
① Describe each of the mappings in Figure 4.24 ④ (i) A function is defined by f(x) = 2x − 5. Write
as either one-to-one, many-to-one, one-to- down the values of
many or many-to-many, and say whether it (a) f(0) (b) f(7) (c) f(−3).
represents a function.
(ii) A function is defined by
(i) (ii) g:(polygons) → (number of sides).
What are the following:
(a) g(triangle) (b) g(pentagon)
(c) g(decagon)
(iii) (iv) (iii) The function t maps Celsius temperatures
on to Fahrenheit temperatures. It is
9C
defined by t: C → 5 + 32. Find

(v) (vi) (a) t(0) (b) t(28) (c) t(−10)

(d)
the value of C when t(C) = C.
⑤ Find the range of each of the following
functions.
(You may find it helpful to draw the graph
Figure 4.24 first.)
② For each of the following mappings: (i) f(x) = 2 − 3x x > 0
(a) write down a few examples of inputs (ii) y = x² + 2 x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
and corresponding outputs (iii) f : x → x³ − 4 x »∈
(b) state the type of mapping (iv) y = tan θ 0° < θ < 90°
(one-to-one,many-to-one,etc.).
(v) y = cos x − π< < x π
(i) Words → number of letters they 4 4
contain ⑥ Find the range of each of the following
(ii) Side of a square in cm → its perimeter functions.
in cm (You may find it helpful to draw the graph
(iii) Natural numbers → the number of first.)
factors (including 1 and the number (i) f : x → 2x x ∈ {−1, 0, 1, 2}
itself ) 1 x »∈
(ii) f(x) = + x 2
1
(iv) x → 2x − 5
(v) x → x (iii) f(x) = x 3− 3+ x > 3
③ For each of the following mappings:
⑦ The mapping f is defined by
(a) state the type of mapping (one-to- ⎧⎪ 2 x
0 << 3
one, many-to-one, etc.)
f (x) = ⎨ x
(b) suggest suitable domains and ranges. ⎩⎪ 3x x
3 << 10.
(i) The volume of a sphere in cm³ → its The mapping g is defined by
radius in cm ⎧⎪ 2 x
0 << 2
g( x) = ⎨ x
(ii) The volume of a cylinder in cm³ → its ⎩⎪ 3x x
2 << 10.
height in cm
Explain why f is a function and g is not.
(iii) The length of a side of a regular hexagon
in cm → its area in cm²
(iv) x → x²

78
⑧ Starting with the graph of y = x2, state the
transformations which can be used to sketch
each of the following curves. Specify the
transformations in the order in which they are
(i) y = f(x − 2)
(iii) y = 21 f(x)
(ii) y = 2f(x − 2)
(iv) y = f (2 )
x

⑪ The circle with equation x 2 + y2 = 1 is stretched

4
used and, where there is more than one stage with scale factor 3 parallel to the x-axis and with
in the sketching of the curve, state each stage. scale factor 2 parallel to the y-axis.
In each case state the equation of the line of Sketch both curves on the same graph, and
symmetry. write down the equation of the new curve. (It
is an ellipse.)
(i) y = (x − 2)2 (ii) y = 3(x − 2) 2
⑫ Figure 4.27 shows the graph of y = f(x).
(iii) y = 3x2 − 6x − 2 y
⑨ Figure 4.25 shows a sketch of the graph of (1, 1)
y = f(x), where f(x) = x 2 + 4x. 1

y y = f(x)

y = f(x)
0 x
1 2

–4 O x Figure 4.27
Sketch the graph of each of these functions.

(i) y = f(2x) (ii) y = f(x − 1)

(–2, –4)
(iii) y = 2f(x − 1) (iv) y = 3f(x)
Figure 4.25 (v) y = f(3x) (vi) y = f(3x − 1)
Draw separate sketches of the following ⑬ Starting with the curve y = cos x, state how
functions. transformations can be used to sketch these
In each case describe the transformations from curves.
y = f(x). (i) y = 3 cos x (ii) y = cos 3x − 1
(i) y = f(x) − 2 (ii) y = f(x − 2) (iii) y = cos(3x + 30°)
⑭ For each of the following curves:
(iii) y = 2f(x) + 3 (iv) y = f(2x) + 3 (a) sketch the curve
(v) y = 3f(x − 2) (b) identify the curve as being the same
⑩ Figure 4.26 shows a sketch of the graph of as one of the following:
y = f(x), where f(x) = 6x − x 2. y = ±sin x, y = ±cos x or
y y = ±tan x.
(3, 9)
(i) y = cos(−x) (ii) y = tan(−x)
y = f(x) (iii) y = sin(π − x) (iv) y = tan(π − x)
(v) y = sin(−x)
O 6 x
⑮ (i) Write the expression x 2 − 6x + 14 in

the form (x − a) 2 + b where a and b are

numbers which you are to find.
Figure 4.26 (ii) Sketch 2the curves y = x and 2

Use this graph to sketch the following curves y = x − 6x + 14 and state the
on separate diagrams. transformation which maps y = x 2 on to
In each case indicate clearly where the graph y = x 2 − 6x + 14.
crosses the x-axis and the coordinates of its
highest point.
(iii) The curve y = x − 6x + 14 is reflected in
2

the x-axis. Write down the equation of

the image.

79
 Composite functions
⑯ Starting with the graph of y = x , state the ⑱ In Figure 4.29, y = f(x) is the curve
2

transformations which can be used to sketch y = ln(2x + 1) and y = g(x) is its reflection in
y = 2x − 1 − x 2. the line x = 2.
Specify the transformations in the order in y
which they are used. x=2
State the equation of the line of symmetry.
⑰ In Figure 4.28, y = f(x) is a translation of the O 2 x
curve y = x 2(x − 2) and curve
y = g(x) is the reflection of y = f(x) in the y = f(x) y = g(x)
x-axis.
Write down the equations of the two curves.
y
Figure 4.29
Write down the equation of y = g(x).
y = g(x)

O x

(1, –4)

y = f(x)

Figure 4.28

2 Composite functions
It is possible to combine functions in several different ways, and you have already
met some of these. For example, if f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x, then you could write
f(x) + g(x) = x 2 + 2x. Here, two functions are added.
Similarly if f(x) = x and g(x) = sin x, then
f(x).g(x) = x sin x. Here, two functions are multiplied.
Sometimes you need to apply one function and then apply another, so that the
output of the first function is the input for the second one.
You are then creating a composite function or a function of a function.

Example 4.6 New parents are bathing their baby for the first time. They take the
temperature of the bath water with a thermometer which reads in Celsius,
but then have to convert the temperature to degrees Fahrenheit to apply the
rule for correct bath water temperature taught to them by their own parents.
At one o five
He’ll cook alive
But ninety four
Is rather raw.
Write down the two functions that are involved, and apply them to readings of
(i) 30°C (ii) 38°C (iii) 45°C.

80
 Solution
The first function converts the Celsius temperature
temperature, F.
C into a Fahrenheit 4
F = 9C + 32
5
The second function maps Fahrenheit temperatures on to the state of the
bath.
F < 94 too cold
94 < F < 105 all right
F > 105 too hot
This gives
(i) 30°C → 86°F → too cold
(ii) 38°C → 100.4°F → all right
(iii) 45°C → 113°C → too hot.
In this case the composite function would be (to the nearest degree)
C < 34°C too cold
35°C < C < 40°C all right
C > 41°C too hot.

In algebraic terms, a composite function is constructed as

input x f
output f(x) Read this as 'g of f of x.'
g
input f(x) output g[f(x)] (or gf(x))
Thus the composite function gf(x) should be performed from right to left: start
with x then apply f and then g.

Notation
To indicate that f is being applied twice in succession, you could write ff(x) but you
would usually use f (x) instead. Similarly g (x) means three applications of g.
2 3

In order to apply a function repeatedly its range must be completely contained

within its domain.

Order of functions
It is often the case that the order of the individual functions in a composite
function matters.
For example, if f(x) = x² and g(x) = x + 1, then
f(3) = 9 g(9) = 10 so gf(3) = 10
g(3) = 4 f(4) = 16 so fg(3) = 16.

81
 Composite functions
More generally,
f g
x square
x2 add 1
x2 + 1.

So gf(x) = x 2
+ 1.
To find an expression for fg(x) you must apply g first. In the example above, this
would give:
g f
x add 1
(x + 1) square
(x + 1) 2

and so fg(x) = (x + 1) 2
.
Clearly this is not the same result.
Figure 4.30 illustrates the relationship between the domains and ranges of the
functions f and g, and the range of the composite function gf.
g
f domain of g range of g

domain of f range of f range of gf

gf

Figure 4.30
Notice that the range of f must be completely contained within the domain of g.

Example 4.7 1 , find the following.

Given that f(x) = 2x, g(x) = x 2, and h(x) = x
(i) fg(3) (ii) gh(2) (iii) gf(x) (iv) hfg(x)

Solution
(i) =
fg(3) f[g(3)] (ii) =
gh(2) g[h(2)]
= f (9) = g (1 )
2
= 18 1
=
4

(iii) gf (x) g[f(

= )] x (iv) fg( x) f =[g( )] x
= g(2 x) = f (x)2
= (2 x) 2 = 2x 2
= 4x 2
So hfg( x) h(2
= ) x2
= 1
2x 2

82
Inverse functions
Look at the mapping x → x + 2 with domain and range the set of integers.
Domain Range
4
... ...
... ...
−1 −1
0 0
1 1
2 2
... 3
... 4
x x+2
The mapping is clearly a function, since for every input there is one and only
one output, the number that is two greater than that input.
This mapping can also be seen in reverse. In that case, each number maps on
to the number two less than itself: x → x − 2. The reverse mapping is also a
function because for any input there is one and only one output. The reverse
mapping is called the inverse function, f −1.
Function: f:x→x+2 x »∈
Inverse function: f −1 : x → x − 2 x »∈.
For a mapping to be a function that also has an inverse function, every object
the domain must have one and only one image in the range, and vice versa. This
in
can only be the case if the mapping is one-to-one.
So the condition for a function f to have an inverse function is that, over the
given domain and range, f represents a one-to-one mapping. This is a common
situation, and many inverse functions are self-evident as in the following
examples, for all of which the domain and range are the real numbers.

f: x → x − 1; f −1: x → x + 1

g: x → 2x; g−1: x → 1
2x

h: x → x3; h−1: x → x3

Discussion points
Some of these mappings (below) are functions that have inverse functions, and
others are not.
➜ Decide which mappings fall into each category, and for those that do not
have inverse functions, explain why.
➜ For those that have inverse functions, how can the functions and their
inverses be written down algebraically?
(i) Temperature measured in Celsius → temperature measured in Fahrenheit.
(ii) Marks in an examination → grade awarded.
(iii) Distance measured in light years → distance measured in metres.
(iv) Number of stops travelled on the London Underground → fare.

83
 Composite functions
You can decide whether an algebraic mapping is a function, and whether it has an
inverse function, by looking at its graph. The curve or line representing a one-to-one
mapping does not double back on itself, has no turning points and covers the full
domain. Figure 4.31 illustrates the functions f, g and h given on the previous page.
y y y

y = f(x) y = g(x) y = h(x)

O 1 x O x O x
–1

Figure 4.31
Now look at f(x) = x 2 for ∈x » (Figure 4.32). You can see that there are two
distinct input values giving the same output: for example f(2) = f(−2) = 4. When
you want to reverse the effect of the function, you have a mapping which for a
single input of 4 gives two outputs, −2 and +2. Such a mapping is not a function.
f(x) f(x) = x2

–2 O 2 x

Figure 4.32
If the domain of f(x) = x 2 is restricted to » + (the set of positive real numbers),
you have the situation shown in Figure 4.33. This shows that the function which
is now defined is one-to-one. The inverse function is given by f −1(x) = x , since
the sign means ‘the positive square root of ’.

f –1 (x)=√x
has a single
y
input value. f(x) = x2, x ∈ +

f –1 (x)=√x
has a single
output value.

O x

Figure 4.33
84
 It is often helpful to restrict the domain of a function so that its inverse is
also a function. When you use the inverse sin (i.e.sin−1 or arcsin) key on your
calculator the answer is restricted to the range −90° to 90°, and is described as
the principal value. Although there are infinitely many roots of the equation
4
sin x = 0.5 (…, −330°, −210°, 30°, 150°, …), only one of these, 30°, lies in the
restricted range of −90° to 90° and this is the value your calculator will give
you.
The graph of a function and its inverse
TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 4.2
You can use graphing For each of the following functions, work out the inverse function, and draw the
software or a graphical graphs of both the original and the inverse on the same axes, using the same
calculator. scale on both axes.
(i) f(x) = x , x ∈ » (ii) f(x) = 2x (iii) f(x) = x + 2 (iv) f(x) = x
2 + 3
+2
Look at your graphs. What pattern can you see emerging?
Try out a few more functions of your own to check your ideas.
Make a conjecture about the relationship between the graph of a function and
that of its inverse.
You have probably realised by now that the graph of the inverse function is the
same shape as that of the function, but reflected in the line y = x. To see why this
is so, think of a function f(x) mapping a on to b; (a, b) is clearly a point on the
graph of f(x).The inverse function, f −1(x), maps b on to a, and so (b, a) is a point
on the graph of f −1(x).
The point (b, a) is the reflection of the point (a, b) in the line y = x.
This is shown for a number of points in Figure
4.34. y

A(0, 4) y=x

C(–4, 2)
B(–1, 1)
AЈ(4, 0)
x

BЈ(1, –1)

CЈ(2, –4)

Figure 4.34
This result can be used to obtain a sketch of the inverse function without having
to find its equation, provided that the sketch of the original function uses the
same scale on both axes.

Finding the algebraic form of the inverse function

To find the algebraic form of the inverse of a function f(x), you should start by
changing notation and writing it in the form y = … .

85
 Composite functions
Since the graph of the inverse function is the reflection of the graph of the
original function in the line y = x, it follows that you may find its equation by
interchanging y and x in the equation of the original function. You will then
need to make y the subject of your new equation. This procedure is illustrated in
Example 4.8.

Example 4.8 Find f −1(x) when f(x) = 2x + 1.

Solution
The function f(x) is given by y = 2x + 1
Interchanging x and y gives x = 2y + 1
y = x 12
−
Rearranging to make y the subject:
So f −1(x) =
x 1−
2.

Sometimes the domain of the function f will not include the whole of ».
When any real numbers are excluded from the domain of f, it follows that they
will be excluded from the range of f −1, and vice versa.
f
domain of f and range of f
range of f –1 and domain of f –1

f –1

Figure 4.35
Example 4.9 Find f −1(x) when f(x) = 2x − 3 and the domain of f is x > 4.

Solution
Domain Range
Function: y = 2x − 3 x>4 y>5
Inverse function: x = 2y − 3 x>5 y>4
Rearranging the inverse function to make y
y the subject: y = f(x)

y = x 32
+ y=x

The full definition of the inverse function (4, 5)

–1
y=f (x)
is therefore
(5, 4)

f −1(x) =
x 3+ for x > 5.
2
You can see in Figure 4.36 that the inverse
function is the reflection of a restricted O x
part of the line y = 2x − 3.
Figure 4.36

86
Example 4.10 (i)

(ii)
Sketch the graph of y = f(x) where f(x) = x 2 + 2, x > 0.
Sketch the graph of the inverse function on the same axes.
Find f −1(x) algebraically.
4
(iii) Find f(7) and f −1f(7).What do you notice?

Solution
(i) y y = f(x)
y=x

–1
y=f (x)

O
x

Figure 4.37
(ii) Domain Range
Function: y = x2 + 2 x>0 y>2
Inverse function: x = y2 + 2 x>2 y>0
Rearranging the inverse function to make y its subject:
y2 = x − 2.
y ± − x 2, but since you know the range of the inverse
This gives =
function to be y > 0 you can write:
y = + x 2− or just = y x 2− .
The full definition of the inverse function is therefore:
f−1(x) = x 2− for x > 2.
(iii) f(7) = 7² + 2 = 51
f −1f(7) = f −1(51) = 51 −
2=7
Applying the function followed by its inverse brings you back to the
original input value.

Note
Part (iii) of Example 4.10 illustrates an important general result. For any
function f(x) with an inverse f (x), f f(x) = x. Similarly f f (x) = x. The effects
−1 −1 −1

of a function and its inverse can be thought of as cancelling each other out.

87
 Composite functions
Example 4.11 Find the inverse of the function f(x) = 10 x, and sketch f(x) and f −1(x) on the
same diagram.

Solution y = 10 x y = x
y
The function f(x) is given by y = 10 x.
Interchanging x and y, the inverse function
is given by 1
y = log 10x

x = 10 y.
O 1 x
This can be written as log 10x = y, so
the inverse function is
f −1(x) = log 10 x.
The function and its inverse function are Figure 4.38
shown in Figure 4.38.
Note
The arcsin function is
the inverse of the sin Discussion points
function. It is written as Many calculators have a function and its inversexon the same key, for example
sin . Similarly arccos
−1
log and 10 , and x , sin and arcsin, ln and e .
and arctan are the x 2

inverse functions of cos (i) With some calculators you can enter a number, apply x and then , and 2

and tan respectively. come out with a slightly different number. How is this possible?
These are covered in (ii) Explain what happens if you find sin 199° and then find arcsin of the answer.
more detail in Chapter 6.

Exercise 4.2
① The functions f and g are defined by ⑤ Express the following in terms of the functions
f(x) = x² and g(x) = 2x + 1. f: x → x and g: x → x + 4.
Find each of the following. (i) x → x 4+ (ii) x → x + 8
(i) f(2) (ii) g(2) (iii) gf(2) (iv) fg(2)
x 4+
② The functions f, g and h are defined by
(iii) x → x 8+ (iv) x →
⑥ The functions f and g are defined by
f(x) = x 3, g(x) = 2x and h(x) = x + 2.
f(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x where x is
Find each of the following, in terms of x. measured in radians.
(i) fg (ii) gf (iii) fh (iv) hf
(i) Find the smallest positive value of θ so
(v) g2 (vi) h2 that f(x) = g(x + θ ).
③ Find the inverses of the following functions. (ii) Find the smallest positive value of φ so
(i) f(x) = 2x + 7 (ii) f(x) = 4 − x that g(x) = f(x + φ ).
④ The function f is defined by ⑦ The functions f, g and h are defined by
f(x) = (x − 2) 2 + 3 for x > 2. f(x) = x 3, g(x) = 2x and h(x) = x + 2. Find each
(i) Sketch the graph of f(x). of the following, in terms of x.
(ii) On the same axes, sketch the graph (i) fgh (ii) ghf (iii) (f h)
2

of f −1(x) without finding its equation.

88
⑧ Find the inverses of the following functions.
(i) f(x) = −2 x4
(ii) f(x) = x 2 − 3 for x > 0
⑫ (i) Write
a(x1)
−
2 x 2 − +4 x1
+ 2

determined.
in the form
b where a and b are to be 4
⑨ The functions f, g and h are defined by (ii) Sketch the2 graph of
f(x) = − 3
y = 2x − +4 x1 , giving the equation of
x 4 g(x) = x
2
its line of symmetry and the coordinates
h(x) = 2 − x . of its vertex.
(i) For each function, state any real values of x The function f is defined by
f : x→ 2 x − +4 x1
2
for which it is not defined. and has as its domain
the set of real numbers.
(ii) Find the−1inverse functions f −1

and h . (iii) Find the range of f.

(iii) Explain why g −1

does not exist when the (iv) Explain, with reference to your sketch,
domain of g is ». why f has no inverse with its given
domain and suggest the largest domain of
(iv) Suggest a suitable domain for g so that g −1
positive values of x for which f(x) has an
does exist.
inverse.
(v) Is the domain for the composite function
fg the same as for the composite function (v) For this domain, sketch f(x) and f (x) on
−1

the same axes together with their line of

gf?
symmetry.
Give reasons for your answer.
⑩ A function f is defined by: (vi) Find the exact value of the coordinates of
the point where
f: x → x1 x ∈ » , x ≠ .0 f(x) = f −1(x).
Find
⑬ The functions f(x) and g(x) are defined by
(i) f 2
(x) (ii) f 3
(x) f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x − 1 for all real values of x.
(iii) f −1
(x) (iv) f 999
(x). (i) State the ranges of f(x) and g(x) and
⑪ Two functions are defined as f(x) = x
2
and explain why f(x) has no inverse.
g(x) = x 2 + 4x − 1. (ii) Find an expression for g −1
(x) in terms of x
(i) Find a and b so that and sketch the graphs of y = g(x) and
g(x) = f(x + a) + b. y = g −1(x) on the same axes.
(ii) Show how the graph of y = g(x) is related (iii) Find expressions for gf(x) and fg(x) and
to the graph of y = f(x) and sketch the solve the equation gf(x) = fg(x).
graph of y = g(x). Sketch the graphs of y = gf(x) and
(iii) State the range of the function g(x).
y = fg(x) on the same axes to illustrate
your answer.
(iv) State the least value of c so that g(x) is
one-to-one for x > c. (iv) Find the range of values2 of a such that the
equation f(x + a ) = g (x) has no solution.
(v) With this restriction, sketch y = g(x) and
y = g (x) on the same axes.
−1

89
 The modulus function

3 The modulus function

Look at the graph of y = f (x), where f (x) = x (Figure 4.39).
y
y = f(x) = x

O x

Figure 4.39
x is positive and negative when x is negative.
The function f(x) is positive when
Now look at Figure 4.40, the graph of y = g(x), where g(x) = | x |.
y

Discussion points
y = g(x) = | x |

➜ What is the value of

g(3) and g(−3)?
O x
➜ What is the value of
|3 + 3|, |3 − 3|,
|3| + |3| and Figure 4.40
|3| + | −3 |?
The function g(x) is called the modulus of x. g(x) always takes the positive
numerical value of x. For example, when x = −2, g(x) = 2, so g(x) is always
positive. The modulus is also called the magnitude of the quantity.
Another way of writing the modulus function g(x) is
g(x) = x for x > 0
g(x) = −x for x < 0.
The graph of y = g(x) can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x) by replacing
values where f(x) is negative by the equivalent positive values. This is the
equivalent of reflecting that part of the line in the x-axis.

90
 Example 4.12 Sketch the graphs of the following on separate axes.
(i)
(ii)
y=1−x
y=|1−x|
4
(iii) y = 2 + | 1 − x |

Solution
y
(i) y = 1 − x is the straight line through (0,1)
and (1,0).

1 y=1–x

O 1 x

Figure 4.41
(ii) y = | 1 − x | is obtained by reflecting y
the part of the line for x > 1 in the
x-axis.
1 y = |1 – x|

O 1 x

Figure 4.42
(iii) y = 2 + | 1 − x | is obtained from y
Figure 4.41 by applying the
⎛0 ⎞
translation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . 3
⎝2⎠ y = 2 + |1 – x|

(1, 2)

Discussion point
Look back at the graph of O 1 x
y = | x | in Figure 4.40.
➜ How does this show Figure 4.43
that | x | < 2 is
equivalent to
−2 < x < 2?
Inequalities involving the modulus sign
You will often meet inequalities involving the modulus sign.

Example 4.13 Solve the following.

(i) |x+3|<4
(ii) | 2x − 1 | > 9
(iii) 5 − | x − 2 | > 1
➜

91
 The modulus function

Solution
y
(i) | x + 3 | < 4 ⇔ −4 < x + 3 < 4 4
⇔ −7 < x < 1 y=4

y = |x + 3|
It is helpful to sketch the
graph to check that your O
solution looks right. –3 x

Figure 4.44
(ii) | 2x − 1 | > 9 ⇔ 2x − 1 < −9 or 2x − 1 > 9
The solution ⇔ 2x < −8 or 2x > 10
represents two
separate intervals, ⇔ x < −4 or x > 5
so it cannot be
written as a single y
inequality. 9
y=9

y = |2x – 1|

1
O —
2 x

Figure 4.45
(iii) 5 − | x − 2 | > 1 ⇔ 4 > | x − 2 |
⇔|x−2|<4
⇔ −4 < x − 2 < 4
⇔ −2 < x < 6
y

4
y=4

y = |x – 2|

O 2 x

Figure 4.46

92
Example 4.14 Express the inequality −2 < x < 6 in the form | x − a | < b, where a and b
are to be found. 4
Solution
| x − a | < b ⇔ −b < x − a < b

snoitcnuF 4 retpahC
⇔a−b<x<a+b
Comparing this with −2 < x < 6 gives
a − b = −2
a + b = 6.
Solving these simultaneously gives a = 2, b = 4, so | x − 2 | < 4.

4
y=4

Sketch the graph to

check your solution.
–2 O 2 4 6 x

Figure 4.47

Example 4.15 (i) Sketch the graphs of y = | x + 2 | and y = 2x + 1 on the same axes.
(ii) Hence solve the inequality | x + 2 | < 2x + 1.

Solution
(i) y

y = |x + 2|
The solution of the
inequality is the
2
region for which the
y = 2x + 1 red graph lies below
the blue graph.
–2 O x

Figure 4.48
(ii) From the graph, the critical point is where the line y = 2x + 1 meets
the line y = x + 2. Solving these equations simultaneously:
2x + 1 = x + 2
⇒x=1
From the graph, the region required is given by x > 1.

93
 The modulus function
Exercise 4.3
① Sketch each of the following graphs on a (i) −1 < x < 6
separate set of axes. (ii) 9.9 < x < 10.1
(i) y = | x + 2 | (iii) 0.5 < x < 7.5
(ii) y = | 2x − 3 | ⑥ Sketch each of the following graphs on a
(iii) y = | x | + 1 separate set of axes.
② Solve the following inequalities. (i) y = | x + 2 | − 2
(i) | x + 3 | < 5 (ii) y = | 2x + 5 | − 4
(ii) | x − 2 | < 2 (iii) y = 3 + | x − 2 |
(iii) | x − 5 | > 6 ⑦ (i) Sketch the graphs of y = | x + 3 | and
(iv) | x + 1 | > 2 y = 3x − 1 on the same axes.
③ Express each of the following inequalities in (ii) Hence solve | x + 3 | < 3x − 1.
the form | x − a | < b, where a and b are to be ⑧ (i) Sketch the graphs of y = | x − 3 | and
found. y = 3x + 1 on the same axes.
(i) −1 < x < 3 (ii) Hence solve | x − 3 | < 3x + 1.
(ii) 2 < x < 8 ⑨ Insert one of the symbols ⇒, ⇐, or ⇔, if
appropriate, between these pairs of statements.
(iii) −2 < x < 4
④ Solve the following inequalities. (i) a 2 = b2 |a| = |b|

(i) | 2x − 3 | < 7 (ii) |x − 3| > 4 (x − 3) 2 2 > 16 2

(iii) 2x < |x − 1| (2x) < (x − 1)
(ii) | 3x − 2 | < 4 ⑩ Solve | x | > 2x − 1.
(iii) | 2x + 3 | > 5 ⑪ Solve | 2x + 1 | > | x − 2 | by first sketching
(iv) | 3x + 2 | > 8 appropriate graphs.
⑤ Express each of the following inequalities in the ⑫ Solve | 3x − 1 | < | 2x + 3 |.
form | x − a | < b, where a and b are to be found.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ understand the language of functions:
❍ definition of a function
❍ domain and range
❍ many-to-one, one-to-one
➤ work with combined transformations on a graph
❍ form the equation of a transformed graph
❍ sketch a transformed graph
❍ recognise transformations that have been applied
➤ find composite functions
find the inverse of a function if it exists, and know the conditions for an
inverse function to exist
➤

➤ know the relationship between the graphs of a function and its inverse
➤ use the modulus function
❍ sketch graphs of the modulus of linear functions
❍ solve simple inequalities involving a modulus
➤ use functions in modelling real-life situations.
94
KEY POINTS
1 Mappings and functions
4
A mapping is any rule connecting input values (objects) and output values
(images).
■

It can be many-to-one, one-to-many, one-to-one or many-to-many.

snoitcnuF 4 retpahC
■ A many-to-one or one-to-one mapping is called a function. It is a mapping
for which each input value gives exactly one output value.
The domain of a mapping or function is the set of possible input values
(values of x).
■

■ The range of a mapping or function is the set of output values.

2 Transformations of the graphs of the function y = f(x)
Table 4.3
Function Transformation
t
⎛ ⎞
f (x) → f( x t− +) s Translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝s⎠

f (x) → af(x ) One-way stretch, parallel to y-axis, scale factor a

f (x) → f( ax
) One-way stretch, parallel to x-axis, scale factor a1

f (x) → − f( x) Reflection in x-axis

f (x) → −f( ) x Reflection in y-axis

When two transformations are combined, the order in which they are carried
out matters if they are both in the same direction.
3 Composite functions
A composite function is obtained when one function (say g) is applied to the
output from another function (say f ). The notation used is g[f(x)] or gf(x).
4 Inverse functions
■ For any one-to-one function f(x), there is an inverse function f (x). −1

■ The curves of a function and its inverse are reflections of each other in the
line y = x.
To illustrate this it is essential that the same scale is used on both axes.
5 The modulus function
■ The modulus of x, written | x |, means the positive value of x.
■ The modulus function is:
| x | = x, for x > 0
| x | = −x, for x < 0.
■ To sketch the modulus function, any part of the graph of the function that
is below the x-axis is reflected in the x-axis.

FUTURE USES
You will use the language and concepts of functions and transformations
throughout this book, particularly when you meet some new trigonometric
functions in Chapter 6.

95
 5 Differentiation

Almost everything
that distinguishes the In the hourglass in the photo, the volume of sand in the bottom bulb is V , and
modern world from the height of sand in the bottom bulb is h.
earlier centuries is The rate of change of the volume of sand in the bottom bulb is given by Vddt .
attributable to science, ➜ What information is given by
dh
dt
and by dV
dh
?
which achieved its most
dV × ?dh
spectacular triumphs in ➜ What information is given by dh dt
the seventeenth century.
A. W. Bertrand Russell
(1872–1970)

96
 Review: Differentiation 5
■ The gradient of a curve at a point is
given by the gradient of the tangent
at the point.

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
■ The gradient of the tangent at a point
A on a curve is given by the limit
of the gradient of chord AP as P
approaches A along the curve.
■ The gradient function of a curve is
the rate of change of y with respect
to x and can be written as
dy
.
Figure 5.1
dx
■ This is also called the derived function or derivative.
■ In function notation, the derivative of f (x) is written as f ʹ(x).

y kx
= n = dy n=⇒
y⇒kx dny−1
nkx = nkx n −1
dx dx
dy
y = f (x) + g (x) ⇒
dx
= ʹf (x) (+) ʹg x

For example, yyx=x= ⇒ ddyy == 44xx3 3

⇒44
ddxx
y x= 2 ⇒ ddxy = − 21 x 2 .
−1 −3

Finding tangents and normals

You can use differentiation to find the equation of a tangent or a normal to a
curve at any point.

Example 5.1 A curve has equation y x= 4 − 20 x1 + .

(i) Find the gradient of the curve at the point where x 2= .
(ii) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at this point.
(iii) Find the equation of the normal to the curve at this point.

Solution
(i) y x= 4 − 20x + 1
dy =
⇒
dx
4 x 3 − 20 First differentiate to find the gradient function.
dy = ( )3 −
At x 2= ,
dx
42 20 Find the gradient when x 2= .
= 12

Therefore the gradient of the curve at the point where x 2= is 12.

➜

97
 Review: Differentiation

(ii) When x = 2, y = ( 2 )4 − 20 (2 )1 + Find the y= coordinate

= − 23 when x 2 .
Equation of tangent is
y − −( 23)12= (x − 2 ) Using y y−m= x x (
11
− .
1 )
⇒ 12 x y− − 47 0= .

(iii) Gradient of normal is − 1

12 . Using m 2
=− 1 .m
1
Equation of normal is
y − −( )23 = − 121 (x − 2 )

⇒ 12 y x+ + 274 0= .

Increasing and decreasing functions,

So when a function
is increasing it has and stationary points
positive gradient, A function is increasing for a x<b< if 0 a x b< < ,
f ʹ (x) > for
and when it is 0 a x b< < .
decreasing it has and it is decreasing for a x<b< if f ʹ (x) < for
negative gradient. At a stationary point,
dy
= .0
dx Maximum
Maximum Minimum
Minimum
0 0
One method for determining the
nature of a stationary point is to look + + − −− − + +
at the sign of the gradient on either
0 0
side of it.
Another method for determining the nature of the stationary point is to
d 2y
consider the sign of the second derivative,
dx 2 , which is the rate of change of
dy with respect to x.
dx
d 2y
n If 0
dx 2 > , the point is a minimum. If the second derivative is positive at
the turning point then it means that the gradient function is increasing – it
goes from being negative to zero and then positive.
d 2y
n If 0
dx 2 < , the point is a maximum. If the second derivative is negative at
the turning point then it means that the gradient function is decreasing – it
goes from being positive to zero and then negative.
d 2y
n If 0
dx 2 = , it is not possible to use this method to determine the nature of
the stationary point.

98
 Example 5.2 A function xf () is given by x xf ( =) −
(i)
nature.
3
3x 2 − +9 x.20
Find the turning points of the curve y = f ()x , and determine their
5
(ii) Sketch the curve.

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
(iii) State the range of values of x for which the function is increasing.

Solution
dy = 2 −
First differentiate. 3x 6x − 9
Turning points are where ddxy = .0
(i)
dx
3x 2 − 6 x − =9 0
⇒ 3 (x − 3)(x + =1)0 Substitute x values
into the equation of the
⇒ =x 3, x = − 1 curve to find y values.
When x = 3, y = −33×3 −3 ×9 +
3=202−7.
When x = − 1, y = −( )−1 − − −3+(1)=9 .1 20 25
()
3 2

( −7)and 1, 25)
The turning points are 3, (− .
d 2y Differentiate again to find
dx 2 =
6x − 6 the second derivative.
d 2y =
At x 3, 2 12 0>
= 2
dx Substitute x values into yd 2
dx
( −7)is a minimum.
Therefore 3, to see if turning points are
maximum points or minimum
At x = − 1, d y2 = − 12
2
< 0 points.
dx
(−25)
Therefore 1, is a maximum.
(ii) y

Maximum y-intercept
(–1, 25) (0, 20)
20

O x

Minimum
(3, –7)
Figure 5.2
(iii) From the sketch, x f () is increasing for x > .x3
< − 1,

99
 Review: Differentiation
Differentiation from first principles
y

Q(x + h, f(x + h))

f(x + h) − f(x)
y = f(x)

h
P(x, f(x))

O x

Figure 5.3

)
f ( +− f ( )
The gradient of the chord PQ in Figure 5.3 is given by x h x .
h
The derivative of y = f )( x is defined as the limit of the gradient of the chord as

h tends to 0.

f ( )x h + − f ( )x
This can be written formally as f ′ ( )x = lim .
h
h→0
( )( )
d dy y d dy y
This can also be expressed as = = lim
lim , where dy is a small change in y and
d dx x d dx x
dxd→
0x →
0
dx is a small change in x.

Example 5.3 Differentiate y x = 2 − 5 x from first principles.

Solution
( )( )
( xh+ )2 − 5 ( xh+−−) x 2 5x
dy
= lim
dx h
h→
0

x 2 + 2 xh h + − − −
2+ 5 xhx 5 2 5x
= lim
h
h→
0

xh h + − 2 5h
= lim 2
h
h→
0

= lim 2 ( x − +5 h )
h→
0

= 2 x − 5

100
 Review exercise
① Find the gradient of each of the following
curves at the point given.
dy
⑧ Find dx and
d y 2
5
dx 2 in the following
= 2 − 2 x + 1, 3,4( ) cases.
(i) y x

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
(
= 5x 3 − 6 x + 7, 1,6 ) (i) y x (x2 2 − 4 )
=
(ii) y
= 10 x 2 3x
5 − 3

(iii) y = 2 x x− 1 , 1,1)
( (ii) y 2x
⑨ Given that y x=x−3
3
② After t seconds, the number of thousands
of bacteria, N, is modelled by the equation dy d y
2

N = 20t 3 − 8t 2 + 50t + .3 (i) find dxand dx 2

Find the rate of change of the number of
bacteria with respect to time after
(ii) find the coordinates of any stationary points
and identify their nature
10 seconds.
③ Find the equations of the tangent and normal
(iii) sketch the curve.
to the curve y x= ( 2 − x ) at the point on the ⑩ Find the equation of the normal to the curve
curve where the gradient of the curve is 4− . y = 2 + 4 x at the point where x 4= .
x
dy d 2y
④ Find dx and ⑪ Find the coordinates of the turning point of
dx 2 in the following the curve y x=x2x − +9 ,6x
cases. > ,0and
determine its nature.
= 3x 4 − x2
(i) y 2 = +bx+3 − and2 that15x2
⑫ Given that y ax
dy
(ii) y = 2 x 4 − +x 7 when x = 1, y =17 and dx = 24
3
x x− + 1 (i) find a and b
(iii) y = 2 2
x (ii) show that the curve has no stationary points.
⑤ Differentiate y x= 2 − 3x + from
2 first
⑬ Given that y x=x3 2 −
4 6
principles.
⑥ Sketch the gradient function of the curve in dy d 2y
Figure 5.4. (i) find dx and dx 2
y (ii) find the coordinates of any stationary points
and identify their nature

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 O x (iii) sketch the curve.

−10 PS ⑭ Find the values of c for which the line
−20 y = +5xis ca tangent to the curve
= −x −x + .
32
y x 4
Figure 5.4 32
PS ⑮ A rectangular sheet of cardboard measures
⑦ In each case, find the set of values of x for 24 cm by 15 cm. Equal squares of side x cm are
which y is increasing. removed from each corner of the rectangle.
The edges are then turned up to make an open
(i) y = −2 4 x x−
2

box of volume V cm 3.
(ii) y x = 3 − 48x Find the maximum possible volume of the box
(iii) y x = − x and the corresponding value of x.
2 3

101
 The shape of curves

1 The shape of curves

Stationary points of inflection
Figure 5.5 shows the curve y x= − 3 3x 2 + +3x.1
y
10

Discussion point 8
6
➜ What can you say
about the curve at
4

the point (1, 2)?

2

−1 O 1 2 3 x
−2

Figure 5.5
To understand the behaviour of the curve better, look at the first and second
derivatives.
dy = 2 − +
y x= 3 − 3x 2 + 3x + ⇒
1
dx
3x 6 x3

dy = − +
At the point 1,( ,2) 363
dx
=0
So the gradient is zero at this point. You can see this from the graph.
d 2y
6x − 6
dx 2 =

( , d 2y
At the point 1, 2) 66
dx 2 = −
=0
So the second derivative is also zero at this point.
You can see from the graph that the gradient is positive on both sides of (1, 2).
You can verify this by working out the gradient of the curve at a point just to
the left of (1, 2) and a point just to the right of ( 1, 2) .
dy = ( )3 − ( )
At x = 0.9, 3 0.9 6 0.9 3 +0 > .
dx
dy = ( )2 − ( )
At x = 1.1, 3 1.1 6 1.1 3+0> .
dx
The point (1, 2) is neither a maximum point nor a minimum point. It is a
stationary point of inflection.
Having located stationary points, you can use the method of finding the gradient
of the curve close to, and on either side of, the stationary point to identify
whether a stationary point is a point of inflection.

102
 If a stationary point is a point of inflection then the gradient will be either
■ positive just before and positive just after
the stationary point, as in Figure 5.6 dy
dx
>0
5

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
Stationary point dy
>0
of inflection: dx
dy d 2y
= 0, 0=
dx dx 2

Figure 5.6
■ or negative just before and negative just
dy
after the stationary point, as in Figure 5.7. <0
dx

dy
<0 Stationary point
dx of inflection:
dy d 2y
= 0, 0=
dx dx
2

Figure 5.7

Example 5.4
You are given that y = 3x 5 − 5x 3 − .2
(i) Find the stationary points on the curve.
(ii) Identify the nature of the stationary points.
(iii) Sketch the curve.

Solution
dy =
(i) y = 3x 5 − 5x 3 − 2 ⇒ 15x 4 − 15x 2
dx Stationary points
x
At stationary points, 15 4 − 15x 2 = 0 are where ddxy = .0
x 15x−2x2=(1)0 − =1)0
2 2(
⇒ 15x⇒
⇒ 15x 2x( + 1)( x − =
1)0 Solve the equation.
⇒ =x 0, 1, 1.
1−

Substitute x values into When xx==0,0,yy==33(0(0)5)5−−55(0(0)23)232−2−==−− .

the original equation When x x==1,1,
y y==3 (31(1)5)5−−5 (51(1)23)234−4−==−− .
to find y coordinates of
stationary points. When x = − 1, y = −3 (−1 −)− = .5 (1 2)0
5 3

− ) ( )− ( ) −
Stationary points are (0, 2 , 1, 4 and 1, 0 .
➜

103
 The shape of curves

dy = 2 ⇒ d y =
2 Find the second
(ii) dx
15x 4 −
15x
dx 2 60 x 3 − 30 x derivative.
At x = 1, d 2 y= = d>2 y = >
x 1, 30 0 2 30 0 Substitute your x
dx 2 dx
values into ddxy .
2

2
( −4)is a minimum.
so 1,

= − 1,x =d −y2 1,= −d30

< y2 0= − 30
2 2
At x < 0
dx dx
(−
so 1,0) is a maximum. So you must use the method of
finding the gradient just before and
d 2=y = d 2 y
just after the point to determine
At x = 0, x 2 0, 0 2 = .0 whether it is a maximum, a
dx dx minimum or a point of inflection.
dy = −dy( )= − 4 (−) − (4 )− − 2 ( )
At x = − 0.1,
x = −d0.1, 2
x 15dx0.1 15 0.1 15 0.1
Gradient is
= − 0.1485 0< . negative just
dy = d( y) =4 − ( ) ( )4 −2 ( )
At x = 0.1, x = 0.1, 2 before the point.
15 0.1 15150.1
0.1 15 0.1
dx dx
Gradient is
= − 0.1485 0< .
negative just
The gradient is negative just before and just
after the point.
after the point, so (0,−2)is a point of inflection.

(iii)
Point of
inflection at
Maximum y (0, –2)
(–1, 0)
1

−2 −1 O 1 2 x

−2

−4

Minimum
(1, –4)

Figure 5.8

104
 Concave and convex curves
ACTIVITY 5.1
5
The section of curve shown in Figure 5.9 has a gradient that is initially positive.
The gradient is increasing as x increases.

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
Figure 5.9
(i) Sketch sections of curves with the following properties:
(a) gradient is initially negative and gradient is increasing (i.e. becoming
less negative or going from negative to positive)
(b) gradient is initially positive and gradient is decreasing
(c) gradient is initially negative and gradient is decreasing (i.e. becoming
more negative).
(ii) Describe the shape of:
(a) the two curves (including Figure 5.9) with increasing gradient
(b) the two curves with decreasing gradient.
When the gradient is increasing, the rate of change of the gradient is positive:
⎛ dy ⎞
d⎝ ⎠ = 2
dx d y
> .0
dx dx 2
When the gradient is decreasing, the rate of change of the gradient is negative:
⎛ dy ⎞
d⎝ ⎠ = 2
dx d y
< .0
dx dx 2
d 2y
A section of curve with 0
dx 2 > is concave upwards (or convex downwards).
If you join the points at the two ends of the curve with a straight line then the
curve is under the line, as in Figure 5.10.

Discussion point or

➜ A section of curve has Figure 5.10

d y =
2
0 at all d y2
dx 2
A section of curve with 0
points. How would d x < is
2 concave downwards (or convex upwards).
you describe it? If you join the points at the two ends of the curve with a straight line then the
Justify your answer. curve is above the line, as in Figure 5.11.
or

Figure 5.11

105
 The shape of curves
Example 5.5 Find the set of values of x for which the curve y x x= x− 3+2 − 6is 6 5
concave upwards.

Solution
y x= 3 − 6x 2 + −6x 5
⇒ ddyy == 33xx2 2−−12
⇒ 12xx++66
ddxx d 2y
Differentiate twice to find dx 2 .
⇒ d y2 = 6 x − 12
2

dx
d y
2
The curve is concave upwards when
dx 2 >
0 Substitute your
expression for ddxy .
2

6 x12− 0> 2

6 x12>
x 2> Solve the inequality.
The curve is concave upwards when x 2> .

You have already met stationary points of inflection. However, a point of

inflection does not have to be a stationary point. More generally, a point of
inflection is a point at which a curve goes from being concave upwards to
concave downwards, or vice versa. So a point of inflection is a point at which
d 2y
dx 2 goes from being positive to being negative, or from being negative to being
d 2y
positive. At the point of inflection itself, 0
dx 2 = .

Discussion point
d2y
The statement ‘Point A is a point of inflection at point A’ is true.
⇒
dx 2 =
0
d y 2

➜ Is the converse statement ‘

dx = at point A ⇒ point A is a point of
0
inflection’ also true? 2

dy
2

dx 2 = 0

d 2y d 2y
dx 2 < 0 dx 2 > 0

Figure 5.12
In Figure 5.12, on the left the gradient is decreasing; the curve is concave
downwards. On the right the gradient is increasing; the curve is concave
d 2y
upwards.
dx 2 goes from negative to positive, and in between there is a point
where it is zero. This is a point of inflection. However, it is clear from the
diagram that the gradient of the curve is not zero at this point, and therefore it is
a non-stationary point of inflection.

106
 Example 5.6 You are given that y x=
(i)
3 − 6 x 2 + 15x10− .
Find the coordinates of the point at which the second derivative is
zero, and show that it is a point of inflection.
5
(ii) Find the gradient of the curve at the point of inflection.

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
(iii) Show that the curve has no turning points.
(iv) Find the coordinates of the point where the curve crosses the x-axis.
(v) Sketch the curve.

Solution
(i) y x= 3 − 6x 2 + 15x10−
⇒ ddyy ==33xx2 2−−12
⇒ 12x15
x++ 15 d 2y
ddxx Differentiate twice to find dx 2 .
⇒ d y2 = 6 x − 12
2

dx
At the point of inflection,
d 2y =
0
dx 2 Substitute the x value into the
6 x − 12 0= original equation to find the y
coordinate of point of inflection.
x 2=
When =x 2, y = ( 2 )3 − 6 (2 )2 + 15 (2 )10− 4= .
d 2y = (.
The point where 0 is 2,4)
dx 2
To show that this is a point
d2y = ×
of inflection, evaluate d y
2
At x = 1.9, 6 1.9 12−0< .
dx 2
dx 2

d2y
at a point just before and a
At x = 2.1,
dx 2
> .12 0
= ×6 −2.1 point just after (2, 4).
TECHNOLOGY Therefore the curve goes from being concave downwards to concave
Use graphing software upwards at (2, 4), and so it is a point of inflection.
to draw this curve. Add x= 2, dy = 3 (2 )2 − 12 (2 )15+ 3=
a point to the curve and (ii) When
dx
.
construct a tangent The gradient of the curve is 3 at the point of inflection.
through this point. Move
the point along the (iii)
dy = 2 −
3x 12 x + 15
curve. What happens to dx
the tangent as it passes 3x − 12 x + 15 0=
through the point of At a turning point, ddxy
2
= 0.
inflection? ⇒ xx22 −− 44xx ++ =5=5 00
⇒
b2 − 4 ac = −( −4 ×
)2 × 4 1 5
==−4−4
Since the discriminant of the quadratic is negative, it has no real
solutions. So the curve has no turning points.
➜

107
 The shape of curves

(iv) x 3 − 6 x 2 + 15x − =
10 0 The curve crosses the x-axis when y 0= .
f ( x=) x3 − 6 x 2 + 15x10−
Using the factor theorem
f (0 =) − 10 x 0= is not a root. to solve the cubic equation.
f (1 =) 0 x 1= is a root.
Because the curve has no turning points it only crosses the x-axis in
one place. So the curve crosses the axis at (1,0).
(v) You know that the curve has a non-stationary point of inflection at
(2, 4) and that it has no turning points.
( −10)
You also know that the curve crosses the y-axis at 0, , and the
(.
x-axis at 1,0)
y
Curve is concave
upwards for x > 2
10
Curve is concave
downwards for x < 2 Point of inflection
at (2, 4)
O 1 2 3 x

Curve crosses
x-axis at (1, 0)
−10 Curve crosses
y-axis at (0, –10)

Figure 5.13

Example 5.7 You are given that y x= 4 − 2x 3 .

(i) Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the curve and
determine their nature.
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point at which the second derivative is
zero, and show that it is a point of inflection.
(iii) Sketch the curve.

Solution
(i) y x= 4 − 2 x 3 ⇒ dy = 4 x 3 − 6 x 2
dx
4x 3 −
6x 2 = 0 Stationary points are
2 x22x( − = 3 )0
where ddxy = .0
x = 0, x = 3
2

108
 When x = 0,
When =x
y = .0
3, y = −
2
.
Substituting x values into
the original equation.
27
16
The curve has stationary points at (0,0) and (3 −, 27 ).
5
2 16
dy = d y = 2
To determine the nature

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
4 x − 6x ⇒
3 2
12 x − 12 x of the stationary points
2
dx dx 2

find the second derivative.

x23 , = 2d3 , y2 d 2>y = >
2
x
When = = 90 90
dx dx 2
3,)is a minimum point. Since
− 27 d2y
therefore ( 2 16 , you must dx 2 =
0

d y =d y 2 use the method of looking

2
When x 0,x 0,
= = 0 = .0 at the gradient at a point
dx dx 2
just before and a point just
2

− 0.1, dydy= −= <−8<8 0 0.

after the stationary point
When =x −x = 0.1,
dxdx 125125 to determine its nature.
dy =−
dy <=−
When =x x0.1,
= 0.1, 7 < 7 0 0.
dx dx 125 125
The gradient is negative before and after the stationary point, so (0, 0)
is a stationary point of inflection.
d2y =
(ii) 12 x 2 − 12 x
dx 2

12 x 2 − 12 x = 0 You already know that

there is a stationary . point
12 x (x − =
1) 0 of inflection at x 0=

⇒ =x 0, x = 1 To check that there is must

you a point of
The curve changes inflection at x 1, =
from being concave When =x
d y =− <27
2

look at the sign of d y

2
at a
downwards to being 0.9,
dx 252 0 .
dx
concave upwards at
2

x1 = . d y = >33
2 point just before . and a point
When =x 1.1,
dx 25 2 0. just after x 1 =
So x 1= is a non-stationary point of inflection.

Note When x = 1, y = −1

It is important to so the coordinates of the non-stationary point of inflection are (1, −1).
remember that not all
points of inflection are y

stationary points.
To show that a non- 3
Stationary point of
stationary point is a inflection at (0, 0)
point of inflection, it is 2

not enough to show 1

that ddxy = at0the

2
-1 O 1 2 3 x
−1
point: you must show
2

−2
Minimum
that the sign of ddxy
2

point at
2
Non-stationary point
changes from positive to of inflection at (1, –1)
3 , 27
2 − 16
negative, or vice versa,
at the point. Figure 5.14

109
 The chain rule
Exercise 5.1
① Find the set of values of x for which the (ii) find the coordinates of the stationary
following curves are concave downwards. points and determine their nature
(i) y x= 3 − 9x 2 + 6x − 1 (iii) show that there is a point of inflection
+ 21x 2 − 24 x + 9 and find its coordinates
(ii) y x = 3

(iii) y = − 2 x 3 + 3x 2 − −x 2 (iv) find the gradient of the curve at the point

of inflection
② Find the set of values of x for which the
following curves are concave upwards. (v)
sketch the curve.
⑥ Given that y x x= 4 −
34
(i) y x= 3 + x 2 − 19x − 41
(ii) y x= 3 − 12x 2 − 11x + 5 (i) find the stationary points on the curve
and determine their nature
(iii) y = − x+3 2 x 2 + 7 x − 17
(ii) sketch the curve
③ For each of the following, find the coordinates
and nature of any stationary points and sketch (iii)
find the coordinates of the non-stationary
point of inflection.
the curve.
⑦ Given that y x =
x x3 84 6−3+ −3 2
(i) y = − x+3 3x 2 − 3x − 3
(ii) y = 8x 3 + 12x 2 + 6x + 2 (i) find the stationary points on the curve
and determine their nature
(iii) y = − x−3 6x 2 − 12x (ii) sketch the curve
④ Find the set of values of x for which the
following curves are concave upwards.
(iii) find the coordinates of the non-stationary
point of inflection.
(i) y x= 4 − 4 x 3 − 18x 2 + 11x + 1 PS ⑧ Find the coordinates of all the turning
(ii) y = − x+4 2x 3 + 12x 2 + 5x − 7 points and points of inflection of the curve
⑤ Given that y x=
3 −
x2 y x= 3 5 − 25x60
3 +
x, and sketch the curve.
(i) find ddxy and d y2
2

dx

2 The chain rule

Discussion point
➜ How would you differentiate these expressions?
(i) y = (x + 1)
2 2

(ii) y = (x + 1)
2 12

(iii) y = x + 12

(iv) y = (x + 1)
−1
2

You can differentiate the first two expressions by expanding the brackets,
(ii)
although in the case of part this would be very tedious! However, you
cannot use this approach in parts and (iii) (iv).
Instead you need to think of the
expression as a composite function, that is, a ‘function of a function’.
You can separate out the two functions, and use the notation u for the first
function to be applied.
(iii),
1
In the case of part ux= 2
1 yu =.
+ and 2

110
 ACTIVITY 5.2
Copy and complete Table 5.1. 5
Table 5.1
=
y f (x) u =
y f (u)

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
This row shows an
example. y = tan 1 (x )
3 u x= 13 y = tan u

(i) y = (x 3 + 3 )4
You will learn to
differentiate functions (ii) y = sin (x 2 − 4 )
involving exponentials,
logarithms and (iii) y e= 2 x5+
trigonometric functions (iv) y = ln (x − 2x )
in Chapter 9. 2

You can differentiate composite functions such as these using the chain rule.
In the review section you saw that

dy = ⎛ dy ⎞ It is important to remember that while yddx means

‘δy divided by dx’, d y is not a fraction but a notation
lim ⎜ ⎟,
dx dx →0 ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
for the rate of change of y with respect to x.
where dy is a small change in y and dx is a small change in x.
Think about the hourglass shown at the beginning of the chapter. A small
change in time, dt, leads to a small change in the height of sand in the bottom
bulb, dh, and to the volume of sand in the bottom bulb, dV.
You can see that
Just simple algebra, as
these terms are ‘real’ dV = dV × dh
fractions. dt dh dt
Taking the limit as δt tends to zero gives us the relationship
dV = dV × dh
This result is known as dt dh dt
the chain rule. This is usually written using the variables x, y and u:
Although at first glance dy = dy × du
this may look obvious, dx du dx
you must remember
that these terms are not
actually fractions.
Example 5.8
(i) Differentiate y = (x 3 + 1)2
(a) by expanding the brackets
(b) by using the chain rule.
(ii) Show that the two methods give the same result.
➜

111
 The chain rule

Solution
(i) (a) y = (x 3 − 3 )2

= (x 3 − 3 )(x 3 − 3 ) First expand the brackets.

= x6 − 6x 3 + 9

⇒ dy = 6 x 5 − 18 x 2 Now differentiate.
dx
(b) Let u x = 3 − ,3then y u = . Expressing y x= −( 3)
2 3 2

dy = as a function of a function.
2u
du
= 2 (x 3 − 3 )
Differentiating y
with respect to u.
du = 2
3x
dx Differentiating u
By the chain rule with respect to x.
dy = dy × du
dx du dx
dy = ( 3 − × )
2 x 33 x2
dx
= 6 x 2x3( − 3)

(ii) 6 x 2x3( − = −3 ) 6x 5 18 x 2 Expanding the answer to (i) (b).

Therefore the two methods do give the same result.

Example 5.9 1
Differentiate y (x = 2
+ .1) 2

Solution
as a
1
1 Expressing y x= +( 2
1)2
Let u x= 2
+ ,1then y u = . 2
function of a function.
dy = 1 u− 2
1

du 2 Differentiating y with respect to u.

= 1
2 u Since the question was in terms of y and
= 1 x not u, your answer must also be given in
2 x2 + 1 terms of x.
du = 2 x
dx Differentiating u with respect to x.
By the chain rule
dy = dy × du
dx du dx
dy = 1 × 2x
dx 2 x 2 +
1
= x
x2 + 1

112
 In the following example you need to find the gradient at a point, so you must
2 )it
first find the gradient function. You could do this by expanding (x −3 , but
is much quicker to use the chain rule.
4

5
Example 5.10 Find the gradient of the curve y x= ( − 2 )4 at the point where x 1= .

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
3

Solution
First express this composite
Let u x= 3
− ,2then y u = . 4
function as a function of a function.
dy = 3
4u
du
= 4 (x 3 − 2 )3 Remember to rewrite in terms of x.
du = 2
3x
dx
By the chain rule
dy = dy × du
dx du dx This is the gradient function of
dy = ( 3 − )3 × 2
the curve. You must now find
⇒
dx
4 x 2 3x the gradient at x 1 = .
= 12 x 2x3( − 2 )3
Substituting x 1= into
dy = ( )2)((
the expression for ddxy . x =1 ⇒
dx
12 1 1
3
−2 )3
= ×12−1=12
−

Therefore the gradient of the curve y x= ( 3 − 2 )4 at the point where

x 1= is 12 − .

With practice, you may find that you can do the necessary substitution mentally,
and just write down the answer, leading to the result below. If you have any
doubt, however, you should write down the full method.

Discussion point
The general rule for differentiating a composite function can be written as
y = g (f )(x) ⇒ ddxy = ʹg f( )(x) × ʹf . (x)
➜ Put this rule into words.
dy du ?
➜ Do you find this rule helpful compared with using y = ×
d
dx du dx

113
 The chain rule
Exercise 5.2
① To differentiate each of the following (ii) Figure 5.16 shows the curve y x = − .6 8
PS functions, decide whether you
10
y

A must use the chain rule

8
B could use the chain rule 6
C would not use the chain rule. 4
If you choose B or C, describe an alternative 2
method for differentiating the function. O 2 4 6 8 10 x
(i) y = (2x − 5)4
(ii) y x= 3 − 3x + 2 Figure 5.16
Find the gradient of the curve at the point
= 1
(iii) y where x 2= .
x2 + 3 1
② Use the chain rule to differentiate the (iii) Figure 5.17 shows the curve y x = 3 + 2 .
following functions. y
(i) y = (3x + 2 )−1 2

(ii) y = (2x 2 + 6 )7
(iii) y = 6x − 2
–2 O 2 x
③ y = (x − 2 )
2 3

(i) By first expanding the brackets,

dy
find .
dx
–2
dy
(ii) Now use the chain rule to find dx . Figure 5.17
(iii) Show that your answers to (i) and (ii) are Find the gradient of the curve at the point
equal.
where x = − 1.
④ (i) Figure 5.15 shows the curve
⑤ Figure 5.18 shows the curve y x= −( 3. 5 )3
y = (4 x 2 − .3)
6
y
y 10

40
5

20 O 1 23

–5

O 1 x –10

Figure 5.15 Figure 5.18

Find the gradient of the curve at the point (i) Use the chain rule to find ddxy .
where x 1 = .
(ii) Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve at the point where x 2= .
(iii) Show that the equation of the normal to
the curve at the point where x 1= can be
written in the form y36x + + = .287 0

114
 ⑥ (i) Given that x

(ii) Given that z

=

=
( t 1− , find )
4

1 + , find z d .
y y dy
dx
dt
.
(iii) The curve has a minimum when x a =.
Find a and verify that this corresponds to
a minimum.
(
(iv) Find the gradient at 1,8) and the equation
5
of the tangent to the curve at this point.
1 dp
(iii) Given that p =
PS

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
, find . ⑩ Some students on an expedition reach the
2r r −6 dr
corner of a large rectangular area of heathland,
⑦ Given that y = ( 2 x − 1)4
which is 4 km long and 2 km wide. They need
(i) find ddxy to reach the opposite corner as quickly as
possible as they are behind schedule.
(ii) find the coordinates of any turning points 4km
and determine their nature start

(iii)
sketch the curve.
⑧ Given that y = (x − −x 2
2 )
4 2km

dy
(i) find dx
(ii) find the coordinates of any turning points finish
and determine their nature
(iii) sketch the curve.
Figure 5.20
They estimate that they could walk along the
⑨ The graph of y = (x 3 − x 2 + 2 )3 is shown in edges of the heath at 5 km h−1 and across the
Figure 5.19. heath at 4 km h−1.
y Giving your answers to the nearest minute,
how long will it take the students to cross the
PS heath if
(i) they walk along the edges of the heath
(ii)they cross the heath diagonally from start
–1 O a x to finish?
Figure 5.19 The students decide to walk some of the
way along the longer edge, and then cross
(i) Find the gradient function ddxy . diagonally to the finish point, in such a way as
to make their time as small as possible.
(ii) Verify, showing your working clearly, that
when x = − 1the curve has a stationary (iii) To the nearest metre, how far along the
point of inflection and that when x 0= edge should they walk and, to the nearest
the curve has a maximum. minute, how long does it take them to
reach the finish point?

115
 Connected rates of change

3 Connected rates of change

The relationship between ddxy and xddy
ACTIVITY 5.3
(i) Differentiate y x = to find ddxy .
3

(ii) Rearrange to make x the subject, and find x ddy in terms of y.

(iii) Rearrange y x= to make x the subject.
3

(iv) Write down the relationship between ddxy and ddxy for y x= . 3

(v) Repeat this process with other functions such as y x =y x , = and

2 4

y = .2Does
x the relationship you wrote down for (iv) seem to be a general
rule?
dy d
The general rule connecting and x is
dx dy
Once again, although dx = 1
this may look obvious, dy dy
you must remember dx
that these terms are not
actually fractions.
Discussion point
dy
dx
is the rate of change of y with respect to x, andddxy is the rate of change of
x with respect to y. In Figure 5.21 the line y=x 2 is drawn in two different ways,
first with the axes the normal way around, and then with the axes interchanged.
➜ How does this demonstrate the result xd = 1 ?
dy dy
dx

y x
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –2 O 2 4 x –4 –2 O 24 y
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

Figure 5.21

116
 Finding connected rates of change
The chain rule makes it possible to differentiate with respect to a variable that
does not feature in the original expression. For example, the volume V of a
5
4
spherical balloon of radius r is given by V = πr 3 . Differentiating this with
3
respect to r gives the rate of change of volume with radius, Vd = 4π r 2.

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
dr
However, you might be more interested in finding the rate of change of volume
with time, t.
To find this, you would use the chain rule:
dV = dV × dr
dt dr dt
= 4π r 2 × dr
dt
You have now differentiated V with respect to t.

Example 5.11 The radius r cm of a circular ripple

made by dropping a stone into
a pond is increasing at a rate of
8 cm s−1.
At what rate is the area A cm2
enclosed by the ripple increasing
when the radius is 25 cm?

Figure 5.22

Solution
= , r d = .8
When r 25 Information given in the question.
dt
A = πr 2 The ripple is a circle.
dA =
2πr
dr
d , the rate of change of area with respect to time.
You want to know A
dt
dA = dA × dr Use the chain rule to link the
You know that
dt dr dt information you have to what
you are trying to find out.
dA = dr
so 2πr × .
dt dt
dr = , dA = × × =
When r 25
= and 8 2π 25 8 1260 .
dt dt
The area is increasing at a rate of 1260 cm2 s−1 (3 s.f.).

117
 The product and quotient rules
Exercise 5.3
dy = dx =− , find PS ⑥ The force, F newtons, between two magnetic
① Given that 6 and 2 1
dx dt poles is given by the formula F = ,
500r 2
the following. where r m is their distance apart.

(i) ddxy (ii) ddxt (iii) ddyt Find the rate of change of the force when the
poles are 0.2 m apart and the distance between
them is increasing at a rate of 0.03 m s−1.
dy = 1 z =− dy = − 1
② Given that
dx 3
,d
dx
1 and
dt 2
, PS ⑦ The area of a circular oil slick is increasing at a
find the following. constant rate of 4 m2 s−1.
Find the rate of increase of the radius when
(i) ddzy (ii) ddxt (iii) ddzt the area is 100 π m2.
PS ⑧ The volume, V m3, of water in a container is
③ Given that A = 5x and dx = 1 , find the
2
given by the expression V h= 8 2 , where h m
dt 2
is the depth of water in the container. The
following.
volume of water in the container is increasing
(i) ddAx at a rate of 2 m3 per hour.
Find the rate of increase of the depth of water
(ii) An expression for Addt in terms of x.
in the container when h 6 = .
PS ⑨ The lengths of the sides of a cube are
(iii) The value of Addt when x 6= . increasing at the rate of 0.1 cm s−1.
PS ④ The lengths of the sides of a square are Find the rate of increase of the volume of the
increasing at a rate of 2 cm s−1. cube when the outer surface area is 24 cm2.
Find the rate at which the area of the square PS ⑩ The volume of a sphere is decreasing at a rate
is increasing when the square has sides of of 60 mm3 s−1. Find the rate of decrease of the
length 4 cm. surface area when the volume is 800 mm3.
⑤ The radius of a circular fungus is increasing at
a uniform rate of 0.5 cm per day. At what rate
PS is the area increasing when the radius is 1 m?

4 The product and quotient rules

The product rule
Figure 5.23 shows the curve y = 20 x( x1) − . 6

Figure 5.23

118
 5
d
If you wanted to find the gradient function, y , for the curve, you could
dx
expand the right-hand side then differentiate it term by term, but this is long

and tedious.

There are other functions like this, made up of the product of two or more

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
simpler functions, which you cannot expand. One such function is
1
y = ( x + 1)22 ( x − 3)4.
Clearly you need a technique for differentiating functions that are products of
simpler ones, and a suitable notation with which to express it.
When differentiating products, the most commonly used notation involves
= , where u and v are functions of x.
writing y uv
1
In the example above, u = +( x 1 )2 and v = ( 2 x3 − . )4

ACTIVITY 5.4
Jack says that if y uv= , ddxy = ddxu × .ddxv
Use the function y x= × tox show that Jack is wrong.
3 6

(i) Simplify the function and differentiate to find ddxy .

(ii) Identify u and v, and find u ddx and vddx .
(iii) Confirm that, in this case, ddxy ≠ ddxu × ddxv .

To find the rule to differentiate products, you can look at the change in area of a
rectangle with increasing sides (see Figure 5.24).
dv

v A

u du

Figure 5.24
The original (blue) rectangle has an area of y uv= .
When you make a small increase to u and to v, the increase in the area of the
rectangle is given by the sum of the areas of the red, green and yellow rectangles:
dA = udv + vdu + dudv.
Because both du and dv are small, the yellow rectangle has a very small area. So
dA =
Divide through by dx. dx
u ddvx + v du + dudv .
dx dx

119
 The product and quotient rules
Taking the limit as dx, du and dv tend to zero leads to
dA =
dx
u ddxv + v ddxu .

This result is called y uv

= ⇒ dy =
u ddxv + v ddxu
the product rule. dx

Example 5.12 Differentiate y = 20 x (x − 1)6 .

Solution
First identify u and v. u = 20 x v = −( x 1 )6

Differentiate u and v, du = dv = ( − )5
using the chain rule if dx
20
dx
6 x 1
necessary.
Using the product rule
Discussion point dy =
dx
u ddvx + v du
dx
➜ Does it matter which
function you call u dy =
and which you dx
20 x × 6 ( x − +
1)− × ( x
5
1)20
6

call v?
To simplify the answer, look for common factors. In this case both terms
contain 20 and x( −1 . )5

⇒ dy = ( − )5 [
20 x 1 6 x x+ −( 1)] Factorise by taking these
dx common factors out.
dy = ( − )5 ( − )
⇒ 20 x 1 7 1 x
dx

The quotient rule

Suppose you want to differentiate a function that is the quotient of two simpler
ACTIVITY 5.5 functions, for example y = 32x1 2 . You can write this in the form y = ,u
+
(x − 2) v
If y u= ,vdoes where u and v are functions of x. In this example, u x= +3 and
1
du v = (x 2 − 2 )2.
dy = dx
dx dv ?
dx
u
To find the rule to differentiate quotients, you can rewrite y = as y uv = ,
1
v
−

Use the function y x= x and use the product rule.

7

to investigate. Because v is a function of x, to differentiate v −1, you must use the chain rule.
d (v )1 = − × −2
−

v dv
dx dx
You might find it easier
to see this if you put
brackets around the v :
=( ) .
v −1 v −1

120
 du
dx
u v −1
−v −2 dv
dx
5
dy =
( v) ddxv u Applying the product

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
So y u= ⇒
v dx
v −u1 ddx +− −2

rule.
Discussion point = 1 du − u dv
You have already seen v dx v 2 dx
that when using the
product rule, it does not v ddux − u ddvx Putting fractions over a
matter which function common denominator.
you call u and which v. =
v2
➜ Does it matter which
function you call u dy = v ddux − u ddvx
and which v when
using the quotient dx v2
rule?
dy = v ddux − u ddvx This result is called the
y u= ⇒
v dx v2
quotient rule.

Example 5.13 x 2 + 1 , find dy using the quotient rule.

Given that y =
3x − 1 dx

Solution
u x= 2 +1 v = −3x1 First identify u and v.
du = 2 x dv = 3
dx dx Differentiate u and v.
Using the quotient rule
ACTIVITY 5.6 dy = v ddux − u ddvx
You could have dx v2
differentiated
y = 3xx − 11 by
2+
dy = (3x − 1×)2 x x− ( + 1×)3
2

rewriting it as dx (3x1 − )2
y = (x 2 + 1)3( x − 1)−1, Expand the brackets in
dy = 6 x 2 − 2 x − 3x 2 − 3 the numerator.
and using the product ⇒
dx (3x − 1)2
rule.
Verify that this method dy = 3x 2 − 2 x − 3 Simplify to get the final
gives you the same ⇒
dx
answer.
answer as Example 5.13. (3x − 1)2

121
 The product and quotient rules
Exercise 5.4
① Copy and complete Table 5.2 to show how you would differentiate the following functions.
Table 5.2 This row shows an example.
Function Product rule, quotient u v
rule or neither?
( x + 1)6
y = Quotient u x= 1+( )6 v x= 1−3
3
x −1

(i) y = (x 2 − 1)(x 3 + 3 )2

(ii) y = (2 x 3 − 3 )5

x+1
(iii) y =
x2
(iv) y x x= 2 2 −

② Use the product rule to differentiate the (ii) Figure 5.26 shows the curve
following functions. y x= +( 1)
3 ( x )
− 2, 0 x > .
(i) y x= 2 (2x − 1)4
( −8) .
Find the gradient at the point 1,
(ii) y = (x + 1) x − 1 y
30
(iii) y = x (x 3− )
3
20
③ Use the quotient rule to differentiate the 10
following functions.
(i) y = x − x
2 O 2 46
−10
3x 1
−20
(1 −2 x )3
(ii) y = −30
3
x
x
(iii) y =
x 1+ Figure 5.26
④ (i) Figure 5.25 shows the curve (iii) Figure 5.27 shows the curve
y = xx + 21 .
+
y = x +1,x > −1.
x2
Find the gradient at the point 0, 12 . () Find the gradient at the point3, 29 . ()
y y
4

6
2

–6 –4 –2 O 2 x
2
–2

−1 O 1 2 x

Figure 5.25 Figure 5.27

122
⑤ Given that y = ( x + 1)( x − 2 )
(i) find ddxy
2

(ii) find the coordinates of the turning 2points

(iii) Find the coordinates of the
turning points of the curve

y = 2x32+x5 .
x2
−−
5
of the curve y = ( x + 1)( x − 2 ) and PS ⑧ Find the coordinates and nature of the turning
points of the curve y x=x 32 ( − , and
)4 sketch

noitaitnereffiD 5 retpahC
determine their nature
(iii) sketch the curve. the curve.
3x 2x
⑥ Figure 5.28 shows the curve y = 2 x − 3 . ⑨ The graph of the function y = is
y
x −1
6 undefined for x 0< and x 1 = .
P is a stationary point.
4 y

P
−4 −2 O 2 4 x

−2 O x

−4

Figure 5.28
Figure 5.30
(i) Find ddxy . dy
(ii) Find the equation of the tangent to the (i) Find .
dx
curve at the point where x = 1. (ii) Find the gradient of the curve at the point
(iii) Find the equation of the normal to the A with coordinates (9, 9),
curve at the origin. and show that the equation of the normal
(iv) Find the coordinates of the point where at A is y = − 4+x45.
the normal to the curve at the origin cuts (iii) Find the coordinates of P and verify that
the curve again. it is a minimum point.
⑦ Figure 5.29 shows the curve PS (iv) The point Q is the intersection of the
x 2 −
2x − 5 normal at A and the tangent at P. The
y =
2x + 3 . point R is the intersection of the normal
y
at A and the normal at P.
4 Find the area of triangle PQR.
2 ⑩ A function is given by
−4 −2 O 2 4 x f (x) x= 9 2− , 0x 2 <<x 3 22 .
−2 (i) Find the coordinates of the maximum
−4
point on the curve y x= f () .
−6
−8
(ii) What is the gradient of the curve at the
origin?
Figure 5.29 (iii) What is the value of y when x = 23 2 ?
What is the gradient of the curve at this
dy d2y
(i) Find .
dx (ii) Find dx 2 . point?
(iv) Sketch the curve.

123
 The product and quotient rules

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
know what is meant by concave upwards and concave downwards in terms of
the shape of a section of curve, and its second derivative
➤

➤ know what is meant by a point of inflection

❍ use differentiation to find stationary and non-stationary points of inflection
❍ use stationary points of inflection when curve sketching
➤ differentiate the product of two functions
➤ differentiate the quotient of two functions
➤ use the chain rule to
❍ differentiate composite functions
❍ find connected rates of change
❍ differentiate inverse functions.

KEY POINTS
d2y
1 When dx 2 >
0
, a curve is concave upwards.

d2y
When 0
, a curve is concave downwards.
dx 2 <

Figure 5.31
2 At a point of inflection, a curve changes between from being concave upwards
to being concave downwards, or vice versa.
At a point of inflection, ddxy = . 0
2

Some points of inflection are also stationary points, where ddxy = .0

2

3 Chain rule: ddxy = dduy × ddxu

dy =
4 Product rule: y uv= ⇒
dx
u ddxv + v ddxu

FUTURE USES 5 Quotient rule: y u dy = v ddux − u ddv x

You will apply these =
v
⇒
dx v2
techniques for
differentiation to a 6
dx = 1
wider range of functions dy dy
in Chapter 9. dx

124
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS: PURE MATHEMATICS 1
① Figure 1 shows a sector of a circle with radius r cm. The angle subtended at
the centre of the circle is u radians.

1 scitamehtaM eruP snoitseuq ecitcarP

θ

r r

Figure 1
The perimeter of the sector is 3 cm.
3 r r− 2 cm 2
(i) Show that the area of the sector is
2
. [3 marks]
(ii) Find the value of u when the area of the sector is a maximum,
justifying your answer. [4 marks]

② (i) Find the value of the y coordinate on each of the curves

()
y = cos xand y = cos x − +π6 0.5 when x = − π3and
when x = − .π [2 marks]
2
(ii) Give the coordinates of one point with positive x coordinate
where the curves y = cos x and y = cos x − +
π
6
( )
0.5 cross. [2 marks]
(iii) Describe a transformation that maps the curve y = cos x on
to the curve y = cos x − +( )
π
6
0.5. [2 marks]

(x − .1)
4
③ You are given that y =
2

d 2y =
(i) Show that 8(x − 1) (7 x − .1)
2 22
[4 marks]
dx 2

1)
State the set of values of x for which y x= −( is concave
4
(ii) 2

downwards. [2 marks]

x 3
④ You are given that xf ( ) = +x − 1 .

(i) Find ff(x). Hence write down f 1 ( x ).

−
[4 marks]
(ii) Deduce the equation of a line of symmetry of the
graph y = f (x) . [1 mark]

b where a, b and c are integers.

(iii) Write f(x) in the form a + x c−
[2 marks]
1
(iv) Starting with the curve y x= , write down a sequence of
transformations that would result in the curve y x= f ( ) . [3 marks]

125
 Practice questions: Pure Mathematics 1
T ⑤ Figure 2 shows a spreadsheet with the information about day length on
different dates in a town in northern England. The day length is the time
between sunrise and sunset. It is given in hours and minutes in column
C and in hours in decimal form in column D. Some of the rows in the
spreadsheet are missing and some of the cells have not been completed.
The graph in Figure 3 was drawn by the spreadsheet; it shows the number
of hours of daylight plotted against day number for the whole year.

A B C D
1 Day number Date Actual day length Actual day length
(x) (hours:mins) (y hours)
2 0 31 Dec 07:40 7.666667
3 1 1 Jan 07:41 7.683333
4 2 2 Jan 07:42 7.7
5 3 3 Jan 07:43 7.716667

154 152 1 June 16:24 16.4

155 153 2 June 16:26 16.43333

21 June 16:45

21 Dec 07:35
Figure 2
y
(hours)

20
15
Day length

10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 x
Day number

Figure 3
(i) A model of the form y a=b−x cos ° is suggested for the length
y hours of day x.
■ The shortest day is 21st December.
■ The longest day is 21st June.
Find values of a and b consistent with this information. [5 marks]
(ii) Compare the length of day which the model predicts for
21st June with the actual day length. [3 marks]
(iii) the graph
Explain of yeach
why a b xof the two following transformations of
=− cos ° would make it a better model
for day length.
(a) Stretch parallel to x-axis.
(b) Translation parallel to x-axis. [2 marks]

126
 P ⑥ A three term arithmetic sequence has a non-zero
difference. Prove by contradiction that the three terms, in the same
common
order as for the arithmetic sequence, cannot form a geometric
sequence. [5 marks]
PST ⑦ A geometric sequence has first term 1. The product of the
first 9 terms is 262 144.
Find the possible values for the sum of the first 9 terms. [6 marks]

snoitseuq
ecitcarP
PS P ⑧ Figure 4 shows the curve y x= −
4
1.5x 2 + .3
y

1 scitamehtaM eruP
C

A B

O x

Figure 4
The curve has points of inflection at A and B. The tangents and normals
to the curve at points A and B are shown. The tangents intersect at C.
The normals intersect at D.
(i) Find the coordinates of A and B. [5 marks]
(ii) Show that ACBD is a square. [5 marks]

127
 R Review: The sine and cosine
rules
1 Working with triangles
In a right-angled triangle, for 0° < u < 90°, the trigonometric functions are

opposite 90° – θ
sinu =
hypotenuse ten
us e
h ypo opposite
adjacent
cosu =
hypotenuse
θ

opposite adjacent
tanu =
adjacent Figure R.1

Also sin u = cos (90° − u)

and cos u = sin (90° − u).

C
Here is a reminder of the general formula for
the area of a triangle, and the sine and cosine
rules, which can be used for any triangle ABC.
b

When people thought the

Area A
Earth was flat, they were Area of a triangle = ab21 Csin c
wrong. When people B
thought the Earth was
spherical, they were The cosine rule Figure R.2
wrong. But if you think For an unknown side: a 2b =c + 2−2 2bccos
A
Always check for
that thinking the Earth is
For an unknown angle: cos A = b c a
2 2+
2 −
the ambiguous case
spherical is just as wrong 2bc when you are given
as thinking the Earth is two sides and a
flat, then your view is non-included angle
The sine rule of a triangle and are
wronger than both of using the sine rule
them put together.
For an unknown side: a b c to find one of the
Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) sin A
=
sin B
=
sin C other angles. In such
cases u and 180°− u
For an unknown angle: sin A sin B = sin C can both be correct
a b c answers.

128
 Example R.1 Two hikers set off from point A.
Some time later Ben has walked 8 km on a bearing of 065° to point B.
Carla has walked 6 km on a bearing of 135° to point C.
R
The points A, B and C are on level ground.
Find

selur enisoc dna enis ehT weiveR

(i) the distance between Ben and Carla
(ii) the bearing of Carla from Ben at that time.

Solution
=
180° − 65° 115°
N
Always start with
a diagram. Fill in
115° B all the information
N 8km θ you know from the
question …
=
135° − 65° 70° 65°
70°
A

… and check to 6km

see if there are any
angles you can work
out straight away. C

Figure R.3
(i) You know two sides and the angle between them and you want to
find the third side, so use the cosine rule.
BC 2 = AB2 + AC 22 −AB × BC cos× × A
= 8 2 + −6 2× × 2× 8 6 cos 70 °
= 67.16...

⇒ BC = 8.195… Keep the answer stored in your calculator.

= 8.20 km (to 3 s.f.)
Ben and Carla are 8.20 km (to 3 s.f.) apart.
(ii) You need to find u first before you can work out the bearing.
You know three sides and need to find an angle – so you could use
Discussion point the cosine rule again. Or you could use the sine rule.

➜ Check that using the sinu = sin 70°

Use the exact value
cosine rule would 6 8.195...
calculated in part
(i).
give you the same ⇒ sinu = 6 sin 70° = 0.687...
answer. ⇒
8.195...
u = 43.5°(to 3 s.f.)
So the bearing is 360° − 115° − 43.5° = 201.5°.

129
 Working with triangles
Example R.2 Find the area of triangle ABC. C

30°
3.6cm
2.8cm

A B

Figure R.4
Solution You know two sides and the angle between
Area of a triangle = ab1 C sin
them, so you can use the general formula
2 for the area of a triangle.
= ×1 × sin×30
3.6 2.8 °
2
= 2.52 cm2

Review exercise R.1

① For each triangle in Figure R.5 find (iii) Y
39°
12cm
X

(a) the angle u (b) the area.

(i) X x
11m 92°
8m
θ Z Z
Y 12m

(ii) C (iv)

9cm
7cm

108°
θ Figure R.6
A B
③ A tower 60 m high stands on the top of a hill.
Figure R.5 From a point on the ground at sea level, the
② Find the length x in each triangle in Figure R.6. angles of elevation of the top and bottom of
(i) P 7.1cm
Q
the tower are 49° and 37° respectively.
39.9° Find the height of the hill.
x 4.2cm ④ Find the angle u in Figure R.7.
R

(ii) Z L 7x
M
x 3x θ
5x
5.3cm
29° 108° N
Y

X
Figure R.7

130
⑤ In triangle ABC, AB = 8 cm, BC = 7 cm and
angle CAB = 56°.
Find the possible sizes for the angle BCA.
⑨ X, Y, and Z are three points on level ground.
Point Y is 2 km from X on a bearing of 117°,
and Z is 5 km from X on a bearing of 204°.
Find
R
⑥ Three points A, B and C lie in a straight line
on level ground with B between A and C. (i) ∠YXZ

selur enisoc dna enis ehT weiveR

A vertical mast BD stands at B and is (ii) the distance YZ.
supported by wires, two of which are along the
⑩ A triangle has sides of length 3 cm, 8 cm and
lines AD and CD.
7 cm.
Given that ∠DAB = 55°, ∠DCB = 42° and Find the exact area of the triangle.
AC = 85 m, find the lengths of the wires AD
and CD and the height of the mast. ⑪ The area of triangle ABC is 12 3 cm 2.
⑦ A yacht sets off from A and sails 3km on a AB = 6 cm and AC = 8 cm. Angle BAC
bearing of 045° to a point B. It then sails 1km on is acute.
a bearing of 322° to a point C. B
Find the distance AC.
6cm
⑧ The lengths of the hands of a clock are 7 cm
and 10 cm. C
A 8cm
Find the distance between the tips of the hands
at 8 p.m. Figure R.8
Find the exact perimeter of the triangle.

131
 Problem solving Triples A
T

Look at the triangle in Figure 1.

You can use Pythagoras’ theorem to
show that it is right angled. 17
8
82 + 15 2 = 17 2
Alternatively you can use the cosine rule B C
on angle B. 15

2 2 2
Figure 1
+ −
cos B = 8 15×17 ×
= 0 ⇒ B = °90 .
2 8 15
The sides of the triangle are all integers and so the set {8, 15, 17} is called a
Pythagorean triple. There are formulae for generating them, for example
{2n, n 2 − 1, n 2 + 1} where n is an integer greater than 1.
A
Your first question is:
How can you be certain that this
generator works? b=7
c=5
Now look at the triangle in Figure 2.

B C
a=8

In this case the angle B is given by Figure 2

cos B c= + − a b 2 = 25 +64−49
2 2
= =40and so
1 B = 60°.
2ca 2×5 8× 80 2
The set {8, 7, 5} forms a different sort of triple, giving an angle of 60 o rather
than a right angle. This set of integers is a 60° triple.
Equilateral triangles obviously give rise to these triples, for example
{5, 5, 5} but there are others too.
Your second question is:
How can you find these other 60° triples?

1 Problem specification and analysis

At the moment the problem is somewhat open-ended. Some preliminary
ideas will help to tie it down.
If {a, b, c} is a 60° triple with angle B = 60°, the cosine rule gives
2
cos B c= + − a2 b2 = .1
2ca 2
After a few lines of algebra this can be rearranged as the equation
(b c+a−b c a )( − + = ) ac .
So multiplying (b+c −a by ) (b−c +a gives) ac.
There are three options for analysing this. The first two are
a Set (b+c −a = ) a and so (b−c +a = c, or)vice versa.
c
b Set (b+c −a = ) na and so (b−c +a = ) n where n is an integer greater
than 1.
These two will provide the basis for your investigation and information
collection.

132
2 Information collection
The first question Start by setting up a spreadsheet for the first 100
Pythagorean triples generated by {2n, n2 − 1, n 2 + 1} for n > 2. Use an extra
column to check that the generator works for all these values of n.
You should find that it does work for these 100 Pythagorean triples but to be

selpirT gnivlos melborP

certain you should also prove it algebraically.
The second question Show that option a for the analysis of 60° triples
always gives you equilateral triangles.
Now prove that eliminating c between the equations in option b leads to the
⎛ 2 + + 1⎞
equation b a n n⎜⎝
= ⎟.
2n1+ ⎠

Use this to find the 60° triple generator with =a +n 2 1.

Set this up on a spreadsheet.
3 Processing and representation
For the first question, the essential processing and representation have been
done on the spreadsheet. You may choose to copy the listing of Pythagorean
triples from the spreadsheet into another document. However, this task is not
complete without an algebraic proof that the generator works.
For the second question, the first task is essentially algebra.
The next task begins with algebra and then goes into a spreadsheet. Again
you may wish to copy the spreadsheet listing into another document. This list
is of 60° triples and you will want to check if you have listed them all.
A way of checking is to notice B′
that, apart from the equilateral
triangles, each triple has a partner 3
triangle.
A A′
You can see this in Figure 3
8
for the blue {8, 7, 5} triangle.
7
Fitting it into the equilateral 5
7
triangle of side 8 reveals its red
partner triangle with a triple of
{8, 7, 3}.
B C C′
So you now have a possible check 8

of whether your generator has Figure 3

caught all the 60° triples.
4 Interpretation
At this stage you will want to tie up any loose ends, particularly if you have
found that your generator missed some of the 60° triples.
In the Problem specification and analysis section, you were told there are
three options but were only given two of them to work on, a and b.
Now it is time to investigate option c.
c Set (b+c −a = )
n a and so (b−c +a = ) m c where m and n are both
m n
integers greater than 1.

133
 Working with triangles

KEY POINTS C
1 For any triangle ABC
a = b = c (sine rule)
n
sin A sin B sin C b

n a 2 = b 2 + −c 2 2bccos A (cosine rule) a

n area = bc A21 sin . A

c
B

2 Table R.1 Summary of the use of the sine and cosine rules
Triangle You know You want Use
3 sides Any angle Cosine rule

? cos A = b 2c 2a+2 −
2bc
?
?

2 sides + included angle 3rd side

a 2b2c=2 + − 2bccos
A
?

2 angles + 1 side Any side Sine rule

a = b
sin A sin B
?

2 sides + 1 angle Any angle

sin A = sin B
a b

Don’t forget that once you know two Check for the ambiguous
angles in a triangle, you can use ‘angles case: sometimes 180°− u
sum to 180°’ to find the third angle! is also a solution.

134
 6 Trigonometric functions

One must divide one’s ➜ How does the photo here of a time lapse of the sun’s position in the sky show
time between politics how the sine and cosine functions can model real life situations?
and equations. But our ➜ Where else do you encounter sine and cosine waves in real life?
equations are much

1 Reciprocal trigonometric functions

more important to me,
because politics is
for the present, while
our equations are for As well as the three main trigonometric functions, sin , cos and tan , there
eternity. are three more which are commonly used. These are their reciprocals – cosecant
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) (cosec), secant (sec) and cotangent (cot), defined by
Use the 3rd letter
cosec
1
=sin
1 1 = cosu of e ach reciprocal
u ; sec = cosu; cot =
()
u sinu. function to
tan remind you which
Each of these is undefined for certain values of . For trigonometric
example, cosec is undefined for = 0°, 180°, 360°, … function it is
since sin is zero for these values of . paired with.
Figure 6.1 overleaf shows the graphs of these functions. Notice how all three of the
functions have asymptotes at intervals of 180°.

135
 Reciprocal trigonometric functions
y y

1 1 y = cos x

−360º −180º 0 180º 360º x −360º −180º 0 180º 360º x

−1 y = sin x −1

y = cosec x y = sec x

y = tan x

The asymptotes for y = tan u have

been omitted for clarity.
1

−360º −180º 0 180º 360º x

−1

y = cot x

Figure 6.1

For any angle (in degrees or radians): y

Discussion point sinu y= , cosu x= , tanu =

y P(x, y)

➜ Use the diagram x

of the unit circle in You have already met the identities 1
Figure 6.2 to explain y

why these identities ■ tanu ≡ sin , for cosu ≠ 0,

u
cosu θ
are true. O x x
■ sin u + cos 2 u ≡ 1.
2

Figure 6.2

136
You will use this identity
Using the definitions of the reciprocal functions two alternative trigonometric
forms of Pythagoras’ theorem can be obtained.
(i) Start with sin2 + cos2 ≡ 1.
6
in mechanics, when you sin 2
cos 2
u ≡ 1
use the equation of the Divide both sides by cos 2 : 2 u +
trajectory of a projectile
2
cos u cos u cos 2 u

snoitcnuf cirtemonogirT 6 retpahC

to fi nd the angle of ⇒ tan + 1 ≡ sec2 .
projection. 2

(ii) Start with sin2 + cos

2
≡ 1.
2 2
sin u cos u ≡ 1
cotu = 1 = cosu Divide both sides by sin 2 : 2 + 2
tanu sinu sin u sin u sin 2 u
⇒ 1 + cot 2 ≡ cosec2 .
These three trigonometric identities are called the Pythagorean identities, as
they are all derived from Pythagoras’ theorem.

The Pythagorean identities

sin2 + cos2 ≡ 1; tan2 + 1 ≡ sec2 ; 1 + cot 2 ≡ cosec2 .

If you can’t remember the second and third identities, you can easily
work them out from the fi rst one, as shown above.

Questions involving reciprocal functions are usually most easily solved by

considering the related function, as in the following example.

Example 6.1 Find cosec 120° leaving your answer in surd form.

Solution
1
cosec 120° = sin120° sin 120° = sin (180° − 120°) = sin 60°
3
=1÷ It is easier to write it like this rather than
2
dealing with a ‘triple-decker’ fraction.
2 = 23
=
3 3

Example 6.2 Given that sec = −35 and is reflex, find the exact value of
(i) sin (ii) cot .
A reflex angle is between 180° and 360°.
Solution
(i) sec = −35⇒ cosu = − 53 secu = 1
cosu
➜

137
 Reciprocal trigonometric functions

Use the identity sin 2 u + cos 2 u ≡ 1.

⇒ sin 2 u ≡ −1 cos 2 u
⇒ sin u = −1 3
2
(5 ) 2

So sin 2 u = −1 9 = 16
25 25

So sin u= ± 16 =± 4
25 5
Use the CAST diagram to work out the correct sign for sin θ.
90°

S A

cos θ is negative so θ must

lie in either the 2nd or the
3rd quadrant.
180° 0°
θ

But θ is reflex, so θ is in the

3rd quadrant.
T C

270°

Figure 6.3
cot u ≡
1
and tan u ≡ sin u .
tan u cos u
Hence sin u = − . 45
cos u
(ii) Use the identity cot u ≡ .
sin u
−4
⇒ cotu = 5 = 4
−3 3 − 4− ÷= −3× − = 4 5 4
5 5 5 3 3
5

Exercise 6.1
① Without using a calculator, write the following ② In triangle ABC, angle A = 90° and
in exact form. sec B = 2.
(i) (a) sin 135° (b) cos 135° (i) Find the angles B and C.
(c) cot 135° (d) sec 135° (ii) Find tan B.
(ii) (a) sin (−150)° (b) sec 150° (iii) Show that 1 + tan B = sec B.
2 2

(c) tan 150° (d) cosec 150° ③ In triangle LMN, angle M = 90° and cot N = 1.
(iii) (a) tan 420° (b) cos (−420)° (i) Find the angles L and N.
(c) sin 420° (d) cot (−420°) (ii) Find sec L, cosec L and tan L.
(iv) (a) cos 210°
2
(b) sin 210°
2
(iii) Show that 1 + tan L = sec L.
2 2

(c) 2
cot (−210°) (d) sec 210°
2

138
④ Malini is 1.5 m tall.
At 8 p.m. one evening her shadow is 6 m long.
⑩ Starting with the graph of y = sec x, state the
transformations which can be used to sketch
each of the following curves.
6
(i) y = −2sec x
(ii) y = −sec 2x

snoitcnuf cirtemonogirT 6 retpahC

a
(iii) y = 2 + sec (−x)
(iv) y = 2sec x2
Figure 6.4 (v) y = −sec (x + 30)
Given that the angle of elevation of the sun at (vi) y = 2 − sec x
that moment is α ⑪ Sketch the graphs of the following functions
(i) show that cot α = 4 for < 0 <x 360°.
(ii) find α. (i) f (x) 2=sec+ x
⑤ Find the domain and range of (ii) f (x) cot
=− x
(i) f(x) = sec x (iii) f (x) cosec
= 2 x
(ii) f(x) = cosec x (iv) f (x) sec(
= 30 x) + °

(iii) f(x) = cot x. ⑫ Figure 6.5 shows f(x) = sin x and

g(x) = a + b cosec cx for 0° ¯ x ¯ 360°.
3
⑥ Given that cos u = 2 and u is acute, find the y
exact value of 3

(i) sin u (ii) tan u . 2

7 1
f(x)
⑦ Given that cot u = 3 and u is reflex, find the
exact value of O
(i)
cos u
45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360° x

(ii)
cosec u .
–1
g(x)
⑧ Given that cosec u = k and u is acute, show that –2

k2 − 1
(i) cos u = k –3

1 Figure 6.5
(ii) tan2 u = k 2 − 1 .

⑨ For each of the following functions (i) Find the values of a, b and c.
(a) find the range, expressing each answer as (ii) Use the graph to solve f(x) = g(x).
an inequality (iii) How many roots does the equation
(b) state the period f(2x) = g(x) have?
(c) 0° <
sketch the graph for < x 360°. Explain your reasoning.
(i) f(x) = sec 3x
(ii) f(x) = 3cot x
(iii) f(x) = cosec x − 3
(iv) f(x) = 3 + sec x3

139
 Working with trigonometric equations and identities

2 Working with trigonometric

equations and identities
Inverse trigonometric functions
The functions sine, cosine and tangent are all many-to-one mappings, so their
inverse mappings are one-to-many. So the problem ‘find sin 30°’ has only one
solution, 0.5, but ‘solve sin u = 0.5’ has infinitely many roots. You can see this
from the graph of y = sin u (Figure 6.6).
y
1

0.5

–360º –180º 0 30º 180º 360º θ

–0.5

–1 y = sin θ

Figure 6.6
In order to define inverse functions for sine, cosine and tangent, a restriction
has to be placed on the domain of each so that it becomes a one-to-one
mapping. The restricted domains are listed in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Function Restricted domain (degrees) Restricted domain(radians)
y = sin u −90
° < u< 90° − π < u< π
2 2
y cos
= u 0° < u< 180° 0 < u< π
Remember that − π< < u π
tan ± 90° is y tan
= u −90
° < < °u 90 2 2
undefi ned.
Notation
Table 6.2
Function Inverse
sin x arcsin x or sin−1 x or invsin x
cos x arccos x or cos−1 x or invcos x
tan x arctan x or tan−1 x or invtan x

When you use your calculator to find arcsin 0.5 it will return just one answer –
this value is called the principal value and it lies in the restricted domain.
To solve a trigonometric equation, you need to find all the roots in a given
range.

140
 Figure 6.7 shows the graph of each trigonometric function over its restricted
domain, and that of its corresponding inverse function.

y = arccos x
y

�
6
y=x

y
� y = arcsin x �
2 y=x 2
1 1
y = sin x

O � x O � � x
− 2� −1 1
2
−1 1
2

−1 −1
y = cos x

− 2�
y
y=x

Notice that the inverse �

2
functions have been y = arctan x
drawn using reflection
in the line y = x. This is
only possible if the same
scale is used on both O � x
axes, so the angle must − 2� 2

be plotted in radians
rather than degrees.
− 2�

y = tan x

Figure 6.7

Solving trigonometric equations

Example 6.3 Solve the following.
(i) sin x = 0.5 for 0° < u< 360°
(ii) sin(u + °40= ) 0.5 for 0 ° < u< 360°

Solution
(i) sin x = 0.5
This is the principal value.
From your calculator: x 30
= °.
From the graph of y = sin x then a second root is
x 180
= ° − °30
= 150°.
So x = °30 or x = 150°.
➜

141
 Working with trigonometric equations and identities

(ii) sin(u + °40= ) 0.5 y = sin(θ + 40°) is a translation of

y = sin θ by the vector ⎛⎝−40 ⎞⎠ .
0
y
1 y = sin(θ + 40°)
y = sin θ
y = 0.5

0 90° 180° 270° 360° θ

–1

Figure 6.8 You need to change the interval to

0°40
+ ° + °< u < 40 ° + °
40 360 .
x + °u
Let = x
40 so sin x = 0.5 for 40° < < 400°.
Using part (i), x = °30 or x = °.150
30° is out of range, so the second root is 30° + 360° = 390°.
u + °40= 150° ⇒ = ° u 110 Subtract 40° from each
value of x to find the
or u + °40= 390° ⇒ = ° u 350 .
corresponding value of u .
Example 6.4 2 for 0° u
Solve cos 2u = << 360°.
2

Solution
First sketch the graph.
y
y = cos 2θ y = cos θ
1 √2
y=2

O 90° 180° 270° 360° θ

y = cos 2θ is a one-way
–1 stretch, scale factor parallel
1

to the θ axis. So there are four

2

Figure 6.9 roots, not two.

2
Let x = 2 so cos x = x
and 0° < < 720°.
2
Find the principal value From your calculator: x 45
Change the interval to
from your calculator. = °.
2×
0 2° × < u < 2× °
360 .

142
SInce x = 2 , halve each
x value to fi nd the roots
From the graph of y = cos x a second root is x 360
So x = 45°, 315°, 405°, 675°
=°−45° 315
= °.

Add 360° to these two x values until

you have found all the roots in the
6
for .
and = 22.5°, 157.5°, 202.5°, 337.5°.
interval 0 < <x 720 .
° °

snoitcnuf cirtemonogirT 6 retpahC

Sometimes you will need to use one or more trigonometric identities to help
you solve an equation.

Example 6.5 Find values of in the interval 0 ¯ ¯ 360° for which sec2 = 4 + 2tan .

Solution y

Replace sec 2 with First you need to obtain an equation 3

tan2 + 1. containing only one trigonometric y = tan θ

function.
Now you have a quadratic sec2 = 4 + 2tan
equation in tan , so
rearrange so it equals 0. ⇒ tan2 + 1 = 4 + 2tan
0 180º 360º
⇒ tan2 − 2tan −3=0 θ
You can factorise this –1
in the same way as ⇒ (tan − 3)(tan + 1) = 0
x2 − 2x − 3 ⇒ tan = 3 or tan = −1.
= (x − 3) (x + 1).
tan =3⇒ = 71.6°
From your calculator. or = 71.6° + 180° = 251.6°.

See Figure 6.10.

tan = −1 ⇒ = −45° Figure 6.10
or = −45° + 180° = 135° Don’t worry that this is out of range –
or = 135° + 180° = 315° you still use it to find the other roots.
Add 180° to find other
roots. The values of are 71.6°, 135°, 251.6°, 315°.

Using trigonometric identities

You can use the identities

sin2 + cos2 ≡ 1, tan2 + 1 ≡ sec2 , 1 + cot 2 ≡ cosec2

tanu ≡ sin , cot u ≡ cos

u u
cosu sinu

to prove that other identities are true.

143
 Working with trigonometric equations and identities
Example 6.6 Prove the identity cotu + tanu ≡ secucosec .u

Solution
It is sensible to work with one side of the identity at a time.
Working with the LHS: Left-Hand Side
cotu + tanu =
cosu + sinu
sinu cosu
Rewrite using sin and cos.
2
= cos u + sin u
2 Use cotu ≡ cos
sinu and
u
cosusin u sinucos
u
2 + 2 tanu ≡ sinu .
= cos u sin u cosu
cosusinu
= 1 Use sin u + cos 1u ≡ .
2 2

cosusin u
= secucosec u 1 = ×secucosec u
Right-Hand Side = RHS as required. cosusin
u

Exercise 6.2
① Solve the following equations ④ Solve the following equations for
for 0° ¯ x ¯ 360°. 0° ¯ x ¯ 360°.

(i) cos x =
3
(ii) sin x =
3 (i) cosec x = 1 (ii) sec x = 2
2 2
3
(iii) cot x = 4 (iv) sec x = −3
(iii) tan x = 3 (iv) cos x = − 2 (v) cot x = −1 (vi) cosec x = −2
⑤ Prove each of the following identities.
3
(v) sin x = − 2 (vi) tan x = − 3 (i) cotusinu cos≡ u
② Write down the number of roots for each of (ii) tan x ≡ usin
sec x
the following equations.
(iii) cos 2usin−2cos2u1 ≡ 2 −
u
(i) cos x = 0.4 (iv) sec 2u − cosec 2u ≡ tan 2ucot− 2
for 0° ¯ x ¯ 360° u
(ii) sin x = −0.4 ⑥ Solve the following equations for
0° ¯ x ¯ 360°.
for 0° ¯ x ¯ 360°
(iii) tan x = −0.4 (i) cos x = sec x
for 0° ¯ x ¯ 180° (ii) cosec x = sec x
(iv) cos 2x = −0.4 (iii) 2 sin x = 3 cot x
for 0° ¯ x ¯ 360°
(iv) cosec 2 x + cot 2 x = 2
(v) 2 sin x = −0.4 (v) 3 sec 2 x − 10 tan x = 0
for −360° ¯ x ¯ 360°
(vi) 1 + cot 2 x = 2 tan2 x
(vi) tan (x − 30°) = −0.4 ⑦ Prove each of the following identities.
for −360° ¯ x ¯ 360°
③ Write down the domain and range of the
(i) sec 2u + cosec 2usec≡cosec2u u 2
following functions, where x is in radians. tan 2u1 − ≡ 2 sin2u1 −
(ii) tan 2u1 +
(i) f(x) = arccos x
(ii) f(x) = arcsin x (iii) 1 −cos u ≡ secutan
sin u
u+
(iii) f(x) = arctan x (iv) 1 −sin1 u + 1 +sin1 u ≡ 2 sec2u
(v) sec4u − tan 4sec
u ≡tan 2u + 2
u
144
 3 Solving equations involving radians 6
Make sure you put You can solve trigonometric equations in radians in a similar way to solving
your calculator into them in degrees. Sometimes the roots can be given in exact form in terms of π,
radians mode. as in the next example.

snoitcnuf cirtemonogirT 6 retpahC

Example 6.7 Solve sec 2 = 2 for 0 < < 2π giving your answers as multiples of π.

So you need to find all Solution

the roots in the interval Let x = 2 , then sec x = 2. Remember that sec x = cos1 x .
0 < x < 4π. ⇒⇒⇒ 111 ===222
cosxxx
cos
cos
You might find it helpful ⇒⇒⇒ cos cosxxx===
cos
111
to think in degrees. 222
cos x =21 ⇒ =x °60 or 360 60 °− ° = ⇒ °. x = π or 2π π− =
300 5π
⇒ =x °60 or 360 60 °− ° = 3 3 3
300°.
So x = So+π x 2π π= 2π 7π
= +7π =
3 3 3 3 Keep adding 2π until you have found all
+ 2π
and 5π and
3
= + 2π 11π
5π11π
3 3
=
3
the roots for x in the interval 0 < x < 4π.
So u = π , 5π , 7π , 11π Halve all of the values for x that
6 6 6 6. are in range to find .

Exercise 6.3
① Find the exact values of ③ Solve the following equations for
−π ¯ ¯ π.
(i) sec π 3 (ii) cosec π 3
(i) sin = 0.2 (ii) cos = 0.74
(iii) cot π 3 (iv) sec π 6 (iii) tan = 3 (iv) 4 sin = −1
(v) cosec 5π 6 (vi) cot 5π3 (v) 3 + cos = 2.6 (vi) 2 tan + 1 = 0
④ Solve the following equations for
(vii) sec 5π4 (viii) cosec 7π4 0 ¯ ¯ 2 π.

(ix) cot 7π4 (i) sin 2 = 0.6

(ii) 3 cos ( − 1) = 0.9
② Solve the following equations for
(iii) 2 cot 2 = 5
(iv) sin (2 u)− =π2
0 ¯ ¯ 2π, giving your answers as multiples 2
of π. 2
(i) cosu = 23 (ii) tanu = 1 (v) ( ) 1− 0=
3 tan 2u

(iii) sinu = 1 (iv) cosecu = − 2 (vi) 3 cosec(π −

) 2u=
2
(v) secu = − 2 (iv) cotu = 13

145
 Solving equations involving radians
⑤ Solve the following equations for ⑥ Solve (1 − cos x)(1 + sec x) = sin x for
0 ¯ ¯ π. 0 ¯ x ¯ 2 π.
(i) sin 2 u = 1 2
=+
⑦ Solve cos u1 sec u for 0 ¯ ¯ 2 π.
cosec 1u − = cos 2u .
2

(ii) cos u =
2 1 ⑧ (i) Show that
2 cosec 2u
4 cosec2u4 − =
(iii) tan 2 u = 1 (ii) Hence solve cosec 2u 3
(iv) (tan x − 3)(3tan x + 3) 0=
for 0 ¯ ¯ 2 π.
(v) 4 cos2 x − =1 0
(vi) 2 cos2 x + cos x − =1 0
(vii) 3 cos 2 + 2 sin = 3
(viii) tan 2u − 5sec x + =7 0

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ understand and use
the sec, cosec and cot functions
❍

the relationships between the graphs of sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec and cot
functions
❍

➤ use the identities

❍ sin 2u + cos 2u ≡ 1
❍ tan 2u + ≡1 sec 2u
cot u + ≡1 cosec u
2 2
❍

➤ solve equations involving sec, cosec and cot

➤ understand and use the functions arcsin, arccos and arctan including
❍ their relationship to sin, cos and tan
❍ their domains and ranges.

KEY POINTS
1 The reciprocal trigonometric functions are
1 ⎛ = cos u ⎞⎟.
cosec =1 ; sec =1 ; cot =tanu ⎝⎜ sinu ⎠
sin u cosu
2 sin 2 + cos
2 ≡ 1; tan2 + 1 ≡ sec2 ;
sin u
1 + cot 2 ≡ cosec2 tan u ≡
cos u
3 Table 6.3
Restricted domain Restricted domain Inverse
Function (degrees) (radians) function

y sin
= u −90
° < u< 90° − π < u< π
arccos
2 2
y cos
= u 0° < u< 180° 0 < u< π arcsin

y tan
= u −90
° < < °u 90 − π< < u π
arctan
2 2

146
4 Table 6.4 Steps in solving a trigonometric equation
Use your calculator to find the
1st root (principal value)
Find a 2nd root for
sin or cos
Find all other roots
in range
6
sin 1 The curve is 1 ± 360° and
symmetrical about 2 ± 360°

snoitcnuf cirtemonogirT 6 retpahC

y
1 x = 90° or
θ1 θ2 x = π radians, so
2
θ2
2 = 180° − 1
–180 –90 O 90 180 270 360 θ

θ1 or
–1

Principal value is −90° ¯ ¯ 90° 1 ± 2π and

or − π¯ ¯ π or =π− 2 ± 2π
2 2 2 1

cos 1 The curve is 1 ± 360° and

y symmetrical about 2 ± 360°
1 the y-axis, so
θ2 θ1
2 =− 1

θ2 θ1
–180 –90 O 90 180 270 360 θ

or
–1

Principal value is 0° ¯ ¯ 180° 1 ± 2π and

or 0¯ ¯π 2 ± 2π

tan 1 1 ± 180°
y

–180 –90 O 90 180 270 360 θ

Principal value is −90°< < 90°

π
or − π< < 2 or ±π
2 1

147
 7 Further algebra

At the age of twenty-one

he wrote a treatise upon ➜ How would you find 101 correct to 3 decimal places without using a
the Binomial Theorem. … calculator?
On the strength of it, he One possibility, using a pen and paper, would be to use trial and improvement;
won the Mathematical another is that there is a structured method, which is rather like long division.
Chair at one of our In the days before calculators and computers, some people needed to develop
a very high degree of skill in mental arithmetic, particularly those whose work
smaller universities. often called for quick reckoning. Some, like bookmakers, still do. There are
Sherlock Holmes on also those who have quite exceptional innate skills. Shakuntala Devi (pictured
Professor Moriarty, in ‘The above), born in 1929 in India, was known as ‘the human calculator’ because of
Final Problem’ by Sir Arthur her astonishing ability to perform complex calculations mentally. In 1977 she
Conan Doyle (1859–1930) gave the 23rd root of a 201-digit number in 50 seconds.
While most mathematicians do not have Shakuntala Devi’s high level of talent
with numbers, they do acquire a sense of when something looks right or
wrong. This often involves finding approximate values of numbers, such as
101, using methods that are based on series expansions, and these are the
subject of the first part of this chapter.

148
 ACTIVITY 7.1
Using your calculator, write down the values of 1.02, 1.04 , 1.06, …, giving
7
your answers correct to 2 decimal places. What do you notice?
Use your results to complete the following, giving the value of the constant k.

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

1
= +0.02)
1.02 (1 2 ≈ +1 0.02 k
1
=+
1.04 (1 0.04) 2 ≈ +1 0.04 k
What is the largest value of x such that 1 + ≈x + 1 kx is true for the same
value of k?

Review: Pascal’s triangle and the

binomial expansion
You have already met the binomial expansion, initially using Pascal’s triangle to
expand expressions of the form +( x y )n .
The coefficients in this type of expansion are called the binomial coefficients.
They form Pascal’s triangle.
(1) Each number
is obtained by
1 1 adding the two
1 2 1 numbers above it
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

Example 7.1
(i) Expand +( x 1)4 using the coefficients from Pascal’s triangle.
(ii) Extend the result in (i) to write down the expansion of +( x) y 4
.

Solution
You use the row starting
1, 4, … since the power of (i) From Pascal’s triangle, the coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.
x in (+x 1) is 4.
4
( x + 1)4 = 1x 4 + 4 x 3 + 6 x 2 + +
4 x1
The first term, taking
the x from all four
(ii) The expansion of +( x y )4 uses the same row brackets, is x and
4

of coefficients as in (i), but as the powers of x thereafter the powers

decrease, powers of y are introduced. of x decrease
( x y+ )4 = x 4 + 4 x 3y1 + 6 x 2y2 + 4 x 1y3 4y +

Notice that the sum of the powers in each term is 4.

149
 Review: Pascal’s triangle and the binomial expansion

Notation When expanding an expression of the form +(1x) n , Pascal’s triangle becomes
progressively larger and more tedious row by row, as the value of n increases.
n! is ‘n factorial’, where The coefficients for the expansion of +( x y )n can be found using the formula
1! = 1, 2! = 1 × 2,
3! = 1 × 2 × 3, n!
n! = 1 × 2 × 3 ×
C
nr= r !(n r − . )! nC r is also sometimes written as nC r.
… × n.
Using this notation, (+x y )n can be written as
Special case: 0! = 1
C
nr=
n !
r !(n r )!
−
; ( x y+ ) = n C 0 x + n C1 x (y1) + n C 2 x (y2) 2 + n C3 x (y3) 3
n n n− n− n−
+ C n n ( 1)− xy ( n1)− + n C
+ ... n
yn

nC
r gives the number of ways of choosing r objects from n.
n C0 = n Cn
=1

This is covered in more detail in Chapter 16 on probability distributions.

TECHNOLOGY
Most calculators have a
button for nC r.

Example 7.2 Find the term in x 4 in the expansion of (2 x3)− 7 .

Solution
The binomial coefficient of x 4 is given by C 7! = ×7 ×6 5 = .35
74 = 4!3! 3 2× 1×
Term in x 4 = 7 C
3 (2 x
) (4 3)− 3 Be careful with signs.
× x4 × −
= 35 16 ( 27)
= − 15120 x 4

Review exercise
① (i) Write out Pascal’s triangle as far as the ④ Write down the term indicated in the
row starting 1, 6, … . binomial expansion of each of the following
(ii) Add up the numbers in each row. functions.
What do you notice? (i) (1 −2 x) 3, 3rd term
(iii) What would be the sum of the numbers in (ii) (2 )− x 4 , 3rd term
the row starting 1, 12, … ? (iii) (3 2− )x 5, 4th term
Find the binomial expansion of (1 2− ) up to
② Expand each of the following as a series of x 7

ascending powers of x. ⑤
(i) (1 + x )3 and including the term in x 4.
(ii) (1 +2 x) 3
(iii) (1 −2 x) 3
③ (i) Expand each of the following as a series
of ascending powers of x.
(a) (1 +2 x) 4 (b) (1 − x )4
(ii) Hence find the first three terms in the
2 )(1x
expansion of [(1 + − x )]4 .

150
 ACTIVITY 7.2
Show that this form of
1 The general binomial expansion 7
the binomial expansion n!
(right) gives the correct In general, the binomial coefficient C
nr= r !(n )!r − can be written as
result for (1 + x) .
4
n × −(n× ×1)− ...
+( nr

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

1)
Explain why it results r! .
in an expansion which
terminates after the So the binomial expansion of +(1x) n canbe written as
term in x .
4
n(n1)− + n(n1)( 2) n
− −
(1 + x )n = +1 nx + x2 x 3 +
…
Discussion point 2! 3!
This form of the binomial expansion can also be used to find the expansion of
➜ Explain why the (1 + x )n if n is a negative number or a fraction. However, in such cases there will
binomial coefficient
C n can be written
be an infinite number of terms.
2

as n(1n×2− 1) and the

binomial coefficient ACTIVITY 7.3
n can be written as (i) Use the formula above to find the first three terms of
C
3
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
1×
2 3× . (a) (1 + x )
1
2 (b) (1 +) x . −2

(ii) Substitute x = 0.1 into each of your expansions in (i) to find approximate
values for
(a) 1.1 (b) 1.11 .
(iii) Use a calculator to check that these answers are approximately correct.
2

(iv) What happens if you substitute x = 10 into the expansions to try to find
approximate values for 11 and 1 11 ?2

You will have seen in Activity 7.3 that for x = 0.1, taking the first three terms of
the binomial expansion gives a good approximation, but for x = 10 it does not.
When x is a small number, the terms in x n get smaller and smaller as n gets larger,
and so taking just the first few terms means that you are only disregarding small
numbers. This is not the case when x is a larger number.
In fact, the binomial expansion when n is negative or fractional is valid only
for |x| < 1.
This gives the general binomial theorem:
n(n1)− x 2 + n(n1)(− 2) n − n(n1)(
n− −2) ... ( n r− + 1)
(1 + x )n = +1 nx + x 3 +…
+ xr +
2! 3! r!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) ... (n r− + 1) r +
nx + n(n2! 1) x 2 + n(n 1)(n 2) x 3 + …
− − −
+ x )n = +1 + x …
3! r!
This is valid when n is any real number, provided that |x| < 1.

151
 The general binomial expansion
Example 7.3 − x ) 2 as a series of ascending powers of x up to and including the
Expand (1
−

term in x 3, stating the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution
(1 + x )n = +1 + nx n(n1)− x 2 + n(n1)(− −2) n x3 +…
2! 3!
Replacing n by −2 and x by (−x) gives
( −2)(
−− 3)+ ( −2)(
−− 3)(−4)
+
( ))− x 2 = +1 −( 2)(
(1 + − +) x ( )x ( ) x...3
− 2
2! 3!
when |−x| < 1
Itsince,
is important to put(−x)
for example, brackets round the term −.x
which leads to is not the same as −x
2 2

(1 − x ) ≈ +1 +2 3x x + 4x 3
−2 2
when |x| < 1.

In this case the infinite series can be written in sigma notation as ∑ rx r .

∞
−1

r =1

Sometimes you need to rewrite an expression so that it is in the form +(1x) n

before using the binomial expansion. This is shown in the next example.

Example 7.4 Find the first three terms of a series expansion for 1 and state the
values of y for which the expansion is valid. 2 + y

Solution
1 = (2 + y )−1
2+ y
Take out a factor of 2, but
−
⎛ ⎡ y
= ⎜ 2 1 2+ ⎟
⎤⎞ 1
⎝ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎠ remember that the index
still applies to this 2.
= 2−11 2 +() y −1

= 1
2
(1 +2)y −1

You only need to go as far as the x 2

Using the binomial expansion, term since the question asks for
the first three terms.
(1 + x ) = +1 +
n
nx n(n1)− x 2 + …
,
2!

replacing n by −1 and x by y gives

2

Remember to put
⎡
(2 + y ) 1 = 21 ⎢1 +
−
( 1)
−−
()
− 2 y + ( 1)( 2)
2! 2
()
y 2 ⎤
+ …⎥
brackets round the term ⎣ ⎦
y since (y ) =y .
2 2

≈ 1
⎛
−
2+
yy 2 ⎞ y <1
2 2 4 2 ⎝⎜1 4 ⎠⎟ valid when
2
⇒ 1 ≈ −1 +
yy 2
when |y| < 2.
2 +y 2 48

152
 Example 7.5
Ascending powers
means starting with the
For each of the functions below
(a) write down the first three terms in the binomial expansion as a
series of ascending powers of x,
7
constant term (the x 0

term), then the term in x, (b) state the values of x for which your expansion is valid,
then the term in x , etc.

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

2

(c) substitute x = 0.1 in both the function and its expansion and
calculate the percentage error, where
percentage error = absolute error × 100%.
true value
(i) (1 + x ) (1 + x 2 )
−3
(ii)

Solution
( −3)(
− 4)
(1 + x ) x x2 + …
−3
(i) (a) = +1 −( 3)
+
2!
≈ −1 3 x + 6x 2 (first three terms)
(b) The expansion is valid for |x| < 1.
1000
(c) Substituting x = 0.1, the true value is 1.1 = 1331.
−3

The approximate value is 1 − 3(0.1) + 6(0.1) 2 = 0.76

1000
⇒ absolute error = 0.76 − 1331
= 0.008 685
0.008 685 ×100%
Relative error = 1000 = 1.16% (to 3 s.f.).
1331
1
(ii) (a) Writing (1 + x 2 as x
) + (1 2 2
)
Note (1 + x 2 ) = +1
1 −1
x 2 + ( 2)(2!) 2 ( x) 2 2 +…
This example shows
1
2
1
2

how quickly this

approximation may x x4
2
≈+
12 − (first three terms)
converge to the true 8
value. (b) The expansion is valid for | x|21 < ⇒|<x| 1.

(c) Substituting x = 0.1, the true value is 1.01.

Discussion point The approximate value is +1 0.01 − 0.0001 = 1.004 987 5
2 8
➜ What helps to make ⇒ absolute error = 1.01 − 1.004 987 5
the convergence so
rapid? = 0.000 000 062
0.000 000062 × −−66
Relative error = 100% = 6.17 ××10
10% %
1.01

153
 The general binomial expansion
Example 7.6
(i) Write x the form a
4 3+ in n (1 +)bxa n
.
(ii) Hence find the first three terms in the expansion of 4 3+ ,xstating the
values of x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution
(i) 4 3+ =x ( ) 4x
4 1 3+
1
1 2
4 1 3+ x
()
2
= 4
1
2
2 1 3+ x
=( ) 4
Only the first
⎡
1

2 1 3+ x 2 = 2 1 1+ ()
3x + ( 21)( )− 21 3x + …⎤
2
() three terms
(ii) () 2 ⎣⎢ 2 4 2! 4 ⎦⎥ are required.
⎡
= 2 1 3+
⎣⎢ 8 8 ⎝ 16 ⎠
()
x + − ⎛ 1 9 x 2 ⎞ + …⎤
⎦⎥
≈2+ 3
x − 9x 2
(first three terms)
4 64
Expansion valid when x3 < 1
2
⇒ |x| 2< .
3

Example 7.7 Find a, b and c such that

1
x 3 )+ x a bx cx
≈++ 2
−
(1 2 )(1
and state the values of x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution
1 = −(1 2 ) x(1 −31 ) +
− x 3 )+
(1 2 )(1 x x −1
Using the binomial expansion:
( −1)(
−− 2)+
(1 −2 ) x = +1 −( 1)(
− +2 ) x ( 2 )x...2
−1
2!
for |−2x|< 1, i.e.| x| 1< 2
and
−−
(1 +3 ) x
−1
= +1 −( 1)(3 ) x + ( 1)( 2) (3 x) 2 +…
2!
Each bracket involves for |3x| < 1, i.e.|x| 1<
an infinite series, but 3
when you multiply out ⇒ (1 −2 ) x(1 −31 ) + x −1 = +(1+2+4 x x 2
9 x+x
…)(1 −3 + 2
…)
you can ignore any terms 4 x−
= +1 +2 − 3 x6+x9+x 2x 22
which are higher than …
quadratic. ≈ −1 + xx 7 2
(ignoring higher powers of x),
giving a = 1, b = −1 and c = 7.
Both the restrictions are satisfied if |x | 1< ,3which is the stricter restriction.

154
 Note
The binomial expansion may also be used when the first term is the variable.
For example
7
( x + 2) may be written as (2 )+ x = 2 1(2 +)
−1
x −1 −1
−1

and (2 x − 1) = −[( 1)(1 2−)] x

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

−3 −3

= −( 1) −(13 2 −) x −3

− 2 ) x −3
= − (1 .

Exercise 7.1
① Expand each of the following as a series of ⑤ (i) Write down the expansion of (1 −) x 3.
ascending powers of x up to and including the
term in x3, stating the set of values of x for which
(ii) Find the first three terms in the
expansion of (1 +) x −4in ascending
the expansion is valid. powers of x. For what values of x is this
(i) (1 + x )−3 (ii) (1 +2 ) x −3 expansion valid?
(iii) (1 −2 ) x −3 (1 −) x 3 can
② Expand each of the following as a series of
(iii) When the expansion is valid, + 4
(1 x )
ascending powers of x up to and including the be written as
term in x2, stating the set of values of x for which 1 + +ax+bx
higher
2
powers of x.
the expansion is valid. Find the values of a and b.
(i) (1 + x )
1
2

1
(ii) −1
(1 + x )2
⑥ (i) Show that
1
4+ x
( )
= 21 1 4+ x −1
2

−1
(iii)
(1 + x ) 4 (iv)
(1 + x ) 4 (ii) Write down the first three terms in the
③ Expand each of the following as a series of binomial expansion of
ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x 3, stating the set of values of x for
()
1 +4
x
−1
2 in ascending powers of x,

which the expansion is valid. stating the range of values of x for which
(i) (1 +3)x −2
(ii) (1 +2) 3x −2
this expansion is valid.

(iii) Find the first three −terms in the

(iii) (1 −2) 3x −2

expansion of 2(1 ) x in ascending

4+x
④ For each of the expressions below powers of x, for small values of x.
(a) write down the first three non-zero ⑦ (i) Write down the first three terms in the
terms in their expansions as a series of
binomial expansion of + 1 + in
ascending powers of x x x)
(1 2 )(1
ascending powers of x.
(b) state the values of x for which the
expansions is valid (ii) For what values of x is this expansion
valid?
(c) substitute x = 0.1 in both the function
and its expansion and calculate the ⑧ Find a quadratic approximation for
percentage error, where − x) + x
(3 )(1
and state the values of x for
percentage error = absolute error × 100%. (4 )− x
true value which this is a valid approximation.
(i) (1 + x )−2
(ii) (1 +2 ) x −1
(iii) 1 − x 2

155
 Simplifying algebraic expressions In the next section you
will learn an alternative
way of approaching this
question.
⑨ The expansion of a( bx+ )− may be
3
⑫ (i) Find the first three terms in the binomial
1 3 + 2. 4 2+ x
approximated by +8 16 x cx expansion of (2 x x− 1)( 1)2 +
(i) Find the values of the constants a, b and c. (ii) For what range of values is the expansion
valid?
(ii) For what range of values of x is the
expansion valid? ⑬ (i) Write 7 in the form a b where
a is an integer and b < 1.
⑩ Find a cubic approximation for
2 (ii) Use this to find an approximate value
, stating the range of for 7.
( x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
values of x for which the expansion is valid. (iii) Comment on how good the
approximation is.
⑪ (i) Find a quadratic function that ⑭ (i) Rearrange x 1 − , where x 1,> in a
1 form where the binomial expansion can
approximates to for
(1 −3 ) x
3 2
be used.
values of x close to zero.
(ii) Using the first four terms of the
(ii) For what values of x is the approximation expansion, find an approximation
valid? for 15 to 3 decimal places.

2 Simplifying algebraic expressions f (x)

If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials, the expression
g( x) is an algebraic fraction
and so it is a rational expression. There are many occasions in mathematics
when a problem reduces to the manipulation of algebraic fractions, and the rules
are exactly the same as those for numerical fractions.

Simplifying fractions
To simplify a fraction, you look for a factor common to both the numerator (top
line) and the denominator (bottom line) and cancel by it. Remember that when
you cancel in this way, you are dividing the top and bottom of the fraction by
the same quantity.
For example, in arithmetic
15 = ×5 3 = 3
20 5 4× 4
Dividing top and bottom by 5.
and in algebra
6a 2 3× × a = 2
9a 2 = 3 3× × × aa 3a Dividing top and bottom by 3a.
Notice how you must factorise both the numerator and denominator before
cancelling, since it is only possible to cancel by a common factor. In some
cases this involves putting brackets in.
2a + 4 = 2(a + 2) = 2
a 4 (a 2)( a2)
2 − + − ( a2)
−

156
Multiplying and dividing fractions
Multiplying fractions is shown here.
Multiply the numerators and multiply
7
10a × 9ab = 10a × 9ab the denominators.
3b 2 25 3b 2 × 25
= ×2 ×5 × × ×a× 3 3 ab Look for common

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

3×× b b× × 5 5 factors to cancel.
= ×2 × ×a 3 a
b×5 Divide top and
= 6a
2 bottom by 3 × 5 × b.
5b
As with simplifying, it is often necessary to factorise any algebraic expression first.
a 2 + 3a + ×2 12 = (a1)(+ 2) a + × ×3 4
9 a+1 3 3× ( a1)+
= 4(a2)
+
3
Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by the reciprocal of the fraction,
just as dividing by 2 is the same as multiplying by 12 .
4
For example: Dividing by
x +1
is equivalent to + .
× ( x1)
12 ÷ 4 = 12 +
x 1
2 −
x + 1 ( x + 1)(x1)− 4 multiplying by x 14
= 12(x1)+
4( x + 1)(x1)− Divide top and bottom
= 3 by 4(x + 1).
( x − 1)

Addition and subtraction of fractions

To add or subtract two fractions they must be replaced by equivalent fractions,
both of which have the same denominator.
For example, in arithmetic
2 + =1 8 + 3 = 11
3 4 12 12 12
Similarly, in algebra
2 x x+ = 8 x + 3x = 11x
3 4 12 12 12 Notice how you only need
and
2 + 1 = 8 + 3 = 11 12x here, not .
12x2
3x 4 x 12 x 12 x 12 x
You must take particular care when the subtraction of fractions introduces a sign
change. For example:
4 x − −3 2 x + =1 2(4 x − −3) 3(2 1)x +
6 4 12
= 8x 6 6 3 x
−−−
12
= 2x 9
−
12

157
 Simplifying algebraic expressions
Notice how, in addition and subtraction, the new denominator is the lowest
common multiple of the original denominators. When two denominators have
no common factor, their product gives the new denominator. For example:
2 + 3 = 2(y2)−3( ++ 3) y
y 3 y 2
+ − ( y3)( 2) y −
+

= 2 y4 3 9
−++ y
( y3)(+ 2) y −

= 5y5+
( y3)(+ 2) y −

= 5(y1)+
( y3)(+ 2) y −

It may be necessary to factorise denominators in order to identify common

factors, as shown here.
2b − 3 = 2b − 3 (a + b) is a
a b ab
2 − 2 + ( a b a )(
+ bab ) ()
− + common factor.
= 2b3( a b )
−−
( a b+ a )(
b − )
= 5b3a−
( a b+ a )(
b − )

Algebraic division
Example 7.8 Divide x2 2 − 2 x − 12 by x 2+ .

Solution
2 − −2 x12
The division can be written as x2 .
x+2
2 x 2 − 2 x − 12 = 2(x x− − 6)
2 There is a numerical factor
x+2 x+2 of 2 in the numerator.
2(x − 3)( x2)+ You can now factorise
Prior knowledge = ( x2)+ the numerator.
You need to know the = x2( − 3) Now you can divide top
factor theorem and be and bottom by (x + 2).
confident in algebraic
division. This is covered
in Review: Algebra (2) Sometimes factorising the numerator is not as straightforward, as in the
(page 61). following example.

158
 Example 7.9
Simplify x2
3 − 3x 2 + −x
x−2
6.

The factor theorem says that

7
Solution when (x − a) is a factor of f(x) then f(a) = 0.
Start by using the factor theorem to check if x( 2)− is a factor of

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

2 x − 3x + − x 6.
3 2

Substituting x 2= gives 2(2) 3 − 3(2)2 + 2 − 6 = 0

so (x − is2)a factor.
Using algebraic division or inspection gives
2 x 3 − 3x 2 + −x = −6 ( 2)(2
x x 2x+ + 3)
2 x 3 − 3x 2 + −x 6 = ( x2)(2
− x 2x+ + 3)
So x−2 x−2 Divide top and
= 2 x 2x+ + 3 bottom by (x − 2).

Note
A proper algebraic fraction is a fraction where the order (highest power) of the
numerator (top line) is strictly less than that of the denominator (bottom line).
The following, for example, are proper fractions:
2
1 x
+ , 5
x − 1,
x − 3 ( x 1)(x2)−
2 +
7x .
Examples of improper fractions are
2 x (which can be written as 2 − 2 )
x +1 x +1
and
x 2
4
x 2− (which can be written as x
+ +2
x − ).2

Example 7.10 (i) Write x

+1 b .
+ 2 in the form a
+
x x2
+
(ii) Hence show how the graph of y = +x + 1 can be sketched by starting
x 2
with the graph of y x= . 1

Solution
+ 1 ( x + −2) 1
(i) x =
x +2 x+2
Note =
x+2
x+2
−
x
1
+2
Alternatively this could
be done using long =1− 1
division. x +2
➜

159
 Simplifying algebraic expressions

1
(ii) Starting with the graph of y x = ,1the graph of y x = + 2 is obtained
⎛ −2 ⎞
using a translation of ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 0⎠

y
1
y= –
x

−2 O x
1
y= x+2

Figure 7.1
Next reflect this in the x-axis to give y = − 1
x + 2.
y

−2 O x
1
y = – x +1 2
y= x+2

Figure 7.2
⎛ ⎞
Finally, a translation of ⎜⎜0 ⎟ = −1 1
⎝1 ⎟⎠ will give the graph of y x + 2.

y
1
y=1– x+2

−2 O 1
y=– x+2

Figure 7.3

160
 Exercise 7.2
① Simplify the following algebraic fractions. ⑥ Simplify the following algebraic fractions.
7
(i) ( x ( x2)(− x1) 1) (ii) ( x +( x2)( x1)− 1)
+ − −
(i) x −1 2 + +x1 x +1 2

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

( x − 1)2 ( x + 2)2 (ii) 1 + +1 1
(iii) ( x + 2)( x − 1) (iv) ( x + 2)( x − 1) 3 − aa 3+ a
1+ 1
+− 1 2
② Simplify the following algebraic fractions. (iii) b b −
( 1)(b1)
(i) x 2 −x 9−x 9+ 18
2

⑦ Write each of the following in the form

y a= + f (bx) and hence sketch the graph in
(ii) 4 x 24+x 20−x25+ 25
2

each case.
(iii) 2a 2a+ −−abbb 2
2 2
(i) y = 5xx3+− 1 (ii) y = 4xx2−+ 2
(iii) y = 62xx31 +
③ Write each of the expressions as a single −
fraction in its simplest form.
(i) 41x + 51x (ii) a +1 1 + a −1 1 ⑧ Write each of the following in the
form ax b+ +
c .
(iii) x3 x+ + 4 1 f (x)

④ Write each of the following expressions as a (i) 2 x 2 + +3x5 (ii) 3x 2x+ − 6

single fraction in its simplest form.
x +1 x+2
(iii) x 6 x7
2 − +

(i) x 2 x− 4 − x −1 2 x−1
3 + 2 x52x4− −
2 3
(ii) b 2 + 2b + 1 − b + 1 ⑨ Write x3 in the form
x+2
2 − a−2 ax 2bx+ c+ + d .
(iii) a + 2 2a 2 + −a 6 x 2+
⑩ Use transformations to sketch the graph
⑤ Simplify the following algebraic fractions.
23 x
of y = − x , starting with the graph
(i) 4 x x+ +6x1 + 2 (ii) 2x +x 3+x1 + x
2 3 2

1
of y x= .
(iii) 2ax +x 3+ax1 + 2a
2

3 Partial fractions
ACTIVITY 7.4
(i) Write x3 2+ 1 + 2x 3− 3 as a single fraction.
(ii) Find the first three terms in the binomial expansions of both the original
expression and the single fraction.
(iii) Which did you find easier?
You probably discovered in Activity 7.4 that, when using a binomial expansion,
it is easier to work with two or more separate fractions than with a single more
complicated one.

161
 Partial fractions
There are other situations where it is useful to be able to split a fraction into two
or more simpler ones. For example, in Chapter 10 you will learn to integrate an
1 2 1
expression such as + x + x by first writing it as + x − + .x
(1 2 )(1 ) (1 2 ) (1 )
The process of taking an expression such as 1 and writing it in
2 1
+ x
(1 2 )(1 x
) +
the form (1 +2 ) x − (1 + x ) is called expressing the algebraic fraction in partial
fractions, and you will now look at how this can be done.
It can be shown that, when a proper algebraic fraction is decomposed into its
partial fractions, each of the partial fractions will be a proper fraction.
When finding partial fractions you must always assume the most general numerator
possible, and the method for doing this is illustrated in the following examples.

Type 1: Denominators of the form (ax + b)(cx + d )

Example 7.11 4+x
Express as a sum of partial fractions.
(1 + x )(2 − x )

Discussion point Solution The numerators must be

constants, so that these
➜ How could you have Assume 4+x ≡ A + B
are proper fractions.
worked out these (1 + x )(2 − x ) 1 +x 2−x
values for A and B? Multiplying both sides by (1 +)(2x ) − gives
x This is an identity: it is
4 + ≡x A (2 − +x )B (1 +) x
true for all values of x.
A = 1 and B = 2 These values for A and
4+x 1 + 2 B make the identity
So +
(1 x )(2 x )
−
=
1 x 2−x
+ true for all values of x.
In general you would need to use a structured method to find the constants A and
B rather than hope that you could guess them correctly. There are two possible
methods, and the following example will use each of these methods in turn.

Example 7.12 Express x as a sum of partial fractions.

( x − 2)( x − 3)

Solution
x ≡A − + B Multiply through by
Let
( x 2)( x 3) ( x 2) ( 3)x −
− − ( x2)( −.
x− 3)
⇒ x A≡ x ( 3)−( +2) Bx −
Method 1: Substitution
Substituting x = 2 ⇒ 2 = A(−1) + B(0) You can substitute any
⇒ A = −2 two values of x, but the
easiest to use in this
Substituting x = 3 ⇒ 3 = A (0) + B(1) case are x = 2 and x = 3,
⇒B=3
since each makes the
value of one bracket in
x 3 − 2 the identity equal to zero.
So ( x − 2)( x − =3)x −3 x −2

162
Discussion point
In each of these ≡
Method 2: Equating coefficients
x A≡ x ( − +3) Bx( − 2) 7
methods the identity ( ) ⇒ x Ax
≡ − 3 A Bx
+ − 2B Write the right-hand side as a polynomial
was later replaced by ⇒ x ≡ ( A B+ x ) − 3 A − 2B in x, and then compare coefficients.
an equality (=).

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

Equating the constant terms: 0 = − 3−A2 B
➜ Why was this done? These are simultaneous
Equating the coefficients of x: 1 = +A B equations in A and B.
Solving these simultaneous equations gives A = −2 and B = 3, as before.

In some cases it is necessary to factorise the denominator before finding the

partial fractions.

Example 7.13 2
Express as a sum of partial fractions.
4 − x2

Solution
2 2
Let
4−x 2
≡
(2 x )(2 − x )
+ Factorising the denominator.
≡ A + B
2+ x x
2−
+ x) − x gives
Multiplying both sides by (2 )(2
2 ≡ A(2 − + x )B(2 ). + x
Substituting x = 2 gives 2 4= B , so B 1= .2
Substituting x = −2 gives 2 = 4A, so A 1= .2
Using these values:
1 1
2 ≡ +
2 2
(2 x )(2 − x ) (2
+ + x ) (2 ) − x
≡ 1 + 1
2(2 x ) 2(2 − x )
+

In the next example there are three factors in the denominator.

Example 7.14 Express 11x + 1 as a sum of partial fractions.

( x 1)(x − 1)(2 x + 1)
+

Solution
11x + 1 A B + C
Let ( x 1)(x − 1)(2 x + 1)
+ ≡ +
x +1 x −121x +
Multiplying both sides by x( 1)(+ 1)(2x 1)
− x + gives
11x + ≡
1 Ax ( − 1)(2 x + +1) B(x1)(2 + 1) (x1)(
+ +1)+ −C x x
➜

163
 Partial fractions

Substituting x = 1 gives 12 = 6B, so B = 2.

Substituting x = −1 gives −10 = 2A, so A = −5.
−3,Cso C = −6.
Substituting x = − gives
1
2 −4.5 = 4
Using these values:
11x + 1 ≡ 2 − 5 − 6
( x + 1)(x − 1)(2 x + 1) x −1 x + 1 2x1 +

Type 2: Denominators of the form (ax + b)(cx + d) 2

The factor ( cx + d )2 is of order 2, so it would have an numerator of order 1 in

the partial fractions. However, in the case of a repeated factor, there is a
simpler form.
4x + 5
Consider
(2 x1)+
2

2(2 x1)+3+
This can be written as
(2 x1)+ 2
Note ≡ 2(2 x1)
+ 3
In this form, both (2 x1)+
2
+
(2 x1)+
2

the numerators are

constant. ≡ 2 + 3
(2 x1)+ (2 x1)+ 2

px q+
In the same way, any fraction of the form can be written as
( cx d+ )2
A + B
( cx d+ ) ( cx d+ )2
When expressing an algebraic fraction in partial fractions, you are aiming to find
the simplest partial fractions possible, so you would want the form where the
numerators are constant.
Example 7.15 x +1
Express as a sum of partial fractions.
( x − 1)(x − 2)2

Solution
Let
x +1 ≡ A + B + C
( x − 1)(x − 2)2 ( x1) ( 2) ( 2)x −
− x− 2

Multiplying both sides by x( 1)(− 2) x − 2 gives

x + 1≡ Ax( 2)− + 2 Bx( 1)(− 2)
− +(x −
1) Cx
Substituting x = 1 ⇒ 2 = −A( 1) ⇒=A 2
2

Substituting x = 2 3=C
⇒
Equating coefficients of x 2 ⇒ = 0+ AB ⇒=B
− 2
This gives
x +1 ≡ 2 − 2 + 3
( x − 1)(x − 2)2 x−1 x − 2 ( x2)− 2

164
① (i)
Exercise 7.3
1
Write x (x − in
1) the form
⑥ Express each of the following as a sum of
partial fractions.
7
A B 2 x2 −
x
x 1−
+
(i) (1 +)(1x 2 )(1 + 3 x) + x

arbegla rehtruF 7 retpahC

(ii) Write x (x 1+ 1) in the form Ax B
+
x 1+ (ii) (1 +)(2x )(32x2)+−x + x
2
(iii) Write x( + 1)(x − 1) in the form ⑦ Express each of the following as a sum of
partial fractions.
A + B
x +1 x−1 (i) x(x1)(7−x31)+ x +
② Express each of the following as a sum of
partial fractions. (ii) x(2 32 4− x
− x) + x
)(2
(i) ( x − 1)(3x + 2) (ii) ( x − 2)(5 x + 3) 4
⑧ (i) Express −
(1 3 )(1x x) − 2 as a sum of
(iii) ( x − 3)(7 x + 4) partial fractions.

③ Express each of the following as a sum of

(ii) Hence find the first three terms in the
4
partial fractions. x x) − 2
binomial expansion of (1 −3 )(1
(i) ( x − 2)(23
x − 1) (iii) For what values of x is the expansion
valid?
8
(ii) ( x − 3)(3 x − 1) 6 x8 −
⑨ (i) Write 2 + +
(x 1)(x1)
in the form
(iii) ( x − 4)(4
15
x − 1) Ax B+ + C
x2 + 1 x + 1
④ Express each of the following as a sum of
partial fractions.
(ii) Hence find the first three terms in the
binomial expansion of
(i) 2 −2 (ii) x 2 6 x8 − , stating the values of
x 2x 2 −
4x + 3 (x 2 +
1)(x 1)
+

(iii) x 2 x for which the expansion is valid.

2 − 6x + 8
2 x − +3x4
2
⑤ Express each of the following as a sum of ⑩ (i) Write
( x1)− 3
in the form
partial fractions.
A + B + C
(i) ( x −51)22 ( xx+ 2)
−
( x1) ( 1) ( 1)x
− − 2
x− 3

(ii) Hence find the first three terms in the

(ii) (1 −3 )(1x 4 − x )2 binomial expansion of
2 x 2 − +3x4 , stating the values of
( x1)− 3
x for which the expansion is valid.

165
 Partial fractions

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ find the binomial expansion of a( bx+ )n where n is any rational number
➤ know the condition for the binomial expansion to be valid
➤ simplify rational expressions
❍by factorising and cancelling
❍using simple algebraic division by a linear expression, using inspection,
long division or any other correct method
➤ express algebraic fractions as partial fractions
❍fractions of the form (ax b+pxcx)(q+d + ) as Aax b+ + cx Bd+
❍fractions of the form (ax b+ cx)(dpxex+q+f )( + ) as
A + B + C
ax b+ cx d+ ex f+
❍ fractions of the form px q+ as Aax b+ + B
cx d+
+ C .
( ax b+ cx)(d + )
2
( cx
) d+ 2

KEY POINTS
1 The general binomial expansion for n »∈ is
nx + n(n1) 2 + n(n1)( 2) n
− −−
(1 + x ) = +1 x x
n 3 +
...
2! 3!
In the special case when n ∈» , the series expansion is finite and valid for all n.
When n »∉ , the series expansion is non-terminating (infinite) and valid only
if | x | < 1.
, n ( +)x
n
2 When n » ( ) should be written as a 1 a before obtaining the
∉ a x + n

binomial expansion.
3 When multiplying algebraic fractions, you can only cancel when the same
factor occurs in both the numerator and the denominator.
4 When adding or subtracting algebraic fractions, you first need to find a
common denominator.
5 A proper algebraic fraction with a denominator which factorises can be
decomposed into a sum of proper partial fractions.
6 The following forms of partial fractions should be used:
px q+ ≡ A + B
( ax b+ cx)(d + ) ax b+ cx d+
px q+ ≡ A + B + C .
( ax b+ cx)(d + )2 ax b+ cx d+ ( cx d+ )2

FUTURE USES
Partial fractions are often useful in integration. You will use them in Chapter 10.

166
 8 Trigonometric identities

Music, when soft voices Many waves can be modelled as a sine curve. Estimate the wavelength and the
die, vibrates in the amplitude in metres of the wave in the picture above (see Figure 8.1).
memory —
Percy Bysshe Shelley y (m)

(1792–1822) a y = a sin bx

amplitude

O π 2π 3π x (m)
b b b

–a
wavelength

Figure 8.1
➜ Use your estimates to suggest values of a and b which would make
y = a sin bx a suitable model for the curve.
➜ Do you think a sine curve is a good model for the wave?
167
 Compound angle formulae
Prior knowledge The photograph on the previous page shows just one of the countless examples
of waves and oscillations that are part of the world around us. Because such
You need to be able phenomena are often modelled by trigonometric (and especially sine and cosine)
to use the general functions, trigonometry has an importance in mathematics far beyond its origins
formula for the area of in right-angled triangles.
a triangle (ab21 C sin )
and use exact values
of sin, cos and tan for
common angles such as
1 Compound angle formulae
60° or π radians. You
3
also need to be able to
ACTIVITY 8.1 Hint: Try drawing graphs and
solve a trigonometric Find an acute angle such that searching for a numerical
equation and use small- sin ( + 60°) = cos ( − 60°). solution.
angle approximations –
see Review: The sine You should be able to find the solution to Activity 8.1 using the suggested
and cosine rules, and
Chapter 2 and Chapter 6. method, but replacing 60° by, for example, 35° would make it more difficult to
find an accurate value for . In this chapter you will meet some formulae which
help you to solve such equations more efficiently.
It is tempting To find an expression for sin ( + 60°), you would use the compound angle
to think that formula
sin ( + 60°) f is the Greek letter phi.
sin ( + f) = sin cos f + cos sin f.
should equal
sin + sin 60°, but this This is proved below in the case when and f are acute angles. It is, however,
is not the case. For true for all values of the angles. It is an identity.
example, putting C
= 30° gives
θ φ
sin ( + 60°) = 1, but b a
sin + sin 60° ≈ 1.366. h

A B
D

Figure 8.2 Area of a triangle = 12 ab sin C.

For the triangle in Figure 8.2
area of rABC = area of rADC + area of rDBC
h a=cosφ from rBDC. h b=cos u from rADC.
2 ab sin(u 2 bh sinu 2 ah sin
1 + φ= ) 1 + 1 φ

2 ab sin(u 2 ba u + 21 ab( cos u)sin

⇒ 1 + φ= ) 1 ( cos )sin
φ φ

2 ab sin(u 2 ab sinucos
⇒ 1 + φ= ) 1 φ + 21 ab cosusin φ

Dividing through by 1
2 ab gives
sin(u + φ= ) sin cos
u φ + cosusin φ ①

This is the first of the compound angle formulae (or expansions), and it can be
used to prove several more. These are true for all values of and f.
Replacing f by − f in ① gives The graph of ysymmetry
has rotational = sin f
The graph of about
symmetrical y = cos f is
the sin(u − φ= ) sin cos( −φ+sin( ) u
u ) cos −φ about the origin so
y-axis so cos(−f) = cos f. ⇒ sin(u − φ = ) sin cos
u φ − cosusin φ sin (−f) = −sin f.

168
Hint:
sin (90° − A) = cos A
ACTIVITY 8.2
1 There are four more compound angle formulae. Work through this activity in
order to derive them.
8
and
cos (90° − A) = sin A. (i) To find an expansion for cos ( − f) replace by (90° − ) in the
expansion of sin ( + f).

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

(ii) To find an expansion for cos ( + f) replace f by (−f) in the expansion of
cos ( − f).
Hint: Divide the top (iii) To find an expansion for tan ( + f), write tan ( + f) as
and bottom lines by sin(u + φ )
cos cos f to give an cos(u + φ ) and use the expansions of sin ( + f) and cos ( + f).
expansion in terms of
tan and tan f. (iv) To find an expansion for tan ( − f) in terms of tan and tan f, replace f
by (−f) in the expansion of tan ( + f).
2 Are your results valid for all values of and f? Test your results with
= 60°, f = 30°.
Check that your results work for angles in radians.

The four results obtained in Activity 8.2, together with the two previous results,
form the set of compound angle formulae.

Compound angle formulae

sin(u + φ= ) sin cosu φ + cosusin φ
sin(u − φ= ) sin cosu φ − cosusin φ
cos(u + φ= ) cos cosu φ − sinusin φ
cos(u − φ= ) cos cos u φ + sinusin φ
tanu + tan φ
tan(u + φ= ) (u + φ≠ ) 90 , 270
°° , …
u φ
1 −tan tan
tanu − tan φ
tan(u − φ=) (u − φ≠ ) 90 , 270
°° , …
u φ
1 +tan tan

You can now solve Activity 8.1 more easily. To find an acute angle such that
sin ( + 60°) = cos ( − 60°),
expand each side using the compound angle formulae.
Expand the left-hand side:
sin ( + 60°) = sin cos 60° + cos sin 60°
= 1 sinu + 3
2 2
cosu ①
Expand the right-hand side:
cos ( − 60°) = cos cos 60° + sin sin 60°
= 1 cosu + 3
2 2
sinu ②

169
 Compound angle formulae
Be careful when Equating ① and ② gives
you divide by a 1 sinu + 3 = 1 cosu + 3
cosu sinu
trigonometric 2 2 2 2
function – you must
always check that the So sinu + 3cos u = cosu + 3 sinu Multiply each term by 2.
function is not equal ⇒
⇒
⇒ cosuuu −−−cos
333cos
cos cosuuu === 3sin
cos 3sin
3sinusin
usin−−− uuu
usin
to zero, otherwise you
⇒
⇒ −−−
Collect like terms.
will miss some of the
⇒ (((3331)cos
1)cos
1)cos uuu ===(((3331)sin
−−−
1)sin
1)sin uuu
roots to the equation. ⇒
⇒
⇒ cosuuu === sin
cos
cos sin
sinuuu Divide each side by ( 3 1)− .
In this case you know
that cos is not equal You need to rewrite the equation so it is terms of just one trigonometric ratio so
to zero (since cos you can solve it.
is not equal to sin cosu = sinu
when cos = 0) so
you are safe to divide ⇒ =1 sin u
cosu
Divide each side by cos .
by it. Example 8.3 on ⇒ =1 tan u
page 173 is another
⇒ =u 45°
Use tanu ≡ sinu
cosu
illustration of this.
Since an acute angle ( < 90°) was required, this is the only root.

Example 8.1 Simplify cos cos 3 − sin sin 3 .

Solution
The formula which has the same pattern of cos cos − sin sin is
cos(u + φ= ) cos cos
u φ − sinusin φ
Using this, and replacing f by 3 , gives
cos cos 3 − sin sin 3 = cos ( +3 )
= cos 4

Example 8.2
Find an approximate expression for cos (π3 )− u for small values of .

Solution
Expanding gives

3
()
cos π − u= cos π cosusin+ π
3 3
sinu
Use exact values
= 1 cosu + 3
sinu for cos π and
2 2 π 3
sin
3.
So when is small
u 2
For small angles
≈ −
cosu 1 2 andsinu≈u in radians
()
cos π − u≈
3 2⎝
⎛ u2 ⎞
2 ⎟ + 23 u
1 ⎜1 −
⎠
≈ +1 3 1
2 2
u u− 4
2

170
 Exercise 8.1
① Use the compound angle formulae to expand
each of the following expressions.
(iii) tan (45° + ) = tan (45° − )
8
(iv) 2 sin = 3 cos ( − 60°)
(i) sin ( + 45°) (ii) sin (45° − ) (v) sin = cos ( + 120°)

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

(iii) cos ( − 45°) (iv) cos ( + 45°) ⑦ Solve the following equations for values of in
(v) tan ( + 45°) (vi) tan (45° − ) the range 0 < < π.
② Match together the equivalent expressions. Give your answers as multiples of π where
appropriate.
cos cos 3 − sin sin 3
sin 2 cos − cos 2 sin
()
(i) sin u + 4π = cos
(ii) cos u ( −)=4 sin u ( −) 4
cos cos − sin sin π π
cos cos + sin sin
(iii) 2 cos u( −)=3 cos u ( +) 2
π π
sin 2 cos + cos 2 sin
sin ⑧ (i) Prove that
sin (A + B) + sin (A − B) ≡ 2 sin A cos B.
1
(ii) Hence solve
sin 3 ()()
sin u + +
π
6
sin u − =
π
6
3
cos 4 cos 2 + sin 4 sin 2
for 0 < u< . 2π
cos cos − sin sin
⑨ Prove the following identities.
cos 4 (i) cos (A + B) + cos (A − B) ≡ 2cos A cos B
cos 2 (ii) tan A + tan B ≡ sin( A B+ )
cos A
cosB
③ Use the compound angle formulae to find the
exact value of each of the following. ⑩ When is small enough for 3 to be ignored,
find approximate expressions for the following.
(i) sin 120° cos 60° + cos 120° sin 60°
(ii) sin 120° cos 60° − cos 120° sin 60°
()
(i) 2 cos π3 + u
(iii) cos 120° cos 60° + sin 120° sin 60° (ii) sin (a + ) sin where a is not small
(iv) cos 120° cos 60° − sin 120° sin 60° (iii) tan (4π )− u
④ (i) By writing 75° as 45° + 30° find the exact
values of ⑪ (i) When is small enough for 3 to be
ignored, find approximate expressions for
(a) sin 75° (b) cos 75° (c) tan 75° the following.
(ii) By writing 15° as 45° − 30° find the exact ()
values of (a) sinusin⎡⎣⎢ π6 + u− sin 6π ⎤⎦⎥
(a) sin 15° (b) cos 15° (c) tan 15° (b) 1 − cos 2
⑤ Use the compound angle formulae to write
each of the following as surds.
(ii) Hence find
(i) sin 165° (ii) cos 105°
⎡
sinusin
⎣⎢ π
(6 )+ u− ⎤
sin π ⎦⎥
6
lim
(iii) tan 285° θ →0 1−
cos 2 u
⑥ Solve the following equations for values of in
the range 0° < < 180°.
(i) cos (60° + ) = sin
(ii) sin (45° − ) = cos

171
 Double angle formulae
⑫ A particle moves such that its displacement, ⑬ (i) Use a compound angle formula to write
d metres, from a fixed point O at time t down an expression for sin (x + h).
seconds is given by
(ii) Rewrite your answer to part (i) using
t − 1 cos 12
d = 23 sin 12 2
t for
0 <<t . 60 small-angle approximations for sin h and
cos h where h is small.
(i) Find the displacement at t = 0. (iii) Use your answer to part (ii) to write down
()
t k find
(ii) Show that d = sin 12 − and sin( x) hsin
+− x.
an expression for
the smallest positive value of k. h
sin( x) hsin
+ −. x
(iii) Find the exact times that the particle is at O. (iv) State h→0
lim
h
(iv) State the maximum displacement of the
particle from O. Find the exact time that (v) Explain the significance of your answer to
the particle is furthest from O. part (iv).

(v) Is the particle ever −1 metres from O? ⑭ (i) Simplify tan (4π )+ uwhen is small.
Explain your reasoning clearly. (ii) Use the binomial expansion for (1 + ) −1
(vi) Sketch the curve to find a quadratic approximation for

d = 3 t t t . 60
sin 12 − 21 cos 12 for 0 < <
tan ()
π + when is small.
4
u
2

2 Double angle formulae

Discussion points Substituting f = in the relevant compound angle formulae leads immediately
➜ As you work through to expressions for sin 2 , cos 2 and tan 2 , as follows.
these proofs, think
about how you can (i) Starting with sin(u + φ= ) sin cos
u cosφsin+ u φ,
check the results. when f = , this becomes
➜ Is a check the same
as a proof? sin(u u+ =) sin cos +
u ucos sin uu
giving sin 2 = 2 sin cos .
(ii) Starting with cos(u + φ= ) cos cos
u sin φsin− u φ ,
when f = , this becomes
cos(u u+ =) cos cos
u usin sin− uu
giving cos 2 = cos2 − sin2 .
Using the Pythagorean identity cos 2 + sin2 = 1, two other forms for
cos 2 can be obtained.
cos 2 = (1 − sin2 ) − sin 2 ⇒ cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin 2
cos 2 = cos2 − (1 − cos2 ) ⇒ cos 2 = 2 cos2 − 1
These alternative forms are often more useful since they contain only one
trigonometric function.
tanutan+ φ
(iii) Starting with tan(u + φ= ) (u) +90φ≠,°270
° , ... ,
u φ
1 −tan tan
when f = this becomes
tanutan+ u
tan(u u+ =)
1 −tan tan
uu
2 tanu .
giving tan 2u = − ≠ °, °135 , ...
u 45
1 tan 2 u

172
 Double angle formulae
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos2 − sin2 You will need to decide
8
cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin2 which of the three
formulae for cos 2 θ is

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

cos 2 = 2 cos2 − 1 best for each situation.
2 tanu ≠ °, 135 , ...° .
tan 2u = − u 45
1 tan 2 u

Compound angle and double angle formulae are used

n in solving trigonometric equations and proving identities
n to help you rewrite trigonometric functions into a form that you can
integrate or into a more convenient form for differentiation
n in modelling, for example finding the standard formula for the range of a
projectile in mechanics. See Chapter 21.
Example 8.3 Solve the equation sin 2 = sin for 0° < < 360°.

Solution
sin 2 = sin Use sin 2 = 2 sin cos .
⇒ 2 sin cos = sin Gather terms on one side.
⇒ 2 sin cos − sin =0
⇒
Factorise.
Do not divide by sin (2 cos − 1) = 0
sin , otherwise ⇒ sin = 0 or cos = 12
you will lose the
roots to sin = 0. sin =0⇒ = 0° (principal value) or 180° or 360° (see Figure 8.3).
y

1 y = sin θ

O 180° 360° θ

–1

Figure 8.3
1
cos =2 ⇒ = 60° (principal value) or 300° (see Figure 8.4).
y

1 y = cos θ
1
2

O 60° 300° 360° θ

–1

Figure 8.4
The full set of roots for 0° < < 360° is = 0°, 60°, 180°, 300°, 360°.

173
 Double angle formulae
When an equation contains cos 2 , you will save time if you take care to choose
the most suitable expansion.

Example 8.4 Solve 2 + cos 2 = sin for 0 < < 2π.

Since you are Solution

asked for roots Using cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin2 gives Using this form gives an
in the range
2 + (1 − 2 sin2 ) = sin
equation in sin θ only.
0 < < 2π, you
need to give the ⇒ 2 sin2 + sin − 3 = 0
roots in radians. ⇒ (2 sin + 3)(sin − 1) = 0
⇒ sin = −23 (not valid since −1 < sin < 1)
or sin = 1.
Figure 8.5 shows that the principal value = π is the only root for
2
0 < < 2π.
y

1 y = sin θ

O ϖ ϖ 2ϖ θ
2

Figure 8.5

Exercise 8.2
① Simplify ④ Solve the following equations for
(i) 1 − 2 sin2 40° 0° < < 360°.
(ii) sin 40° cos 40° (i) 2 sin 2 = cos
(iii) 1 −2tantan20220° ° (ii) tan 2 = 4 tan
(iii) cos 2 + sin = 0
1+
cos 2 u (iv) tan tan 2 = 1
② Simplify sin 2u (v) 2 cos 2 = 1 + cos
③ Do not use a calculator in this question. ⑤ Solve the following equations for
−π < < π.
Given that sin = 53 find the exact values of
(b) tan (i) sin 2 = 2 sin
(a) cos (c) sin 2
(d) cos 2 (e) tan 2 (ii) tan 2 = 2 tan Hint: Write the
when is (i) an acute angle and (ii) an obtuse (iii) cos 2 − cos = 0 expression as
angle. (iv) 1 + cos 2 = sin2 an equation
(v) sin 4 = cos 2 in 2 .

174
⑥ By first writing sin 3 as sin (2
sin 3 in terms of sin .
Hence solve the equation sin 3
0 < < 2π.
+ ), express

= sin for
(iv) sin 21 u≡ ±
1−
cos u
2
(v) (sin 21 u + cos 21u )
2
≡ +1 sin u
8
⑦ Solve cos 3 = 1 − 3 cos for 0° < < 360°. ⑨ (i) Show that tan (4π )+ utan (4π )− u= 1.

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

⑧ Prove the following identities.
1 −
tan 2 (ii) Given that tan 26.6° = 0.5, solve tan =2
(i) 1 +tan 2 uu ≡ cos 2 without using your calculator. Give to 1
decimal place, where 0° < < 90°.
(ii) cos4 u − sin4 u ≡ cos 2u
− ) 2u
tanu(3 tan
(iii) ≡ tan 3u
1−
2
3tan u

Prior knowledge
You need to be able to
3 The forms r cos (q ± a), r sin (q ± a)
use transformations
to sketch trigonometric ACTIVITY 8.3
functions – see
Chapter 6. Use graphing software to plot y a= sinu + b cosu for three different sets of
T values of a and b. What shape is the resulting curve?
For each of your three curves, find values of r and a such that
(i) y = r sin ( + a) (ii) y = r cos ( + a)
give the same curve.
You probably noticed that expressions of the form a sin + b cos are the
same shape as the sine and cosine graphs, but they have been translated and
stretched. This suggests that expressions of this form can be written in the form
r cos(θ α+ ) or r sin(θ α+ ) where r and a are constants.
For example, to find a single expression for 4 sin + 3 cos , you can match it to
the expression This is because the
r sin ( + a) = r (sin cos a + cos sin a). expansion of r sin ( + a)
It is then possible to find the values of r and a. has sin in the first term,
cos in the second term
4 sin + 3 cos ≡ r (sin cos a + cos sin a) and a plus sign in between
them.
Equating coefficients of sin : 4 = r cos a
Equating coefficients of cos : 3 = r sin a.
You can now draw a right-angled triangle (Figure 8.6) to help you find the
values for r and a.

r = 32 + 42 r
=5 3 sin a =3r
Note that the symbol
means 'the positive
α
4 square root of'. This is
4 cos a = r consistent with r being the
hypotenuse of the triangle
Figure 8.6 and so positive.
In this triangle, the hypotenuse, r, is 4 3252+ = .

175
 The forms r cos ( ± a), r sin ( ± a)

The angle a is given by

You only need to work ⇒ a = 36.9°.
out one of these; they sin a = 35 and cos a = 4
5 and tan a = 3 4
each give the same value So the expression becomes
for a.
4 sin + 3 cos = 5 sin ( + 36.9°).

Discussion point The steps involved in this procedure can be generalised

to write r

Describe the b

transformations which a sin + b cos = r sin ( + a)

map y = sin x on to where α
a
y = 5 sin ( + 36.9°). Figure
r = a 2 + b andsin a =
2 b cos a =
a 8.7 tan a =
b
a 2b2+ a 2b2+ a
r = a2 + b2 sin a =
b cos a = a tan a =
b
a b
2 + 2
a b+
22 a

ACTIVITY 8.4 Notice that the expansion of

(i) Write y = 4 sin + 3 cos as a cosine cos(u − β )
function.
Start by rewriting 4 sin + 3 cos as starts with cos …
andmiddle
has a…plus sign in the
n

3 cos + 4 sin and use the expansion

n

of cos( − b). … just like the expression

(ii) Explain using transformations why
n
3 cos + 4 sin .
Note the equation you found in part (i)
and y = 5 sin ( + 36.9°) give the same graph.
The value of r will
always be positive, but
cos a and sin a may be
The method used in Activity 8.4 can be generalised to give the result
positive or negative, a cos + b sin = r cos ( − a)
depending on the values It is a good idea to sketch a right-angled
of a and b. In all cases, where triangle to help you work out r and a.
it is possible to find
an angle a for which r = a2 + b 2 and sin a = b
r cos a =
a
r tan a =
b
a
−180° < a < 180°.
r = a2 + b2 sin a =
b cosa =
a tan a =
b
r r a
You can derive alternative expressions of this type based on other compound
angle formulae if you wish a to be an acute angle, as is done in the next
example.

Example 8.5
(i) Express 3 sinu − cosu in the form r sin ( − a), where r > 0 and
Notice that the range 0<a<π.
of a is given in radians. 2
This is telling you to work (ii) State the maximum and minimum values of 3 sinucos − u.
the whole question in
radians. (iii) Sketch the graph of y = −
3 sinucos u for 0 < < 2π.
(iv) Solve the equation 3 sin cos θ − θ = 1 for 0 < < 2π.

176
 Solution
(i) r sin ( − a) = r(sin cos a − cos sin a) Expand r sin ( − a).
8
= (r cos a) sin − (r sin a) cos
Compare the expansion

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

⇒ (r cos a) sin −
− (r sin a) cos 3 =sinucos u
with 3 sinu − cosu .
r cos a = 3 and r sin a = 1
Draw a right-angled triangle to help you find r and a.

Make sure you label the sides correctly ...

r = ( 3)2 + 12 r 1
1 sin ␣ = r so the ‘opposite’ is 1 ...
α
3 3
... and cos ␣ = sor the ‘adjacent’ is . 3

Figure 8.8
From the triangle in Figure 8.8
1 π
r = 3 1+ 2= and tan a = 3
⇒a= 6

so 3 sinu − cosu = 2sin u − .

π
6
() Substitute r and a into
r sin ( − a).
(ii)
π
The sine function oscillates between 1 and −1, so 2 sin u − 6 ()
oscillates between 2 and −2.
Maximum value = 2.
Minimum value = −2.

(iii) The graph of y = ()

2 sin u −
π
6
is obtained from the graph of
⎛ ⎞
⎜π⎟
y = sin by a translation of ⎜⎜ 6 ⎟⎟ and a stretch of scale factor 2
⎝ 0⎠
parallel to the y-axis, as shown in Figure 8.9.
y
2

O π π π 7π 3π 2π 13π 5π q
6 2 6 2 6 2

–2

Figure 8.9
➜

177
 The forms r cos ( ± a), r sin ( ± a)

(iv) The equation 3 sinu − cosu = 1 is equivalent to

()
2 sin u −
π =
6
1

⇒ sin ( u −) π = 1
6 2
Find all the values of x in
the interval
Let x = u( −) 6 and solve sin x =
π
1
2. 0 −π < <2π π − .
6 6
Solving sin x = 1
2 gives x = π6 (principal value)
or x = π − π6 = 5π
6
(from the graph in Figure 8.10).

y = sin x

π
O π π x
6 π– 6

Add π6 to each x value

Figure 8.10 to find the values of .
()π
Since x = u − ,6then =
π π π
6 + 6 = 3 or =
5π π
6 + 6 = π.
π
The roots in the interval 0 < < 2π are = 3 and π.

Make sure you don’t miss out any roots.

n To solve sin ( − a) = c for 0 < < 2π by first solving sin x = c,

you need to find all possible values of x in the interval
0 + a < x < 2π + a.
n Find all possible values of x in the new interval before working out
the corresponding values of .

Using these forms

There are many situations that produce expressions that can be tidied up using
these forms. They are also particularly useful for solving equations involving both
the sine and cosine of the same angle.
The fact that a cos + b sin can be written as r cos (q − a) is an illustration
of the fact that any two waves of the same frequency, whatever their amplitudes,
can be added together to give a single combined wave, also of the same frequency.

178
 Exercise 8.3
① For each triangle in Figure 8.11, find the
exact value of r and the angle a, where a is in
⑤ Express each of the following in the form
8
(a) r cos ( + a), where r > 0 and
degrees. π
0<a< 2
(i) (ii)

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

(b) r sin ( − a), where r > 0 and
r
2 r 3 π
0<a< 2.
α α
(i) cos − sin
5 2 (ii) − u
3 cosusin

Figure 8.11 ⑥ Express each of the following in the form

r cos ( − a), where r > 0 and −180° < a < 180°.
② Expand each of the following.
(i) cosu − 3sin u
(i) 3 cos(u − °30 )
(ii) 2 2 cos 2u 2−sin u
(ii) 3 cos(u + °30 )
(iii) sinu + 3cos u
(iii) 3 sin(u − °30 ) (iv) 5 sin + 12 cos
(iv) 3 sin(u + °30 ) (v) sinu − 3cos u
③ For each of the following functions find (vi) 2 sinu − 2 cosu
(a) the maximum and minimum values ⑦ (i) Express 5 cos − 12 sin in the form
(b) the smallest positive value of x for which r cos ( + a), where r > 0 and 0° < a < 90°.
the function is a maximum. (ii) State the maximum and minimum values
(i) f (x) 2cos
= ()
x − π3 of 5 cos − 12 sin .
(iii) Sketch the graph of y = 5cos − 12 sin
f (x) = 2cos (x +)
π for 0° < 360°.
(ii)
<

3 (iv) Solve the equation 5 cos − 12 sin =4

sin (
u +) π
1 for 0° < 360°.
(iii)
<

3
2 ⑧ (i) Express 3 sinu– 3cos in the
u form
1
(iv) r sin ( − a), where r > 0 and 0 < a2 <. π
2 + 2sin u +
π
3
() (ii) State the maximum and minimum values
④ (i) Express each of the following in the form of 3 sinu– 3cos anduthe smallest
r cos ( − a), where r > 0 and 0° < a < 90°. positive values of for which they occur.
(a) cos+ sin (iii) Sketch the graph of y = 3 sinu– 3cos u
for 0 < 2π.
(b) 3 cos+ 4 sin
<

(ii) Express each of the following in the form (iv) Solve the equation
r sin ( − a), where r > 0 and 0° < a < 90°. 3 sinu– 3cos u = 3 for 0 < < 2π.
(a) sin − cos
(b) 3 sin − 4 cos

179
 The forms r cos ( ± a), r sin ( ± a)

⑨ (i) Express cosu + 2sin u in the form ⑩ (i) Express 2 sin 2+ 3 cos 2 in the form
r cos ( − a), where r > 0 and r sin (2 + a), where r > 0 and
0° < a < 90°. 0° < a < 90°.
(ii) State the maximum and minimum values (ii) State the maximum and minimum values
of cosu + 2sin u and the smallest of 2 sin 2 + 3 cos 2 and the smallest
positive values of for which they occur. positive values of for which they occur.

(iii) Sketch the graph of y = cosu + 2sin u (iii) Sketch the graph of y = 2 sin 2 + 3 cos 2
for 0° < < 360°.
for 0° < < 360°.
(iv) State the maximum and minimum values (iv) Solve the equation 2 sin 2 + 3 cos 2 =1
for 0° < < 360°.
of
1
+
3 cos u + 2 sinu
and the smallest positive values of for
which they occur.

Summary exercise
The previous exercises in this chapter and in Chapter 6 have each concentrated on just one technique at a time.
However, you will often have to choose the correct technique from the many that you have met.
In this exercise you will need to select appropriate formulae and techniques.
① Simplify each of the following. ④ Solve the following equations.
(i) 2 sin 3 cos 3 (i) sin ( + 40°) = 0.7
(ii) cos 2 3 − sin2 3 for 0° < < 360°
(iii) cos 2 3 + sin2 3 (ii) 3 cos + 5 sin − 1 = 0
2

for 0° < < 360°

(iv) 1−
2sin 2 2 u

(v) sin ( − a) cos a + cos ( − a) sin a

(iii) ()
π
2 cos u − =
6
1

(vi) 3 sin cos for −π < < π

(vii) 2sinsin2uu (iv) cos (45° − ) = 2 sin (30° + )
for −180° < < 180°
(viii) cos 2 − 2 cos2
② Express (v) cos 2 + 3 sin =2
(i) (cos x − sin x)2 in terms of sin 2x for 0 < < 2π

(ii) 2 cos 2 x − 3 sin2 x in terms of cos 2x. (vi) cos + 3 sin = 2

for 0° < < 360°
③ Prove that
− 2 u
(i) 11 +cos ≡ tan 2 u (vii) sec 2 − 3 tan −5=0
cos 2 u for 0° < < 180°

(ii) cosec 2 + cot 2 ≡ cot

(iii) 2 sin 2( + 45) − sin 2 ≡ 1

≡ 4t(1 2 t ) 4 where t = tan

− 2
(iv) tan 4u 6 t +t
1−
.

180
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
8
understand and use the identities for sin (u ± φ, ) cos (u)± φ, tan (u)± φ
sin 2u, cos 2u, tan 2u
➤

know and use the identities for

seititnedi cirtemonogirT 8 retpahC

write a cosu + b sinu in the equivalent forms r sin (u a± and)
➤

➤ r cos(u a± )
❍use for finding maximum and minimum values
❍use for solving equations
➤use trigonometric identities
❍in solving equations
❍in proofs
❍to solve problems in context.

KEY POINTS
1 Compound angle formulae
sin(u + φ= ) sin cos
u φ + cosusin φ
sin(u − φ= ) sin cos
u φ − cosusin φ
cos(u + φ= ) cos cos
u φ − sinusin φ
cos(u − φ= ) cos cos
u φ + sinusin φ
tanu + tan φ
tan(u + φ
=) (u + φ≠ )°90
° , 270 , ...
1 −tan tan
u φ
tanu − tan φ
tan(u − φ= ) (u − φ
≠ )°90
° , 270 , ...
u φ
1 +tan tan
2 Double angle formulae
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos 2 − sin2
2
cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin
cos 2 = 2 cos2 −1
2 tanu
tan 2u = − ≠ °, 135 , ...°
u 45
1 tan 2 u
3 The r, aform
a sin + b cos = r sin ( + a) ⎫ where r a=b +
22

a sin − b cos = r sin ( − a) ⎪

⎬ cos a =
a
a cos + b sin = r cos ( − ⎪a) r
a cos − b sin = r cos ( + a) ⎭
sin a =
b
r

r
b

α
a

Figure 8.12

181
 9 Further differentiation

Nothing takes place Many physical systems, such as a simple pendulum or swing or a mass on an
in the world whose elastic spring, can be modelled as having displacement–time graphs which
meaning is not that have a sine wave shape.
of some maximum or
minimum.
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Displacement

O Time

Figure 9.1

To be able to perform calculations involving velocity and acceleration for these

systems, you need to be able to differentiate the sine function.
➜ Think of some other situations in which it would be useful to be able to
differentiate functions other than polynomials.
182
 1 Differentiating exponentials 9
and logarithms
Differentiating exponential functions

noitaitnereffid rehtruF 9 retpahC

The exponential function y e= x has the important property that its gradient at
any point is equal to the y coordinate of that point.
TECHNOLOGY = e x ⇒ dy = e x
Use graphing software y dx
to verify this result.

Note This result can be extended to functions of the form y e= . kx

You can prove this result y = ekx ⇒ dy = kekx

using the chain rule. dx

You can use the chain rule to differentiate more complicated exponential
expressions.

Example 9.1 Differentiate y e= x 21− .

Solution
Since this is a composite function you use the chain rule to differentiate.
u x= 2 − 1, y = eu Write down u as a function of
du = 2 x, dy = u x and y as a function of u.
Discussion point dx du
e
Differentiate both functions.
§ What is the derivative dy = dy × du
of the generalx dx du dx
The chain rule
expression e ?
f()
= 2 xe u
= 2 xe x 1−
2
Rewrite in terms of x.

Differentiating logarithmic functions

To differentiate y = ln x , you can use the fact that the inverse of xln is e x.

y y= =lnlnx x ⇒⇒ x x= =e ye y Rearrange.
⇒ dx = y
e
dy
dy = 1
Using ddxy x= d
1
⇒
dx e
y dy
dy = 1
⇒
dx x Rewrite in terms of x.

183
 Differentiating exponentials and logarithms
To differentiate y = ln kx , where k is a constant, you can use log rules.
y = ln kx = ln kln+ x
dy = d (ln) k + d (ln) x
Discussion point dx
dy = +
dx dx

The= gradient function for ⇒

dx
01
x In k is a constant so
y ln kxis the same differentiating it gives 0.
for all values of k. ⇒ dy = 1
§ What does this tell dx x
you about the graphs
of these functions? y = ln x ⇒ dy = 1
dx x
y = ln kx ⇒ dy = 1
dx x
You can use the chain rule to differentiate more complicated natural logarithmic
expressions.

Example 9.2 Differentiate y = ln (x 3 − 4 x ).

Solution
Since this is a composite function you use the chain rule to differentiate.
u ux=x= 3 3− −4 x4, xy, y = =lnlnu u Write down u as a function of
du = 2 − dy = 1 x, and y as a function of u.
3x 4,
dx du u
Differentiate both functions.
dy = dy × du
Discussion point dx du dx The chain rule
What is the derivative = 3x
2 −
§ 4
u
of ln(f(x))?
= 3x3
2 −
4
x 4x − Rewrite in terms of x.

Differentiating y = a and y = a x kx

To differentiate y a= , where a is any positive constant, you can use logarithms

x

to rearrange to make x the subject.

yya=a= xx ⇒ lnlnyy==lnln(a(ax)x)
⇒ Take natural logs of both sides.
⇒ lnlnyyx=x=aa lnln
⇒
Use log rules.
lnyy == 11 ××
⇒
⇒ xx == ln
lnlnaa lnlnaa
lnlnyy
Differentiate both sides,
⇒ ddxx == 11 ×× 11
⇒ remembering that aln1 is just a
ddyy ln lnaayy
constant.
= 1
y ln
a

184
 So
dy =
dx
=
y ln
a
a xaln Rewrite in terms of x. 9
Now that you can differentiate y a= , you can differentiate y a =
x kx
using the
chain rule.

noitaitnereffid rehtruF 9 retpahC

u
Let y a u= kx , = .
By the chain rule,
dy = dy × du
dx du dx
⇒ dy = a ualnk ×
dx
= kakx ln a

y a= kx ⇒ dy = kakx ln a
dx

Example 9.3 Differentiate y = lnxx .

2

Solution
Using the quotient rule,
Remember that with the quotient
u = ln x ⇒ ddxu = x1 rule u must be the numerator …
v = 2 x ⇒ dv = 2 xln 2 … and v must be the denominator.
dx

v ddux − u ddvx
dy = The quotient rule
dx v2
2 x × 1 − ln x × 2 xln 2
= x
(2)x 2

1 − ln 2 lnx
= x
2x
Dividing top and bottom by 2 x .
=1
− x ln 2 lnx
2x x
Multiplying top and bottom by x.

Exercise 9.1
① Differentiate the following functions. ③ Differentiate the following functions.
(i) y e = 3x1 (i) y = ln (8)x
+

(ii) y e = x 2 + 3+x1
(ii) y = ln (x 2 + 1)
② Differentiate the following functions. (iii) y = ln x
()
(i) y 7 = x (ii) y 7 = 5x

185
 Differentiating exponentials and logarithms
④ Differentiate the following functions. (ii) Find ( )f ʹ x and (f ʹʹ) x .
x
(i) y xe = 4 x (ii) y = ln x (iii) y =x ex
2
(iii) Find the coordinates of any turning points.
⑨ The curve y = ln (3 x2 − ) crosses the x-axis
3

⑤ For each of the following, find the value of the ( ).

at the point a,0
gradient of the curve at the given point.
() (i) Find the value of a.
(i) y = 2xe3 x at the point 1, 2e
−

(ii) Find an equation of the normal to the

(ii) y = (e + 1) at the point 0,8 ()
3
2x curve at this point.

(iii) y x − at
= ln 1 the point 3, 3 ln 2
2
2
() ⑩ Figure 9.4 shows the curve with equation
y x= − 2+ + 3>xlnx 2,x 0 .
x
⑥ The graph of y xe
= is shown in Figure 9.2. y
2
y

O 2 x
O x
P

Figure 9.2 –2

dy d 2y
(i) Find dx
and
dx 2 . Figure 9.4
(ii) Find the coordinates of the minimum dy d 2y
point, P.
(i) Find dx and dx 2 .
(iii) Find the coordinates of the point of (ii) Find the coordinates of the two turning
inflection. points and use calculus to show their
nature.
⑦ (i) Find the coordinates of the point of x
intersection of the curves y = ln (4 x − 1) egiving
⑪ Sketch the curve y = ,
x the
and y = ln (2 x + .3 ) coordinates of the turning point and the
(ii) Find an equation for the tangent to the equations of any asymptotes.
curve y = ln (2 x + at
3 )this point.
⑫ The equation for the Normal distribution is
(iii) Sketch the two curves on the same axes. usually given in statistics as
⑧ The graph of xf ( ) = x lnx ( )2 is shown in −1
φ ( z) = 1 e 2 z
2

Figure 9.3. 2π
f(x) The Normal curve is thus given by y z= φ ( )
with z on the horizontal axis and y on the
vertical axis.
(i) Use calculus to prove that y z = φ ( ) has
O x (a) a maximum when z = 0
(b) no other turning points
(c) non-stationary points of inflection
when z = ± 1.
Figure 9.3 (ii) Mark the maximum point and the points
of inflection on a sketch of the Normal
(i) Describe and justify any symmetries of the curve.
graph.

186
 2 Differentiating trigonometric 9
functions
Prior knowledge ACTIVITY 9.1

noitaitnereffid rehtruF 9 retpahC

You need to be familiar Differentiating sin xand cos x
with angles measured Figure 9.5 shows the=graph of ygoing
= sin x , with x measured in radians, together
in radians. This is with the graph of y x =. You are to sketch the graph of the gradient
covered in Chapter 2. function for the graph of y sin x .
y y=x

1 y = sin x

−π 3π
2 2
−2π − 3π −π 0 π π 2π x
2 2

−1

Figure 9.5
Draw a horizontal axis for x, marked from −2π to 2π, and a vertical axis for the
gradient, marked from −1 to 1, as shown in Figure 9.6.
dy
dx
1

−2π −π 0 π 2π x

−1

Figure 9.6
First, look for the values of x for which the gradient of y = sin x is zero. Mark
zeros at these values of x on your gradient graph.
Decide which parts of y = sin x have a positive gradient and which have a
negative gradient. This will tell you whether your gradient graph should be above
or below the y-axis at any point.
Look at the=part of the graph of y = sin x near x = and
0 compare it with the
graph of y .xWhat do you think the gradient of y = sin x is at this point?
Mark this point on your gradient graph. Also mark on any other points with plus
or minus the same gradient.
Now, by considering whether the gradient of y = sin x is increasing or
decreasing at any particular point, sketch in the rest of the gradient graph.
The gradient graph that you have drawn should look like a familiar graph. What
graph do you think it is?
Now sketch the graph of y = cos x , with x measured in radians, and= use it as
above to obtain a sketch of the graph of the gradient function of y cos x .

187
 Differentiating trigonometric functions

Discussion point Activity 9.1 showed you that the graph of the gradient function of y x= sin
resembled the graph of y = cos x .You will also have found that the graph of the
Would this still be gradient function of y = cos x looks like the graph of y = sin x reflected in the
true of the gradient
§

x-axis to become y = − sin x .

functions if x
was measured in Activity 9.1 suggests the following results:
degrees instead of
in radians? (Hint: y = sin x ⇒ dy = cos x
Is the gradient of= dx
y sin x at x 0
=
still the same =as?)the y = cos x ⇒ dy = − sin x
dx
gradient of y x
Q (x + h, sin(x + h))
You can prove the result for y = sin x
using differentiation from first
principles. P (x, sin x)

The gradient of the chord PQ in

sin (x h+ − ) sin x
Figure 9.7 is .
h
Taking the limit as the points P and
Q move closer together gives
Figure 9.7
dy = ⎛ sin (x h+ −) sin x ⎞
y sin x dx lim
= ⇒
0 ⎝
h→
⎜
h
⎟
⎠
Using the compound angle formula,
sin ( A B
+=) sin A
cosB cos
A B+sin
sin (x h+ ) = sin xcos
h + cos xsinh
Therefore
As h is small, you can replace
sin (x h+ ≈) ( sin x1)( − 21 h 2 ) + (cos x )h sin h and cos h by their small-
angle approximations:
⇒ sin (x h+ =) sin x − 1 2 sin h, cos
h= 1 1 h =−
2h
2
2 h sin x h+ x cos

dy = ⎛ sin (x h+ −) sin x ⎞
Substituting this into lim ⎜ ⎟ gives
dx h→0 ⎝ h ⎠
⎛ sin x − 1 h 2xsin
h + cos xsin− x ⎞⎟
dy = ⎜ 2
lim
dx h→0 ⎝ h ⎠
⎛ − 1 h 2 sin x h+ x cos ⎞
⇒ d y = lim ⎜ 2 ⎟
dx h→0 ⎝ h ⎠

⇒ dy = lim (− 1 h sin + cos x ) = cos x

dx h→0 2 x

ACTIVITY 9.2 The result You will do this in question 11

By writing tan xin = cos x ⇒ dy = − sin x
of Exercise 9.2.
terms of xsin and y dx
cos x, and using the
quotient rule, show
dy
that can also be proved using differentiation from first principles in a similar way.
y= tan x ⇒
dx
= sec 2 x Activity 9.2 leads to the following result:
y
y = tan x ⇒ d
dx
= sec x
2
. y = tan x ⇒ ddxy = sec 2 x

188
 Example 9.4 Differentiate y = sin 3x.

Solution
9
Using the chain rule, is a function of a function.
sin 3x
u u= =3x3x⇒⇒ddxuddxu= =3 3

noitaitnereffid rehtruF 9 retpahC

y = sin u ⇒ dduy = cos u
dy = du × dy
dx dx du
dy =
⇒ 3cos u = 3cos 3x
dx

Using the chain rule as in Example 9.4 on the more general expression
y = sin kx gives
ACTIVITY 9.3 dy =
dx
k cos
kx .
Find the derivatives of
the(general
)
expression
and the Similarly, y= cos kx ⇒
dy = −
dx
k sin
kx
sin f x
( )
general expression = tan kx ⇒ dy = k sec 2 kx .
cos f x .
( )( ) and y dx

Example 9.5 Differentiate y x= 2

cos x.

Solution
Using the product rule,

uux=x= ⇒⇒dduu==22xx
22
ddxx
vv==cos
cosxx ⇒ ⇒ ddvv ==−−sin
sinxx
ddxx
dy = d + d
dx
u dvx v dux
= − x 2 sin x + 2 xcos
x

Example 9.6 Differentiate y = tan (x 3 − 1).

Solution
Using the chain rule,
u x= 3 − 1, y = tan u
y = tan u ⇒ =dy sec 2 u
dy = dy × du du
dx du dx
= sec 2 u × 3x 2
du
= 3xsec
223 (x − 1) u x= − 3⇒ =1 dx
3x 2

189
 Differentiating trigonometric functions
Exercise 9.2
① Differentiate the following functions with ⑧ Figure 9.8 shows the curve y x=x cos .
respect to x.
y
2
(i) y = 2cos x + sin x
(ii) y = 5sin x − 3cos x
(iii) y = 3tan x − 2 x
② Differentiate the following functions with –2 O 2 x
respect to x.
(i) y = tan 3x
(ii) y = sin (2x ) –2

(iii) y = cos (6− x )

③ Use the chain rule to differentiate the Figure 9.8
following functions with respect to x. (i) Differentiate y x x= cos .
(i) y = sin (x)2 (ii) Find the gradient of the curve y x x= cos
at the point where x= π.
(ii) y e = tan x
= ln (cos x )
(iii) y (iii) Find the equation of the tangent to the
curve y x x cos at the point where
=
④ Use the product rule to differentiate the x π.=
following functions with respect to x.
(i) y x = tan x (iv) Find the equation of the normal to the
curve y x=x cos at the point where
(ii) y = e xcos x x π.=
(iii) y = sin xcos x ⑨ Figure 9.9 shows the curve y = +sin xcos 2 x.
⑤ Use the quotient rule to differentiate the y

following functions with respect to x. 2

(i) y = sin x x
ex
(ii) y =
cos x –4 –2 O 2 4 x
cos x
(iii) y x = + sin x
⑥ Use an appropriate method to differentiate –2
each of the following functions.
(i) y = sin 3x
(ii) y e = cos2 x Figure 9.9
d and d y
2

(iii) y = ln x (i) Find y dx dx 2 .

tan x
(ii) Find the coordinates of the three turning
⑦ Verify the following results. points in the range 0 < <x , giving
π
(i) y =y cot x⇒
= cot x ⇒ddxydd=xy −=cosec
− cosec x x
2 2 your answers to 3 decimal places where
appropriate.
(ii) y =y sec dy d=y =
x⇒
= sec x⇒ dx dx
xtanxtanx x
secsec (iii) Use calculus to show the nature of these
turning points.
(iii) y = cosec x ⇒ ddxy x
= − cosec cot x (iv) Find the coordinates of the two points of
x , giving
inflection in the range 0 < < π
your answers to 3 decimal places.

190
PS ⑩ The tangent to the curve y = tan 2x at the
point where =x π
8
meets the y-axis at the
point A, and the x-axis at the point B. Show
− 2
(iii)
Use your answer to (ii) and the small-
angle approximations for sin h and cos h to
rewrite your expression for
(i), and simplify your answer.
dy
dx
from
9
that the area of triangle OAB, is (π 2)
32
square units. (iv) Find the limit as h tends to zero.

noitaitnereffid rehtruF 9 retpahC

π
⑪ By using differentiation from first principles, ⑫ A curve has the equation y x= −3 2cos , 0 x x < < 2
prove that y = 3x − 2cos x, 0 < < x π2 .
y = cos x ⇒ ddxy = − sin x (i) Find the coordinates of the point on this
using the following steps. curve where the normal is parallel to the
line y4 x + = . 0
(i) For y = cos( x h
+ , write
) an
expression for yd as a limit as h
(ii) The tangent to the curve at this point
dx meets the y-axis at the point Y. Find the
tends to zero. exact value of the distance OY.
(ii) Use the compound angle expression for
cos( A B
+ ) to expand cos (x h+ ).

3 Implicit differentiation
All the functions you have differentiated so far have been of the form y x= f ( ) .
However, many functions, for example x y +xy= , cannot be written in this
33

way at all. Others can look clumsy when you try to make y the subject.
An example of this is the circle x 2y2+ = , illustrated
4 in Figure 9.10,
which is much more easily recognised in this form than in the equivalent
form y = ± 4 − .x 2
y
2

–4 –2 O 2 4 x

–2

Figure 9.10
A function which is not given in the form y = f (x) is called an implicit
function, and to differentiate it you use implicit differentiation. Implicit
differentiation uses the chain rule to differentiate term by term with respect
to x, using the product and quotient rules where necessary.
An example of an implicit function that you would differentiate in this way is
y 3 + xy 2= . As you go through the expression differentiating term by term, the
first term that you need to differentiate with respect to x is y 3.

191
 Implicit differentiation
Using the chain rule,
d (y )3 ( )d y 3 Differentiate y with respect to y.
3

= × dy
dx dy dx

= 3y 2 dy
dx
So to differentiate a function of y with respect to x, you differentiate with
dy
respect to y and multiply by . Of course, this technique can be extended to
dx
other variables.

ACTIVITY 9.4
Write down
(i) the derivative of x with respect to x
7

(ii) the derivative of y 2 with respect to x

5

(iii) the derivative of z− with respect to x

2

(iv) the derivative of z3 − with

6 respect to y
(v) the derivative of x 2 with respect to z.
4

Example 9.7 The equation of a curve is given by y xy+2= .

3

(i) Find an expression for yd in terms of x and y.

dx
(ii) Hence find the gradient of the curve at 1,1 ( ).

Solution
(i) Differentiate both sides of the equation term by term, remembering
to use the product rule to differentiate xy.
d 3 +
dx
( y) d
dx
( xy
)0= To differentiate xy by
the product rule:
dy + ⎛ dy + ⎞ = du
3y 2
x y⎠ 0 u x= ⇒ = dx
1
dx ⎝ dx
To make ddxy the subject, dv dy
collect up the terms dy ( 2 + = )−
v y= ⇒ = dx dx
that have it as a factor 3y x y
dx
on to one side of your
equation. dy = −y
dx 3y 2x+
dy = − 1
(ii) At 1,1( ), 1
dx 3 1+ = − 4

Turning points
dy
As you already know, turning points occur where = .0
dx
dy = will not usually give
When working with an implicit function, putting 0
dx
values of x directly, but it will give a relationship between x and y. You can then
solve this simultaneously with the equation of the curve to find the coordinates
of the turning points.

192
 Example 9.8 Find the turning points on the curve x + 4 xy y+ = − .

Solution
2 2
48
9
x2 + 4 xy y+ = 2− 48

⇒ 2 x + ⎛ 4 y + 4 x dy ⎞ + 2 y dy = 0 Differentiate both sides

⎝ dx ⎠ dx of the equation.
dy =
At the turning points,
dx
0 It is not necessary to rearrange
⇒ 2x + 4 y = 0 for ddxy at this point.
x = − 2y= − 2y
⇒x ⇒

To find the coordinates of the turning points, solve x xy+y+4 = −

2 2
48
and x = − 2simultaneously.
y
(−)2y 2
+ −4 (2 ) y y y+ = 2− 48 Substituting for x.
⇒ ⇒y−2 3=y 216= − 48
⇒ ⇒y 2 = 2y16= 16
⇒ ⇒y = ± 4y= ± 4
x ) and 8, 4()− .
= − 2soy the coordinates of the turning points are 8, 4(−

Exercise 9.3
ln
① Differentiate the following with respect to x. ⑤ Find the gradient of the curve xy = 5 3
y at
(i) y the point (0, 1).
⑥ (i)
Find the gradient of the curve
(ii) y42 x 2 + 3xy + y 2 = x + 3y at the
point (2, − 1. )
(iii) z 3 + y 9
② Differentiate the following with respect to x.
(ii) Hence find the equation of the tangent to
the curve at this point.
(i) e
y2
⑦ Find the equations of the tangent and
(ii) sin (3 y − 2 )
normal to the curve y e − 2 x = 4 at the
2 x 2

(iii) ln (y 2 + 2 ) point (0, 2).

dy = 1
③ Differentiate the following with respect to x. ⑧ Given that y = sin −1x, show that by
dx cos y
(i) xe y
(ii) sin x cos y (i) writing x = sin y and finding xddy
(iii) sinx y
3
(ii) writing sin y = x and using implicit
differentiation.
④ For each of the following functions, find an dy
dy (iii) Show further that dx can be written
expression for in terms of y and x. as
1
.
dx
(1 − x 2 )
(i) xy + x + y = 9
(ii) e 2 y + xy 2 = 2
(iii) cos x + cos y = 1
193
 Implicit differentiation
⑨ Use both methods of question 8 to show that, ⑫ A curve has equation sin xsiny+ 1= for
dy = + 1 0 << x π, 0 < < y . π
if y = tan −1x, then .
dx 1 x2 (i) Differentiate the equation of the curve
⑩ Find the coordinates of all the stationary points with respect to x and hence find the
on the curve x 2 + y 2 + xy = 3. coordinates of any turning points.
⑪ A curve has the equation x( − 6 ) (y + 4 ) = .2 (ii) Find the y coordinates of the points where
(i) By using the product rule, find an x = 0 and x = π.
dy (iii) The curve y = sin x is symmetrical in the
expression for in terms of x and y.
dx
(ii) Find the equation of the normal to the xπ
line =
2
.
curve at the point (7, −2). Use this to write down the equations
(iii) Find the coordinates of the point where of two lines of symmetry of the curve
the normal meets the curve again. sin xsin+ 1 y = , <0< <x < π, 0 y π.
(iv) Sketch the curve.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ differentiate e kx , akx and ln x and related sums, differences and constant
multiples
➤ differentiate sinkx, kxcos and kx tan where x is measured in radians
➤ use the chain rule, product rule and quotient rule to differentiate functions
involving the functions above
➤ differentiate functions defined implicitly
➤ differentiate inverse functions by using implicit differentiation or by
using ddxy = d1x .
dy

KEY POINTS dy 1
1 y = ln x ⇒ =
dx x

2 y = e x ⇒ dy = e x
dx

3 y a= x ⇒ dy = a xaln
dx
dy
4
ces nis soc

= ⇒ =
nat soc nis

y x x
dx
= ⇒ dy =−
y x x
dx
= ⇒ dy = 2x
y x
dx
5 Implicit differentiation, for example: [ ] ddx f (y) = d []
dy
f (y) × dy
dx

194
 10 Integration

The mathematical
process has a reality and
➜ How would you estimate the volume of water in a sea wave?
virtue in itself, and once So far, all the functions you have integrated have been polynomial functions.
However, you sometimes need to integrate other functions. For example, you
discovered it constitutes might model a sea wave as a sine wave, so finding the volume of water in the
a new and independent wave might involve integrating a sine function.
factor.
Winston Churchill
(1876–1965)

195
 Review: Integration

Review: Integration
Indefinite and definite integration
Integration is the inverse of differentiation; that is
dy = n ⇒ = x n +1

dx
x y n + 1 + c, n ≠− 1,
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Indefinite integration results in a function of x together with an arbitrary
constant. The notation used is

∫ x xd
n = x n +1 + c .
n+1
Definite integration involves limits on the integral sign which are substituted
into the integrated function, giving a number as the answer:
b
b n ⎡ x n +1 ⎤ bn +1 − an +1 ,
∫a
x xd = ⎣⎢n + 1 ⎦⎥ = n+1 n ≠ − 1.
a

Example 10.1 Find the following integrals.

3
(i) ∫ x xd
2
(ii) ∫ x xd
0
2

Solution
(i) ∫ x 2xdx =
3
+ c The outcome from indefinite integration is a
3
3
function of x and an arbitrary constant.
(ii) = ⎡
2 x 3
∫0 x xd ⎣⎢3 ⎤⎦⎥
3

3 3
= 3 −0
3 3
=9 The outcome from definite integration is a number.

Sometimes you may need to rewrite an expression before you can integrate it, as
in the next example.

196
 Example 10.2
Find ∫
( x + 1)2 d .
4
x
x 10
Solution
( x + 1)2 d x 2 + 2x + 1 d
∫ x 4 x = ∫ x4
x
= ∫ (x −2
+ 2 x −3 + x −4 ) d x Write as a sum of powers of x.
x −1
+ 2x + x +
−2 −3
=
−1 −2 −3 c Integrate term by term.
= − −1 1 − 1 +
x x 2 3x 3 c

The area under a curve

Definite integration can be used to find areas bounded by a curve and the x-axis.

Example 10.3 (i) Sketch the curve =y − + −x

2
5x4 , and shade the region bounded by
the curve, the x -axis
, and the lines x= 2 and = x 5.
(ii) Find the area of the shaded region.

When integrating Solution

to find an area,
you must be (i) y = − x+2 5x − 4
careful if some of the = − (x 2 − 5x + 4)
-axis
area is below the x . = − (−x
1)(x − 4)
The graph crosses the coordinate axes at (1, 0), (4, 0) and (0, −4).
Since the coefficient of x² is negative, the graph is ∩ shaped.
y
You must find areas of
regions above and below
the x-axis separately.
O 1 2 4 5 x

When integrating to find

the area, this part of the
integral will come out as
negative, because it is
−4
below the x-axis.

Figure 10.1 ➜

197
 Review: Integration
Be particularly (ii) Area above the x-axis
careful if you
= ∫ ( − x+ − 5x4 d ) x
4
2 Substitute in upper and lower
are using the
Integration command
2
4
limits and subtract.
= −⎡ x + 5x − 4 x ⎤
3 2
on your calculator. ⎣⎢ 3 2 ⎦⎥2
Enter the area above
⎛ 3 2 ⎞ ⎛ 23 2 ⎞
and below the axes = − + 4× 54 − ×4 4 −−+× 52 − ×4 2
separately. ⎝ 3 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 2 ⎠

= 10
3
Area of region above the axis is 103 .
Area below the x -axis
5( − +2 − x 5x4 d ) x
∫
=

4
⎡ 3 x 5x 4 x ⎤5
2−
= − +
⎣⎢ 3 2 ⎦⎥
4
⎛ 53× 5 5 2 − ×4 5 ⎞⎟ − −⎛⎜ 4 3× 5 4 2−×
44 ⎞

This is negative because

= −⎜ +
⎝ 3 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3
+
2 ⎟
⎠
the region is below the = − 11
6
x-axis. Area of region
is 116 . Total area of shaded region 10
= + 11 = . 316
3 6

Finding the equation of a curve from its

gradient function
dy
The function is the gradient function of a curve, and integrating it gives the
dx
equation of a family of curves.

Example 10.4 dy = 2 ,
A curve has gradient function
dx
x > 0.
x
dy
(i) Integrate to find an expression for y.
dx
(ii) Sketch three members of the family of solution curves.
(iii) Find the equation of the particular curve that passes through the
point (1, 3).

198
 (i)
dy =
dx
−1
2x 2 Rewrite the equation in index form. 10
(− 21+) 1
y × −2 +
⇒= x + c
1
2 1

y× 2
⇒=
1
x2 + c
Using
1
dy = ⇒n = x n +1 + c ,n
This is the general
2

dx
xy n+1 .
≠ −1
equation of the family
1
= 4x + 2
c
of solution curves. In this case n 1+ = − + =21 . 1 1
2

(ii) Figure 10.2 shows three members of the family of solution curves.

y y = 4 x+2
y=4 x

y = 4 x–4
2

O 1 x

–4

Figure 10.2
Substitute coordinates into
(iii) When= x 1, y = 3, so the general equation.
3 4= 1 +c Rearrange to find
Substitute the value ⇒ =c 3− 4 = −1
the value of c.
of c into the general
equation to get the Therefore the particular equation is =y 4 x − 1.
particular equation.

Review exercise
① Integrate the following functions with respect ③ Integrate the following functions with respect
to x. to x .
(i) 12x 7 (ii) 4 x 2 + 1 (i) 2 x (ii) 3 (iii) 3x 2x
(iii) 2x x− 4 + 3x 8 x2
④ Evaluate the following definite integrals.
② Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(i) ∫ 2xd3x (ii) ∫ ( x 3 + −x 2 )d x
2 3 (i)
4 1
2
− 2 dx x
∫1 (x
)
1 0

⎛ y4 − 2 ⎞
(iii) ∫−2( 3x − 2 x + 1)d
0
(ii)
1
5
x ∫−1 ⎝⎜ 3y 2 ⎠⎟ dy

199
 Finding areas
dy =
⑤ A curve has gradient function 2 x − 1. ⑩ Sketch the curve = y− x+x2 3 1
2
, and
dx
find the area bounded by the curve and
(i) Find the general equation of the family of the x-axis.
solution curves.
⑪ (i) Factorise x x+x−3 −
3 2
3.
(ii) Sketch three members of the family of
solution curves. (ii) Sketch the curve =y +x x− x− 3
32
3
and shade the two regions bounded by
(iii) Find the equation of the particular curve the curve and the x-axis.
that passes through the
point (−2,7 ). (iii) Find the total area of the shaded
dy 4 1 regions.
⑥ A curve has gradient function dx = 3 − ⑫ A curve has equation y x= x , 0 > .
and passes through the
x x
(i) Find the equation of the normal to the
point with coordinates (1,− 2). Find the curve at the point A, where x = 1.
equation of the curve.
(ii) The normal in (i) meets the x-axis at
⑦ Find the following indefinite integrals. point B. Find the coordinates of B.
(i) )y
2

∫(y y+ 1 d (ii) ∫
⎛ 2t 4 −
⎝⎜ t
t ⎞ dt
⎠⎟
(iii) Show on the same sketch the curve and
the normal, and mark points A and B on
⑧ f ʹ (x) = 3x − 4 x + and
1 ( )f =0 − your sketch.
2
4. Find
f (x) . (iv) Find the area bounded by the curve, the
⑨ Sketch the curve =y − + +x 2 x 2 , and x-axis and the line segment AB.
find the area bounded by the curve and
the x-axis.

1 Finding areas
Integration as the limit of a sum
You can estimate the area under a curve by dividing it up into rectangular strips.
For example, the area under the curve y = 16 − x 2 between x = 0 and x = 4 is
shown on Figure 10.3.
y

16

–4 O 4 x

Figure 10.3

200
 Its area is approximately equal to the total area of the four rectangles in
Figure 10.4.

y
10
16

–4 O 4 x

Discussion points Figure 10.4

➜ How good is this
approximation? The height of each of the rectangles can be found by substituting the
➜ How could you appropriate x value into the equation of the curve. For example, when
improve the x = 0, y = 16 − 0 2 = 16.
approximation?
So the area under the curve is approximately equal to
(1 × 16) + (1 × 15) + (1 × 12) + (1 × 7) = 50 square units.
This method can be generalised, as illustrated in Figures 10.5 and 10.6. Each
strip has height y and thickness dx and so its area is given by d A = y × dx.
The total area of the region is thus given by
∑ dA = ∑ y dx .
All strips All strips

y = f(x)
y δA

O a b x
δx
Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6

For any given region, the greater the number of strips the thinner they become
and the more accurate will be the estimate. You can keep on increasing the
number of strips, approaching the situation where there is an infinite number of
infinitesimally thin strips and the area is exact.
In this limiting situation dx is written as dx and the Σ symbol is replaced by the
integral sign, ∫ .

201
 Finding areas
This can be written formally as
⎛ x =b ⎞
lim
Area = x → 0 ⎝⎜
d
∑ y x
d
⎠⎟
.
x =a
b ⎛ x =b ⎞
The definite integral y∫ x
a
d is defined as lim ∑
dx → 0 ⎝⎜ =
y x
d
⎠⎟
.
xa

The area between a curve and the y-axis

So far you have calculated areas between curves and the x-axis. You can also use
integration to calculate the area between a curve and the y-axis.
Figure 10.7 shows the area between the line y = x2, the y-axis and the line y = 4.
y

O x

Figure 10.7
Instead of strips of width dx and height y, you now sum strips of width dy and
length x (see Figure 10.8).
y

4
Note
■ In such cases, the
integral involves
dy and not dx.
It is therefore
necessary to O x
write x in terms
of y wherever
it appears. The Figure 10.8
integration is then
said to be carried ⎛ y=4
⎜ ∑ x dy
⎞
out with respect to The shaded area can be written as lim ⎟ , which is equal to the integral
y instead of x.
dy → 0 ⎝ = ⎠
4 y 0

■ The limits of the ∫ xy

0
d .
integration are y
values rather than To carry out the integration, you need to express x in terms of y. In this case,
x values. y x= 2 ⇒ =x y
1
2
.

202
Discussion points
10
4
So the shaded area = ∫ x dy
Find the area
0
➜ 4 1

between the curve = ∫ y yd

0
2

and the x-axis. 3 4

➜ How can you use this

= ⎡ 2 y2 ⎤
⎣ 3 ⎦0
to check the answer
here for the area
3
= ×2 42 − 0
between the curve 3

and the y-axis? = 16

3
square units.

Finding the area between two curves

In the review section at the beginning of this chapter, you were reminded how to
use integration to find the areas of regions between curves and the x-axis, including
regions below the x-axis, and of regions partly above and partly below the x-axis.
These ideas will now be extended to find the area between two curves.

Example 10.5 (i) Find the points of intersection of the line y = x + 1 and the curve
y = (x − 1)2 .
(ii) Sketch the line and the curve on the same axes.
(iii) Find the area under the line y = x + 1 between the x values found in (i).
(iv) Find the area under the curve y = (x − 1)2 between the x values
found in (i).
(v) Find the difference between your answer to (iii) and your answer to (iv).
What area does this represent? Shade the region on your sketch.

Solution
Solve the equations
(i) x + =1 x 2 − 2x + 1 simultaneously to find
⇒ xx22 −− 33xx == 00
⇒ where the line and the
curve intersect.
⇒⇒xxx (x( x3−3− ) )==00
⇒ =x=x 0,
⇒ 0, xx == 33
Substitute the x values When x = 0, y = 1.
into either equation to When x = 3, y = 4.
find the y values.
The line and the curve intersect at the points (0, 1) and (3, 4).
y
(ii)
4
y=x+1

y = (x – 1) 2
1

O 1 3 x

Figure 10.9 ➜

203
 Finding areas

3
∫ ( x) + 1 d x
⎡ x2
+x
⎤3 Integrate the equation of
(iii)
0
=
⎣⎢2 ⎦⎥0 the line.
()
= + 9− 3 0
2
Substitute in the limits.
= 15
2 You don’t actually
need to use
The area under the line is 152 square units. integration in this
case but can find the
answer as the area of
Integrate the equation of (iv)
3
∫ (x 2 − 2 x + 1)d x =
⎡ x3
− +x 2x
⎤3 a trapezium.
the curve. 0 ⎣⎢3 ⎦⎥0

= (273 − +9 −3 0 ) Substitute in the

limits.
=3

The area under the curve is 3 square units.

(v) The difference between these two areas is 92 square units.
This is the area of the region enclosed by the line and the
curve, as shaded in Figure 10.10.

4 y=x+1

y = (x – 1)2 Region enclosed

1
by line and curve.
O 1 3 x

Figure 10.10

Instead of integrating each equation separately and then subtracting to find the
area enclosed, it is usually more efficient to subtract the equations of the two
curves first and then integrate.
Area of region enclosed
b
= ∫a (equation of top curve - equation of bottom curve d) x
where a and b are the x coordinates of the points of intersection of the two curves.

204
Example 10.6 (i) Find the points of intersection of the curve= −y +
curve =y + 3 4 x x− . 2
xx

(ii) Sketch the curves on the same axes, shading the area enclosed by the
2
43 and the
10
two curves.
(iii) Find the area of the shaded region.

Solution Solve the equations

simultaneously to find
(i) x2 − 4 x + =3 +3 4 x x− 2
where the two curves
2x − 8x = 0
2 intersect.
2 x (x− = 4 ) 0
x = 0, x = 4
Substitute x values into
When x = 0, y = 3. either equation to find y
When x = 4, y = 3. values.
The points of intersection are (0, 3) and (4, 3).

(ii) y

(0, 3) (4, 3)

O 1 3 x

Figure 10.11
(iii) Area of shaded region
4
= ∫ ( equation of top curve - equation of bottom curve d) x
0

)) x First subtract
∫ ((3 4+ ) − (x the equations of
4
= x x− 2 2 − +4 x3 d
0
the curves and
simplify.
∫ (8x − 2xdx)
4
= 2
0

3 ⎤4
= 4 x 2 − 2x Then integrate.
⎡
⎣⎢ 3 ⎦⎥0

× 2 0×
= ⎛ 4 4× ⎞ − ×⎛ − ⎞
3 3
2 − 24 2
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝4 0 3 ⎠
= 64
3
The area enclosed between the curves is 64
3 square units.

205
 Finding areas
In Example 10.6, notice that part of the shaded area is below the x-axis.
However, the function that you are integrating (which is the distance between
the blue curve and the red curve) is always positive, so you do not need to split
the calculation up into different parts.

Discussion points
➜ What would happen if you tried to calculate the shaded area by first finding
the area under the blue curve, and then subtracting the area under the red
curve?
➜ How could you find the shaded area by splitting it up?

Exercise 10.1
① Figure 10.12 shows the line y = 2and the ② Figure 10.13 shows the region between the
curve =y x 2 + 1, which intersect at line y = 3x + 1,the y-axis and the line y = 7.
the points (−1, 2) and (1, 2). y
y = 3x + 1
y 7

1
–1 O 1 x

O x
Figure 10.12
Figure 10.13
Find the area of the region enclosed by the
line and the curve. (i) Show that the area of the shaded region
can be written as ∫ 1 ( y1)y−d
7
.
1 3
(ii) Evaluate this integral to find the area.
(iii) Find the area of the shaded region using
the formula for the area of a triangle, and
check that this is the same answer as for
part (ii).

206
③ (i)
(ii)
Find the points of intersection of the
curve =y x 2 and the line =y 9.
Sketch the curve and the line on the
same axes.
⑦

y
Find the area of the region bounded by the
1 y-axis, the x-axis and
curve y = − ,xthe
the line =y 2. 10
(iii) Find the area bounded by the curve and
the line.
④ (i) Find the points of intersection of the y = x√– 1

curve x6 x − 2 and the line =y 5.

2
(ii) Sketch the curve and the line on the
same axes.
(iii) Find the area bounded by the curve and
the line.
⑤ (i) Find the points of intersection of the
curve =y 4 x x− 2 and the line =y x. O x

(ii) Sketch the curve and the line on the Figure 10.15
same axes.
(iii) Find the area bounded by the curve and
the line. ⑧ (i) Find the points of intersection of
⑥ Figure 10.14 shows the curve = y x
2 −
1 the curve =y x− x 2 4 and the line
and the line =y 3, which intersect at the y = −3 2 . x
points (−2, 3) and (2, 3). (ii) Sketch the curve and the line on the
same axes.
y (iii) Find the area bounded by the curve and
y = x2 – 1
the line.
= yx
2
(–2, 3) (2, 3) ⑨ Figure 10.16 shows the curves and
2
y=3 y = −8 x 2, which intersect at the points
(2, 4) and ( −2, 4) .

y
A B y = 8 – x2
8
–1 OC 1 x

–1
(–2, 4) (2, 4)

Figure 10.14 y = x2

–2 O 2 x
(i) Find the areas of the regions labelled A, B
and C. Figure 10.16
(ii) Deduce the area between the line and the Find the area enclosed by the two curves.
curve.
(iii) Explain why the area between the line ⑩ (i) Find the points of intersection of the
curves =y x+ 2 3 and = y − 5 x 2.
2
and the curve is given by ∫ −−(4 x x)d .
2

(iv)
2

Evaluate this integral and verify that your

(ii) Sketch the two curves on the same axes.
answer is the same as that for (ii). (iii) Find the area bounded by the two curves.

207
 Finding areas
PS ⑪ Find the area of the region enclosed by the (iii) Find an approximation for the area under
curve =y − − x 2 1 and the curve =y − 2 x 2. the curve between x = 0 and x = 4 using
PS ⑫ Find the area of the region enclosed by the four rectangular strips.
curve =y x 2 − 16 and the curve =y 4 x x− 2 . (iv) Find an approximation for the area using
PS ⑬ Sketch the curve with equation= y x 3 + 1 eight rectangular strips.
and the line =y 4 x + 1, and find the total area (v) Use integration to find an exact value for
of the two regions enclosed by the line and the the area, and comment on your answer.
curve. ⑯ Figure 10.18 shows the curves =y x− ( 2) 2

⑭ The curve y= 3x x− 2 meets the line y + −4 4 x x 2.

and =
y = −6 2 atxthe points P and Q. y
(i) Sketch the curve and the line on the same
axes. y = (x – 2)2

(ii) Find the exact length of the straight line PQ.

(iii) Find the area enclosed by the line and the 4
curve.
y = 4 + 4x – x2
⑮ Figure 10.17 shows the curve =y + 4 3 x x− 2.
The area under the curve between x = 0 and x
x = 4 is to be estimated. O 2 4

y Figure 10.18
y = 4 + 3x – x2 Samir wants to find the approximate area of
6
the region enclosed by the two curves. Samir
has divided the region into 8 rectangular strips
4 as shown in Figure 10.19; the first one has zero
height and so is a straight line.

2
(i) Find the total area of the 8 strips shown in
the diagram.
(ii) Repeat the process using 16 strips.
–2 O 2 4 x (iii) Find the exact area of the region by
integration.
–2 (iv) Comment on your results.
⑰ The area enclosed by the curve =y x− x10 2

Figure 10.17 and the curve =y +

x x− 2 3 4 lies partially
above and partially below the x-axis.
(i) An initial estimate is made using the two Find the ratio of the area above the x-axis to
rectangular strips in the diagram. Find the the area below the x-axis.
total area of the two rectangles.
(ii) Looking at the diagram, can you say
whether the area from (i) is smaller
or larger than the true area? Or is it
impossible to say?
Explain your answer.

208
 2 Integration by substitution 10
Suppose you want to find ∫ (5x1 −d ) x.
3

One approach is to start by expanding the brackets and then integrate term by
term, but this is time consuming. A more efficient approach is to use the method
of integration by substitution.
Because you already know how to integrate ∫ u 3ud , you can use the substitution
u = 5x − 1 to transform the integral into one that you can do. This approach is
shown in Example 10.7.

Example 10.7 (i) Find ∫ (5x − 1)d x. 3

(ii) Check your answer by differentiation.

Solution You will change the

(i) Use the substitution =u − 5x1.
integral involving the
variable x into an integral
You are now integrating First use this substitution to replace dx. involving the variable u.
with respect to a new du =
variable, and you must u = 5x − ⇒ 1
dx
5
replace every x, including du = d⇒ u =⇒
the dx, with your new dx d5x
1xdu
5dx = ddx
5
= 11 du
55
variable. du
Note that is not really a fraction, but it is usual to treat it like
dx
one in this situation in order to find what to substitute for dx.
∫ (5x − 1)d x = ∫ (5x − 1×)
3 3
5 du
1 Now replace the other
= ∫ 1 u ud
terms involving x with
5
3
terms involving u.
= 1 u 4c +
20 Integrate.
Finally rewrite
20 5x1 c
1 ( +)4
in terms of x. = −

)4 you use the chain rule, dy = ×dy du .

20 5x1
(ii) To differentiate 1 ( −
dx du dx
y =
20 5x
1 ( − 1)4

u = 5x − ⇒ du =
1 5
dx

y y==201201u 4u 4⇒⇒dduydduy==51 51u 3u 3

dy = 1 3 ×
dx 5
u 5
= (5x − 1)3

So the integral found in (i) is correct.

209
 Integration by substitution

Discussion points Integration of (ax + b) by recognition n

➜ Where did the 120 in You have probably noticed that you can integrate any function of the type
Example 10.7 come (ax + b )n by using the substitution u = ax + b. With experience and practice,
from? you may feel no need to write down all the working, and you may be able
➜ How could you to go straight to the answer. This process is sometimes called recognition
have found this or inspection. Remember that you can always check your answer by
number without differentiation.
doing integration by
substitution? You will see shortly that recognition is possible for other types of integral.
However, if you are in doubt you should use the substitution method.

ACTIVITY 10.1
(i) Integrate the following functions.
(a) (2+x 3) 6

(b) (5−3x ) 3

(c) 1 +2 x
(ii) What is the general result for ax∫ (b x + )n d ?

Example 10.8 Evaluate the following definite integral, giving your answer to 2 decimal places.
1
∫ ( 2x − 1)d x
−1
2

Solution
1
∫− ( 2x − 1)d2 x = ⎡ 1 (2x1 − )3 ⎤
1
First integrate the
1 ⎣ 2 3× ⎦ −1 function.
1
= ⎡ 1⎣ (2 x1 − )3 ⎤ ⎦ −
6 1 Then simplify.
= (61 )(1)(
3 − −1 ( )3 3
) Now substitute in
6 the limits.
= 4.67 (2 d.p.)

Integrating other functions by substitution

The method of integration by substitution can be used to integrate many other
n
types of function as well as those of the form (ax + b ) . With experience, you
will be able to see how to choose a suitable substitution to use.

210
Example 10.9 (i)
(ii)
Use the substitution =u +
x
Use differentiation to check your answer.
2
3 to find ∫ x (x +
2
3 )d
5
x.
10
Solution
(i) First use the given substitution to replace dx.
du =
u x= 2 + ⇒5
dx
2x

du =
2 x ⇒ dx =
1
du
Substitute for
dx 2x dx first to see
if anything
∫ x (x 2 + 3 )d5 x = ∫ x (x 2 + ×3 )5 1
2x
du cancels.
= ∫ 21( x 2 + 3)d5 u Cancel and simplify.
∫ 21 u ud Now replace
=
the other terms
5

Integrate. = 1 u 6c + involving x with

12 terms involving u.
Finally rewrite = 1 (x 2
3)
++ 6
c
in terms of x. 12

(ii) To differentiate 1 (x 2+ 3)6 , use the chain rule, dy = ×dy du .

12 dx du dx
du =
u x= 2 +⇒
3
dx
2x

y ⇒ dy =
12 u 2u
= 1 6 1 5
du
dy =
2 x × 21 u 5
dx
= x (x 2 + 3)5

So the integral found in (i) is correct.

Integration of this ‘reverse chain rule’ type can always be done by using the
appropriate substitution. Notice that in Example 10.9, x (x +2 3 )5 can be written
as 21 × 2 x x× ( 2 + ,3and
)5 that 2x is the derivative of x 2 + 3. Any function of
the form k × ʹf ×( x) f( ) [ ]x n , where k is a constant, can be integrated using the
substitution = u f (x).
Alternatively, as you become more familiar with this type of integration, you
may find that you are able to do it by recognition, by seeing what function
would differentiate to the given one by using the chain rule.

Definite integration by substitution

When doing definite integration by substitution, you must remember that the
limits you are given are values of x. When you rewrite the integral in terms of
the variable u, you must also replace the limits with values of u.

211
 Integration by substitution
Example 10.10 2
Use an appropriate substitution to evaluate x∫x 2 3 + 1 dx.
0

Solution
Use the substitution =u +
x 3 x2 is a multiple of the
1.
derivative of x3 + 1.
du = 2
u x= 3 +⇒
1
dx
3x

du = x 2 ⇒ x = 1 u
3 d d
dx 3x 2
2
∫ xx 2 3 + 1 dx = ∫ xx
x=2 2 3 +× 1
du First replace dx
x=0
1
3x
2
in the normal way
and simplify the
0

x=2 x3 +1 expression.
= ∫x 3
du
Avoid confusion by writing the
=0

Substitute x values When x = 0, u = .1 limits as ‘ x = ...’ until you have

into u = x + 1.
3
When x = 2, u = .9
changed them to values of u.
x=2
∫x x3 +1
du = ∫ 3u ud
9

=0 3 1
1

∫ u3u d
9 2
=
1

⎤9
⎡ 23
= ⎢ u Integrate with
⎢⎣ 3 × 3
⎥
2 ⎥⎦1
respect to u.
⎡ 3⎤9
= ⎢ 2u ⎥
⎢ 2⎥
⎢ ⎢9 ⎥ ⎥
⎣ ⎦1
×
( ) ( −) 2 91×
= 2 27
9
Since your limits are
u values, substitute
them into the function
= 52
9
of u.

An alternative method for definite integration by substitution involves leaving

the limits as x values, and instead rewriting the integrated function in terms of x
before substituting in the limits.

ACTIVITY 10.2
(i) Use the substitution shown in Example 10.10 to find the indefinite integral
∫ x x + 1 d x, expressing your answer in terms of x.
2 3

(ii) Use your answer from (i) to evaluate ∫ x x + 1 d x , and check that your
2

0
2 3

answer is the same as that given in Example 10.10.

212
 (ii)

① (i)
Exercise 10.2
Use the substitution =u −x 7
to find ∫ (x − 7 )d4 x.
PS dy
⑥ A curve has gradient function dx =
1
2 x3 +
10
(ii) Use the substitution =u 2 x − 7 and passes through the point 0,2 3 . ( )
to find ∫ (2 x − 7 )d4 x. Find the equation of the curve.
(iii) Use the substitution =u 5x − 7 ⑦ Find the area of the shaded region in Figure 10.20
to find ∫ (5x − 7 )d4 x.
(i) by treating it as an area between the line
Check your answers by differentiation. y 2= and the curve = +y x 1
② Integrate the following functions.
(ii) by treating it as an area between the curve
(i) (x 2− )9 (2x + 3)3
y =+ x 1 and the y-axis.
(iii) ( 1 −6 x )5
y
Check your answers by differentiation.
③ Evaluate the following definite integrals. y= x+1
(i) ∫0 ( 2x − 1)d x
1 4 2
1
(iii) ∫ 3( 4 − x )x3 d O 3 x
1

(ii) ∫−1( 1 −3 d x )x3

1

④ Figure 10.19 shows the curve y = (3x − 1)3 . Figure 10.20

⑧ Evaluate ∫ (x x − 4 )d3
y 2

10 1
23
x using the
y = (3x – 1)3 u x−
substitution =
3
4.
5 ⑨ Integrate the following functions using either
recognition or a suitable substitution.
(i) x (x −2 1) (ii) x 2x3
6
+1
O 1 x
x3
(iii) (1− x 4 2)
–5
⑩ Using a suitable substitution, or otherwise, find
Figure 10.19 the exact value of the following:
Find the area of the region bounded by the 1 x 2

curve, the x-axis, and the lines x = 0.6 and ∫0 ( − 3 )2 dx

2 x
x = 1.
⑤ Integrate the following functions. ⑪ (i) Expand (2 x1)+ 4 and hence find
1 ∫ (2+ x1) d 4 x.
(i) x 3+ (ii) (3x + 1)2 (ii) Find ∫ (2+ x1) d 4 x using substitution or
(iii) 2x1 − 1 recognition.
(iii) Show that the coefficients of each power
Check your answers by differentiation. of x are the same in the answers to parts (i)
and (ii).
(iv) Comment on the constant terms in the
two answers.

213
 Integrating other functions

⑫ Figure 10.21 shows the curve =y

x .
(i) Explain from the equation why y is
x2 − 1 undefined for −1 < x < 1.
y (ii) Explain from the equation why
3 the value of y cannot be between −1
and 1.
2
(iii) Find the exact value of the area of the
1 region bounded by the curve, the x-axis
and the lines x = − 3 and x = − 2.
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1

–2

–3

Figure 10.21

Prior knowledge
You should be
3 Integrating other functions
confident in working
with radians (covered Integrating trigonometric functions
in Chapter 2), and
you should know
how to differentiate
trigonometric ACTIVITY 10.3
functions (coveredin In this activity, x is measured in radians.
Chapter 9). 1 Differentiate the following with respect to x.
(i) sin x (ii) cos x (iii) tan x
2 Use your answers to question 1 to write down the following indefinite
integrals.
(i) ∫ cos
x xd (ii) ∫ sinx xd (iii) ∫ sec dx x
2

3 Now differentiate the following with respect to x.

(i) sin 4 x (ii) cos 5 x (iii) tan 5 x
4 Use your answers to question 3 to write down the following indefinite
integrals.
(i) ∫ cos4
xx d (iii) ∫ sin
x x5 d (iii) ∫ sec 5 xd x
2

The results from Activity 10.3 can be generalised to the following standard
results, where k and c are constants.

ACTIVITY 10.4
1 cos +
∫ sin kx
d x =−
k kx c
Use integration by ∫ cos kx
d xk=
1 sin +
kx c
substitution, with
u = kx, to confirm the ∫ sec kx dx k = 1 tankx c+
2

results shown here.

214
Example 10.11 Find the following indefinite integrals.
(i) ∫ sin 2xdx 10
(ii) ∫ sec 3 dx x
2

Solution
(i) ∫ sin 2xdx =− 1
2 cos 2x c+ Check your answer by differentiating.
(ii) ∫ sec 3 dx x
2 = 1 tan
3
3x c+ Remember that
y = tan x ⇒ =dy sec 2.x
dx

Definite integration with trigonometric functions

When doing definite integration with trigonometric functions, it is important to
remember that the limits are always in radians, not degrees.

Example 10.12 π
x xd
Evaluate
∫( 0
sin 2
).
Solution

∫(
π

0 )
xx
sin 2 d
⎣⎢ 2
()
= −⎡ 11 cos 2x ⎤
⎦⎥0
π

First integrate the function.

⎣⎢
()
= −⎡ 2 cos 2x 0 ⎤
⎦⎥
π

Then simplify.
()
= − 2 cos(π) − − 2 cos 0
2 Now substitute in the limits.
= −( 2× 0)
− −( 2× 1)
= 2

Using trigonometric identities

Sometimes you can use a trigonometric identity to rewrite an integral in a form
that makes it easy to integrate.

215
 Integrating other functions
Example 10.13 Find ∫ tan
x x2d .

ACTIVITY 10.5 Solution Using the identity

.x
1 Differentiate the ∫ tan dx x
2 = ∫ (sec x 2 − 1)d x sec 2 x ≡ +1 tan 2

following with The integral of sec² x

respectx to x. x = tan x x− c+
is tan x.
(i) e (ii) e 3

2 Use your answers

question 1 to write
Differentiating exponential functions
to

down the following

indefinite integrals. The results from Activity 10.5 can be generalised to the following standard result,
(i) ∫ exxd where k and c are constants.
(ii) ∫ exdx
3
∫ ekxd x k= 1 ekx + c

Example 10.14 Find ∫ e dx . x

−2

Solution
∫ e dx x = − 21 e
−2 −2 x
+c Check your answer
by differentiating.

Using substitution with exponential and

trigonometric functions
Example 10.15 Use the substitution =u cos xto find ∫ x sin
2
x xcos d .

Solution
Use the substitution =u cos x. Substitute
du = − 1 for dx first
dx
sin x ⇒ =
dx−
sin x
du to see what
cancels.
1
∫ sin xcos d x x 2 = ∫ sin xcos x ×−2
sin x
du

= −∫ cos 2dx u

= −∫ u 2ud
= − +u
3
c
3 Remember to write
= − cos x c+
3 your final answer
3 in terms of x.

216
 Notice that in Example 10.15, sin x is the derivative of cos x, so you can think of
sin x cos x as
2

a constant × the derivative of cos x × a function of cos x.

10
This shows you that the substitution u = cos x will be helpful.
This integral is of the ‘reverse chain rule’ type; differentiating the answer directly
by the chain rule gives the original function. Integrals of this form can be found
by using substitution as shown in Example 10.15. Alternatively, as you become
more familiar with this type of integration, you may be able to do them by
recognition.
In the next example, the expression to be integrated follows a similar pattern.

Example 10.16 π
Evaluate ∫ π2xcos e dsin x x. cos x is the derivative of sin x, and e xis
sin
6
a function of sin x, so the substitution
u = sin x will be helpful.

Solution
Use the substitution =u sin x.
du = 1
cos x ⇒ =dx du
dx cos x
π x = π2 1
∫ π
2
cos xe d sin x
x = =∫
x π cos xe sin x
cos x
du
6 6

π
When x = ,
6
u = sin π = .1
6 2
()
π
When x = ,
2
u = sin π = .1
2
()
x = π2
∫x cos xe
sin x 1 u =
cos x
d ∫
1
sin x
ed u Swap your limits from
x values to u values.
=π 1
6 2

1
= ∫ 1 eud u
2

= ⎡ e⎣ u⎤ ⎦11
2

1
= −e1e 2

= −e e

ACTIVITY 10.6
Find general expressions for the following.
(i) ∫ f(ʹ ) x e dx x
f( )

(ii) ∫ f ʹ (x) ((f)) x n dx

217
 Integration involving the natural logarithmic function
Exercise 10.3
① Integrate the following functions with respect (i)
Find the coordinates of the turning points
to x. of the curve, leaving your answers in terms
(i) e 2 x (ii) e 3x5+ (iii) e 3−2 x of e, and verify their nature.
② Integrate the following functions with respect (ii) Find the area of the region bounded
to x. by the curve, the x-axis, and the lines
(i) sin 6 x x = − 1 and x = 1. Give your answer to 3
significant figures.
(ii) cos (2 x + 1) PS ⑦ Using either a suitable substitution or
(iii) sin (1 − 3 x)
recognition, find the following integrals.
③ Integrate the following functions with respect (i) ∫ sin
x e dcos x x
to x.
(i) cos x − sin x (ii) ∫ e xex(5−d )7 x
(ii) e x + e − x ⑧ Figure 10.23 shows the curve y xe = x2
.
(iii) 3sin x − e 2 x y
④ Evaluate the following definite integrals, giving
your answers in exact form.
π
(i) ∫ 4
sec 2dx x y = xex2
O x
0
π
(ii) ∫ ( 1 −cos d x )x
2
0 Figure 10.23
(iii) ∫ 2 e 21dx x (i) Find the coordinates of the points of
0
intersection of the straight line =y x 3
⑤ Find the following integrals using the given = x.
and the curve y xe
2

substitution.
(ii) Find the total area of the regions bounded
(i) ∫ xe xd3+ , x u x= 2 + 3
2

by the curve and the line.

(ii) ∫sin xcos d4 ,x x u = cos x
⑨ (i) Use the double angle formula to express
⑥ Figure 10.22 shows the curve y xe =
−2 x 2
. cos 2 x in terms of cos 2x.
cos 2d
.
y
y = xe –2x2 (ii) Hence find ∫ x x
sin 2d .
(iii) Use a similar approach to find ∫ x x 2
x
⑩ (i) Show that sin 3 x ≡ sin xsinx− cos
x .
O 3
(ii) Hence find ∫ x xsin d .
Figure 10.22
4 Integration involving the natural
logarithmic function
Discussion points
➜ Differentiate ln 2x, ln 5x and ln 9x with respect to x.
➜ What do your results tell you about different possible answers for the integral
∫ x x x > ?0
1d,

➜ How can one integral have more than one answer?

➜ Why is this integral restricted to positive values of x ?

218
 In these discussion points, you have

10
y

seen that ∫ 1 d x = ln x c+ for x 0> ,

x
where the restriction to x 0> is
because logarithms are undefined for
negative numbers.
In Figure 10.24, region A is bounded
1 the x-axis
by the curve y x= and
–b –a B
A O a b x
between x = − band x = − a.
The area of region A is clearly a
real area, and it must be possible to
evaluate it. Region A is below the
x-axis, and therefore the result by
integration will be negative.
It looks as though the area of region A Figure 10.24
is the same as that of region B. Here is
a proof that this is indeed the case.
−a
1d . The minus sign at the
Area of region A = − ∫−
x x front is because the
Substituting u = − x:
b
area isbelow the x-axis,
and so the result of
x = − b⇒ = u b the integration will be
x = − a⇒ = u a negative.
du = − ⇒
1 dx = − d. u
dx
a 1d
Area of region A = − ∫ (−) − u
b u
a1 d
= − u∫ u
b

= − ( ln a − ln b)
= ln b − ln a
= area of region B.
Therefore the restriction that x > 0 may be dropped and the modulus sign
introduced, so that the integral is written

∫ x1 d x = ln x c+

Example 10.17 Find the exact value of ∫ − x 1

7
dx .
5 4

Solution This makes the top line the derivative

−1 of the bottom line, so you can integrate
1
by recognition. Alternatively, you could
7 7
∫ x dx = − ∫
4−x
dx
use the substitution u = 4 − x .
5 4 − 5
7
= − ⎡ ln
⎣ 4 − x ⎤⎦
5

= − (−ln− 3−ln 1 )
= − (( ln
) 3 − ( ln1 )) Because you were asked for
the exact value, leave your
= − ln 3 answer as a logarithm.

219
 Integration involving the natural logarithmic function
The arbitrary constant
When the result of integration is in the form of natural logarithms, it is often
helpful to have the arbitrary constant written as a natural logarithm as well,
c = ln k , where k > 0 . The rules of logarithms then allow you to write the
integral as a single term, as shown below.

∫ x1 d x = ln x c+
Since c = lnk .
Discussion points = ln x + ln k

➜ Why is the restriction = )

x k× Using +the log rule
k > 0 needed? ln ( log alog log b = ab
➜ Can every value of = x × k)
ln (
c be written in the As k 0> , =k k
form lnk , k > 0 ? = ln kx

The result above then becomes

∫ x1 d x = ln kx where k 0>

Integrals of the form ∫ f ʹ (x)

f (x)
dx

Example 10.18 x 2
Find ∫ 1− x 3 dx , 1 − >x 3. 0

Solution
Use the substitution u = −1 . x 3
du = − 2 ⇒ = − 1
3x dx du
dx 3x 2

∫ 1 −x x dx = ∫ 1 −x x
2 2
× − 1 2 du
3 3
3x
= −∫ 1
du
3 (1 − x3 )
= −∫ 1
du
3u
1d
=− 1
u u
3 ∫
=− 1 ln
3 u c+
1
=−
3 ln 1 − +x 3c

220
 The integral in Example 10.18 is of the ‘reverse chain rule’ type. It can be written as
x 2
∫ 1 − x 3 dx =− 1
3
−3 x 2
∫ 1 − x 3 dx 10
∫ ff (xx) dx
ʹ( )
because x−3 is the derivative of 1 − .x
3
and so is of the form 2

Integrals of this form can be found by using the substitution u x= f () .

Alternatively, the integral can be found by recognition using

∫ f ʹ((x)) dx = ln f (x) +c
f x
Prior knowledge
You need to know how
to find partial fractions.
This is covered in
Using partial fractions
Many integrals leading to natural logarithmic functions need first to be
Chapter 7. expressed in suitable form, for example using partial fractions.

Example 10.19 x −1
(i) Express ( + )( + ) in partial fractions.
x 3 x 1
Find ∫ ( x −1
(ii)
x + 3)( x + 1) d x.
(iii) Express your answer to (ii) as a single logarithm.

Solution
(i) Let
x −1 = A + B
( x + 3)( x + 1) x +3 x+1
x −1 = A (x ++1) B (x + 3 )
( x + 3)( x + 1) ( x + 3)( x + 1)
x − =1 A (x + +1) B (x + 3) Equating
Then numerators.
Substituting x = − 1:
2B = − 2 ⇒ =B − 1
Substituting x = − 3:
−2=A− 4 ⇒ =A 2
Using partial
So
x −1
= 2 − 1 fractions from (i).
( x + 3)( x + 1) x +3 x +1

∫ (x + x3)(x1 + 1) d x = ∫ (x +2 3 − x 1+ 1 ) d x
−
(ii) Replacing c
= 2 ln x + −
3 ln 1 x++ c
with ln k.
(iii) 2 ln x + −
3 ln x + 1+ = c 2ln 3x ln
+−1+
ln+ x k
Since x( 3+ must be
)2 = ln (x + − ln+1 ln x
3)+
2
k
greater than or equal to Combining terms
zero, the modulus signs ⎛ ( + )2 ⎞
= ln ⎜ k⎜ x 3 ⎟ ⎟ using the laws of
aren’t necessary. ⎝ x +1 ⎠ logarithms.

221
 Integration involving the natural logarithmic function
Example 10.20
∫ (xx + 13) dx.
+
Find 2

Solution
x+3 = A + B Partial fractions
Let ( x + 1)2 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2 with a repeated
factor.
= Ax 1 2 B
( + +)
( x + 1)
Then x + =3 A (x ++
1) B
Substituting x = − 1:
2= B
Comparing coefficients of x:
1= A
So
x+3 = 1 + 2
( x + 1)2 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)2

∫ (xx + 13)2 dx
+ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞
= ∫ ⎝⎜(x + 1) (+ x + 1)2 ⎠⎟
dx
Notice that the
= ln x + 1− 2 (x + 1+)−1 c second term is a
power of −2 rather
= ln x + 1− 2 +c than a power of −1,
x +1 so integrating it
does not result in a
logarithmic function.

ACTIVITY 10.7
In Example 10.20, instead of using partial fractions with a repeated factor,
x + 3 can be expressed as xx + +1 2 = x + 1 + 2 .
( x + 1)2 ( x + 1) ( x + 1)
2 ( x + 1)2 2

Show that this gives the same result.

222
 Example 10.21 1 x−3
Show that ∫ 0 (x + 2 )( x + 1)
dx = ln 243()
512 . 10
Solution
x−3 A B Writing in partial
Let ( x + 2 )3( x + 1)
=
x +2
+
x +1 fractions.
= A (x ++1) B (x + 2 )
( x + 2 )( x + 1)
Then: x − =3 A (x + +1) B (x + 2 )
Substituting x = − 2:
−5= − ⇒A= A 5
Substituting x = − 1:
−4= B
x−3 = 5 − 4
So ( x + 2 )( x + 1) x +2 x +1
∫0 (x + x2 )( x3 + 1) dx ∫( x +5 2 − x 4+ 1 )dx
1 − 1
=
0

= ⎡ 5⎣ ln x + −2 4 ln 1 x+ Integrating each
⎤ 1⎦
0term separately.
= (5 ln 3−4 ln 2 5) −ln(2 4 ln1− )
Using rules of
= (ln 243 −ln16 ln) 32−( 0 − ) logarithms.
(512) Rewriting
= ln 243 as a single natural
logarithm using rules of logarithms.

Exercise 10.4
① Integrate the following functions with respect ⑤ Use the substitution u = +2 x to find
2

to x, where x > 0 in each case.

∫−1+2 2xx 2 dx, giving your answer as a
0

(i) x2 (ii) 1 (iii)

2x
1
2x + 7 single logarithm.
② Find the following integrals. ⑥ Find the following integrals.
1
(i) ∫ x− 1 4 dx (ii) ∫ 2− x dx
(i) ∫ x 3x 2
−3
4
dx (ii) ∫ 2− x x 2 dx
(iii) ∫ 2−x 1 7 dx ⑦ Evaluate each of the following, giving your
③ Evaluate each of the following, giving your answer as a single logarithm.
answer as a single logarithm.
(i) ∫12− 3x (ii) ∫−01+ 2x 4 dx
2 3
dx
(i) ∫26+x 1 2 dx (ii) ∫−−7+5 x 1 1 dx x 2 1 x
⑧ Find the following integrals.
(iii) ∫01−3 2 x dx (i) ∫ (1− )(3x2)x1 − dx (ii) ∫ x− x(11)
2 dx
④ Use the substitution u x = + to
1 find
2
3x3 +
∫ x+22x 1 dx . (iii) ∫ ( x1)(2
− 1) x + dx

223
 Integration involving the natural logarithmic function
⑨ Evaluate the following definite integrals, giving ⑭ Find the following integrals.
your answers in exact form.
(i) ∫ x−2 1 1 dx (ii) ∫ x−2 x 1 dx
(i) ∫0 +( x+ 1)(1x 3) dx
1

x 2
(iii) ∫ x−2 1 dx
(ii) ∫2 ( x − 71)x2 (2 x2 + 3) dx
4 −
sin x
⑮ Figure 10.26 shows the curve y = 2 cos
+ x,
2 x+1
(iii) ∫0 ( x + 52)(2 dx x
0 << 2π.
x + 1)2 y
M
3 y = 2 +sin
cosx x
⑩ Sketch the curve y = 2 x + for1 positive
values of x, showing clearly on your sketch any O P x
asymptotes to the curve. Find, in exact form,
the area of the region enclosed by the curve,
the x-axis and the lines x 1= and x 3 = , and Figure 10.26
indicate this region on your sketch. (i) Find the coordinates of the point M
3 and use calculus to verify that it is a
⑪ Given that y = 1 −2 x
maximum point.
(i) write down the equations of the (ii) The area under the curve between
asymptotes of the curve
x = 0 and x = π can be approximated by
(ii) sketch the curve the area of the triangle OMP.
(iii) find the exact value of the area bounded Find this area and explain why this will
by the curve, the x-axis and the lines give an underestimate.
x = − 2 and x = − 1 .
3
(iii) Hence estimate the total area of the
⑫ (i) Express
(1 x )(1 −2 ) x
+ in partial region bounded by the curve and the
x-axis for 0 < x < 2π.
fractions.
(iv) Find the exact value of the total area
0.1 3
(ii) Find ∫ + (1− x )(1 2)x
dx to 5 decimal bounded by the curve and the x-axis and
compare this with your answer to (iii).
0

places.
⑯ (i) Find ∫ x12 d x .
x
⑬ Figure 10.25 shows the curve y = + e x . Selena tries to evaluate ∫ − x 12 d x . Her work is
2

1e 4
shown here.
y ex
y=1+e x

∫-4 x12 dx = ⎡⎣- 1x ⎤⎦-4 = -12 + 14 = -14

2 2

x
O
Selena says,‘This cannot be right because x 12
is positive for all values of x.’
Figure 10.25
(ii) Sketch the curve y x= 12 and explain
(i) Write down the coordinates of the point
why Selena’s answer cannot represent the
where the curve crosses the y-axis.
area under the curve between x = −4 and
(ii) Describe the behaviour of y as x → ∞ x = 2.
and as x → −∞.
(iii) Find the area of the region bounded by
(iii) Is it possible to evaluate this area? Explain
your answer.
the curve, the coordinate axes and the line
x = 1, giving your answer to 3 significant (iv) Selena has broken a general rule for
figures. definite integration. State this rule in your
own words.

224
5 Further integration by 10
substitution
You already know how to use integration by substitution in cases where the
process is the reverse of the chain rule, and the integration can alternatively be
done by recognition. However, the method of substitution is used for other cases
as well.
Suppose you want to integrate x .
x
2 1−
The numerator is not the derivative of the denominator, and therefore the
⎛ f ʹ (x) ⎞
integral is not of the form ∫ ⎝⎜ ( ) ⎠⎟ d, xand cannot be done by recognition.
f x

However it can still be integrated by using the substitution u = 2x − 1.

First use the substitution to replace dx, in the normal way.

du = ⇒
2 dx = 1 du
dx 2

∫ 2xx− 1 dx = ∫ 2xx− 1 × 21 du In these cases, there

= 1 ∫ x du
is often nothing that
2 2x − 1
cancels out.
2x − =
1 ⇒u= x u+1 You must then rewrite
2 both 2 x − 1 and x in
(u 2+)1 terms of u, and replace
x du = 1 ⌠ all the x terms.
1∫
2 2x − 1
⎮ du
2⌡ u
Simplifying, and splitting
∫ u u 1 du
+
= 1
4 the fraction into two
separate terms, then
= 1
u u
1+
1d gives you a function of
() u that you are able to
=
4∫
1 u + ln u c) + integrate.
4 (
Finally you must remember to write your final answer in terms of x.

∫ 2xx− 1 dx = 4 2x
1( 1)
−+ 1
4 ln 2 x1 − + c

225
 Further integration by substitution
Example 10.22
By using a suitable substitution, find x∫ x − 2 d x.

Solution
Let u x=2− . By making the substitution
u = x − 2, you can turn this
du d=du⇒
u 1⇒ 1dx d=dxdx=
u=dduu integral into one you
dx ddxx
1 ==⇒ can do.
u x= − ⇒ 2= + x u 2

∫x x − 2 dx = ∫x x − 2 du Because dx = du.
= ∫ (u + 2 )d u u
= ∫ (u
3
2 + 2ud2u
1
)
5 3
= 2 u2 + 4 u 2c +
5 3

= 2 (x 2)2
−+
5
4 (x 2)2
−+
3
c Rewrite in
5 3 terms of x.

ACTIVITY 10.8
Show that the solution in Example 10.22 can be written as
+ +). c
3
15 x 2 3 x 4
2 ( − )( 2

ACTIVITY 10.9
For each of the following integrals
(a) write down a suitable substitution to use to perform the integration,
(b) use your substitution to integrate the function and
(c) check your answer by differentiation.
(i) ∫ (1)+x x dx (ii) ∫ x+ 2 x xd
2

226
 Exercise 10.5
① Find the following integrals using the given
substitution.
⑥ Find the integral ∫ x
ln x1 (ln+ d
x )x using the
10
substitution u = +1 ln x.
∫ (x x+ 1 ) dx, u x = +
2
(i) 1
= x .
⑦ Figure 10.28 shows the curve y 3 ( x 3+ )
(ii) ∫ x x2 + 1 d x, u = 2 x + 1
y
② Evaluate the following definite integrals using
the given substitution.

(i) ∫2 ( ) −x 3 dx, u x = − x
3 O
1 y= x
x 1 √
3 (x + 3)

(ii) ∫−11(6x3x − 1)d3 , x u = 3x − 1 Figure 10.28

③ For each of the following functions (i) The curve has a vertical asymptote at
(a) write down a suitable substitution to use x = k .Write down the value of k.
to integrate the function with respect to x (ii) Find the coordinates of the turning point
of the curve, giving the y coordinate to
(b) integrate the function.
3 significant figures, and determine its
(i) x
(ii) 5x x + 4 nature.
1−x
(iii) Find, to 3 significant figures, the area of
(iii) 2x x 1
−+
the region bounded by the curve, the
④ A curve has gradient function
x-axis and the line x = − 2.
dy = 4 x
PS ⑧ The curve with gradient function
, x ≠− .1 dy = ( + )
dx 2x + 1 2
dx
x x2 1 2 1 x + passes through the
(i) Use the substitution u = 2 x + 1 to find point (
0, )69. 35
the general equation of the family of
solution curves. Find the equation of the curve.
(ii) Find the equation of the particular curve ⑨ Using the substitution u = −1 sin x , evaluate
for which y = 3 − ln5 when x = 2. 0.2
∫ sin 2x1 sin−d x x , giving your answer to
⑤ Figure 10.27 shows the curvey = x .
0.1

( x 1− )2 3 significant figures.
y
⑩ (i) Use the substitution x = 2 tanu to show
y = (x –x1)2 1
that ∫ + 2 d x can be written as
∫ 21. du
4 x
(ii) Hence find the exact value of
x
∫0 +4 1 x 2 dx.
O 2

Figure 10.27 ⑪ (i) Use the substitution x = 3sin u to show

(i) The curve has a vertical asymptote at
that ∫− 1
dx can be written as ∫ 1d
. u
x = a .Write down the value of a. 9 x2
(ii) Find the coordinates of the turning point (ii) Hence find the exact value of
of the curve and determine its nature. 3
1
(iii) Find the area of the region bounded by ∫−2
dx .
the curve, the x-axis and the line x = − 1.
0
9 x2

227
 Integration by parts

6 Integration by parts
Suppose you want to integrate the function x cos xThe . function to be
integrated is clearly a product of two simpler functions, x and cos x , so your
first thought may be to look for a substitution to enable you to perform the
integration. However, there are some functions which are products but which
cannot be integrated by substitution. This is one of them. You need a new
technique to integrate such functions.
The technique of integration by parts is based on the reverse of the product
rule. You can see from the working below that in the case of x∫x xcos d , you
can start by differentiating x xsin .
Differentiate the function x sinx by the product rule:
x x ) = x cos
d (sin
x + sin x
dx
Now integrate both sides with respect to x: Integrating (d)sinxdxx
x sin
x = ∫ x cos
x xd + ∫ sin xd x
‘undoes’ the differentiation.
Rearranging this gives

∫ x cos xd x x =x sin− ∫ sin xd x

= x sin
x + cos x c+
The method above of reversing the product rule and rearranging, can be
ACTIVITY 10.10 generalised into the method of integration by parts, which can be used
(i) By first even when you are not told the function to differentiate (as you were in
differentiating Example 10.22 and in Activity 10.10).
x cos x, find
x xd .
∫ x sin The general result for integration by parts
(ii) By first Using the product rule to differentiate the function uv :
differentiating d (uv ) = d + d
xe x, find
2
dx
u dvx v dux
∫ 2xe dx x.
2
Integrating both sides:

uv = ∫ u ddvx dx + ∫ v ddux dx
Rearranging gives

∫ u ddvx dx uv= − ∫ v ddux dx

This is the formula you use when you need to integrate by parts.
To integrate x cos xusing this formula, you split it into the two functions, x
and cos x.To fit the formula, you call one of these functions u and the other v d .
dx
When deciding which is which, you should consider the following.
■ To work out the right-hand side of the formula, you need to find v.
Therefore, you must be able to integrate vd .
dx
■ When you apply the formula, you will need to be able to integrate the
function v du .Therefore u should be a function which becomes simpler
dx
when you differentiate.

228
 Example 10.23 Find x∫ e xd x .
10
Solution x becomes simpler when
du = you differentiate, but e x
u x= ⇒ 1
e x . So choose
dx
stays as
dv = x ⇒ =
e v ex u x= .
dx
Substituting into u∫ v d dx uv=− ∫ v d
u dx gives
dx dx
∫ xexxdx = e x − ∫ e xd x
= xe xex− + c

ACTIVITY 10.11
by parts. She chooses v = x.
Anna wants to integrate ∫ x sin
x xd = u sin x
, d
dx
(i) Apply the integration by parts formula, using Anna’s choices for u and v ddx .
(ii) Explain how you know that Anna has made a bad choice.

Example 10.24
Find x∫ x lxn d .

Solution
d
You are not able to integrate xln , so you cannot make this v .
dx
Therefore xln must be u.
u = ln x ⇒ ddxu = x1
Note dv = ⇒ =
x v x2
You might have dx 2
expected to take u = x Substituting into u∫ v d dx uv = −v u ∫ d dx gives
in Example 10.24, as dx dx
this is a function which ∫ x lnx xd = x 2
ln x ∫
− x 2
× 1dx
gets simpler when 2 2 x
differentiated. However, x 2xln
in this case, since you =
2
− ∫ x2 xd
cannot integrate ln x
easily, you need to take = x 2xlnx
2
−+
4
2
c
u = ln x.

229
 Integration by parts
Definite integration by parts
When you use the method of integration by parts on a definite integral, you
must remember that the term uv has already been integrated, and so should be
written in square brackets with limits, and evaluated accordingly.

∫a u ddxv dx = [uv] ba − ∫a v ddxu dx

b b

Example 10.25 2
Evaluate x∫ e dx x.
−
0

Solution
uuux=x=x= ⇒ ⇒⇒ ddduuu ===111
dddxxx
dddvvv === −−−xxx ⇒
dddxxx
eee ⇒ v
v
⇒===v−−− eee−−−xxx

Substituting into ∫u dv dx uv ∫a v ddxu dx gives

b b b
=[] −
a dx a

2 2 2
∫ xe dx x = −⎡ ⎣xe x ⎤ ⎦ − −∫ ( )e dx x
0
− −
0 0
−

2
= −⎡ ⎣xe − x ⎤ 2⎦ + ∫ e −dx x
0
0

= −⎡ ⎣xe − x ⎤ 2⎦ + ⎡− ⎣e − x ⎤ 2⎦
0 0

= −( 2e −02 − + )− (+ e −12 )
−2
= −1 3e

Using integration by parts twice

Sometimes it is necessary to use integration by parts twice (or more) to integrate
a function successfully.

230
Example 10.26
Find ∫x 2
e xd x .
10
Solution You are able to integrate
either function, so
u x= 2 ⇒ du = 2 x choose u to be the
dx function that becomes
dv = x ⇒ = simpler when you
dx
e v ex differentiate.
Substituting into u∫v d dx uv=− ∫ v ddux dx gives
dx
∫ x e xd x x=
2 2
ex − ∫ 2xe xdx
To find ∫ 2 xe xd
x
use integration by parts again:

u = 2 x ⇒ du = 2
dx
dv = x ⇒ =
dx
e v ex

Substituting into u∫ v d dx uv
= −v u ∫ ddx dx gives
dx
∫ 2xe xdx = 2 xe x − ∫ 2e xd x
= 2 xe x − 2e x + c
So ∫ x e xd x x=
2 2
e x − (2 xe 2e
x − x )+ c
= x 2e x − 2 xe 2e
x + x + c

Using integration by parts to integrate ln x

At first glance, you would think that you cannot integrate lnx by parts because
it is not the product of two functions. However, by writing lnx as the product
of 1 and ln x, you can still use this method.

∫ ln xd x = ×∫ 1 ln d x x

⇒ dduduu===111
You cannot integrate xln ,
uuu===lnlnlnxxx ⇒⇒ ddxdxx xxx
so you must make it u and
dv d=v⇒ dv = ⇒
1 ==⇒ 1 v1=x =
v xv x not vddx .
dx dxdx
d
Substituting into u∫ v
dx
dx uv
=− ∫ v ddux dx gives

∫ ln xd x x=x ∫ x x× 1 d x
ln −

x − ∫1 d x
= x ln
= x ln
x x c− +

231
 Integration by parts
Exercise 10.6
① Find x ∫ cos 2xdx by using the integration by PS ⑦ (i) Sketch the graph of y x x = sin from
parts formula, x 0= to x π =.

∫ u ddvx dx uv= − ∫ v ddux dx , (ii) Find the area of the region bounded by
the curve and the x-axis.

with u x= and v
d =
cos 2x.
PS ⑧ Find the area bounded by the curve y = ln 3x,
dx the x-axis and the line x 1= .
1
② Evaluate ∫− ( 2x − 1)e dx x by using the
1 ⑨ (i) Use integration by parts to find the area of
integration by parts formula, the blue region in Figure 10.30.

∫a u ddxv dx ∫a v ddxu dx ,
b b b y
= [uv
] a
−
y = ln x
dv = . x 1
with u = 2 x − and
1 dx
e
③ Use integration by parts to integrate the O e x
following functions with respect to x.
(i) xe 2 x (ii) x ln 3x
④ Evaluate the following definite integrals. Figure 10.30
1
(i) ∫0 xe −dx x (ii) Show that the area1 of the red region can
(ii) ∫0 ( x) + 1 sin dx x
π
y
be written as ∫ 0ye d , and find this area in
exact form.
⑤ Find ∫ 2( x) x −2d
4
x
(i) by using integration by parts (iii) Add together your answers to (i) and (ii)
and explain your answer.
(ii) by using the substitution u x 2= − . PS ⑩ Find the following indefinite integrals.
⑥ Figure 10.29 shows the curve y = ( 2 − x ) e − x.
y
(i) ∫ x 2 sin 2xdx
y = (2 – x) e–x
(ii) ∫ x 2e −dx x
⑪ Given the curve y x x=
2
ln , x 0>
O x (i) find the coordinates of the point where
the curve crosses the x-axis
Figure 10.29
(ii) find the exact coordinates of the turning
(i) Find the coordinates of the points where point of the curve and determine its
the graph of y = ( 2 − x ) e − xcuts the x nature
and y-axes. (iii) sketch the curve
(ii) Use integration by parts to find the area (iv) find the exact area of the region bounded
of the region between the x-axis, the by the curve, the x-axis and the line x =2 .
y-axis and the graph y = (2 − x )e − x. ⑫ Given that I = ∫ e sin dx x
x

(i) use integration by parts to show that

I = e xsin ex cos
− x x I−
(ii) hence find ∫ e xsin dx x .

232
 Summary exercise
You have now met several different methods of integration, some of which involve substitution. So when you need the
answer to an integral, you have to select the best method, and you often have to decide on an appropriate substitution.
10
In this exercise there are 30 questions; having studied this chapter, you should be able to do all of them. However, they are in
random order and so you will have to make decisions for yourself about the best method and what substitutions to make (if any).

① ∫ xe dx x
−3
− )( − )
②∫ ( x 2 x 3dx ③ ∫ (2+x5 d )10 x

④ ∫ xe xd x 2
⑤ ∫ cos x1(sin+ d x )x 3
⑥ ∫ (3−x4 1 )5 d x

⑦ ∫ x cos 3xdx ⑧ ∫ x− 1
2
4
dx ⑨ ∫ x− x 2 d x
⑩ ∫ (x+ 3 )d2 x ⑪ ∫ (x 3 + 4 )(x 3 − 4 )d x ⑫ ∫ ln 3xdx
3x 2 + 1 d
⑬ ∫ sec tan
x dxx
2
⑭ ∫ x 3x+ x ⑮ ∫ cos xe xd x
sin

( − )
⑯ ∫ sin xcos dx x ⑰ ∫ (1+tan d x )x 2
⑱ ∫ (x x− x−3)5()9 dx

⑲ ∫ +9x 4 dx ⑳ ∫ (1+sec d x )x 2 x 5 −
∫ x − 11 d x
2x
∫ ⎡( ⎣sin x + cos x ) ( + 2
sin x − cos x ) ⎤ d⎦ x
2
∫ x e dx x
22
∫ sin
sin x
dx

x x
+ −1
∫ x 2 + 2 lnx d x
∫ x+(x 2
1) d x ∫ x xlnx d
3

xx2 −
x ∫ cos xcos+ xsin x d x ∫ ⎛⎝ e e +2 ⎞
2
∫ x+ 1 d x ⎠ dx

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to:
➤ understand that integration is the limit of a sum
➤ use integration to find the area between a curve and the x-axis or a curve and
the y-axis
➤ use integration1 to, kxfind the area between two curves
➤integrate e kx , x sin , cos kxand related sums, differences and constant
multiples
➤ use integration by substitution in cases where the process is the reverse of
the chain rule (either by inspection or by writing down the working for the
substitution)
➤ use integration by substitution in other cases, finding a suitable substitution
➤ use the method of integration by parts
❍ more than one application of the method may be required
❍ use to integrate ln x
➤ use partial fractions in integration.
233
 Integration by parts

KEY POINTS
⎛ x =b ⎞
1 The definite integral y x∫a d is defined as .
b
lim
δx→ 0 ⎝⎜
∑ y x
d
⎠⎟
x =a

2 The area between a curve and the

y-axis between y a= and y b = is y

given by x∫aby d . 4

O x

Figure 10.31
3 The area between two curves can be found by subtracting the equations of
the curves and integrating between the limits.
4 Many functions can be integrated through knowledge of differentiation, for
example
∫ e xd x = e x + c
∫ sin xd x = − cos x c+
∫ cos xd x = sin x c+
∫ x1 d x = ln x c + = ln kx
5 Substitution is often used to change a non-standard integral into a standard one.
6 In some cases, integration by substitution is the reverse of the chain rule.
In these cases, the integration can also be done by recognition.
7 One important type of integral that can be done by recognition is those of the
form f ʹ (,xfor
f (x)
) which

∫ ⎝⎜ff (xx) ⎠⎟ dx = ln f (x) + =c

⎛ ʹ( ) ⎞
ln kf .x( )

8 Some products may be integrated by parts using the formula

∫ u ddvx dx uv= − ∫ v ddux dx.

FUTURE USES
You will use all these integration techniques in Chapter 13.

234
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS: PURE MATHEMATICS 2
PS ① Figure 1 shows the graph ofy=x
1
.The two shaded regions have the same area.

y
y=1
x

O 2 45 a x

Figure 1
Find the value of a. [4 marks]
PS ② Figure 2 shows two curves. One is y = 4 sin x − 3 cos x and the other is
y = 5 sin x.
y

O � � 3� 2� x
2 2

Figure 2
(i) Identify which curve is which, justifying your answer. [1 mark]
(ii) = 4 sin x - 3 cos x on
Describe precisely the translation that maps f(x)
to g(x) = 5 sin x. [4 marks]
③ (i) Write down the first 6 terms, in their simplest form, in increasing
powers of x of the binomial expansion of (1 - x) .
-2
[3 marks]
(ii) By substituting x = 0.1, show that the decimal expansion
of 100 [2 marks]
81 begins 1.234 56… .

235
 Practice questions: Pure Mathematics 2
P PS ④ Figure 3 shows a triangle OAB inscribed in a circle of radius r, centre O.
M is the midpoint of AB. Angle AOM is α radians.
A

α
O M

Figure 3
By considering the area of triangle OAB in two different ways, prove that
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α. [5 marks]
P 4 .
⑤ (i) Prove the identity sec 2 + cosec2 ≡ [3 marks]
sin 22 u
(ii) Hence or otherwise find all the roots of the equation
sec2 + cosec2 = 4 in the range 0 < < 2π. [3 marks]
⑥ Figure 4 shows the curve with equation x 2y + 2y - 4x = 0.
y

O x

Figure 4
dy = 4 2− xy
(i) Show that
dx
. [3 marks]
2 + x2
(ii)
Hence find the coordinates of the maximum point on the curve. [4 marks]
⑦ (i) x−2
Write ( x + 1)(x − 3) as partial fractions. [3 marks]

Figure 5 shows the curve with equation y =

x−2 .
( x1)(
x+ − 3)
y

–4 –2 O 2 4 x

–1

Figure 5
(ii) Find the area of the shaded region enclosed by the curve
and the axes. [5 marks]

236
 ⑧ Figure 6 shows the curve y = x sin x and the line y = x. At the point P, the
line y = x is a tangent to y = x sin x.
y

O x

Figure 6
(i) ()
Verify that P is the point with coordinates p ,p2 .
2
[4 marks]
(ii) Find the exact value of the area of the shaded region. [5 marks]
M T ⑨ (i) By using your calculator, or otherwise, draw the graph of
6e x
y = +5 e x for x ˘ 0. [1 mark]

A particular social media platform defines a ‘regular user’ as someone who

accesses the platform at least once every day. It currently has one million
regular users. It models its future number of regular users, P (measured in
t
6e
millions), by the equation P = +
5 e t , where t is measured in months.
(ii) According to this model, find the value of t when the platform
is experiencing its fastest rate of growth. [7 marks]
(iii) Prove that according to this model P never reaches a
value of 7. [3 marks]

237
 R Review: Coordinate geometry

1 Line segments
For a line segment AB between the points A (x 1, y 1) and B (x 2, y 2) then
y

B (x 2, y 2)

A
(x 1, y 1)

O x

Figure R.1
the gradient of AB is
y 2y1−
n
x 2x− 1
The midpoint of two values
n
⎛ x x+y y2 1 2
the midpoint is ⎝ 1 ,
+ ⎞ is their mean point.
2 2 ⎠

the distance AB is ( x 2x− ) ( + −y 2y1

Using Pythagoras’
)2 . theorem.
2
n 1

Be sure you put your feet Parallel and perpendicular lines

in the right place, then
stand firm. m1
Abraham Lincoln
(1809–1865) m2
m1 m2
m 1 and m 2 are
Figure R.2 the negative
reciprocals of
For perpendicular lines, m1 = − 1 and likewise, m 2 = − 1 .
m2 m1
each other.
The equation of a straight line
The general equation of a straight line with y intercept (0, c) and gradient m is
y mx
= c. +
The gradient, m, of the line joining (x 1, y 1) and (x, y) is given by

m = xy xy− 1
−
This is a very useful
1
form of the equation
⇒⇒ y yy−y−=1=1 mm(x(xx−x− 1 )1.) of a straight line.
238
 Example R.1 The line L passes
(i)
1 through the points A (0, 2) and B (4, 10).
The line L 2 is perpendicular to L 1 and passes through the midpoint of
AB. Find the equation of the line L 2. Give your answer in the form
R
ax + by + c = 0.
(ii) Find the area of the triangle bounded by the lines L 1 and L 2 and the
x-axis.

Solution
(i) y
L 1

Two perpendicular lines B(4, 10)

will only be at right
angles in a diagram if you M Always start by
use the same scale for drawing a diagram.
both axes.
A(0, 2)

L 2

C O D x

Figure R.3
y ByA−
Gradient of L 1 = m1 =
x BxA− Gradient is difference in y
coordinates divided by difference
= 10 2
− in x coordinates. It doesn’t matter
4 0− which point you use first, as long as
= 2 you are consistent.
The gradient of the line perpendicular to L 1 is the negative reciprocal
of the gradient of L 1.
⇒ gradient of L 2 is − 1 .
2 Check: 2 × − 21 = −1 ✓
⎛ x Ax +y y B A B + ⎞
Midpoint M of AB = ⎝ , ⎠
2 2

(+
2
+
= 0 4 , 2 10
2
)
= (2, 6)
1
So L 2 passes through M (2, 6) and has gradient −
2.
Therefore its equation is
y y− m=1 x x ( − 1 ) It is usually easier to
use this form of the
Make sure you give your
⇒ y − =6 − 1 ( x2)−
equation of a straight
answer in the correct ⇒ 2 y12− = − +
2
x 2 line.
form. In this case the ⇒ +y−x= 14 0
Multiply both sides by
question asks for the
form ax + by + c = 0. 2 to clear the fraction.
➜

239
 Line segments
(ii) M has coordinates (2, 6) so the vertical height of the triangle is 6.
The base is the distance CD.
From part (i), L 1 Use the formula:
has gradient 2 and y C is the point where the line L 1 area of a triangle = 12 × base × height.
crosses the x-axis.
intercept (0, 2).
Line L 1 has equation y = 2x + 2.
Discussion point When y = 0 then 2 x = − 2⇒ = −x 1.
➜ Use a different D is the point where the line L 2, +
2 y−x= 14 0, crosses the x-axis.
method to calculate When y = 0 then −x = ⇒
14 =0 x 14.
the area of the C is 1 unit to the
triangle. Hence the distance CD is 14 + 1 = 15. left of O and D is
1 14 units right of O.
Area of triangle =
2× 15 × 6 = 45 square units.

The intersection of two lines

The coordinates of the point of intersection of any two lines (or curves) can be
found by solving their equations simultaneously.
You often need to find where a pair of lines intersect in order to solve problems.

Example R.2 Find the point of intersection of the lines y = 2x − 1 and 2y − 3x = 4.

Solution
2(2x −− −
2(2 −
1)
1) 33 x == 44 Substitute y x= −2 into
1 yx 2 3 −4 = .
44x −− −2−2 33 x == 44
xx == 66
yy == 11
11 Substitute x = 6 into either of
the original equations to find y.
The point of intersection is (6, 11).

Exercise R.1
① For each of the following pairs of points A and ③ Find the equation of each of the following
B calculate lines.
(a) the gradient of AB (i) gradient 2, passing through (0, 3)
(b) the midpoint of AB (ii) gradient 21 , passing through (3, 0)
(c) the exact distance AB.
(iii) gradient − 21 , passing through (3, −3)
(i) A (5, 2) and B (3, 4)
(iv) passing through (1, 2) and (−3, 0)
(ii) A (2, 5) and B (4, 3) (v) passing through (−1, 2) and (−3, 3)
(iii) A (−5, 2) and B (3, −4) ④ Find the coordinates of the point of
intersection of each of the following pairs of
(iv) A (−2, 5) and B (−4, 3) lines.
② Find the gradient of each of the following lines. (i) y = 2x − 1 and y = 3x − 4
(i) y = 3x + 5 (ii)2x + y = 5 (ii) 2x + 3y = 5 and y = 2x + 7
(iii) 2x + 3y = 5 (iv) 2y − 5x − 3 = 0 (iii) y − 2x = 6 and 2y + x − 7 = 0
(iv) 4x − 2y − 5 = 0 and 3y − 2x + 3 = 0
240
⑤ The point (3, −5) lies on the line

⑥
2x + 3y + k = 0, where k is a constant.
Find the value of k.
(i) Prove that the points A (1, 4), B (5, 7) and
⑩ A and B have coordinates (−5, 1) and
(1, 5) respectively. Find the equation of the
perpendicular bisector of AB.
⑪ The line L is parallel to 2x + 5y = 1 and passes
R
C (2, 11) form a right-angled triangle. through the point (−1, 2).Find the coordinates
(ii) Find the area of the triangle. of the points of intersection of L with the axes.
⑦ (i) Prove that the points A (0, 4), B (4, 2), ⑫ Find the area of the triangle bounded by the
C (5, −1) and D (−3, 3) form an isosceles lines 3y = 2x + 3, 2y + 3x = 15 and 5y + x = 5.
trapezium. ⑬ The point A has coordinates (3, −5). The point
B lies on the line y = 2x − 5. The distance AB
In an isosceles trapezium the two is 17. Find the possible coordinates of B.
non-parallel sides are equal in length. ⑭ A and B are the points with coordinates
(−1, 6) and (5, 2) respectively. The line L is the
(ii)
Find the coordinates of the point where
perpendicular bisector of AB. Find the area of
the diagonals of the trapezium intersect.
the triangle bounded by the line L, the y-axis
⑧ The line 3x + 4y = 15 cuts the axes at the points and the line through AB.
A and B. Find the distance AB.
⑨ The line L has equation kx + 3y + 8 = 0.
The point (2, −4) lies on the line L.
(i) Find the value of k.
(ii) Find the equation of the line
perpendicular to L that passes through the
point on L where x = 5. Give your answer
in the form ax + by + c = 0.

2 Circles
The equation of a circle
The general equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius r is
(x − a) 2 + (y − b) 2 = r 2

Example R.3 Find the centre and radius of the circle x 2y2+x +y − −4=8 5 0 .

Complete the square on Solution

the terms involving x …
You need to rewrite the equation so it is in the form (x − a) 2 + (y − b) 2 = r 2.
Note x2 + 4 x y+ − 2 8 y5 −0 =
then complete
The expanded equation in ( x + 2)2 − +4 −( y 4) 16− 5− 0=
2
…
the square on the
Example R.3 highlights terms involving y.
some of the important ( x + 2)2( +4)−25
y 2 =
characteristics of the
equation of a circle. In Comparing this with the general equation for a circle with radius r and
particular: centre (a, b),
the coefficients of x 2
(x − a) 2 + (y − b) 2 = r 2,
and y are equal
n
2

n there is no xy term. you have a = −2, b = 4 and r = 5, so the centre is (−2, 4) and the radius is 5.

241
 Circles
Circle theorems
The circle theorems illustrated here are often useful when solving problems.

The angle in a
semicircle is a
right angle. O

The tangent to a
circle at a point The perpendicular
is perpendicular from the centre of
to the radius O
a circle to a chord
through that bisects the chord.
point.

Figure R.4
Example R.4 A circle passes through the points (1, 9), (7, 9) and (7, 5).
Find
(i) the coordinates of the centre of the circle
(ii) the equation of the circle.

Solution
(i) y
Draw a sketch
(1, 9) (7, 9) to help you.
Use the theorem that the
perpendicular from the
centre of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord.
(7, 5)

O x

Figure R.5
( +
So the centre is at 1 7 , 9 5
2
+
2
)
= (4, 7).
(ii) The radius of a circle is the distance between the centre and any
point on the circumference.
To find the equation of
a circle you need the r 2 = −(7+4)− (92 7) 2

centre and the square of = +3222

the radius. = 13
⇒ (−x y=
4) 2( +7)−13 2

242
 The intersection of two curves
Notice that the word
‘curve’ is sometimes used
to describe a straight
line. So this includes the
The same principles apply to finding the intersection of two curves, but it is
only in simple cases that it is possible to solve the equations simultaneously using
R
intersection of a curve algebra (rather than a numerical or graphical method).
and a straight line.

yrtemoeg etanidrooC weiveR

Example R.5 Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the circle
( x − 5)2( + +y 2)2 = 16 and the line =y − 7 x .

Solution
x x ( 5)−( +2)+2 16
Substituting y = −7 into = y 2
gives
( x − 5)2(7+ − + =x 2) 216 Multiply out
⇒ ( x − +5)−2(9= ) 16 x 2 the brackets.
⇒ x2 − 10 x + 25 81
+ −18 x x+ = 2 16 Simplify.
⇒ 2 x 2 − 28 x90+ 0=
⇒ x 2 − 14 x45+ 0=
⇒ ( x − 5)( x9)−0= Factorise.
So x = 5 and y = 2 Don’t forget to use
or x = 9 and y = −2. y 7 x to find the y
= −
coordinates.
So the coordinates are (5, 2) and (9, −2).

Exercise R.2
① Find the centre and radius of each of the ⑤ (i) The equation of a circle, C, is
following circles. x 2 − +8x+y+y=2 2 7 0 .
(i) ( x − 3)2( + −y 1)2 = 25 Show that the equation of C
(ii) ( x − 3)2( + +y 1)2 = 5 can be written in the form
(iii) ( x + 3)2( + +y 1)2 = 25 ( x a+ +)+() ybc 2
2 =
.
(iv) ( x − 1)2 ( + +y 3)2 = 5 (ii)
Find the centre and radius of the circle.
② Find the equation of the circle with centre ⑥ Find the coordinates of the points of intersection
(5, −2) and radius 4. of the circle(−x5)+ (+2)=2 9 y 2
and the
③ Find the equation of the circle with centre line y= x− 10.
(−3, 4) and radius 9. ⑦ The line y = 2x + 3 intersects the circle
Give your answer in the form ( x1)+( +2)2−2= y 2
at the points A and B.
x 2 + ax y+ 2 + +by=c 0 . The distance AB is a b where b is an integer.
④ The points A and B have coordinates (−2, 5) Find the value of a and the value of b.
and (4, 7) respectively. AB forms the diameter ⑧ Find the coordinates of the points of intersection
of a circle. of the circle(+x2)+ (−1)=2 15 y 2
and the
Find the equation of the circle. line 2 x y+ = 2.
Give your answers in surd form.

243
 Circles
⑨ The line y = x + k forms a tangent to the circle ⑫ The equation of the circle shown in Figure R.7
( x + 2) ( + −y 1) = 50. is (−x3) =2 20 y
2 2 2
+−( 4) .
Find the possible values of k.
y
⑩ The points P (−2, −1), Q (8, −9) and R (7, 0) T
lie on the circumference of a circle, C.
(i) Show that PQ forms the diameter of the
circle.
(ii) Find the equation of the circle, C. A B

(iii) Find the exact coordinates of the points

where C crosses the axes. C

⑪ The points A (3, 6) and B (5, 2) lie on the

x
circumference of a circle. O

y
Figure R.7
A(3, 6)
The circle intersects the line y = 6 at the points
A and B. The tangents at A and B meet at T.
2y = x + 4
Find the perimeter of the quadrilateral ACBT.
B(5, 2)
Give your answer in the form a b where a and
O x
b are integers.
⑬ Find the coordinates of the point of
intersection of the circles
Figure R.6 x 2y2+ − + +8=x2y13 0
(i) Show that the centre of the circle lies on
x 2y + −( 2)= 9 2
the line 2y = x + 4.
(ii) Given that the centre of the circle also lies Find also the distance between their centres.
on the line y = 3, find the equation of the
circle.

244
KEY POINTS
1 The equation of a straight line is =y +mx c.
R
2 When the points A and B have coordinates (x y and (x y respectively,
then
1, 1) 2, 2)

y y−

yrtemoeg etanidrooC weiveR

the gradient of AB is x x− 2
2
1
1
⎛ x x+y y + ⎞
the midpoint of AB is ⎝ 2 , 2 ⎠1 212

the distance AB between the two points is (x x− + −) ( y y ) . 21

2
21
2

3 Two lines are parallel when their gradients are equal.

4 Two lines are perpendicular when the product of their gradients is −1.
5 The equation of a straight line may take any of the following forms:
line parallel to the y-axis: x = a
line parallel to the x-axis: y = b
line through the origin with gradient m: y = mx
line through (0, c) with gradient m: y = mx + c
line through (x y with gradient m: y − y = m(x − x
6 The equation of a circle
1, 1) 1 1)

with centre (0, 0) and radius r is x + y 2 = r 2 2 2 2

with centre (a, b) and radius r is (x − a) + (y − b) = r . 2

7 Circle theorems
The
perpendicular
O
from the
O centre of a
circle to a
chord bisects
the chord.

The
angle in a
semicircle O
is a right The tangent to a circle at
angle. a point is perpendicular
to the radius through
that point.

Figure R.8
8 To find the points of intersection of two curves (or lines), you solve their
equations simultaneously.

245
 Problem solving Eggs
T Figures 1 and 2 show a male robin and a nest containing a robin’s egg. The egg
has the distinctive shape of many birds’ eggs.

Figure 1 A male robin Figure 2 A robin’s egg

Sally is starting a business reproducing replica eggs made out of wood. She has a
machine that will produce eggs of any shape but first the equation of the desired
shape has to be entered. Sally will then paint the eggs by hand. She wants to
know the equation of a typical egg shape and how it can be adapted to allow for
differences between species.

1 Problem specification and analysis

The problem has been specified but before you can make any progress you
need to know more about the shapes of eggs. The diagrams in Figure 3 show
the outlines of several different egg shapes.

A B

C D

Figure 3

246
 Shape A is a sphere and this is the most basic shape. So use the equation of a
circle, centre (0, 0) with radius 1 as a starting point. Spherical eggs are laid by
many animals, for example turtles, but not by birds. So the equation needs to
be adapted; two parameters, denoted here by a and k, are involved.
In shape B the sphere has been made longer and thinner. This is a feature of

sggE gnivlos melborP

many eggs allowing the animal to have a narrower oviduct. It is particularly
pronounced in fast flying birds. The equation of this shape can be obtained
by applying stretches of scale factors a and a1 in the x and y directions.
In shape C the egg is unsymmetrical. This is a feature of almost all birds’
eggs; it means that if the egg is disturbed, it rolls around in a circle rather than
rolling out of the nesting area. To achieve this transformation the right hand
side of the equation for y is multiplied by a factor of (1 + kx) where k is a
positive number less than 1. Some birds, for example owls and ostriches, have
eggs like this.
In shape D both transformations are applied at the same time. This gives the
common egg shape and for suitable values of the parameters, a and k, a full
range of birds’ egg shapes can be obtained.

2 Information collection
Notice that you will need a graphical calculator or graphing software.
You are advised to work in three stages.
Start by identifying the equation for shape B. This will involve the parameter
a and you will need to find suitable values to give it to produce a variety of
elongated but symmetrical shapes.
Then go back to the equation for the circle and apply the transformation
needed for shape C. This involves the parameter k and you will need to find
suitable values for it.
Then work with an equation that incorporates both transformations, giving
shape D.

3 Processing and representation

A good way to present your work is to set up a display of, say, about 12 egg
shapes, stating the different pairs of values for the parameters a and k that you
have used.
You may be able to make this into a poster.

4 Interpretion
Your display will include the egg shapes for a variety of birds. To complete
the task, match up your shapes with those typical of different species; you can
easily find the information you need online.
Sally will need this information to paint realistic patterns on her eggs for
different bird species.

247
 11 Parametric equations

A mathematician, like
a painter or poet, is a
Fairground rides are scary because the ride follows a complicated path.
maker of patterns. If ➜ How could you find an equation for the path that this ride takes its riders on?
his patterns are more Figure 11.1 shows a simplifi ed version of the ride in the picture.
permanent than theirs it (a) (b) AP has in total P P
is because they are made turned through
with ideas. angle 3θ. A 2θ 2θ

G. H. Hardy (1877–1947) A θ θ

O O 4m 4m A 2m A P 2m PO O θ θ
At the start Some time later

Figure 11.1
The rider’s chair is on the end of a rod AP of length 2 m which is rotating about A.
The rod OA is 4 m long and is itself rotating about O. The gearing of the
mechanism ensures that the rod AP rotates twice as fast relative to OA as the
rod OA does. This is illustrated by the angles marked on Figure 11.1(b), at a time
when OA has rotated through an angle θ.

248
 Note
This example involves
trigonometric functions
At this time, the coordinates of the point P, taking O as the origin (Figure 11.2),
are given by
x = 4 cos u + 2 cos 3u 11
so u is used as the y = 4 sin u + 2 sin 3u
parameter. Otherwise, y
t is often used as a

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

parameter. You can,
of course, use any P

letter you like as the 2

parameter. A 3θ
2sin3θ

4 2cos3θ
4sin θ
θ
O 4cos θ x

Figure 11.2
These two equations are called parametric equations of the curve. They do not
give the relationship between x and y directly in the form y = f(x) but use a third
variable, u, to do so. This third variable is called the parameter.
To plot the curve, you need to substitute values of u and find the corresponding
values of x and y.
Thus u = 0° ⇒ x=4+2=6
y=0+0=0 Point (6,0)
TECHNOLOGY u = 30° ⇒ x = 4 × 0.866 + 0 = 3.464
Find out how to y = 4 × 0.5 + 2 × 1 = 4 Point (3.46,4)
draw curves given and so on.
parametrically on any
graphing software Joining points found in this way reveals the curve to have the shape shown in
available to you. Figure 11.3.
Investigate how a point
moves around the curve y

as the value of u varies. θ = 150° 4

θ = 60°, 120°
θ = 30°

Discussion point θ = 180°

θ = 90°
θ = 0°

➜ At what points of the −6 −4 −2 O 2 46 x

curve do you think θ = 270°

the ride will be the −2

scariest? Why? θ = 240°, 300°

θ = 210° −4 θ = 330°

Figure 11.3

249
 Graphs from parametric equations

1 Graphs from parametric

equations
Prior knowledge Parametric equations are very useful in situations such as this, where an
You need to be able to otherwise complicated equation may be expressed more simply in terms of
sketch the graph of a a parameter. In fact, there are some curves which can be given by parametric
curve (see the review equations but cannot be written as Cartesian equations (in terms of x and
section in Chapter 4). y only).
Example 11.1 is based on a simpler curve.

Example 11.1 y = 362 .

A curve has the parametric equations x = 2t,
t
(i) Find the coordinates of the points corresponding to t = 1, 2, 3, −1, −2
and −3.
(ii) Plot the points you have found and join them to give the curve.
(iii) Explain what happens as t → 0 and as t → `.

Solution Substituting t into x = 2t gives

(i)
t −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 the x coordinates …
x −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 … and36substituting t into
y 4 9 36 36 9 4 y = gives the y coordinates.
t 2

The points required are (−6, 4), (−4, 9), (−2, 36), (2, 36), (4, 9) and (6, 4).
(ii) The curve is shown in Figure 11.4.

t = −1 y t=1

30

20

10
t = −2 t=2

t = −3 t=3

−6 −4 −2 O 246 x

Figure 11.4
(iii) As t → 0, x → 0 and y → `. So the y-axis is an asymptote for the curve.
As t → `, x → ` and y → 0. So the x-axis is an asymptote for the curve.

250
 Example 11.2 A curve has the parametric equations x = t 2, y = t 3 − t.
(i) Find the coordinates of the points corresponding to values of t from
−2 to +2 at half-unit intervals.
11
(ii) Sketch the curve for −2 < t < 2.

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

(iii) Are there any values of x for which the curve is undefined?

Solution
(i) t −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x 4 2.25 1 0.25 0 0.25 1 2.25 4
(ii) yy −6 −1.875 0 0.375 0 −0.375 0 1.875 6
6

4
The curve is
symmetrical
2 about the x-axis.
O 1 2 3 4 x

−2
TECHNOLOGY
You can use a graphical −4

calculator or graphing x = t2is positive for all

software to sketch −6
values of t so x is never
parametric curves less than 0.
but, as with Cartesian Figure 11.5
curves, you need to be
careful when choosing (iii) The curve in Figure 11.5 is undefined for x < 0.
the range.

Exercise 11.1
In this exercise you should sketch the curves by hand. Use a graphical calculator or graphing software to check your results.
① A curve has the parametric equations ③ For each of the following curves
x = 3t + 1, y = 2t 2 − t. (a) copy and complete the table of values
(i) Find the coordinates of the point with t x y
parameter
−2
(a) t = 1 (b) t = 2 (c) t = −1. −1.5
(ii) What is the value of the parameter t at the −1
point (−8, 21)?
−0.5
② A curve has the parametric equations
0
x = t 3, y = 3t 2. Find the coordinates of the
point where 0.5
1
(i) t = 1 (ii) x = 27 (iii) y = 12.
1.5
2

251
 Graphs from parametric equations
(b) sketch the curve. ⑥ A curve has the parametric equations
(i) x = 2t (ii) x = t 2 x = 2 cosec u, y = 2 cot u.
y = t2 y = t3 (i) Sketch the curve.
(iii) x = t 2 (ii) For which values of x is the curve
y = t2 − t undefined?
④ For each of the following pairs of parametric ⑦ For each of the following pairs of parametric
equations equations

(a) copy and complete the table of values (a)

sketch the curve

x y (b)
state the equations of any asymptotes.
u t
0° (i) x = tan u (ii) x =
1+t
y = tan 2u
30° y = 1 −t t
60°
⑧ A curve has the parametric equations
90° x = e t, y = sin t, where t is in radians.
120° (i) Find, to 2 decimal places, the coordinates
150° of the points corresponding to values of t
180°
PS from −2 to +2 at half-unit intervals.
210° (ii) What can you say about the values of x
240°
for which the curve is defined?
270° (iii)
Sketch the curve for −2 < t < 2.
300° (iv)
Predict how this graph would continue if
all values of t were considered (that is,
330°
t < −2 and t > 2).
360°
PS ⑨ A student is investigating the trajectory of a
(b) sketch the curve golf ball being hit over level ground. At first
she ignores air resistance, and this leads her to
(c) state the values of x and y for which
the curve is defined. an initial model given by x = 40t, y = 30t − 5t 2,
where x and y are the horizontal and vertical
(i) x = cos 2u distances in metres from where the ball is hit,
y = sin 2 u and t is the time in seconds.
(ii) x = sin 2 u (i) Plot the trajectory on graph paper for
y = 1 + 2 sin u t = 0, 1, 2, … , until the ball hits the
(iii) x = 2 sin2 u ground again.
y = 3 cos u (ii) How far does the ball travel horizontally
⑤ A curve has the parametric equations before bouncing, according to this model?
x = t 2, y = t 4. The student then decides to make an
allowance for air resistance to the horizontal
(i) Find the coordinates of the points
motion and proposes the model x = 40t − t 2,
corresponding to t = −2 to t = 2 at half-
unit intervals. y = 30t − 5t 2.
(ii) Sketch the curve for −2 < t < 2. (iii) Plot the trajectory according to this model
using the same axes as in part (i).
(iii) Why is it not quite accurate to say this
curve has equation y = x 2? (iv) By how much does this model reduce the
horizontal distance the ball travels before
bouncing?

252
PS ⑩ The path traced out by a marked point on the
rim of a wheel of radius a when the wheel is
rolled along a flat surface is called a cycloid.
(i) Find the coordinates of the points
corresponding to values of u from 0 to 6π
at intervals of π .
3
11
y
(ii) Sketch the curve for 0 < u < 6π.
P 0 A = arc P1 A (iii) What do you notice about the curve?

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

PS ⑪ The curve with parametric equations
x = a cos3 u
y = a sin3 u
C
θ
is called an astroid.
a
(i) Sketch the curve.
P1
B
(ii) On the same diagram sketch the curve
P0 O A x x = a cosn u
y = a sinn u
Figure 11.6 for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
What happens if n = 0?
Figure 11.6 shows the wheel in its initial position,
when the lowest point on the rim is P 0, and
(iii) What can you say regarding the shape and
position of the curve when n > 7 and
when it has rotated through an angle u (radians).
In this position, the point P 0 has moved to P 1 (a) n is even
with parametric equations given by (b) n is odd?
x = OA − P 1B = a u − a sin u
y = AC − BC = a − a cos u.

2 Finding the equation by

Prior knowledge
You need to be able to
eliminating the parameter
solve simultaneous For some pairs of parametric equations, it is possible to eliminate the parameter
equations – see and obtain the Cartesian equation for the curve. This is usually done by
Review: Algebra (2). making the parameter the subject of one of the equations, and substituting this
expression into the other.

Example 11.3 Eliminate t from the equations x = t 3 − 2t 2, y = 2 .

t

Solution Make t the subject of one equation …

t = t
y =⇒ 2y
2
Substituting this in the equation x = t 3 − 2t 2 gives
x = (2y)3 − 2(2y)2 … then substitute into the other equation.
So x = 8y 3
− 8y2.

Sometimes it is not straightforward to make the parameter the subject of one

of the equations. In the next example you will see two different methods of
eliminating the parameter.

253
 Finding the equation by eliminating the parameter
Example 11.4 1 1
The parametric equations of a curve are x = t + t , y = t − t .
Eliminate the parameter by
(i) first finding x + y
(ii) first squaring x and y.

Solution
(i) Adding the two equations gives
x y+
x + y = 2t or t = 2 .
Substituting for t in the first equation (it could be either one) gives
The parameter t has
been eliminated, but x = x y+ + 2.
the equation is not in its 2 xy
+
neatest form.
Multiplying by 2(x + y) to eliminate the fractions:
2x(x + y) = (x + y) 2 + 4
⇒ 2x 2 + 2xy = x 2 + 2xy + y 2 + 4
⇒ x 2 − y 2 = 4.
(ii) Squaring gives

x 2 = t 2 + 2 + t 12 y

y 2 = t 2 − 2 + t 12 . 6
Subtracting gives 4
x 2 − y 2 = 4. 2

Using graphing
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 O 12 5 x4 3
software to sketch –2
x 2 − y 2 = 4 gives the
curve shown in –4

Figure 11.7. –6

Figure 11.7

Prior knowledge
You need to be able
to use trigonometric
Trigonometric parametric equations
identities. These are When trigonometric functions are used in parametric equations, you can use
covered in Chapters 6 trigonometric identities to help you eliminate the parameter.
and 8. The next examples illustrate this.

254
 Example 11.5 Eliminate u from x = 4 cos u, y = 3 sin u.

Solution
11
The identity which connects cos u and sin u is

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

cos2 u + sin 2 u = 1 ①

x = 4 cos u ⇒ cos u = x4
y
y = 3 sin u ⇒ sin u = 3 .
Substituting these in ① gives
This looks similar to the equation of a
(x4 ) +(=y3 )
2 2
1. circle, x + y = 1.
2

This is usually written as This curve is

y called an ellipse.
x2 + y2 = 1. 3
Discussion point 16 9
To find where the curve crosses the axes,
➜ What transformations
map the unit circle substitute in x = 0 and then y = 0: −4 O 4 x
x 2+ y 2= 1 on to this When y = 0, x = 16 ⇒ =x ± . 4
2

ellipse? When x = 0, y y ==⇒

2 2
9 ==±y±y.
9⇒ 33
−3
The curve is shown in Figure 11.8.
Figure 11.8

The double angle formulae giving cos 2u in terms of either sin u or cos u are also
useful when converting from parametric to Cartesian equations. Remember:
cos 2u = 1 − 2 sin2 u and cos 2u = 2 cos 2 u −1.

Example 11.6 Eliminate u from y = cos 2u, x = sin u + 2.

T Discussion point Solution
Use graphing software
to sketch these curves. The relationship between cos 2u and sin u is
(i) y = cos 2u, cos 2u = 1 − 2 sin2 u.
x = sin u + 2 Now x − 2 = sin u
(ii) y = 1 − 2(x − 2)2 so y = 1 − 2(x − 2) 2.
➜ Why are they not
exactly the same?
The parametric equation of a circle
Prior knowledge The circle with centre (0, 0)

You need to know the The circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 4 units has the equation
Cartesian equation of x2 + y 2 = 16.
a circle – see Review:
Coordinate geometry.
255
 Finding the equation by eliminating the parameter
Alternatively, using the triangle OAB and y

the angle u in Figure 11.9, you can write 4

A
the equations
x = 4 cos u 4
4sin θ
y = 4 sin u. θ
x
−4 O 4cos θ B 4
Generalising, a circle with centre
(0, 0) and radius r has the parametric
equations
x = r cos u −4

y = r sin u. Figure 11.9

The circle with centre (a, b)
The general point P has coordinates
(a + rcos θ, b + rsin θ ).
y
Translating the centre of the circle to
the point (a, b) gives the circle in
P

Figure 11.10 with the parametric

r
equations rsin θ

x = a + r cos u (a, b) θ
rcosθ

y = b + r sin u.
x

Figure 11.10
Converting from a Cartesian equation to
Discussion points
parametric equations
➜ How would your
answers to
Activity 11.1 change ACTIVITY 11.1
if the parametric (i) Match together the parametric equations that describe the same curve.
equations described x = 2 + 5 cos 2t
the position of an x = 2 + 5 sin t x = 5 cos t
object at time t? y = 3 + 5 cos t y = 5 sin t y = 3 + 5 sin 2t
➜ What happens when
t is replaced by 2t? x = 5 cos 2t x = 3 + 5 sin t x = 2 + 5 cos 2t
y = 5 sin 2t y = 2 + 5 cos t y = 3 + 5 sin 2t

x = 3 + 5 cos 21 t x = 2 + 5 sin 21 t x = 5 cos 21 t

y = 2 + 5 sin 21 t y = 3 + 5 sin 21 t y = 5 sin 21 t
Activity 11.1
showed that the x = 2 + 5 sin t x = 2 + 5 cos t x = 2 − 5 cos t
parametric equations y = 3 + 5 sin t y = 3 + 5 sin t y = 3 − 5 sin t
for a curve are not
unique and also that (ii) For each set of parametric equations you found in part (i), investigate the
the shape of the curve curve for
depends on the range (a) 0 < <t π2 (b) 0 < <t π (c) 0 < <t . 2π
of values chosen for t. What effect does changing the interval for the parameter have on the curve?
256
 Example 11.7 (i) Find parametric equations to describe the curve =y +
1 < x < 4 when
(a) x = t (b) x = e t.
1
2
x 2 for 11
(ii) Explain why you can’t use (b) to describe the curve for all values of x.

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

Solution
2 2
(i) (a) Substituting x = t into =y + y
x 1 1 t2 .
2 gives = +

Since x = t and 1 < x < 4 then t is also between 1 and 4, so the

parametric equations are
If you use a value of t
x = t, y =+ 2 outside of this range
1 t 2 for 1 < t < 4. you will get a different
section of the curve.
T Discussion point (b)
2 2
y + 2 2 gives
Substituting x = e t into =
1 x
Use graphing software y =+ =+
1e ( t) 2 1 e 2t. Make t the subject so you
to sketch the following can find the values of the
curves. t
Since x = e t then = ln x. parameter corresponding
(i) x = t,y= + 1 2 t 2 When x = 1 then t = ln 1 = 0.
to 0 < x < 4.
When x = 4 then t = ln 4.
(ii) x = e t, y= + 1 e2 2t
So the parametric equations are
➜ What do you notice? x = e t, y = +1 e2 2t for 0 < t < ln 4.
(ii) Since t = ln x the parameter is only defined for x > 0.

Exercise 11.2
① Match together these Cartesian and parametric ③ Find parametric equations to describe the line
equations. y = 5 − 2x for 0 < x < 4 when
xy 9= x = 2t (i) x = 2t (ii) x = u − 1
y = −1 t2 ④ A circle has equation
x = −1 t (x − 3) 2 + (y + 1) 2 = 16.
y t= 2 x = 3t Find parametric equations to describe the
y = 3 circle given that
x = 3t 2 t
y = 6t (i) x = 3 + 4 cos t.
x t= 1 (ii) x = 3 − 4 sin t.
xy 3= y = 3t ⑤ Find the Cartesian equation of each of these
curves from question 4 in Exercise 11.1. Write
4 y = −4 x2 down the values of x and y for which your
y2 = 12 x
equation is valid.
y = −(1 x )2 (i) x = cos 2u (ii) x = sin 2 u
y = sin 2 u y = 1 + 2 sin u
② Find the Cartesian equation of each of these (iii) x = 2 sin2 u
curves from question 3 in Exercise 11.1. y = 3 cos u
(i) x = 2t2 (ii) x = t32 (iii) x = t 2
y=t y=t y = t2 − t
257
 Finding the equation by eliminating the parameter
⑥ Sketch the circles given by the following ⑨ A curve has parametric equations
equations. Write down the Cartesian equation x = (t + 1) 2, y = t − 1.
of each curve.
(i) Sketch the curve for −4 < t < 4.
(i) x = 5 cos u (ii) State the equation of the line of symmetry
y = 5 sin u of the curve.
(ii) x = 3 cos u (iii) By eliminating the parameter, find the
y = 3 sin u Cartesian equation of the curve.
(iii) x = 4 + 3 cos u PS ⑩ Find the Cartesian equation of each of these
y = 1 + 3 sin u curves from questions 6 and 7 in Exercise 11.1.
(iv) x = 2 cos u − 1 (i) x = 2 cosec u (ii) x = tan u
y = 3 + 2 sin u y = 2 cot u y = tan 2u
⑦ (i) Sketch both of these curves on the same ⑪ Figure 11.12 shows the circle with equation
axes. (x − 4)2 + (y − 6)2 = 25.
(a) x = t, y= t 1 C is the centre of the circle and CP is a radius
of the circle which is parallel to the x-axis.
(b) x = 4t, y= 4t A is a variable point on the circle and t is the
angle shown.
(ii) Find the Cartesian equation of each curve. y
(iii) Comment on the relationship between
them. A

⑧ Figure 11.11 shows the graph of

y = 2x + 1. t
y C P

t P (x, y)
O x

1
A Figure 11.12
O x
(i) Give the coordinates of C and P.

Figure 11.11 (ii) Using t as the parameter, find the equation

of the circle in parametric form.

(i) Show that the point A (3, 7) lies on The point X has parameter t = π and
3
y = 2x + 1.
the point Y has parameter t = 5π .
(ii) Write down 6
(iii) (a) Find, in exact form, the coordinates
(a) the position vector of A of X and the length of XY.
(b) a vector in the same direction as the
line. (b) Does XY form a diameter of the
circle?
A point P (x, y) lies on y = 2x + 1 at a distance
t from A (3, 7).
(iii) Find the position vector of P in terms of t.
(iv) Hence write down the parametric
equations of the line. Use t as the
parameter.

258
Prior knowledge
You need to understand
3 Parametric differentiation 11
the chain rule (covered To differentiate a function which is defined in terms of a parameter t, you need
in Chapter 5) and to to use the chain rule:
be able to differentiate dy dy × dt
a variety of functions .

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

=
dx dt dx
including those
involving trigonometric Since
functions (covered in dt = 1
Chapter 9). You also dx dx
need to be able to fi nd dt
the equation of the it follows that
tangent or normal to a
curve (see the review dy
section in Chapter 5). dy
dx
= dt provided that dx ≠ 0.
dx dt
dt

Example 11.8 A curve has the parametric equations x = t 2, y = 2t.

(i) Find dy in terms of the parameter t.
dx
(ii) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the general point (t 2, 2t).
(iii) Find the equation of the tangent at the point where t = 3.
(iv) Eliminate the parameter to find the Cartesian equation of the curve.
Hence sketch the curve and the tangent at the point where t = 3.

Solution
(i) x = t 2 ⇒ ddxt= 2t
dy
y = 2t ⇒ dt = 2
dy
dy
= dt = 2t = t
2 1
dx dx
dt
(ii) Using y − y1 = m(x − x1) and taking the point (x 1, y 1) as (t 2, 2t), the
equation of the tangent at the point (t 2, 2t) is
1
y − 2t = t (x − t 2)
⇒ ty − 2t 2 = x − t 2
⇒ x − ty + t 2 = 0.
(iii) Substituting t = 3 into this equation gives the equation of the tangent
at the point where t = 3.
The tangent is x − 3y + 9 = 0.
(iv) Eliminating t from x = t 2, y = 2t gives

x =
2
()
y 2
or y2
= 4x.

This is a parabola with the x-axis as its line of symmetry.

The point where t = 3 has coordinates (9, 6).
The tangent x − 3y + 9 = 0 crosses the axes at (0, 3) and (−9, 0). ➜

259
 Parametric differentiation
The curve is shown in Figure 11.13.
y (9, 6)
6

–9 0 9 x

–6

Figure 11.13
Example 11.9 A curve has parametric equations x = 4 cos u, y = 3 sin u.
dy
(i) Find at the point with parameter u.
dx
(ii) Find the equation of the normal at the general point (4 cos u, 3 sin u).
π
(iii) Find the equation of the normal at the point where u = 4 .

Solution
dx
(i) x = 4 cos u ⇒ du = −4 sin u
dy
y = 3 sin u ⇒ ud = 3 cos u
dy
dy = ud 3cos u
dx dx = − 4 sinu
du
= − 3cos u
4 sinu
This is the same as − 43 cotu .
(ii) The tangent and normal are perpendicular, so the gradient of the
normal is Find the negative reciprocal.
−1 4 sinu = 4 tan
which is u.
dy 3cos u 3
dx
Using y − y 1 = m(x − x 1)
and (x y
1, 1) as The equation of the normal at the point (4 cos u, 3 sin u) is
(4 cos u, 3 sin u).
y − 3sin u = 43 tanu( 4x cos
− ) u
⇒ 3y − 9sin u = 4 xtan 16u −tan cos u u tanucos
u = sinu cosusin
u=
cosu
⇒ 3y − 9sin u = 4 xtan 16u −sin tanu ucos = sinu cosusin
u u=
cosu
⇒ 3y = 4 xtan 7sin
u− u

(iii) Substitute = u π into 3y4x=tan 7 sinu: − u

4
3y = 4 x × 1− 7 2
2 Remember tan 4π = 1
Multiply both sides by 2: and sin 4π = 22 .
6 y = 8 x − 7 2.

260
 Turning points
When the equation of a curve is given parametrically, you can distinguish
between turning points by considering the sign of
dy
.
11
dx

Example 11.10 The path of a projectile at time t seconds is modelled by the parametric

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

equations
x = 20 3 t
y
= 20t − 5 t 2
where x and y are measured in metres.
Find the maximum height, y metres, reached by the projectile and justify that
this height is a maximum.

Solution
dx =
x = 20 3 t ⇒
dt
20 3

dy
y = 20t5− t 2 ⇒ dt = 20 10
− t
dy
dy = dt = 20 10
− t
dx dx 20 3
dt
You must be dy
Turning points occur when =0
careful to ensure that dx
you take points which so −
20 10 t 0 = .t
=⇒ 2
are to the left and right
At t = 2: x 20
= 3 2 40×3=
of the turning point,
i.e. have x coordinates y 20
= 2 5×2−20
×= 2
.
smaller and larger than dy
To justify that this is a maximum you need to look at the sign of either
those at the turning side of =x 40 3 69.3.=
d x
point. These will not
dy 0
necessarily be points At t = 1.9: x = 65.8 (to the left); = 0.0288… (positive).
dx + –
whose parameters are
smaller and larger than dy
At t = 2.1: x = 72.7 (to the right); = −0.0288… (negative).
those at the turning dx
point. Therefore the maximum height of the projectile is 20 metres at t = 2 seconds.

Exercise 11.3
① For each of the following curves, find ② A curve has the parametric equations
(a) ddxt (b) ddyt (c) ddxy . x = (t + 1) 2, y = (t − 1) 2. Find
dx dy dy
(i) x = 3t 32 (ii) x = 4t − 1 (i) (a) dt
(b) dt
(c) dx
y = 2t y = t4 (ii) (a) the coordinates of the point where
1
(iii) x = t + t t=3
(b) the gradient of the curve at t = 3
y = t − t1 (c) the equation of the tangent at t = 3.

261
 Parametric differentiation
dy ⑦ A curve has the parametric equations
③ For each of the following curves, find dx in
terms of the parameter.
x = e 2t + 1, y = e t.
dy
(i) x = u − cos u (ii) x = 3 cos u (i) Find dxin terms of the parameter t.
y = u + sin u y = 2 sin u (ii) Find the equation of the tangent at the
point where
(iii) x = u sin u + cos u
y = u cos u − sin u (a) t=0 (b) t = 1.
④ A curve has the parametric equations ⑧ For each of the following curves
x = 1 +t t , y = 1 −t t . (a) find the turning points of the curve
and distinguish between them
(i) (a) Find ddxyin terms of the parameter t. (b) draw the graph of the curve.

(b) Find ddxywhen t = 2. (i) x = 8t 2+ 1

y = 4t − 3
(ii) (a) Find the Cartesian equation of the (ii) x t= 3
curve. y =+ 3 2
1 t
dy
(b) Find
dx
in terms of x. ⑨ A curve has the parametric equations
(iii) Show that both of your expressions for the x = tan u, y = tan 2u. Find
gradient have the same value at the point dy
where t = 2.
(i) the value of dxwhen u = π 6
⑤ A ball is thrown from the top of a tower. (ii) the equation of the tangent to the curve at
The trajectory of the ball at time t seconds is the point where u = π
6
modelled by the parametric equations
(iii) the equation of the normal to the curve at
π
x = 20t,y = 50 +20 5 t − t 2
the point where u = 6 .
where x and y are measured in metres. PS ⑩ A curve has the parametric equations
(i) Find the position of the ball when x = t 2, y = −1 1t 2 for t > 0. Find
t = 0.5 seconds.
(i) the coordinates of the point P where the
(ii) Find the maximum height, y metres, curve cuts the x-axis
reached by the ball.
(ii) the gradient of the curve at this point
(iii) At what time does the ball land? How far
(iii) the equation of the tangent to the curve at P
from the base of the tower does the ball land?
(iv)
Illustrate the trajectory of the ball on a graph.
(iv) the coordinates of the point where the
tangent cuts the y-axis.
⑥ Figure 11.14 shows part of the curve with the
parametric equations y
⑪ A curve has the parametric equations
x = at 2, y = 2at, where a is constant. Find
= + 3t 3
(i) the equation of the tangent to the curve at
x the point with parameter t
1 t
3t 2 O x (ii) the equation of the normal to the curve at
y = + the point with parameter t
1 t
3
Figure 11.14
dy (iii) the coordinates of the points where the
(i) Find dx in terms of the parameter t. normal cuts the x and y axes.
(ii) Find the exact coordinates of the ⑫ A curve has the parametric equations
maximum point of the curve. x = cos u, y = cos 2u.
(iii) The curve intersects the line y = x at the dy
origin and at point P.
(i) Show that dx = 4x.
Find the coordinates of P and the distance (ii) Find the coordinates of the stationary point
OP. What is the significance of the point P? and identify its nature.

262
 ⑬ The parametric equations of a curve are
x = at, y = bt , where a and b are constant.
Find in terms of a, b and t
(iii) the values of t for which the particle is
travelling parallel to the line x + y = 0.
⑯ A circle has parametric equations
x = 3 + 2 cos u, y = 3 + 2 sin u.
11
(i) ddxy
(i) Find the equation of the tangent at the
(ii)

snoitauqe cirtemaraP 11 retpahC

the equation of the tangent to the curve at point with parameter u.
( )t
the general point at ,b
(ii) Show that this tangent will pass through the
(iii) the coordinates of the points X and Y origin provided that sin u + cos u = −3 .2
where the tangent cuts the x and y axes.
(iii) By writing sin u + cos u in the form
PS (iv) Show that the area of triangle OXY is R sin (u + ), solve the equation
constant, where O is the origin. sin u + cos u = − 32 for 0 < u < 2π.
⑭ A curve has parametric equations (iv) Illustrate the circle and tangents on a
x = t 3, y = (t 2 − 1) 2. sketch, showing clearly the values of u
(i) Prove algebraically that no point on the which you found in part (iii).
curve is below the x-axis. PS ⑰ The parametric equations of the circle with
(ii) Find the coordinates of the points where the centre (2, 5) and radius 3 units are
curve touches the x-axis. x = 2 + 3 cos u, y = 5 + 3 sin u.
(iii) Investigate the behaviour of the curve (i) Find the gradient of the circle at the point
where it crosses the y-axis. with parameter u.
(iv)
Sketch the curve. (ii) Find the equation of the normal to the
PS ⑮ A particle P moves in a plane so that circle at this point.
at time t its coordinates are given by
(iii) Show that the normal at any point on the
x = 4 cos t, y = 3 sin t. Find circle passes through the centre.
(i) ddxy in terms of t
This is an alternative proof of the result
(ii) the equation of the tangent to its path at ‘the tangent and radius are perpendicular’.
time t

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ understand what is meant by a parameter and by parametric equations
➤ convert between Cartesian and parametric forms of equations
➤ use the equation of a circle written in parametric form
➤ use parametric differentiation to find the gradient function of a curve defined
parametrically.

KEY POINTS
1 In parametric equations the relationship 4 The parametric equations of circles:
between two variables is expressed by writing centre (0, 0) and radius r yx==rrsin
both of them in terms of a third variable or ■ cos u,
parameter. u
2 To draw a graph from parametric equations, plot centre (a, b) and radius r yx == ba ++ rr cos
■ u,
the points on the curve given by different values of dy
sin u
the parameter.
3 Eliminating the parameter gives the Cartesian 5 ddxy = ddxt provided that ddxt ≠ 0.
equation of the curve. dt

263
 12 Vectors

I can’t change the

Is it possible to sail faster than the wind? How?
1 Vectors
direction of the wind, ➜
but I can adjust my sails
to always reach my
destination.
Jimmy Dean (1928–2010) A quantity which has size (magnitude) only is called a scalar. The mass of the
sailing boat (80 kg) is an example of a scalar.
A quantity which has both size (magnitude) and direction is called a vector.
The velocity of the sailing boat is an example of a vector, as it has size
(e.g. 8 knots ≈ 15 km h −1) and direction (e.g. south-east, or on a course of 135°).
If the boat is out at sea, you might also want to include a component in the vertical
direction to describe it rising and falling in the swell. In that case, you would need
a three-dimensional vector. This chapter shows how you can use vectors in three
dimensions.

Notation
You can use an arrow to represent a vector: Vectors have
■ the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector magnitude (size)
■ the direc on is the angle made with the posi ve x-axis. and direction.
264
A two-dimensional vector can be represented in magnitude–direction form
(Figure 12.1) or in component form.

The vector is (5, 36.9°)

12
i and j are unit vectors in magnitude–direction
parallel to the x and form.
y-axes.

srotceV 21 retpahC
5
j +
36.9°

Figure 12.1
Using trigonometry,
5 cos 36.9° = 4
5 sin 36.9° = 3.
⎛ ⎞
So (5,36.9 °) =4 +3 or
i j ⎜⎜4 ⎟ The vector is now in component form.
⎝ 3 ⎠⎟ .

In general, for all values of :

r cosu ⎟ =
⎛ ⎞
( r, u) ⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ( rcos u) (isin
+ )r . u j
⎝r sinu ⎠

Equal vectors and parallel vectors

In textbooks, a vector
⎯→
may be printed in bold, for example a or OA, or with an
arrow above it, OA.

usual to underline it, for example a or

When you write a vector by hand, it is ⎯→
OA, or to put an arrow above it, as in OA.
Equal vectors have the same magnitude and direction – the actual location of the
vector doesn’t matter. Both the red lines in Figure 12.2 represent the vector a.

Two vectors can be

a a equal even if they have
different locations.
c

b and c are not equal vectors as

they have opposite directions.
b = −c.

Figure 12.2

265
 Vectors
The negative of a vector has the same magnitude but the opposite direction.
You can multiply a vector by a scalar to form a parallel vector: the vectors a
and b are parallel when a = kb for some scalar (number) k.

These vectors
a
are all parallel.
–a 2a has the same direction
as the vector a but twice
the magnitude.
2a

Figure 12.3
Working with vectors
Points and position vectors

In two dimensions In three dimensions

A point has two coordinates, usually called x and y. A point has three coordinates, usually called x, y
and z.
y P is the point z
(4, 3).
4
P
2 Q is the point
3 (3, 4, 1).
1 –1
2 O
–3 –2 –11 1 234 y
1 Q
2 –1
3
0 x x
1 2 3 4

j i, j and k are
k
perpendicular
i
to each other.
j
Figure 12.4 ⎯→
i

The position vector of point P in Figure 12.4, OP,

Figure 12.5
A position vector is in a fixed
⎛4 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎯→
is or 4i + 3j. The position vector of point Q in Figure 12.5, OQ,
⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ place – it always starts at the
origin. ⎛3⎞

is
⎜ ⎟
⎜4 ⎟ or 3i + 4j + k. k is the unit vector
⎜ ⎟
⎝1 ⎠
parallel to the z axis.
Magnitude (or length) of a vector
You can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the magnitude (sometimes called the
modulus) of a vector.

In two dimensions In three dimensions

OP = 4 2 + 32 OQ = 3242+21+
= 25 = 26 are modulus signs.
=5 You say, ‘mod OQ’.
266
 Direction of a vector
In two dimensions
You can use trigonometry to find
the direction of a vector in two
In three dimensions
It is hard to define the direction of a
vector in three dimensions so vectors
12
dimensions. are left in component form.

srotceV 21 retpahC
a = 4i + 3j
3

θ
4

Figure 12.6
For the two-dimensional vector a in
Figure 12.6,
3
tan u =
So this vector is (5, 36.9°) 4
– see page 265. ⇒ u = 36.9°to the direction.
i

Vector arithmetic
The resultant of two or more vectors is found by adding those vectors together.
You can add two vectors by adding the components.
You can also multiply a vector by a scalar (a number)
In two dimensions In three dimensions
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
For a = 2i − 3j and b = −i + 2j, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
For p = ⎜ 0 ⎟ and q = ⎜2⎟ ,
The resultant of a and b a + b = (2i − 3j) + (−i + 2j)
=i −j
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −1⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
is i − j. a−b = − 2−i3−j (+ ij 2)
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
=− p +q =
3+ ⎜ 0⎟ 3 ⎜2⎟
2i3+j − ij 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟

You could use column

= 3−i5j ⎝ −1⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
You could
notation instead.
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
use i, j, k
=
⎜ ⎟
+⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
notation
instead.
⎜ 6⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −1⎠ ⎝12 ⎠
⎛ 5⎞
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 6⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝11⎠

Unit vectors
A unit vector has magnitude 1.
To find the unit vector in the same direction as a given vector, divide that vector
by its magnitude.
i, j k and are
unit vectors
In two dimensions In three dimensions
as they have
For a = 2i − 3j For q = i + 2j + 4j magnitude 1.
The unit vector in the a = 2 2( +3)− 2 = 13 q = 12 22+24+ = 21
direction of a vector a is
denoted by â. â =
2 i− 3 j
qâ = 1 i+ 2 j+ 4 k
13 13 21 21 21

267
 Vectors
The vector of a line joining two points
A
AB = − OA
+ OB
= OB OA
−
B
O

Figure 12.7
In two dimensions In three dimensions
⎛
=−+
1 ⎞⎟ For OA i j k3 2
For OA = −⎜⎜ ⎟ =−+
⎝ 3⎠ and OB 4 i j k 4
⎛ =−+−−+
4 ⎞⎟ AB (4 i j k i j4k) ( 3 2 )
and OB = −⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ = +3i+2j 2k

=−
AB
⎛
⎜ 4 ⎞⎟
− −⎜⎜
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ You could You could
⎜
⎝
⎟
1⎠
⎟
⎝ 3⎠ use i, j, k use column
notation notation
=
⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
instead. instead.
⎝2⎠

Discussion point
Give some examples
Using vectors in mechanics
➜
of vector quantities
you meet in
mechanics. In mechanics, it is often useful to add vectors together. The sum of two or more
vectors is called the resultant.
The resultant of two
vectors is found by
b adding them together.
a

a+b
resultant

Figure 12.8
For example, if Peter walks 2 km east and 4 km north followed by 5 km east and
1 km south his overall displacement in kilometres is
⎛2⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞⎟ ⎛7 ⎞
⎜ ⎟+ ⎜
− = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

You can also use vectors to represent the forces acting on an object. The resultant
of the forces is the single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on
the object. When the resultant force is zero, the object is in equilibrium.

The effects of all the individual forces cancel each other out.

268
 Example 12.1 The unit vectors i, j and k act in the directions shown in Figure 12.9.
k
12
i j

srotceV 21 retpahC
Figure 12.9
Forces p and q are given, in newtons, by p = 4i − 6j − 7k and q = 6i − 9j + 2k.
(i) Find the resultant force, p + q, and show that it is parallel to 2i − 3j − k.
(ii) A particle is in equilibrium under the forces 3p, aq and bk.
Show that a = −2 and find the value of b.

Solution
You might find it easier
to work with column ⎛ 4⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛ 6⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎛ 10 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
vectors. (i) p +q = ⎜⎜−6 ⎟⎟ + −
⎜ =
9 ⎟−
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 15⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −7 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ −5 ⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜−15⎟ and ⎜ −3 ⎟ are parallel if ⎜ ⎜ 15⎟⎟ ⎟=
⎜ − −λ ⎜ 3⎟ for some scalar l.
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −5 ⎠ ⎝ −1⎠ ⎝ −5 ⎠ ⎝ −1⎠

Equating the i components gives

10 = 2l and so l = 5.
Use the other two components to check this:
5 × (−3) = −15 ✓
5 × (−1) = −5 ✓
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
−
Since 15
⎜ ⎟ = × −
5 ⎜ 3⎟ then the vectors are parallel.
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −5 ⎠ ⎝ −1⎠

(ii) ‘In equilibrium’ means the resultant force is zero, so

⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 6⎞ ⎛0 ⎞ ⎛0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜ −6 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
+ a ⎜⎜+⎜ 9⎟⎟ ⎟
− b ⎜⎜0⎟⎟ = ⎜0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −7 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝0 ⎠
⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 6a ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜0 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⇒ −⎜ 18 ⎟ + − 9a ⎟
⎜ + ⎜0 ⎟ = ⎜0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −21⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎝b ⎠ ⎝0 ⎠

Read across the top line So 12 + 6a = 0 ⇒ a = −2 … and then the middle line.
of both the vectors … −18 − 9a = 0 ⇒ a = −2 as required.
and
Use the bottom line to To find b: − + ×
21−2+( =2)⇒ = b 0 b 25 .
find b.

269
 Vectors
Exercise 12.1
① Write each vector in Figure 12.10 in terms ③ Write each of the following vectors in
of the unit vectors i and j. magnitude–direction form.
⎛ ⎞
(i) ⎜12 ⎟
5i + 12j (ii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5⎠ (iii) 5i − 12j
⎛− ⎞ ⎛−12 ⎞
⎜⎜ 5⎟
a
c
(iv) ⎟
⎝12 ⎠
(v) ⎜
⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 5⎠
⎟
b
④ Find the magnitude of each of the
e
following vectors.
d f (i)3j + 4k (ii) −4i + 2j + k
j ⎛2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
(iii) ⎜⎜0 ⎟⎟ (iv) ⎜⎜ ⎜2 ⎟⎟ ⎟
i ⎝ 1⎠ ⎝−1⎠
⑤ The vectors a, b and c are given by
Figure 12.10 a = 3i − k, b = i − 2j + 3k, c = −3i − j.
② Figure 12.11 shows several vectors. Find, in component form, each of the
following vectors.
a (i) a +b +c (ii) b −a
b (iii) b +c (iv) 2a + b − 3c
(v) c − 2(a − b) (vi) 3(a − b) + 2(b + c)

c d
⑥ (i) 1 2
Show that i 3j k− +3
2
3
is a unit
vector.
(ii) Find unit vectors in the direction of
(a) 2i6−j 3k+ (b) i +j k+
⑦ Match together the parallel vectors.
⎛ 6⎞
e ⎜ ⎟
a= −⎜ 2 ⎟ b i= j+k+ 4 9
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
f ⎝ 4⎠

⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Figure 12.11 c= ⎜2⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
d i=j−3k+ 2
(i) Write each of these vectors in terms
of the vector a. ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛− ⎞
Which vector cannot be written in ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3⎟
terms of a? e= −⎜ 1⎟ f = ⎜ 1⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ −2 ⎠
(ii) Draw diagrams to show each of the
following.
(a) a +f (b) a −f
⎛ −0.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
g = − 9+i3−j 6k h = ⎜−0.4 ⎟
(c) 2c + f (d) a +f +c ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −0.6 ⎠

270
 ⎛ x⎞

12
⎜ ⎟
⑧ Given that the vectors ⎜−6 ⎟ and ⑬ The resultant of the forces (5 i7+
j )N,
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4⎠ j bis
( ai − 3 j)N and (4 i)N
+ −
(3 i)N.
j
⎛− ⎞
⎜ 1⎟
Find the value of a and the value of b.
⎜ y ⎟ are parallel, find the value of x ⑭ The following systems of forces act on an
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ object that is in equilibrium.
Find the value of a and the value of b in

srotceV 21 retpahC
and the value of y.
each case.
⑨ The vectors r and s are defined as
r = +ai+ ( a b ) jand
(i) ( i)N −j , (2 i3+
j )N and ( a)N
ib+
j
s = −(6 b )i(2− a + 3) j. (ii) (4 i3−j )N , (2 i3−j )N and
( aib+ j )N
Given that r = s, find the values of a and b. (iii) ( i2+j )N , − − ( 3i )N
j and
⑩ The force p, given in newtons, ( aib+ j )N
−4i + 2j + k(2i − 3j) acts in direction 2i − 5j.
⑮ In this question the origin is taken to be
Find the value of k and the magnitude of p.
at a harbour and the unit vectors i and j to
⑪ The position vectors of the points A, B and have lengths of 1 km in the directions east
C are a = +i j− 2 k, b = − 6 i 3 j +
k and north respectively.
and c = − 2+i 2 jrespectively. A cargo vessel leaves the harbour and its
(i) Find AC , AB and BC. position vector t hours later is given by
(ii) Show that +a−b c is not equal to r 1 = 12t i + 16t j.
a b+ c− . A fishing boat is trawling nearby and its
⑫ Given forces F 1, F 2 and F 3, where position at time t is given by
F1 = (3 i −j )N , F2 = (3 i2+)N j and r 2 = (10 − 3t)i + (8 + 4t)j.
F3 = −( 2+ 4i )N j , (i) How far apart are the two boats when
find the cargo vessel leaves harbour?
(i) the resultant of F 1 and F 2 (ii) How fast is each boat travelling?
(ii) the resultant of F 1, F 2 and F 3 (iii) What happens?
(iii) the magnitude and direction of F 3

(iv) the magnitude and direction of

(F 1 + F 3).

2 Using vectors to solve problems

You can use vectors in two and three dimensions to solve geometry problems.

Example 12.2 Figure 12.12 shows triangle AOB. A

C is a point on AB and divides it in the ratio 2 : 3. C

Find OC in terms of the vectors a and b.
a

b
O

Figure 12.12
➜

271
 Using vectors to solve problems
Imagine going on a
vector ‘walk’ – walking Solution
from O to C is the same Since C divides 2AB in the
as walking from O to A = AC+
OC OA
ratio 2 : 3, C is 5 of the
and then from A to C. = OA + 2 AB
=a
5
=− way along AB from A.
OA and AB ba
so
OC = +a 2 (b −
a )
5
= +a 2b − 2a
5 5
= 3a 2
+ b
5 5

Example 12.3 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A, B and C are
given by
⎛− ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜13⎟
OA = ⎜ 3 , OB = 9
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ and OC = ⎜ 5⎟ .
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ −2 ⎠ ⎝10 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9⎠

Use vectors to prove that angle ABC is 90°.

Solution
If angle ABC is 90° then triangle ABC is right-angled
.
Pythagoras’ theorem. ⇔ AB
2
+ BC 2 = AC 2
⎛ ⎛ 11⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛−−2⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 33⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2
AB =OB
= OA
ABOB −−
OA == ⎜ ⎜ 99⎟ ⎟ −−⎜ ⎜ 33⎟ ⎟ == ⎜ ⎜ 66⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜− ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
10⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ −22⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝12
⎝ ⎝10 12⎠ ⎠
2 2
⇒
⇒ AB == 332 +++6+612
AB 2 22
1892 ==
2
12189
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎞
1313
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜
1 12⎟
⎟
BC =OC
= OB
BCOC −−
OB ==⎜ ⎜ 55⎟ ⎟−−⎜ ⎜ 99⎟ ⎟==−⎜−⎜ 44⎟ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 99⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 10
⎝ 10⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ −−11⎠ ⎠
22
⇒ BC ==12
⇒ BC 12(2(+4)+4)
2 −(−+ −2161
(1)+1)−2=161
= 22

⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛− ⎛− ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
⎜13⎜13
⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ 22 ⎟ ⎟ ⎜15⎜15 ⎟⎟
AC = OA
=OC
ACOC −−
OA =⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ −
= 55 − 33 = 22⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ =⎜ ⎜
⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎝−
⎝ ⎝99⎠ ⎠ ⎝− 22⎠ ⎠ ⎝11⎝11 ⎠⎠
2

Discussion point
2
⇒ AC
⇒ AC ==15 ++
15222+211+2350
11 2
350 2 2==
2 2

Find the position vector AB + BC = 189 161 +

of a fourth point D such = 350

that ABCD forms a 2
parallelogram. = AC

➜ How many different That is,

answers are there? 2
AB + BC
2
= AC
2

so triangle ABC is right-angled and hence angle ABC is 90°, as required.

272
① (i)
A
Exercise 12.2
ABCD in Figure 12.13 is a rectangle.
B
④ In the cuboid in Figure 12.16, OA = ,p
OE = q and OG = .r
12
B C

srotceV 21 retpahC
M
A
D

D C p E
q F

Figure 12.13 O r G
+ CD+ DA 0.+
Show that AB BC =
(ii) Does the same result hold for any
Figure 12.16
quadrilateral? Justify your answer. (i) Express the following vectors in terms
② In the regular hexagon in Figure 12.14, of p, q and r.
OA = ,a OB = andb OC = .c (a) GF (b) CF (c) OB
B C
(d) OD (e) OC
b
c
(ii) The point M divides AD in the ratio
3 :2.
A D Find OM in terms of p, q and r.
a O
(iii) Use vectors to prove that OC and BG
bisect each other.
⑤ A quadrilateral has vertices A, B, C
F E
and D at the points (1, 2, 4), (3, 5, 9),
Figure 12.14 (2, 9, 15) and (−2, 3, 5) respectively.
Use vectors to find out what type of
(i) Express the following vectors in terms
quadrilateral ABCD is.
of a, b and c.
(a) EB (b) AC (c) AE (d) ED
⑥ Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of
the points A, B and C are given by
(ii)
Prove that a + c − b = 0. ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛− ⎞
2
⎛− ⎞
⎜ 1⎟
③ In the parallelogram in Figure 12.15, = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
OA ⎜ 1⎟ , OB = ⎜ 4 ⎟ and OC = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ .
OA = ,a OC = and c M is the midpoint ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
of AB.
A
M
B
Find the perimeter of triangle ABC.
⑦ In Figure 12.17, OA = a and OB = b .
a OA : OX OB= : OY 3 : 2=and
OA : OP OB= : OQ 2 : 3. =
P Q
O c C

Figure 12.15 A

X
B

Y
(i) Express the following vectors in terms
of a and c.
(a) CB (b) OB (c) AC (d) CA O

(e) BO (f) AM (g) OM (h) MC Figure 12.17

(ii) P is the midpoint of OB and Q is the (i) Find PQ in terms of a and b.
midpoint of AC. (ii) Prove that the vectors
Find OP and OQ. What theorem does AB, XY and PQ are parallel.
your result prove?
(iii) Find PQ : XY.
273
 Using vectors to solve problems
=a =b
⑧ Relative to an origin O, the position ⑪ In Figure 12.19, OA , OB ,
=
vectors of the points A, B, C and D are BD 2 a and the point C divides AB in
1

given by the ratio 2 : 1.

⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ A
OA ⎜ 1⎟ , OB ⎜ 5⎟ ,
=
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
5 ⎝13⎠
⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 6⎞ a D
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
OC ⎜ 2⎟ and OD = −⎜ 2 ⎟ . C
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟
7 ⎝ −1⎠
O
Use vectors to prove that ABCD is a b B
parallelogram. Figure 12.19
⑨ Figure
= p 12.18= shows
q a trapezium
=q where Prove that OCD is a straight line and find
OA , OC and AB 2 . the ratio OC : OD.
D and E are the midpoints of AC and OB
respectively. ⑫ Relative to an origin O, the points P and
Q have position vectors
2q ⎛− ⎞
⎜ 1⎟
⎛ 2⎞
A B ⎜ ⎟
OP = ⎜ 6⎟ and OQ = ⎜⎜ ⎜2 ⎟⎟ ⎟.
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
p 4 ⎝ −3 ⎠
D
E (i) The point M is such that PM 3MQ.
=
Find the vector OM.
O q C
(ii) The point N lies on PQ such that PN:
Figure 12.18 NQ is 2: 3. Find the vectorON.
=q ⑬ Relative to an origin O, the position
Use vectors to prove that DE 1 .
2 vectors of the points P and Q given by
⑩ Relative to an origin O, the position =++
OP 3 i j k 4 and
vectors of the points A, B and C are given =+−
by OQ i j ka 2 .
⎛− ⎞ ⎛ 0⎞ Find the values of a for which the
⎜ 2⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ ⎟ , OB ⎜ 7⎟
magnitude of PQ is 7.
OA ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⑭ Relative to an origin O, the points A and B
⎝ 5⎠ 3
⎛ 3⎞ have position vectors a and b.
= ⎜ ⎟ Prove that when a point C divides AB in
and OC ⎜ 8⎟ .
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ the ratio s :t then
8 = t a + s b.
(i) Find OD such that ABCD is a OC
s t+ s t+
parallelogram with sides AB, BC, CD ⑮ Relative to an origin O, the position
and DA. vectors of the points A, B, C and D are
(ii) Prove that ABCD is, in fact, a rectangle. given by
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 0⎞
(iii) X is the centre of the rectangle = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
ABCD. OA ⎜ 0⎟ , OB ⎜ 1⎟
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
Find OX. 0 0
⎛ 0⎞ ⎛ 0⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
OC ⎜ 0⎟ and OD = ⎜ 0⎟ .
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
1 ⎝−1⎠

Is ABCD a quadrilateral? Justify your

answer.

274
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
12
➤ understand the terms vector and scalar
understand vectors in two and three dimensions, and express them

srotceV 21 retpahC
➤

❍ in magnitude–direction form for two dimensions

❍ using i, j and k vectors
❍ using column vectors
❍using OP notation
➤ understand equal vectors
➤ understand the link between the coordinates of a point and its position vector
➤ multiply a vector by a scalar
➤ add and subtract vectors
➤ find a unit vector in the direction of a given vector
➤ understand that vectors are parallel when one is a scalar multiple of the other
➤ use vectors in geometry problems.

KEY POINTS
1 A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
2 A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
3 Vectors are typeset in bold, a or OA, or in the form OA. ⎯→

4 Theyvectors
Unit are handwritten
in the x, yeither
and zindirections
the underlined form a,byori, asj and
are denoted OA.
k, respectively.
5 A vector in two dimensions may be specified in
■magnitude–direction form, as (r,⎛ a⎞ )
■component form, as ai + bj or ⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠ .
6 A vector in three⎛ ⎞dimensions is usually written in component form, as
a
ai + bj + c k or⎜ b ⎟ .
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎝c⎠
7 The resultant of two (or more) vectors is found by the sum of the vectors.
A resultant vector is usually denoted by a double-headed arrow.
8 The position vector OP of a point P is the vector joining the origin, O, to P.
9 The vector AB is b – a, where a and b are the position vectors of A and B.
10 The length (or modulus or magnitude) of the vector r is written as r or as r .
r = +aib+j c k ⇒ =r a b+c +
222

11 A unit vector in the same direction as r = +aibj is

a i+ b j.
a b+ 2 2
a b+ 2 2

FUTURE USES
■ You will use vectors to represent displacement, velocity and acceleration in
Chapter 18.
■ You will use vectors to represent force in Chapter 19.
■ If you study Further Mathematics, you will learn about how vectors can be
used to solve problems involving lines and planes.
275
 13 Differential equations

The greater our

knowledge increases,
➜ How long do you have to wait for a typical cup of coffee to be drinkable?
the more our ignorance
➜ How long does it take to go cold?
unfolds. ➜ What do the words ‘drinkable’ and ‘cold’ mean in this context?
John F. Kennedy (1917–1963)
Newton’s law of cooling states that
the rate of change of the temperature
of an object is proportional to the
difference between the object’s
TemperatureT

temperature and the temperature of

its surroundings.
This leads to the equation
dT = − ( − )
, where T is the
T 0

dt
k T T 0

temperature of the object at time t,

O Time t

T is the temperature of the Figure 13.1

surroundings, and k is a constant of proportionality.
0

This is an example of a differential equation.

To be able to predict the temperature of the object at different times, you need
to solve the differential equation. In this chapter, you will learn how to solve
problems like this involving rates of change.
276
 1 First order differential equations 13
A differential equation is an equation involving at least one derivative.
The order of the differential equation is the order of the highest derivative
occurring in the equation.

snoitauqe laitnereffiD 31 retpahC

Discussion point
➜ What is the order of each of the following differential equations?
(i) ddxy = ex + 3
dy − d 3y =
(ii) 3
dx
4x 3
dx
y5

(iii) x4 2 = 3x dy − 2 y
dx
d 2y =
(iv) dx 2 4x 2

The solution to a differential equation that contains one or more arbitrary

constants is called a general solution, and represents a family of solution curves.
If you are given additional information, you can find a particular solution,
which represents one specific member of the family of solution curves.
Because an arbitrary constant comes into your solution each time you integrate,
the number of arbitrary constants in a general solution will be the same as the
order of the differential equation.
dy =
The simplest differential equations are first order, of the form f (x) ; they
dx
can be solved by simply integrating with respect to x. You have actually already
solved some differential equations of this type, when you have used the gradient
function of a curve to find the general equation of the family of solution curves,
and in some cases the equation of a particular curve from this family.

Example 13.1 dy
= .2 x
(i) Find the general solution of the differential equation
dx
(ii) Find the particular solution that passes through the point (1, 2).
(iii) Sketch several members of the family of solution curves, and indicate
the particular solution from (ii) on your sketch.

Solution
dy =
(i) 2x
dx
⇒ y = ∫ 2 xdx Integrate both sides of the equation.
⇒ y x= 2 + c
The general solution is y x=c + .
2
➜

277
 First order differential equations
(ii) When x = 1,y = 2
Substitute values into
⇒ =2 +1 2 c the general solution.
⇒ =c=c 11
⇒

The particular solution is y x= + 2. 1

(iii) Figure 13.2 shows a set of solution curves. The particular solution
in (ii) is the red curve.

y
y= x
2
+4
6
y= x
2
+1
2
5
y= x

y= x
2
−2
2

–2 –1 O 1 2 x
–1

–2

Figure 13.2

Forming differential equations

Differential equations are used to model rates of change. They open up new
opportunities to you, extending the situations that you can work with in both
pure and applied mathematics, but first you need to become familiar with the
vocabulary and notation you will need.
For example, the rate of change of temperature, T, with respect to distance, x,
T
is written as d .
dx
‘Rate of change’ by itself The rate of change of velocity is written as dv .This is also sometimes written
means with respect to dt
time, t. as v; by convention a dot above a variable indicates its rate of change with
respect to time.
Some of the situations you meet in this chapter involve motion along a straight
line, and so you will need to know the meanings of the associated terms.
O

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 s

Figure 13.3
The position of an object (+5 in Figure 13.3) is its distance (or displacement)
from the origin O in the direction you have chosen to define as being positive.

278
The term ‘speed’
is sometimes used
informally to mean
velocity along a line.
The rate of change of position of the object with respect to time is its velocity,
v, and this can take positive or negative values according to whether the object is
moving away from the origin or towards it. 13
v = ds
dt
The rate of change of an object’s velocity with respect to time is called its
acceleration, a.
a = ddvt
Velocity and acceleration are vector quantities but in one-dimensional motion
there is no choice in direction, only in sense (i.e. whether positive or negative).
Consequently, as you may already have noticed, the conventional bold type for
vectors is not used in this chapter.

Example 13.2 An object is moving through a liquid so that its acceleration is proportional
to its velocity at any given instant. When it has a velocity of 5m s −1, the
velocity is decreasing at a rate of 1m s − 2.
Find the differential equation to model this situation.

Solution
dv ∝
v This means ‘the rate of change of the
dt velocity is proportional to the velocity’.
⇒ dv = kv
dt
Use the additional information
When v 5= , v
d = − , so
dt
1 given to find the value of k.
−1=5 k Notice that because the velocity is decreasing,
the constant of proportionality, k, turns out to
⇒ =k − 1 be negative.
5

Therefore the differential equation is dv = − 51 v .

dt

Example 13.3 A model is proposed in which the temperature within a star decreases with
respect to the distance, x¸ from the centre of the star at a rate which is
inversely proportional to the square of this distance.
(i) Express this model as a differential equation.
(ii) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
(iii) What happens when x = 0?
➜

279
 First order differential equations

Solution
(i) In this example the rate of change of temperature is not with respect
to time but with respect to the distance from the centre of the star.
If T represents the temperature of the star and x the distance from
the centre of the star, the rate of change of temperature with respect
to distance may be written as dT .
dx
dT 1
So dx ∝ 2
x
⇒ dT = k Because the rate of change is decreasing,
dx x 2
not increasing, k must be a negative
constant.
(ii) dT = k
dx x2
⇒ T = − +k c
x
(iii) When x = 0 (at the centre of the star) the model predicts that the
temperature is infinitely large. So the model must break down near
the centre of the star, otherwise it would be infinitely hot there.

Exercise 13.1
dy = 2 ④ State which is the odd one out among the
① Given the differential equation 3x
dx following and give your reasons.
(i) find the general solution and sketch the (i) The rate of change of y with respect to x.
family of solution curves
(ii) find the particular solution for which (ii) y
y = − 1 when x = 1, and indicate this (iii) ddxy
solution on your sketch.
d
② The differential equation v = 5v 2
(iv) The gradient of the curve in a graph of y
dt against x.
models the motion of a particle, where v is
⑤ Given the differential equation
the velocity of the particle in m s 1 and t is the
−
dy = −
time in seconds. 2 x4
dx
Explain the meaning of vd and what the (i) find the general solution and sketch the
dt
differential equation tells you about the motion family of solution curves
of the particle. (ii)
find the particular solution for which
PS ③ The rate of increase in the number of bacteria y = 0 when x = 2 , and indicate this
in a colony, N, is proportional to the number solution on your sketch.
of bacteria present. ⑥ After a major advertising campaign, an
Form a differential equation to model this engineering company finds that its profits are
situation. increasing at a rate proportional to the square
root of the profits at any given time.
Form a differential equation to model this
situation.

280
PS
⑦ A moving object has velocity v m s −1.
When v > 0, the acceleration of the object
is inversely proportional to the square root of
its velocity. When the velocity is 4 m −s1 , the
⑫ The acceleration of a particle is inversely
proportional to t + 2 , where t is the time,
measured in seconds. The particle starts from
rest with an initial acceleration of 1m s − .
2
13
acceleration is 2 m s− 2 . (i) Find an expression for ddvt to model the
Form a differential equation to model this motion.
situation. (ii) Show that the velocity of the particle after
6 s is (6 ln 2)m s − .
1
⑧ A poker which is 80 cm long has one end in
a fire. The temperature of the poker decreases ⑬ The mass of a pumpkin t weeks after it first forms
with respect to the distance from that end at is M kg. The rate of change of M is modelled by
a rate proportional to that distance. Halfway the quadratic graph in Figure 13.4.
along the poker, the temperature is decreasing
at a rate of 10°C cm−1 .
1
Form a differential equation to model this

of M
0.8

change
situation.
0.6
d y = − −2 x
⑨ Given the differential equation 4e 0.4
dx

Rateof
(i) find the general solution and sketch three 0.2

members of the family of solution curves O 1 2345678 Time t

(ii) find the equation of the particular solution (weeks)

which passes through the point (ln 2,0 ). Figure 13.4

⑩ A cup of tea cools at a rate proportional to the (i) Represent this information in the form of
difference between the temperature of the tea a differential equation.
and that of the surrounding air. Initially, the tea
is at a temperature of 95°C and it is cooling
(ii) Find the greatest mass of the pumpkin.
at a rate of 0.5°Cs −1 .The surrounding air is ⑭ A spherical balloon is allowed to deflate.
at 15°C. The rate at which air is leaving the balloon
Model this situation as a differential equation. is proportional to the volume V of air left in
the balloon. When the radius of the balloon
⑪ A bonfire is held in a field. It burns a circle of 3 1−
is 15cm, air is leaving at a rate of 8 cm s .
grass of radius 8 metres. After the fire is over,
Show that
the grass grows back from the circumference of
dV = − 2V .
the circle inwards. The radius, r m, of the circle
dt 1125π
without any grass decreases at a rate proportional
to the square root of the time, t weeks, since the ⑮ Liquid is being poured into a large vertical
bonfire. One week after the bonfire, the grass is circular cylinder of radius 40 cm at a constant
3 1−
growing back at a rate of 1.5 metres per week. rate of 2000 cm s , and is leaking out of a
hole in the base at a rate proportional to the
(i) Form a differential equation to model this
square root of the height of the liquid already
situation.
in the cylinder. Show that the rate of change of
(ii) Solve the differential equation. the height of the liquid in the cylinder can be
(iii) Find how long it takes the grass to grow modelled by
back completely. dh = −5
dt 4π
ch .

281
 Solving differential equations by separating the variables
⑯ The height of a tree is h metres when the tree (ii) Form a differential equation for the tree’s
is t years old. For the first 10 years of the life of rate of growth for t > 10, i.e. for the rest of
the tree, dh = 0.5. For the rest of the tree’s life, the tree’s life.
dt
its rate of growth is inversely proportional to (iii) Solve the differential equation you
its age. obtained in part (ii) to show that for t > 10,
(i) Describe the growth of the tree during its h = +5 5ln 10 (t ).
first 10 years. What is its height when it is
10 years old? The tree dies when its height is 15 m.
There is no sudden change in its rate (iv) How old is the tree when it dies?
of growth when the tree is exactly (v) Sketch the graph of h against t for the
10 years old. lifetime of the tree.

2 Solving differential equations by

separating the variables
dy
It is not difficult to solve a differential equation like = −3x,22because the
dx
right-hand side is a function of x only. So long as the function can be integrated,
the equation can be solved.
d
Now look at the differential equation y = .y 2
dx
This cannot be solved directly by integration, because the right-hand side is a
function of y. Instead, a method called separating the variables is used. This is
shown in the next example.

Example 13.4 (i) Find the general solution of the differential equation
dy
= ,yand
2
dx
sketch three members of the family of solution curves.
(ii) Find the particular solution for which y = 1 when x = 0 .

Solution
1dy = Start by rewriting the equation so that
(i)
y 2 dx
1
the right-hand side does not involve y.
1d y dx
⇒ ∫
y dx
2
= ∫ 1d x Integrate both sides with respect to x.
∫ 12∫d 1y2 d= y∫=1d∫x1d x
⇒ ⇒
Replace ddxy dxon the
y y
⇒ − y −1⇒= −+xy=c−1+ xc left-hand side with yd .
⇒ =y − ⇒1 = − 1
Rearrange to make y the subject.
x c+ y x c+
This is the general solution. Three members of the family of solution
curves are shown in Figure 13.5.

282
 1
y = – x + 1 (c = 1)
1
y = – x (c = 0)

3
y
1
y = – x – 1 (c = –1)
13
2

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x

–1

–2

–3

Figure 13.5
(ii) y 1= when x 0 = , so
1 1
1=−
c Substitute values into y =−
x c+
⇒ =c − 1
The particular solution is y = − 1 or y = 1 .
x −1 1− x
This is the blue curve in Figure 13.5.

dy =
Note that the first part of this process, going from y 2 to y∫ 12 d y x= x∫ d ,
dx
dy
is usually done in one step. You can think of this process as rearranging as
dx
though it were a fraction, to end up with all the y terms on one side and the
x terms on the other, and then inserting integration signs (dx and dy must both
end up in the top line).
In the next example, the function on the right-hand side of the differential
equation is a function of both x and y.

Example 13.5 Find, for y 0> , the general solution of the differential equation
dy
= .xy
dx

Solution
1 dy =
x Rearrange to make the right-hand side
y dx of the equation a function of x only.
⇒ ∫ 1y d y = ∫ x xd Integrate both sides with respect to x.
Since y 0> , you do not need to write y .
ln yln=y 1=x 1 x+2c + c
⇒⇒ 2
2 2
➜

283
 Solving differential equations by separating the variables
1 1 x 2c +
⇒ =y e⇒ =y2 xec Remember that the exponential function
2+
2

1 x2
is the inverse of the natural log function.
= e ce 2

where A e=
1 x2 c
= Ae 2

Interpreting the solution

It is important to be able to interpret how the solution of a differential equation
relates to the original problem, including recognising that the model used may
have limitations.

Example 13.6 Rabbits are introduced to a remote island and the size of the population
increases. A suggested model for the number of rabbits, N, after t years, is
given by the differential equation
dN = kN
dt
where k > 0 .
(i) Find the general solution for N in terms of t and k.
(ii) Find the particular solution for which N = 10 when t = 0 .
(iii) What will happen to the number of rabbits when t becomes very
large? Why is this not a realistic model for an actual population of
rabbits? What would you expect to happen to the graph of N against t
in a real population of rabbits as t becomes very large?

Solution
(i) ∫ N1 d N = ∫ k dt
⇒ ln⇒N ln
kt=Nc+ kt= c+ Since the number of rabbits must be
positive, writing N is not necessary.
⇒ N =⇒NAeAe
kt = kt

(ii) N 10= when t 0=

⇒ 10 = Ae 0
⇒ AA 10
⇒ == 10
kt
So the particular solution is N 10e
= .
(iii) As t becomes very large, N → ∞. This is not a realistic model
because there would be limitations on how large an actual population
of rabbits would get, due to factors such as food and predators.
In a real population, the graph of N against t would flatten out
as t became very large.

284
 Note
The differential equation ddNt = kN (1 − cN ) is commonly used to model 13
A ekt , which has
population growth. It has the general solution N 1 e Ac kt
= +

the shape shown in Figure 13.6 for >t 0.

N

The dotted line represents

the maximum population that
the environment can sustain.
O t

Figure 13.6

Exercise 13.2
① Find the general solution of each of the Form a differential equation to model the
following differential equations by separating situation. Find the general solution of your
the variables, expressing y in terms of x. differential equation.
(i) ddxy = yx2 ⑤ A cold liquid is standing in a warm room. The
temperature of the liquid is u °C , where u < 20;
dy = 2 it obeys the differential equation
(ii)dx
xy du = 2 (20 − u )
② Find the particular solutions of each of the dt
following differential equations. where the time t is measured in minutes.

(i) ddxy = xe − y, given that y 0= (i) Find the general solution of this
differential equation.
when x 0=
(ii) Find the particular solution for which
(ii) ddxy = y 2 sin x , given that y 1= u =when
5 t0 =.
when x 0 = (iii) For this particular solution, sketch the graph
③ A mathematical model for the number of of temperature against time.
bacteria, n, in a culture states that n is increasing (iv) In this case, how long, to the nearest
at a rate proportional to the number present. second, does the liquid take to reach a
At 10:00 there are 5000 bacteria and at 10:30 temperature of 18°C ?
there are 7000.
(v) What happens to the temperature of the
At what time, to the nearest minute, does the liquid in the long term?
model predict 10 000 bacteria?
⑥ Given that
PS ④ An object is moving so that its velocity
x (y 2 + 1)
dy =
v (= )ddisst inversely proportional to its dx y (x 2 + 1)
displacement s from a fixed point. Its velocity = , find y as a
− and that y 2= when x 1
is 1m s 1 when its displacement is 2 m.
function of x.

285
 Solving differential equations by separating the variables
⑦ (i) 2x − 1
Express ( − )( − ) in partial
PS ⑩ The acceleration of an object is inversely
x 12 x 3 proportional to its velocity at any given time,
fractions.
and the direction of motion is taken to be
(ii)
Given that x > 2, find the general positive. When the velocity is 1m s−1, the
solution of the differential equation −
acceleration is 3m s 2.
(2x − 3)( x − 1) dy = (2x − 1) y. (i) Find a differential equation to model this
dx situation.
⑧ Water is stored in a tank, with a tap 5 cm
above the base of the tank. When the tap is (ii) Find the particular solution to this
turned on, the flow of water out of the tank is differential equation for which the initial
modelled by the differential equation velocity is 2 ms −1 .
dh = − ( − )
3 h 5
(iii)
In this case, how long does the object take
dt to reach a velocity of 8ms −1 ?
where h cm is the height of water in the tank, ⑪ To control the pests inside a large greenhouse,
and t is the time in minutes. Initially the height 600 ladybirds are introduced. After t days there
of water in the tank is 105 cm. are P ladybirds in the greenhouse. In a simple
(i) Find an expression for h in terms of t. model, P is assumed to be a continuous variable
satisfying the differential equation
(ii) Explain what happens when h = 5 . dP = ,kP where k is a constant.
(iii) Find, to the nearest second, how long it dt
takes the depth of water in the tank to fall (i) Solve the differential equation, with initial
to a height of 40 cm. condition P = 600 when t = 0, to express
P in terms of k and t.
⑨ A patch of oil pollution in the sea is
approximately circular in shape. When first Observations of the number of ladybirds
seen, its radius was 100 m and was increasing at (estimated to the nearest hundred) were as
a rate of 0.5 m per minute. At a time t minutes shown in Table 13.1.
later, its radius is r metres. An expert believes Table 13.1
that, if the patch is untreated, its radius will
increase at a rate which is proportional t 0 150 250
1 P 600 1200 1500
to r
2.
(i) Write down a differential equation (ii) Show that P = 1200 when t = 150
for this situation, using a constant of implies that k ≈ 0.00462 . Show that this
proportionality, k. is not consistent with the observed value
(ii) Using the initial conditions, find the when t = 250 .
value of k. Hence calculate the expert’s In a refined model, allowing for seasonal
prediction of the radius of the oil patch variations, it is assumed that P satisfies the
after 2 hours. differential equation
The expert thinks that if the oil patch is treated dP = ( () t )
dt
P 0.005 0.008
− cos 0.02
with chemicals, then its radius will increase at a
1
rate which is proportional to r 2 ( + ). with initial condition P 600
= when t 0= .
2 t
(iii) Write down a differential equation for this (iii) Solve this differential equation to express
new situation and, using the same initial P in terms of t, and comment on how
conditions as before, find the value of the well this fits with the data given in
new constant of proportionality. Table 13.1.
(iv) Calculate the expert’s prediction of (iv) Show that, according to the refined model,
the radius of the treated oil patch after the number of ladybirds will decrease
2 hours. initially, and find the smallest number of
ladybirds in the greenhouse.

286
 ⑫ The relationship between the price of
a commodity, p, and demand for the
commodity, q, is modelled by the differential
equation
(iii)
(iv)
Find the time taken, to the nearest minute,
for the population to double.
In an improved model, the population
growth is modelled by the differential
13
dq = − q equation
h
dp p dP =
dt
kP cos
kt
where h is called the elasticity, and is a constant
for a given commodity in a particular set of where P is the population, t is the time
conditions. measured in days and k is a positive
(i) Find the general solution for q in constant. Given that the initial population
terms of p. is again P0 and the initial rate of increase
of the population per day is again twice
(ii) When a particular retailer increases the the initial population, solve the second
price of a DVD from £15 to £20, the differential equation to find P in terms of
demand falls from 100 a month to 80 a P0 and t.
month. For this case
(v) Find the time taken, to the nearest minute,
(a) calculate the value of the elasticity for the population to double, using this
(b) find the particular solution of the new model.
differential equation (vi) For each of the models, describe how the
(c) sketch the graph of demand against population varies with time.
price. ⑭ (i) Show that the differential equation
PS ⑬ The rate of increase of a population is dN =
kN (cN
1− ) has the general
modelled as being directly proportional to the dt
size of the population, P. A ekt
solution N = + .
(i) Form a differential equation to describe 1 e Ac kt
this situation. (ii) Under this model, what is the limiting
value of the population size?
(ii) Given that the initial population is P0,
and the initial rate of increase of the
population per day is twice the initial
population, solve the differential equation,
to find P in terms of P0 and t.

287
 Solving differential equations by separating the variables

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ formulate first order differential equations using information about rates of
change
➤ find the general solution of a first order differential equation by separating
the variables
➤ find the particular solution of a first order differential equation by separating
the variables
➤ solve problems using differential equations and interpret the solution.

KEY POINTS
1 Differential equations are used to model rates of change.
2 ddxy is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
dz is the rate of change of z with respect to t.
dt
If the words ‘with respect to …’ are omitted, the change is assumed to be with
respect to time.
3 A differential equation involves derivatives such as ddxy and ddxy .
2

4 A first order differential equation involves a first derivative only.

5 Some first order differential equations may be solved by direct integration.
6 Some first order differential equations may be solved by separating the
variables.
7 A general solution is one in which the constant of integration is left in the
solution, and a particular solution is one in which additional information is
used to calculate the constant of integration.
8 A general solution may be represented by a family of curves, and a particular
solution by a particular member of that family.

FUTURE USES
If you study Further Mathematics you will learn to model further situations
using differential equations, and to solve a wider range of differential
equations.

288
 14 Numerical methods

It is the true nature of A golfer doesn’t often hit a ball into the hole at the first attempt! Instead,
mankind to learn from he or she will try to hit the ball as close to the hole as possible. After that,
his mistakes. successive attempts will usually be closer and closer to the hole, until the ball
Fred Hoyle (1915–2001) finally lands in the hole.
Think of some other situations where you need to make a rough
approximation for your first attempt, and then gradually improve your
attempts.

289
 Solving equations numerically

1 Solving equations numerically

ACTIVITY 14.1 Remember that exact
Which of the following equations can be solved roots may be given
algebraically, and which cannot? in terms of irrational
For the equations that can be solved algebraically, numbers like π, e or 2 .
find the exact roots.
T For the equations that cannot be solved algebraically, use a graphical calculator
or graphing software to find approximate roots.
(i) x − 4 x + =3 (ii)
2
0 x + 10 x8 +0 =2
(iii) x x − +5 =3 0 5

(iv) x − =x 0
3
(v) ex4−0= x
Although you could not solve the equations x x5 − +5 = 3 and
0 e x4−0 = x
algebraically, you were still able to find approximate values for the roots, and,
by zooming in more closely, you could have increased the accuracy of your
approximations.
Figure 14.1 shows the graph of y = −e x.4 x

From the graph, you can see that Zooming in more closely shows that
there is one root between 0 and
1, and another between 2 and 3.
the first root is between 0 and 0.5,
and the second between 2 and 2.5.
y y
2
5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x

–1 0 1 2 3 x
–2

Figure 14.1
Discussion points y
Here is the same graph,
zoomed in further
(Figure 14.2). 1

What can you say

about each of the
roots now? 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 x

From Figure 14.2,

can you state the –1

roots correct to 1
decimal place? –2

Figure 14.2

290
 Vocabulary
A root of an equation is a value which satisfies the equation. An equation may
have more than one root. For the equation x² + x − 6 = 0, x = 2 is a root and
14
so is x = −3.
The solution of an equation is the set of all the roots. So the solution of the
equation x² + x − 6 = 0 is x = 2 and x = −3.
An analytical method for solving an equation is an algebraic method which
gives exact values for the roots of the equation.
A numerical method for solving an equation does not give exact values for
the roots of the equation, but it can usually find an approximate value to any
required degree of accuracy.

Numerical methods permit you to solve many mathematical problems that

cannot be solved analytically. Methods like these do not give you an exact
answer, but by repeated application or refinement, they can usually give you a
solution to any degree of accuracy that you require.
Only use numerical methods when algebraic methods are not available.
If you can solve an equation algebraically (e.g. a quadratic equation), that is
usually the best method to use.
Before starting to use a calculator or computer software, always start by
drawing a sketch graph of the function whose equation you are trying
to solve. This will show you how many roots the equation has and their
approximate positions. It will also warn you of possible difficulties with
particular methods. When using a graphing calculator or graphing software
ensure that the range of values of x is sufficiently large to find all the roots.
Always give a statement about the accuracy of an answer (e.g. to 5 decimal
places, or ±0.000 005). An answer obtained by a numerical method is
worthless without this.
The fact that at some point your calculator display reads, say, 1.6764705882
does not mean that all these figures are valid.
Your statement about the accuracy must be obtained from within the
numerical method itself. Usually you find a sequence of estimates of ever-
increasing accuracy.
Remember that the most suitable method for one equation may not be the
most suitable for another.

Change of sign methods

Suppose you are looking for the roots of the equation f (x) = 0 . This means that
you want the values of x for which the graph of y = f (x) crosses the x-axis.
As the curve crosses the x-axis, xf ( ) changes sign, so provided that xf ( ) is a
continuous function (its graph has no asymptotes or other breaks in it), once you
have located an interval in which xf ( ) changes sign, you know that that interval
must contain a root (Figure 14.3 overleaf ).

291
 Solving equations numerically
y y
f (b) > 0
y = f (x) y = g(x)

a
g (c) > 0 d
O b x O c x
g (d) < 0

f (a) < 0 So the root lies So the root lies

between a and b. between c and d.
Figure 14.3

Notice that |g (d )|<|g (c)|, but this does not mean that the root is closer
to d than c.

Example 14.1 (i) Show that the equation e x4−0 = xhas a root in the interval [2.1, 2.2].
(ii) How would you use decimal search to find the root to 2 decimal places?

Solution The equation is already in. the

(i) f (x) = −e x 4 x required form of xf ( ) = 0
Evaluate the function at f (2.1
) = − 0.23… < 0
Don’t be tempted to leave out
the beginning and end of this final sentence; it’s an
the interval f (2.2
) = 0.22… > 0
important part of your answer
Since one of the values is positive and one is negative, and the function
is continuous, e x4− x = has
0 a root in the interval [2.1, 2.2].
(ii) You would need to try the values f (2.11), f (2.12), f (2.13), etc., until you
reach a change of sign. This would tell you that the root is in the interval
[2.15, 2.16].You would then repeat the process by finding f (2.151),
f(2.152) etc., until you reach a change of sign. This would show that the
root is closer to 2.15 than to 2.16. So the root is 2.15 to 2 d.p.

Discussion points
➜ Is decimal search an efficient method for solving an equation
(i) if you are programming a computer?
(ii) if you are doing it yourself on a calculator?
➜ If you are doing it yourself on a calculator, is it possible to speed up the process?

Another change of sign method is called interval bisection. In this case, after
finding one interval containing the root, the interval is divided into two equal
parts – it is bisected.
TECHNOLOGY So to find the root of the equation e x4−0 = xthat is in the interval [2, 3] (with
The Table feature on a f (2) < 0 and f (3) > 0), you would start by taking the midpoint of the interval, 2.5.
scientific calculator is f (2.5
)= 2.18… > 0 so the root is in the interval [2, 2.5].
useful for finding the
values of a function for Now take the midpoint of this interval, 2.25.
different values of x. f (2.25 ) = 0.48… > 0 so the root is in the interval [2, 2.25].

292
 The midpoint of this interval is 2.125.
f (2.125 ) = − 1.41… < 0 so the root is in the interval [2.125, 2.25]. 14
TECHNOLOGY Discussion points
Create a spreadsheet Figure 14.4 shows a spreadsheetx that has been used to carry out interval
like the one in bisection to find the root of e 4− = xthat 0is in the interval [2, 3].
Figure 14.4. Use your ➜ After how many iterations can you state the root correct to 1 decimal place?
spreadsheet to find 2 decimal places? 3 decimal places?
the root correct to 8
decimal places. Home Insert Page Layout Formulas Data Review

fx
A B C D E F G

Discussion point 1
2
Iteration
1
x=a
2
x=b
3
x=m f(a) f(b)
2.5 –0.610943901 8.085536923 2.182493961
f(m)

What advantages
3 2 2 2.5 2.25 –0.610943901 2.182493961 0.487735836
➜ 4 3 2 2.25 2.125 –0.610943901 0.487735836 –0.127102512

and disadvantages 5 4 2.125 2.25 2.1875 –0.127102512 0.487735836 0.162902981

does interval 6
7
5
6
2.125
2.125
2.1875
2.15625
2.15625 –0.127102512 0.162902981 0.013681785
2.140625 –0.127102512 0.013681785 –0.057748562

bisection have, 8 7 2.140625 2.15625 2.1484375 –0.057748562 0.013681785 –0.02229497

compared with 9 8 2.1484375 2.15625 2.15234375 –0.02229497 0.013681785 –0.004372244

decimal search?
10 9 2.15234375 2.15625 2.154296875 –0.004372244 0.013681785 0.004638326
11 10 2.15234375 2.154296875 2.153320313 –0.004372244 0.004638326 0.000128934
12 11 2.15234375 2.153320313 2.152832031 –0.004372244 0.000128934 –0.002122681

Figure 14.4
Change of sign methods have the great advantage that they automatically
provide bounds (the two ends of the interval) within which a root lies, so the
maximum possible error in a result is known. Knowing that a root lies in the
interval [0.61, 0.62] means that you can take the root as 0.615 with a maximum
error of ±0.005.
Determining the accuracy of your answer is an essential part of any numerical
method. As in this case, it must come out of the method itself; just rounding your
answer is not enough.

Problems with change of sign methods

There are a number of situations which can cause problems for change of sign
methods if they are applied blindly, for example by entering the equation into
computer software without prior thought. In all cases you can avoid problems by
first drawing a sketch graph, so that you know what dangers to look out for.
The curve touches the x-axis
In this case there is no change of sign, so change of sign methods will not work
(see Figure 14.5).
f(x)

O x

Figure 14.5
293
 Solving equations numerically
There are several roots close together
Where there are several roots close together, it is easy to miss a pair of them.
The equation
f (x) = x 3 − 1.65x 2 + 0.815x0.105
− 0 =

has roots at 0.2, 0.7 and 0.75. A sketch of the curve of f(x) is shown in
Figure 14.6.
y

0.2 0.7 0.75 x

Figure 14.6
In this case f(0) < 0 and f(1) > 0, so you know there is a root between 0 and 1.
A decimal search would show that f(0.2) = 0, so that 0.2 is a root. You would be
unlikely to search further in this interval.
Interval bisection gives f(0.5) > 0, so you would search the interval [0, 0.5] and
eventually arrive at the root 0.2, unaware of the existence of those at 0.7 and 0.75.
There is a discontinuity in f(x)
1
The curve y x= −
2.7 has a discontinuity at x = 2.7, as shown by the
asymptote in Figure 14.7.
y

O
2.7 x

Figure 14.7
The equation x −1 = has
0 no root, but all change of sign methods will
2.7
converge on a false root at x 2.7
= .

294
Fixed point iteration
An iteration or iterative process is a method of generating a sequence of
numbers by repeating the same process over and over again. If the sequence
14
of numbers approaches a limiting value, then you say that they converge to that
number. For example, if you start with any positive number and repeatedly take
the square root, this sequence converges to 1.
Using fixed point iteration to approximate a root of an equation starts
with an estimate of the value of x, not, as with the change of sign method,
with an interval in which x must lie. You then use iteration to improve this
approximation, using a process that converges to the real value of x.
Figure 14.8 shows the curve y x= − 5+ . From
5x3 the graph, you can see that
the equation x 5 − 5x + =3 has
0 three real roots.
y
8 y = x5 – 5x + 3
6
4
2

–2 –1 O 1 2 x
–2

Figure 14.8
The equation x 5 − 5x + =3 can
0 be rewritten in a number of different ways.
5
+ .3
One of these is x x=
5
So the roots of x
5 −
5x + =3 are
0 the same as the roots of the equation
x x= 5+ .3
5

These roots are also the x coordinates of the intersection points of the graphs
y x= and y x = 5+ .3
5

These two graphs are shown in Figure 14.9.

x5 + 3
y= 5
y y=x

–2 –1 O 1 2 x

Figure 14.9
xn5 +3
This provides the basis for the iterative formula x n +1 = .
5

295
 Solving equations numerically
Taking x = 1 as a starting point to find the root in the interval [0, 1], successive
approximations are shown in the spreadsheet in Figure 14.10.

Home Insert

A B
1 n xn
2 1 1
Cell B3 contains the
3
4
2
3 0.665536
0.8
formula = (B25 +3)/5
5 4 0.626115
6 5 0.619244
This formula is then
7 6 0.618211
filled down into the
8
9
7
8
0.61806
0.618038
remaining cells.
10 9 0.618035
11 10 0.618034
12 11 0.618034

Figure 14.10
You can see that in this case the iteration has converged quite rapidly to the root
This check is an essential for which you were looking.
part of this method of
solving equations; it is It looks likely that the root is 0.618 to 3 d.p.; you cannot be sure without using a
not an optional extra. change of sign method. To verify that the root is x = 0.618 correct to 3 decimal
places, you must show that the root lies in the interval [0.6175, 0.6185] because
all values in this interval round to 0.618.
T ACTIVITY 14.2 In general, an equation xf ( ) = , 0can be rearranged into the form x x = g ( ) ,
Set up a spreadsheet which gives the iterative formula x n +1 = g (x)n . Starting with your first estimate
like the one shown in for the root of x 1, if this iterative formula converges to the root, then x 2 = g (x)1
Figure 14.10. Change will be a better approximation, and x 3 = g (x)2 even better. By doing as many
the starting value in iterations as necessary, you can find an approximation to the root to whatever
cell B2 to try to find the
other two roots of the degree of accuracy is required.
equation, one in the In Activity 14.2 you will have seen that this method does not always converge
interval [−2, −1] and to the root that you are looking for. The iterations may diverge (i.e. they get
one in the interval numerically larger and larger) or they may converge to a different root. However,
[1, 2]. What happens? often using a different rearrangement may be successful.

Example 14.2 You are given that xf ( ) = −x+5 . 5x3

(i) Show that the equation xf ( ) = has
0 a root in the interval [1, 2].
(ii) Show that the equation x f ( ) = can
0 be rewritten in the form
x = 5 5x − 3.
(iii) Starting with an estimate for the solution of x 1
1 = , use the iterative
formula x n +1 = 5 5xn − 3 to find the root in the interval [1, 2] correct
to three decimal places.

296
 Solution
(i) f (1 ) = − <1 0
f (2 ) = 25 0>
14
Since one value is positive and one is negative, and xf ( ) is a
continuous function, the equation xf ( ) = has
0 a solution in the
interval [1, 2].
(ii) x 5 − 5x + =3 0
⇒x 5 = 5x − 3
⇒=x=x 5 555xx−−33
⇒
TECHNOLOGY (iii) x =⇒
1 x 2 = 5 5x1 − =3 1.148 698 35 …
Most calculators 1

x 3 = 1.223 65991…
allow you to carry out
iterations like this x 4 = 1.25540416 …
very quickly and easily x 5 = 1.267 93164…
using the ‘answer’ key
for x n in your iterative x 6 = 1.272 742 08…
formula. Find out
how to do this on your x 7 = 1.274 57008…
calculator. x8 = 1.27 526199…

x9 = 1.27552349 … It looks as if the root is 1.276

correct to 3 decimal places.
x10 = 1.275622 26…
f (1.2755 )= − 0.0015… < 0 Check this by showing that the root
f (1.2765 )= 0.0067… > 0 lies in the interval [1.2755, 1.2765]
so the root is 1.276 correct to 3 decimal places.

T ACTIVITY 14.3
What intervals do you need to use with the change of sign method to show that
the following roots of equations are correct to the given degree of accuracy?
(i) 0.5 to 1 decimal place
(ii) −0.369 to 3 decimal places
(iii) 21.6342 to 4 decimal places.
Staircase and cobweb diagrams
The iteration process is easiest to understand if you think about the graph.
Rewriting the equation xf ( ) = in0 the form x = g (x) means that instead of
looking for points where the graph of y = f (x) crosses the x-axis, you are now
finding the points of intersection of the curve y = g (x) and the line y x=
(Table 14.1 and Figure 14.11, overleaf ).

297
 Solving equations numerically
Table 14.1
What you do What it looks like on the graph
Take your initial estimate of x, x1 Take a starting point on the x-axis
Find the corresponding value of g (x 1) Move vertically to the curve y = g (x 1)

Take this value g (x 1) as the new value Move horizontally to the line y = x
of x, i.e. x 2 = g (x 1)
Find the value of g (x 2) and so on Move vertically to the curve

5
y = 5x –3

y=x

x 1= 1 x 2x 3 x

Figure 14.11
Figure 14.11 is called a staircase diagram, because the successive steps look
like a staircase approaching the root. However, sometimes the successive values
oscillate about the root, producing a cobweb diagram. You can see a cobweb
diagram in Example 14.3.

Example 14.3 The curve y x= 3 + 4 x − intersects

3 the x-axis at the point where x k = .
(i) [ ].
Show that k lies in the interval 0.5,1
(ii) Show that the equation x 3 + −4 x= 3 can
0 be rearranged into the
form x = −3 . x
3

4
3 − xn3
(iii) Use the iterative formula x n +1 = with x 0.5 to find x 2x,3
4 1=
x x,
2 3 and x 4.
(iv) Draw a diagram to show how convergence takes place, indicating the
positions of x x, ,x
1 2 3 and x 4.

Solution
(i) k is the solution of the equation x 3 + −4 x=
3 .0
Using the change of sign method with xf (x )x= + −3 : 4 3
f (0.5
) = − 0.875 0<
f (1 ) = >2 0
Since one value is positive and one is Remember to include
negative and the function is continuous, the final sentence of
[ ]
k lies in the interval 0.5,1 explanation.

298
 TECHNOLOGY
(ii) x 3 + 4 x − =3 0
⇒ 4 x = −3⇒
3
x x4 3 = −3 x 3
x 3
3 x 3
14
⇒ =x − x ⇒ = −
4 4
Remember that you
can use the ANS button (iii) x2 = 0.718 75
on your calculator to x3 = 0.65717315 …
perform successive
iterations quickly. x4 = 0.679 04558 …

(iv)
If you write
down rounded 3 – x3
figures for the y=
4
iterations, y=x
remember not to This a cobweb
use the rounded diagram.
figure for the
next iteration
but keep the x 1 = 0.5 x 3k x2

working on your
calculator.
Figure 14.12
Problems with the fixed point iteration method
Discussion point You have already seen that sometimes a particular rearrangement will result in
the iterations diverging, or converging to the wrong root.
➜ If a numerical
method finds a root What is happening geometrically when this happens?
of an equation, but x
The equation xe + x 2 − =1 0has a solution of x 0.48 =
correct to 2 decimal
not the one you places. The equation can be rearranged into the form x= −1 e x .
x
were looking for, x
is it a failure of the 1 e xn
− xn

method? However, using the iterative formula xn +1 =

xn with a starting point
of x 0.5 produces x 2 = 0.35, x 3 = 1.43, x 4 = − 3.46, … , with repeated
1=
iterations giving values further from the solution.

Discussion point y

The cobweb diagram 4

y = 1 –xxe
x

in Figure 14.13 shows

the positions of x x, 3

and x for the above

1 2

iterative formula.
3
2

➜ What feature of the

y=x
1
1 xe x
curve y = −
x
causes the iteration 0 x 1 0.5 1 x 3 1.5 x

to diverge? –1
x2

Figure 14.13
0 the form x x = g ( )
A particular rearrangement of the equation xf ( ) = into
will give an iteration formula that converges to a root a of the equation if the
gradient of the curve y = g (x) is not too steep near x = a.

299
 Solving equations numerically
Exercise 14.1
y=x
① Show that the equation e = 5x has a root in
x (c) y y = g(x)
[].
the interval 2,3
PS ② Abdul has carried out iterations of the form
xn + 1 = g( x)n on four equations to try to find
a root, a. His work is shown below.a x 1 He has x1 a x
also drawn diagrams to illustrate each set of
iterations, but the diagrams have got mixed
y
up. Match each set of iterations to the correct (d)
y=x
diagram in Figure 14.14, and describe what is
happening in the iterations. x1 x
Equation 1 Equation 2
y = g(x)
x1 = 1 x1 = 0.4
x 2 = 0.571428 57… x 2 = 0.821060 99… Figure 14.14
x
x3 x3 ③ Show that the equation x x e+0− = can
4
= 0.455 226 98… = 0.58144508 …
be rearranged into each of the following forms:
x4 = 0.442 048 20… x4 = 0.735669 83…
= −e x x 4 = ln (x 4x+ )
x5 = 0.440 91130… x5 = 0.64138140 … (i) x (ii) x
ex − x
Equation 3 Equation 4 (iii) x = 4 x −
e x (iv) x =
x 2

x1 = 2.5 x1 = 1
④ The curve y x x= 2− − is shown in
3

x 2 = 2.660 714 28… x 2 = 2.8 Figure 14.15.

x3 = 3.119 466 01… x3 = − 1.3094 y
x4 = 4.765105 20… x4 = 3.537 587 63…
x5 = 15.885 366 23… x5 = − 5.854 246 70… O x

(a) y
y=x
y = g(x)

Figure 14.15
a x1 x
(i) Show that the root of the equation
x x−2−0 = is between x 1
3
= and
x 2= .
(b) y
y=x
y = g(x) (ii) Show that the equation can be rearranged
into the form x x=2+ .
3

(iii) With a starting value of x 1 = , 1use the

x1 x
iterative formula xn +1 = +3 xn 2 four times
a
to get improved approximations for the root.
(iv) Show that your final answer is accurate to
3 decimal places.

300
 ⑤ (i) Show that the equation

(ii)
[ ].
a root in the interval 1,2
e x − −x = has
20

Show that this equation may be written in

the form x = ln (x + .2 )
⑧ (i) On the same axes, sketch the line y x =
and the curve y = sin x1 + for 0 ¯ x ¯ p.
(ii) Use the iterative formula x n +1 = sin x1n +
with x 1
14
1 = to find values for x 2, x 3 and x 4.

(iii) Use the iterative formula x n +1 = ln (xn + 2 ) (iii) On your answer to (i), draw a diagram
with a starting value of x 2 to show how convergence takes place
1 = to find two
further approximations for the root. indicating the positions of x 1, x 2, x 3 and x 4.
(iv) Sketch on the same axes the graphs of (iv) At this stage you know the values of
y x= and y 2 ) 0 ¯ x ¯ 3.
= ln (x + for x 1, x 2, x 3 and x 4. With what accuracy can you
now state the value of the root?
(v) On your sketch, draw a diagram,
indicating the positions of x 1, x 2 and x 3. (v)
Carry out enough further iterations to find
PS ⑥ (i) Show that the equation 6 − =x ln x has a the root correct to 2 d.p.
root between x 4= and x 5 = .
x
⑨ The equation x x + −3 =e 0can be
3 2

rearranged into each of the following forms:

(ii) Determine whether the root is closer to
x 4= or to x 5 =. ex − x 3
(i) x =
3
⑦ (i) On the same axes, sketch the curves y 3 =
x

and y = −9 x 2 for −3 ¯ x ¯ 3, and (ii) x = ln (x + 3x 2 )

3

state the number of roots of the equation

(iii) x = 3
e x3− x2
3x = −9 . x 2
ex
(ii) The equation is rearranged into the form (iv) x =
x 2 + 3x
x = 9 3− . x
Show, by trying starting
Use a spreadsheet to perform iterations using
numbers of
each of these four rearrangements. Your
(a) x = 2 (b) x = 1 spreadsheet might look something like that in
xn
that the iterative formula x n +1 = 9 3− Figure 14.16.
does not converge to the positive root. Use your spreadsheet with different
starting numbers to investigate the different
(iii) Show that the equation 3x = −9 x 2 rearrangements. Comment on your results.
can also be rearranged into the form
ln (9 − x 2 ) ⑩ (i) Sketch the curves y e =
x
and y x= + 2 2
x =
ln 3
.
on the same graph, and use your sketch to
(iv) Use the iterative formula explain why the equation e x − −x 2= 2 0
ln 9 xn2 ) and a starting
( −
has only one root.
x n +1 = ln 3
value of x 2 PS (ii) By rearranging the equation into the form
1 = to find the positive root x = g (x) to find a suitable iterative formula,
correct to 4 d.p.
find the root of the equation accurate to 2
decimal places.
(iii) Prove that your answer is correct to this
degree of accuracy.

Home Insert Page Layout Formulas Data Review

fx
A B C D E
1 Iteration Rearrangement 1 Rearrangement 2 Rearrangement 3 Rearrangement 4
2 Start 1 1 1 1
3 1 0.756809494 1.386294361 –0.093906057 0.679570457
4 2 0.752328439 2.131753281 0.294637746 0.78904557

Figure 14.16

301
 The Newton–Raphson method
⑪ (i) Show that if the sequence defined by PS ⑫ Use iteration to find the non-zero root of the
1⎜ k + x ⎟
⎛ ⎞ equation x 2 = ln (1x) + correct to 3 decimal
the iterative formula x n +
1 = 2 ⎝ xn n⎠ places.
converges, then it will converge to k .
(ii) Use this formula, with a sensible starting
value, to find the value of 10 to 4 decimal
places.

2 The Newton–Raphson method

Another fixed-point iteration method that starts with an estimate of the root and
improves on this is called the Newton–Raphson method.
If you have an equation xf ( ) = and
0 you have an estimate x 1 for the value of a
root, then you can get a better approximation, x 2, for the root by drawing in the
tangent to the curve at x 1 and working out where this crosses the x-axis. This is
shown in Figure 14.17.
y

Curve y = f(x) Tangent to

y = f(x) at x = x 1
f(x 1)

x 2 x 1– x 2 x1 x

Figure 14.17
Using the right-angled triangle, the gradient of the tangent can be written as
f (1 x)
x1 − .The
x 2 gradient of the tangent is also the gradient of the curve at the
point x x=1, which is given by x f ʹ1( ) .
(x)
Therefore xf ʹ ( )1 = f 1
x1x− 2

f (x)1
⇒ x1 − x 2 =ʹ
f (x)1
f (x) f (x)
⇒ x 2⇒= xx21 =− ʹx1 (−1)ʹ ( 1)
f x1 f x1
Repeating this process gives the Newton–Raphson iterative formula.

f (x)n
x n +1 = xn −ʹ
f (x)n

302
 Example 14.4 You are given that xf ( ) = +x−3 . 2 x6
(i) 0 a root lying between x 1
Show that the equation xf ( ) = has
x 2= .
= and
14
(ii) Taking x = 1 as the first approximation to the root use the Newton–
Raphson method to find three further approximations to the root.
(iii) Show that your final approximation is accurate to 2 decimal places.

Solution
(i) f (1 ) = − 3< 0
f (2 ) = >6 0
Since one value is positive and the other is negative, and the function
is continuous, the root must lie between x 1= and x 2 = .
(ii) f (x) = +x 3 2 x − 6
f ʹ (x) = 3x 2 + 2
The Newton–Raphson iterative formula is therefore

TECHNOLOGY x 2x − 6 .
3 +
xn +1 x1n
= −
3x 2 + 2
Remember to use your x1 = 1
calculator efficiently by x 2 = 1.6
using the ANS key to
perform the iterations x 3 = 1.466115...
quickly. x4 = 1.456 215...

(iii) To show that the root is 1.46 accurate to 2 decimal places, you must
show that it lies in the interval [1.455, 1.465].
f (1.455 ) = − 0.0097... 0<
f (1.465 ) = 0.074... 0>
Since one value is positive and the other is negative, and the function
is continuous, the root must lie between x 1.455
= and x 1.465
= .
Therefore it is equal to 1.46, correct to 2 decimal places.

Problems with the Newton–Raphson method

If your initial value is close enough to the root, then the Newton–Raphson
method will almost always give convergence to it. The rate of convergence to
the root using the method depends on the choice of initial value and the shape
of the curve in the neighbourhood of the root. If the initial value is not close to
the root, then the iteration may converge to another root or diverge.
In the following figures, the second approximation, x 2, is further from the root a
than the initial approximation, x 1.

303
 The Newton–Raphson method
1 Poor choice of y

initial value: x 1 is
too far away from
a (for example,
Figure 14.18).

α x1 β γ
x

Although the starting

point x lies between
the roots α and β,
1

the iteration actually

finds the third root, γ.
Figure 14.18
Discussion point 2 f ʹ1(xis )too small, usually
y

because x 1 is close to a
➜ What happens when stationary point (as shown
x is at a stationary in Figure 14.19).
point? Draw a
1

diagram to illustrate
your answer.
Although the starting
point x is close to α, x 1α

the iteration does not

1 x

converge and no root

is found.
Figure 14.19
The Newton-Raphson method may break down if the function
■ is not defined over the whole of », because the tangent may meet the
x-axis at a point outside the domain
■ is discontinuous.

Exercise 14.2
① The graph of y = f (x) , where (i) Find x f ʹ( .)
f (x) = x 3 − −x is shown
3 in
(ii) Write down the Newton–Raphson
Figure 14.20. iterative formula for the equation
y f (x) 0= .
y = f(x)
(iii) Taking the first approximation to the
root as x 2
1 = , apply the Newton–
Raphson method once to find a second
x1 x approximation, x 2.
(iv) Copy Figure 14.20 and show graphically
how the Newton–Raphson method finds
this second approximation.
Figure 14.20
304
② The equation x − 6 x 2 + 12 x − 11 0= has ⑥ (i) Show that the equation x x x x−−+7+7= 1=
14
3 4 43 3
100
one root, a. has a root in the interval [0, 1].
(i) Show that a lies between x = and (ii) Use the Newton–Raphson method
3 x = 4. repeatedly to find this root correct to
2 d.p., starting with x 1
(ii) Use the Newton–Raphson method twice 1= .
with a starting value of x 3.5 to find (iii) Explain why x 1 = is0not a suitable
1=
two further approximations to the root. starting point.
(iii) Show that your answer is correct to 3 s.f. PS ⑦ Use a graphical method to find an initial
approximation to the smallest positive root of
③ You are given that xf ( ) = e − 15x − .2
2x
the equation tan x x= + , and
1 then apply
(i) Show that the equation fx( ) = has0 a the Newton–Raphson method to find the
root between x 1.5
= and x 1.7
= . root correct to 3 s.f. Show that your answer is
correct to this degree of accuracy
(ii) Taking 1.6 as your first approximation,
apply the Newton–Raphson method once PS ⑧ Use a graphical method to find a first
to find a second approximation. approximation to the root of the equation
ln x = cos x , and then apply the Newton–
(iii)
Show that your answer is correct to
Raphson method to find the root correct to
3 significant figures.
3 d.p. Show that your answer is correct to this
④ You are given that x f ( ) 2= x + 5x + .2
3
degree of accuracy.
(i) Find x f ʹ( and
) hence show that the
⑨ (i) Sketch the curves y e = and y x = .
x 4
equation f (x)= 0 has only one root.
At how many points do they intersect?
(ii) Show that the root lies in the interval
[−1,0]. (ii) Sketch4the
e x
graph of the function
y x= − for all values of x.
(iii) Use the Newton–Raphson method twice
with a starting value of x 0.5
1 = − to find
(iii) Use the Newton–Raphson method to find
two further approximations, x 2 and x 3, to 4e x
the value of x where the curve y x= −
the root. crosses the x-axis, correct to 3 d.p., taking
(iv) Show that your value for x 3 gives the root x 2
1= .
correct to 3 decimal places.
⑤ (i) Find the turning points of the curve
(iv) Explain what happens if you use a starting
value of x 3
y x= 3 − 3x + ,3and identify their nature. 1= .

Hence sketch the curve. ⑩ A geometric series has first term equal to
3 and common ratio x. The sum of the first
(ii) Using x = − 2as your first approximation
twelve terms is equal to 750. By using the
to the root of x 3 −
3x + =3 ,0 apply the
Newton–Raphson method with starting
Newton–Raphson method once to find an
improved approximation.
PS value x
1=
1.5 with an appropriate equation,
find the value of the common ratio correct
(iii) Indicate on your sketch the positions to 5 d.p. and confirm that your answer is
of the first and second approximations, correct to 5 d.p.
and the process by which the second
approximation has been found.
(iv) Show that your second approximation does
not give the root correct to 2 d.p. but does
give it correct to 1 d.p.

305
 Numerical integration

3 Numerical integration
Numerical methods are not only used to solve equations. They can also be used
for differentiation, integration, solving differential equations and many other
applications.
There are many functions that cannot be integrated algebraically, and numerical
methods can be used to find approximate values for definite integrals. They can
also be used to estimate the area under a curve if you do not know the function in
algebraic form, but just have a set of points (perhaps derived from an experiment).
In the same way that when using numerical methods to approximate the root of
an equation it is important to remember that a numerical answer without any
estimate of its accuracy, or error bounds, is valueless.

Note
You should not use a
The trapezium rule
numerical method when In this chapter, one numerical method of integration is introduced: the
an algebraic technique trapezium rule. As an illustration of the rule, it is used to find the area under the
is available to you. curve y = 5x x−
2
for values of x between 0 and 4.
Numerical methods
should be used only It is in fact possible to integrate this function algebraically, but not using the
when other methods do techniques that you have met so far.
not work. y
3

y = 5x – x 2
2

1 A B

O 1 2 3 4 5 x

Figure 14.21
Figure 14.21 shows the area approximated by two trapezia of equal width.
Remember the formula for the area of a trapezium is area = 1 h(a) b+ , where
2
a and b are the lengths of the parallel sides and h is the distance between them.
In the cases of the trapezia A and B, the parallel sides are vertical. The left-hand
side of trapezium A has zero height, and so the trapezium is also a triangle.
When x 0= ⇒ =y 0 0=
when x 2= ⇒ =y =
6 2.4495 (to 4 d.p.)
when x 4= ⇒ =y 4 2=

A 2.4495 2.4495 B 2

(0) (2) (2) (4)

Figure 14.22
306
 The area of trapezium A = ×21× +2 (0 2.4495) 2.4495
=

The area of trapezium B = ×21× 2 (2.4495 2) +4.4495

Total
=
6.8990
14
For greater accuracy you can use four trapezia, P, Q, R and S, each of width
1 unit as shown in Figure 14.23. The area is estimated in just the same way.
y
3

1 P Q R S

Discussion point O
2

1
6

2
6

3
2

4 5 x
If you have had your
wits about you, you may Figure 14.23
have found a method of
finding this area without
using calculus at all.
➜ How can this be ACTIVITY 14.4
done? How close are 1 Calculate the sum of the trapezia P, Q, R and S.
your estimates? 2 Use graphing software to calculate the area using progressively more strips
and observe the convergence. T
3 Are your estimates too big or too small? Explain your answer.
The procedure
In Activity 14.4 above, the sum of the areas of the four trapezia P, Q, R and S
can be written as
1 ×1 × 1+(0 +2)×+ ×× +× + 1 1 1 (2 + ×1 × +
2 2 ×× 1+(0 2) 2 2 1 (2 6) 6) +2 ×21 ×1 +(16( 6)
6 6)
+ ×+1 ××1 ×1 (16( 2) 1
6 2)+ ++ ×+ ××2+× 21+1 (2 0) 0)
1 (2
2 2

and this can be written as

This is the strip width: 1 1 ×× ⎡ 0⎣ 2(2
+ +
These are the heights of the ends
1 6 + 6) 2+ ⎤ ⎦
2 of the whole area: 0 and 2
These are the heights of
the intermediate vertical This is often stated in words as
lines.
area ≈ ×21 strip width × [ends + twice middles]
or in symbols, for n strips of width h
A ≈ (
1 h ⎡y ⎣
2
+ yn ) +( 2 y1y2+ + + yn − )⎤ ⎦
0
1 .

307
 Numerical integration
This is called the trapezium rule (see Figure 14.24).
y

y = f(x)

y1
y0
y2 yn

y n–1
y n–2

a xb
h h h h

Figure 14.24

Too big or too small?

When the curve is concave upwards (Figure 14.25), all the ‘tops’ of the trapezia
are above the curve, and the trapezium rule gives an overestimate for the area
under the curve.

Figure 14.25
When the curve is concave downwards (Figure 14.26), the trapezia are
underneath the curve; the trapezium rule underestimates the area.

Figure 14.26
If part of the curve is concave upwards, and part is concave downwards,
you cannot usually tell if the trapezium rule gives an overestimate or an
underestimate for the area.

308
 Example 14.5 (i)

(ii)
Use the trapezium rule with four strips to find an approximation for
∫ (3x + 1)d x, giving your answer to 3 s.f.
1

By sketching the curve, explain whether your answer is an overestimate

14
or an underestimate.
(iii) You are given the following results from using the trapezium rule to
find further approximations to the integral.
8 strips 2.823 338 52…
16 strips 2.821 193 63…
32 strips 2.820 627 26…
What can you say about the true value of the integral?

Solution
(i) h b=a− =n − = 1 04 0.25
x 0 = 0 ⇒ y0 = +30=1 2
x1 = 0.25 ⇒ =y1 30.25 + =
1 2.3161

x2 = 0.5 ⇒ y2 = 30.5 + =
1 2.7321
To work out y values,
x3 = 0.75 ⇒ y3 = 30.75 + =
1 3.2795 substitute x values into
the equation of the curve.
x x = =1 1 ⇒⇒y4y4= =+31+3=11=14 4
4 4

∫ (3x + 1)d x ≈ 0.25 ( + +

1
( 2.7321
2 4 2 2.3161 + 3.2795 + ))
0 2
≈ 2.83 (3 s.f.)
(ii) This is an overestimate, since the curve y 3 1= + xis concave upwards.
y
4 y = 3x + 1

TECHNOLOGY 1

You can use a

spreadsheet to obtain a
more accurate estimate x
based on more strips.
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

However, rounding Figure 14.27

within the spreadsheet (iii) The geometry of the figure shows that all the approximations are
can make the final one overestimates. So the smallest of them, 2.820 627 26, is an upper
or two digits of the
output unreliable when bound for the true value. The pattern of the convergence indicates
you have taken a very that 2.8 is certainly a lower bound and 2.82 may possibly be but
large number of strips. more strips would be needed to state this with confidence.

309
 Numerical integration
Note Using rectangles to find bounds for the area
When you write down
intermediate answers
under a curve
partway through a You can also find an estimate for the area underneath a curve by dividing the
question, you can area under the curve into rectangular strips of width h and using the sum of the
either give them as a areas of these rectangles.
truncated value such
as 2.820 627 26… (as in Using rectangles that have smaller y values than the curve (except at one point)
Example 14.5), or you as their heights will give you an underestimate for the area under the curve
can round your answers (Figure 14.28). This gives a lower bound for the area under the curve.
to more significant
figures than you need y

in your final answer.

Make a point of always
keeping the numbers
you are working with on
your calculator. O a b x

Figure 14.28
Discussion point Using rectangles that have greater y values than the curve (except at one point)
This method is valid as their heights will give you an overestimate for the area under the curve
if your curve is either (Figure 14.29). This gives a upper bound for the area under the curve.
increasing or decreasing
between a and b. y

➜ What problem might

arise if your curve
has a turning point
between a and b?
O a b x

Figure 14.29
Increasing the number of rectangles allows you to improve these bounds, and
home in on the true value of the area.

Example 14.6 You are given that xf ( ) =

1
x > − 1.
x 3 + 1,
(i) Show that xf ( ) is a decreasing function.
(ii) Copy and complete Table 14.2 for y = f (x) , giving your answers to
4 decimal places.

Table 14.2
xr 2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3

yr

310
 (iii) Using the sums of the areas of four rectangles, form an inequality for the
3
value of ∫ 2(f ) x xd , giving your bounds to 3 d.p.
3
14
(iv) Give the value of ∫ 2( f) x xd to as great a degree of accuracy as possible
from your answer to (iii), and explain how you could refine this method
3
to enable you to give ∫ 2(f) x xd to a greater degree of accuracy.

Solution
(i) f (x) = (x + 1) 3
−1

⇒ ʹf (x) = − (x + 1) 3
−2
× 3x 2 Using the chain rule
=− 3x 2
(x 3 + 1)2
x2 > 0 since it is a perfect square, and x( 1)0since it is also a
3 2
+>
perfect square and x ≠ − 1.
3x 2
Substitute the x values
Therefore f ʹ (x) = −
function. (x 3 + 1)2 < 0 , and so fx( ) is a decreasing
into the equation (ii) xr
y x= 1+ .
2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3
3
1 yr 0.1111 0.0807 0.0602 0.0459 0.0357

The difference between (iii) The width of the rectangles is 0.25.

the x values.
To get the lower bound:
≈ 0.0807
area 0.25 × 0.25 +0.0602 ×0.25 0.0459
+ 0.25×0.0357 + ×
≈ 0.25 0.0807
× + 0.0602
0.25 × 0.25 0.0459
+ × 0.0357+
0.25 ×
⇒ area 0.056
≈
To get the upper bound:
≈ 0.1111
area 0.25 × 0.25 +0.0807×0.25 0.0602
+ 0.25×0.0459 + ×
≈ 0.25 0.1111
× + 0.0807
0.25 × 0.25 0.0602
+ × 0.0459+
0.25 ×
⇒ area 0.074
≈

You are not certain of

3
Therefore 0.056 < ∫ (f ) x xd 0.074
< .
the second decimal 2

place because it could

3
(iv) From (iii), ∫ 2( f) =x xd 0.1 to 1 d.p.
be either 0.06 or 0.07. To get a more accurate answer, divide the area into more rectangles.

311
 Numerical integration
Exercise 14.3
① Table 14.3 shows values of x and y for a curve The distance that the train has travelled is
y = f (x ). Figure 14.30 shows how the area given by the area under the graph of the speed
under the curve can be estimated using three (vertical axis) against time (horizontal axis).
trapezia. (i) Estimate the distance the train travels in
Table 14.3 this 1 minute period.
x 0 3 6 9 (ii) Give two reasons why your method
cannot give a very accurate answer.
y 0 5.2 8.0 10.1
⑥ (i) Copy and complete Table 14.5 for the
y
y = f(x) curve y = f (x) where
1
f (x) = +
1 x2 .
Table 14.5
O 3 6 9 x
x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 14.30 y
Use the trapezium rule to estimate (ii) Using the method of finding the sum of
9 the area of a series of rectangles in each
∫ (f ) x xd
0
, giving your answer to the case, find an upper bound and a lower
nearest integer. bound for the value of the area under the
curve between x 0= and x 1 = .
② Use the trapezium rule to find an 1 1
1
(iii) State the value of ∫ +0 x1 2 dx to as
1
approximation to ∫ 0+1 x 3 dx
(i) using two strips great a degree of accuracy as you can from
your answers to (ii) .
(ii) using four strips.
1 (iv) Explain how you could1refine this method
③ Sketch the graph of y x =
+ 1, x > − 1. 1
to find the value of ∫ 0+1x 2 dx to a
Use the trapezium rule with 4 strips to greater degree of accuracy.
4 1
estimate the value of ∫ 2+x 1 dx, and ⑦ (i) Use the trapezium rule with 6 strips to
2.3
state with a reason whether your value is an find an estimate for ∫ x xln d , giving
2
underestimate or an overestimate. your answer to 7 s.f.
④ Sketch the graph of y = x − 2, x > 2. 2.3

Use the trapezium rule with 5 strips to (ii) Find the exact value of ∫ x 2x ln d , and
4 hence find the percentage error in your
estimate the value of ∫ 3− x 2 d x , giving answer to (i) giving your answer to 2 s.f.
your answer to 3 significant figures, and
⑧ By using the trapezium rule to provide one
state with a reason whether your value is an bound, and the sum of the areas of a series of
underestimate or an overestimate. rectangles to provide the other, find
⑤ The speed v in m s −1 of a train is given at time
∫2 + x 1 2 dx correct to 2 d.p.
3

t seconds in Table 14.4. PS 1

Table 14.4
t 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
v 0 5.0 6.7 8.2 9.5 10.6 11.6

312
⑨ In statistics, the equation of the Normal
distribution curve for a distribution with
mean 0 and standard deviation 1 is given
by
(ii) Using graphing software or a spreadsheet,
use the sum of rectangles to find upper
and lower bounds for ∫ −f (x)dx . How
1
1

many rectangles did you use to give the

14
f ( x) = 1 e .2
− 1 x2

value of ∫ −1f (x)dx

1
2π correct to 3 decimal
(i) Using graphing software or a spreadsheet, places?
use the trapezium rule to estimate the
value of ∫ 1
f (x)dx to 3 decimal places.
−
1
How many strips did you use?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ find an interval in which the root of an equation lies, using change of sign
methods
➤ know circumstances under which change of sign methods do not work
carry out a fixed point iteration of an equation in the form x = g(x), using a
calculator efficiently
➤

➤ draw associated cobweb and staircase diagrams

➤ use the Newton–Raphson method to find a root of an equation
➤ represent the Newton–Raphson process graphically
➤ understand problems than can arise with fixed point iteration and the
Newton–Raphson method and how they can be illustrated graphically
➤ use the trapezium rule to find an approximate value of a definite interval
➤ decide whether the trapezium rule gives an overestimate or an
underestimate, where possible
➤ use the sum of a series of rectangles to find an upper bound and lower bound
for the area under a curve.

KEY POINTS
1 When x f ( ) is a continuous function,( )if=afin( the
) and bf (b )achave−opposite
interval [a,
2
4 signs,
there will be at least one root of xf 0 b].
2 2 Fixed point iteration may be used to solve an equation xf ( ) = by0either of
the following methods.
Rearranging the equation x f ( ) = into
0 the form x = g (x) and using the
n
iteration x n = g (x)n .
+1
f (x)n
nThe Newton–Raphson method using the iteration xn xn f (x)n . =
+1
− ʹ

3 You can use the trapezium rule, with n strips of width h, to find an
approximate value for a definite integral:
b
∫a y xd ≈ 1
2
h (y( 0
+ yn ) +( 2 y1y2+ + + − yn 1 ))
FUTURE USES Using more strips increases the accuracy of the approximation.
This work is developed 4 If the curve is concave upwards, the trapezium rule gives an overestimate. If
further in the Numerical the curve is concave downwards, the trapezium rule gives an underestimate.
Methods option in 5 By using the sum of the areas of a series of rectangles, upper and lower
Further Mathematics. bounds for the area under a curve can be found.
313
 Problem solving T Numerical integration
Vesna is carrying out numerical integration, approximating the area under a
curve by rectangles. She makes the following statements.
1 Using rectangles drawn from the left hand ends of the intervals is a
poor method. Using the right hand ends is no better. They always give
you extreme estimates for the area under the curve. You can see it in
my diagrams (Figures 1 and 2).
y y

2 2

1 1

O 1 2 3 4 5 x O x
12345

Figure 1 Low estimate in this case Figure 2 High estimate in this case
2 Taking the average of the left hand and right hand rectangles is better.
The answer is always the same as you get from the trapezium rule.
3 An even better method is to draw the rectangles at the midpoints of
the intervals as shown in Figure 3. For any number of intervals that
will be more accurate.
y

O 1 2 3 4 5 x

Figure 3 Best estimate

Investigate whether Vesna’s statements are true.

1 Problem specification and analysis

Vesna has made three statements. Look at them carefully and decide how you
are going to proceed.
■ Which of them are little more than common sense and which need real
work?
■ How you are going to investigate those that need work?
- What technology will you use?
- What examples will you choose to work with?
- How many different examples do you expect to use?
- To what level of accuracy do you expect to work?

314
 ■ How you are going to report the outcomes?
- Will you be happy just to say ‘true’ or ‘false’, or do you expect to
make statements such as ‘It is usually true but there are exceptions
such as ...’?
- How much explanation do you expect to give?
2 Information collection
You may be able to make some comments on Vesna’s statements just by
thinking about them but you will also need to carry out some investigations
of your own. This will require the use of technology.
It will be helpful, at least in some cases, to choose functions which you know
how to integrate, allowing you to know the answer to which a numerical
method should be converging.
However, the whole point of using a numerical method is to find an answer
when an analytical method is not available to you. It may be that there is one
that you don't know or it may be that one just does not exist. So you should
also use at least one example where you will only know the answer (to your
chosen level of accuracy) when you have completed your work.
Do not be content to work with just one or two types of functions.
Try a variety of functions but always start with a sketch of the curve of the
function. You can of course use graphing software to obtain this.
3 Processing and representation
The previous stage will probably result in you having a lot of information.
Now you need to sort through it and to organise it in a systematic way that
allows you to comment on Vesna's three statements.
Where you can explain your results using algebra, then you should do so.
In other cases you may present them as experimental outcomes.
4 Interpretion
The method illustrated in Figure 3 is called the midpoint rule. Much of your
work on this task will have been focused on the midpoint rule, and you need
to comment on whether this is a good method for numerical integration. In
order to do so you will need to explain what you mean by ‘good’ and what
the desirable features are in such a method.
There are other methods of numerical integration and you may choose to
conclude by saying something about them.

315
 Practice questions: Pure Mathematics 3
PRACTICE QUESTIONS: PURE MATHEMATICS 3
M ① In a chemical reaction, the rate of change of the mass, m grams, of a
substance at time t minutes is inversely proportional to the square root
of m. Initially, the mass is 9 grams and is increasing at a rate of 10 grams
per minute.
Formulate a differential equation between m and t. [3 marks]
② Forces F 1 = (2ai + 3bj) N, F 2 = (−bi + aj) N and F 3 = (10i − 2j) N are in
equilibrium, so that F 1 + F 2 + F 3 = 0. Find a and b. [4 marks]
③ The triangle ABC has coordinates A (1, 2, 0), B (−1, 3, −1) and
C(3, 0, −6).
(i) Find the column vectors AB ,A C andBC . [2 marks]
(ii)Prove that triangle ABC is right angled. [3 marks]
P ④ In Figure 1, ABCD is a parallelogram. D divides CB in the ratio
1 : 2 and E divides OD in the ratio 3 : 1.
=u =v
OA and OC .
D
C B

v E

O u A

Figure 1
in terms of u and v.
(i) Find the vectors OE [3 marks]
(ii) Hence prove that the point E lies on the diagonal AC. [2 marks]
T ⑤ (i) Use the Newton–Raphson method to find a root of f(x) = 0,
where f(x) = 4 sin 2x − x . Use a starting value x 0 = 1, and give
3

the results of the first 4 iterations correct to 5 decimal places.

Hence suggest the value of the root to 3 significant figures. [4 marks]
(ii) Verify that your root is indeed correct to 3 significant figures. [1
T mark]
⑥ The spreadsheet (Figure 2) is used to identify a root of the equation
x 5 − 2x + 3 = 0.

Clipboard Font Alignment

B2 fx =A2^5−2*A2+3

A B C D E F G
1 a= –2 h= 0.1
2 –2 –25
3 –1.9 –17.961
4 –1.8 –12.2957
5 –1.7 –7.79857
6 –1.6 –4.28576
7 –1.5 –1.59375
8 –1.4 0.42176
9 –1.3 1.88707
10 –1.2 2.91168
11 –1.1 3.58949
12 –1 4
13

Figure 2
316
 (i) Identify an interval which contains the root to 1 decimal place,
justifying your answer. [2 marks]
(ii) Use your calculator to find the interval containing the root correct to
2 decimal places. [2 marks]
(iii) Identify the root correct to 2 decimal places. [2 marks]
T ⑦ Ben and Carrie are attempting to solve the equation x 3 − 2x − 5 = 0 using
fixed point iteration.
Ben rearranges the equation to get an iterative formula of the form
x n + 1 = ax 3n + b.
(i) Find the constants a and b. [1 mark]
(ii) Using an initial value x 0 = 1, find x 1, x 2 and x 3. Comment
on your results. [2 marks]
Carrie rearranges the equation to get an iterative formula of the
form x n+1 = c3 x n + .d
(iii) Find the constants c and d. [1 mark]
(iv) Use this iterative formula, together with an initial value
x 0 = 1, to find x 1, x 2 and x 3. [2 marks]
(v) Verify that x 3, when rounded, gives a root of the equation
correct to 2 decimal places. [2 marks]
⑧ Figure 3 shows a curve with parametric equations
x = 1 + 2t, y = 2t + t 2 for −2 ¯ t ¯ 2.
y
C

A
O x

Figure 3
(i) Find the coordinates of A and C. [4 marks]

(ii) Find y dd x in terms of t. Hence find the coordinates of the

turning point B of the curve. [5 marks]
(iii) Find the2cartesian equation of the curve in the form
y = ax + bx + c. [3 marks]
M PS ⑨ At the moment he opens his parachute, a sky diver is moving
vertically downwards at a speed of 10 metres per second.
His speed, v m −1
s , t seconds after this is modelled by the
dv = − 1
differential equation
dt 3
kv(v3)− , where k is a positive constant.
3
(i) Show that =v − −
1 0.7 e kt .
[10 marks]

(ii) Hence find the terminal velocity of the sky diver. [2 marks]

317
 R 1 Statistical problem solving
Statistics provides a powerful set of tools for solving problems. While many of
the techniques are specific to statistics they are nonetheless typically carried out
within the standard cycle.
1 Problem specification
and analysis

2 Information collection 4 Interpretation

3 Processing and
representation

Figure R.1
This chapter reviews the techniques that are used in Information collection
and Processing and representation. The questions at the end also involve
elements of the other two stages.

Data by itself is useless. Information collection Notice that ‘data’ is a

plural word, so that you
Data is only useful if you The information needed in statistics is usually
should say, ‘The data
apply it. in the form of data so this stage is also called are …’, rather than ‘The
Todd Park (1973–) data collection. data is …’.
Data collection often requires you to take a sample, a set of items which are
drawn from the relevant population and should be representative of it.
Here is a check list of questions to ask yourself should when you are taking a sample.
Are the data relevant to the problem?
Discussion point
■

■ Are the data unbiased?

■ Is there any danger that the act of collection will ➜ Give examples of
distort the data? cases where the
answers to these
■

■
Is the person collecting the data suitable?
Is the sample of a suitable size?
questions are ‘No’.
■ Is a suitable sampling procedure being followed?
The last of the questions above asks about sampling procedures. There are many
of these and here are some that you are likely to come across.

318
 Random sampling is a general description in which every item in the
population has a non-zero probability of being selected. The term is often
restricted to cases where that probability is equal for every item.
Simple random sampling is a stronger term than random sampling. It refers
R
to a situation in which every possible sample of a given size is equally likely to
be selected. This can only happen if the selections are independent of each other.
This is the ideal form of sampling but practical considerations mean that it is not
always a possibility.
Stratified sampling is used when there are clear groups, or strata, within the
population and items are chosen from each of them. In proportional stratified
sampling the numbers chosen from the various groups are proportional to their
sizes.
Cluster sampling is typically used when the population is in groups, or
clusters, some of which may be more accessible than others. A sample of badgers
in the UK might, for example, involve a number of animals from several setts
located at different places round the country.
Systematic sampling is carried out when there is a list of the population.
Items are selected at regular intervals through the list. This is a good method for
when the population data are stored on a spreadsheet.
Quota sampling is often used in market and social surveys. The sampling is
carried out by a number of people each of whom has a quota of different types
of people to interview, for example 30 men, 30 women and 40 children.
Opportunity sampling describes a situation when a sample is easily available,
for example the delegates at a conference. It can be quite unreliable.
Self-selecting sampling occurs when the participants volunteer to take part
in the data collection exercise. A self-selected sample may well not be very
representative of the population.

Processing and representation

TECHNOLOGY At the start of this stage you have a set of raw data; by the end you have worked
them into forms that will allow people to see the information that this set
When working with contains, with particular emphasis on the problem in hand. Three processes are
a large set of data, a particularly important.
spreadsheet or statistics
package is useful for all ■ Cleaning the data. This involves checking outliers, errors and missing data,
these processes. and formatting the data, often using a spreadsheet or statistics package.
■ Presenting the data using suitable diagrams.
■ Calculating summary measures.

Describing data
The data items you collect are often values of variables or of random
variables. The height of an adult human is a variable because it varies from
one person to another; because it does so in an unpredictable manner it is a
random variable. Rather than repeatedly using the phrase ‘the height of an adult
person in metres’ it is usual to use an upper case letter like X to represent it.

319
 Statistical problem solving
Particular values of a random variable are denoted by a lower case letter; often
(but not always) the same letter is used. So if the random variable X is ‘the height
of an adult in metres’, for a person with height 1.83 m, you could say x = 1.83.
The number of times that a particular value of a random variable occurs is called
its frequency.
When there are many possible values of the variable, it is convenient to allocate
the data to groups. An example of the use of grouped data is the way people
are allocated to age groups.
The pattern in which the values of a variable occur is called its distribution.
This is often displayed in a diagram with the variable on the horizontal scale
and
a measure of frequency or probability on the vertical scale. If the diagram has
one peak the distribution is unimodal; if the peak is to the left of the middle
the distribution has positive skew and if it is to the right there is negative
skew. If the distribution has two distinct peaks it is bimodal.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure R.2 (a) Positive skew (b) Negative skew (c) A bimodal distribution
Identifying A data item which is far away from the rest is called an outlier. An outlier may

outliers be a mistake, for example a faulty reading from an experiment, or it may be

telling you something really important about the situation you are investigating.
There are two common When you are cleaning your data it is essential to look at any outliers and decide
tests. which of these is the case, and so whether to reject or accept them.
• Is the item more than The data you collect can be of a number of different types. You always need to
2 standard deviations
from the mean? know what type of data you are working with as this will affect the ways you
• Is the item more can display them and what summary measures you can use.
than 1.5 × the
interquartile range
beyond the nearer Categorical (or qualitative) data
quartile? These data come in classes or categories, like types of bird or makes of car.
Categorical data are also called qualitative, particularly if they can be described
Note without using numbers.

A pie chart is used for Common displays for categorical data are pictograms, dot plots, tallies, pie charts
showing proportions of and bar charts. A summary measure for the most typical item of categorical data
a total. is the modal class.
There should be gaps Categorical data may be contrasted with numerical (or quantitative) data
between the bars in a which are defined in some way by numbers. Examples of numerical data are the
bar chart. times people take to run a race, the numbers of trucks in freight trains and the
birth weights of babies.

Ranked data
These data are given by their position within a group rather than by
measurements or scores. For example the competitors in a competition could
be given their positions as 1st, 2nd, 3rd … .

320
 Drawing a stem-and-leaf diagram can be helpful when ranking data.
The median divides the data into two groups, those with high ranks and those
with low ranks. The lower quartile and the upper quartile do the same for
these two groups so between them the two quartiles and the median divide the
R
data into four equal sized groups according to their ranks. These three measures
are sometimes denoted by Q 1, Q 2 and Q 3. These values, with the highest and
lowest value can be used to create a box plot (or box-and-whisker diagram).

Lower Upper
quartile Median quartile
Least Greatest

Q1 Q 2Q 3

Remember Figure R.3

You have to be aware The median is a typical middle value and so is sometimes called an average.
when working out the More formally it is a measure of central tendency. It usually provides a good
median as to whether representative value.
n is odd or even. If it is
odd, for example if The median is easy to work out if the data are stored on a spreadsheet since that
n
n = 15, 2 works
1+ will do the ranking for you. Notice that extreme values have little, if any, effect
on the median. It is described as resistant to outliers. It is often useful when some
out to be a whole
number but that is data values are missing but can be estimated.
not so if n is even. Interquartile range and semi-interquartile range are measures of spread for
For+ example if n = 20, ranked data, as is the range.
n1 10 21. In that
=
2
case the data set does
not have single middle Discrete numerical data
value; those ranked These data can take certain particular numerical values but not those in
10 and 11 are equally between. The number of spots on a ladybird (2, 3, 4, …) the number of
spaced either side of goals a football team scores in a match (0, 1, 2, 3, …) and shoe sizes in the
the middle and so the ( 1 ,12, 2 , 1 …) are all examples of discrete variables. If there are many
median is half way UK 1, 2 2
between their values. possible values it is common to group discrete data.
Commonly used displays for discrete data include a vertical line chart and a

Remember stem-and-leaf diagram.

A frequency table can be useful in recording, sorting and displaying discrete
Sometimes a bar chart
is used for grouped numerical data.
numerical data with the Summary measures for discrete numerical data include
groups as categories,
but you must still leave ■ Central tendency: mean, weighted mean, mode, median, mid-range, modal
gaps between the bars. class (if the data are grouped)
■ Spread: range, interquartile range, semi-interquartile range, standard
deviation.

Continuous numerical data

These data can take any appropriate value if measured accurately enough.
Distance, mass, temperature and speed are all continuous variables. You cannot
list all the possible values.

321
 Statistical problem solving
If you are working with continuous data you will always need to group them.
This includes two special cases.
■ The variable is actually discrete but the intervals between values are very
small. For example cost in £ is a discrete variable with steps of £0.01 (i.e.
1 penny) but this is so small that the variable may be regarded as continuous.
■ The underlying variable is continuous but the measurements of it are
rounded (for example, to the nearest mm), making your data discrete.
All measurements of continuous variables are rounded and providing the
rounding is not too coarse, the data should normally be treated as continuous.
Remember A special case of rounding occurs with people’s age; this is a continuous
variable but is usually rounded down to the nearest completed year.
In frequency charts and A frequency chart and a histogram are the commonest ways of displaying
histograms the values
of the variables go at continuous data. Both have a continuous horizontal scale covering the range
the ends of the bars. of values of the variable. Both have vertical bars.
In a bar chart the labels In a frequency chart, frequency is represented by the height of a bar.
are in the middle. ■
The vertical scale is frequency.
■ In a histogram, frequency is represented by the area of a bar.
The vertical scale is frequency density.

Discussion point Frequency chart

➜ Look at the 10
frequency chart
and histogram 8
in Figure R.4 and
Frequency

Figure R.5. They

show the length, in 6

seconds, of passages
of bird song recorded 4

one morning. What

is the same about 2

them and what is

different? O 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s)

Figure R.4
Histogram

Remember 1
If you are using a
frequency chart the
density

class intervals should

0.8

all be equal. For a

Frequency

histogram they don’t 0.6

have to be equal. So if
you have continuous 0.4

data grouped into

classes of unequal 0.2
width, you should
expect to use a
histogram. O 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s)

Figure R.5
322
 Remember
It is usual in a case like
this, based on grouped
The summary measures used for continuous data are the same as those for
discrete data.
Numerical data can also be displayed on a cumulative frequency curve. To
R
data, to estimate the draw a cumulative frequency curve you plot the cumulative frequency (vertical
median asn the value axis) against the upper boundary of each class interval (horizontal axis).Then
of term 2 and the you join the points with a smooth curve. This lends itself to using the median,
quartiles nas the 3values quartiles and other percentiles as summary measures.
of terms 4 and 4n .
Bivariate data
These data cover two variables, such as the people’s height and weight.

Note The usual form of display for bivariate data is a scatter diagram.
When you are working with bivariate data you are likely to be interested in
Multivariate data cover
more variables. the relationship between the two variables, how this can be shown on a scatter
diagram and how it can be quantified. These topics are covered in Chapter 17.

Standard deviation, a new measure of spread

You have met range and interquartile range as measures of spread. In this
section a different and very important measure, standard deviation, is introduced.
The next example and the subsequent work introduce you to the meaning of
standard deviation.

Example R.1 Karen and Jake are keen dancers and enter competitons where they are given
marks out of 10. The producer of a television dancing programme wants to
choose one of them to take part.
Note These are their scores for their last ten competitions.
As part of the Karen 4 3 6 8 5 6 3 9 6 10
explanation, the text Jake 6665576568
shows how to work
out the value of the Who do you think should be chosen?
standard deviation of
a data set by hand. Solution
However, some people
T would often just enter The means of their scores should give an indication of their overall
the data into their
calculators and read off performance. They both have a total score of 60 points so have the same
the answer. mean of 6.0 points per competition.
So in this case the mean does not help the producer decide between the
two dancers. However, the spread of their points could give an indication of
their reliability.
Start by finding how far each score is from the mean. This is the deviation,
( x x− .Table
) R.1 shows Karen’s data.
➜

323
 Statistical problem solving

Note Table R.1

The reason the total Karen’s points Total, Σ
is zero is because of
the definition of the Points, x 4 3 6 8 5 6 3 9 6 10 60
mean. The sum of the Deviation x
( x− ) −2 −3 0 +2 −1 0 −3 +3 0 +4 0
deviations above it must
be equal to the sum of The total of the deviations is zero.
those below it. Instead you want the absolute value of the deviation.
Whether positive or negative, it is counted as positive.

It is denoted by −x x .
You can see this in Table R.2.

Table R.2
Karen’s points Total, Σ
Points, x 4 3 6 8 5 6 3 9 6 10 60
Absolute deviation,
x x− +2 +3 0 +2 +1 0 +3 +3 0 +4 18

The next step is to find the means of their absolution

deviations.
18 =
For Karen it is 1.8. For Jake the mean absolute deviation works out to
10
6 =
be
10
0.6. Check Jake’s mean absolute deviation for yourself.
So there is a greater spread in Karen’s scores.
Who should be chosen?
If the producer wants a dancer with a steady reliable performance, the
choice should probably be Jake. On the other hand if the producer wants
someone who has good days and bad days but is very good at her best, then
it should be Karen.

xx . It is an acceptable measure
Mean absolute deviation is given by ∑ −n
of spread but it is not widely used because it is difficult to work with. Instead
the thinking behind it is taken further with standard deviation which is more
important mathematically and consequently is very widely used.
To work out the mean absolute deviation, you had to treat all deviations as if
they were positive. Another way to get rid of the unwanted negative signs is to
square the deviations. For Karen’s data this could be written as in Table R.3.

Table R.3
Karen’s points Total, Σ
Points, x 4 3 6 8 5 6 3 9 6 10 60
Squared deviation x
( x− )2 4 9 0 4 1 0 9 9 0 16 52

324
 So the mean of the squared deviations is 52
10
= 5.2.
This is not a particular easy measure to interpret but if you take its square root
and so get the root mean squared deviation, this can then be compared with the
R
actual data values.
= ...
In this example the root mean squared deviation for Karen’s data is 5.2 2.28

Note It is a measure of how much the value of a typical item of data might be above
or below the mean.
Find the root mean
squared deviation for It is good practice to use standard notation to explain your working, and this is
Jake’s data for yourself. given below.

Notation
The sum of the squared deviations is denoted by S xx.
i =n
So S xx
= ∑ (xi x− ) .
2

i =1
This is often written more simply as S xx = ∑ (x x− )2 .

∑ x nx−
Remember An equivalent form is S xx = 2 2
.
Sxx
∑ x n= ∑ xn = nx Mean squared deviation is given by
n
∑ x = nx
2 2
and root mean squared deviation (rmsd) is
Sxx .
n

Note You are now one step away from finding variance and standard deviation.
The calculation of the mean squared deviation and the root mean squared deviation
The reason for dividing involves dividing the sum of squares, S xx , by n. If, instead, S xx is divided by
by (n − 1) rather than (n − 1) you obtain the variance and the standard deviation. For sample data, they
by n is that when you are denoted by s 2 and s.
come to work out the
n deviations of a data
set from the mean Variance s = nS1−xx
2
there are only (n − 1)
independent variables. Standard deviation s = Sxx
n 1−

Discussion point For Karen’s data, S xx = 26 and n = 10.

➜ What are the s2

So the variance, =
26 =
2.888... and the standard deviation
variance and 10 1−
standard deviation s = =
2.888... 1.699..., (or 1.700 to 3 d.p.).
for Jake's data? Standard deviation is by far the most important measure of spread in statistics.
It is used for both discrete and continuous data and with ungrouped and
grouped data.

TECHNOLOGY
Check whether your calculator gives the standard deviation or the root mean
squared deviation or whether it offers you a choice.

325
 Statistical problem solving
Review exercise R.1
① A conservationist spends a night observing 25
bats. Afterwards he draws these four diagrams
to show his results. Three of them are correct 20

of bats
but one is not. Which one is wrong? 15

Number
Species 10
Brown
long-eared 5

0
Noctule Brown Noctule Pipistrelle Serotine Others
long-eared

Pipistrelle Figure R.9

② This back-to-back stem-and-leaf diagram
Serotine (Figure R.10) shows the mean GDP per person
Key: in Western and Eastern European countries, in
represents
Others 4 bats thousands of US$.

Figure R.6 Western Europe Eastern Europe

047888
91112468
25
8443320123568
20 8877661003
of bats

6533111104
15
7545
Number

10 616
7
5 9 0 88

0 Key 3|7 = 37 000 US$

Brown
long-eared
Noctule Pipistrelle Serotine Others
Figure R.10
Figure R.7 (i) What is the main point that the diagram
tells you?
Key: (ii) Find the modes for
Brown
long-eared
(a) Western Europe
Noctule (b) Eastern Europe.
Pipistrelle (iii) Which are the modal groups for
Serotine (a) Western Europe
Others
(b) Eastern Europe
(c) Europe as a whole?
Figure R.8 (iv) Which is the more representative of each
region, its mode or its modal group?
(v) Compare the medians for Western and
Eastern Europe.

326
 (vi) The mean of the figures represented in the
stem-and-leaf diagram for Western Europe
is 40 875 US$.
(a) Calculate the equivalent figure for
Table R.4
Gold medals
0
Countries
148
R
1 21
Eastern Europe.
2 11
(b) Explain why these figures do not
3 6
represent the mean GDP per person
living in those two regions and state 4 3
what sort of means would give that 5 2
information. 6 2
(vii) The mean per capita income for the UK 7 2
is 37 300 US$.What is the rank of the UK 8 4
among European countries?
9 1
③ (i) The mean height of a sample of sunflowers 10 0
is 162.3 cm and the standard deviation is 11 0
15.2 cm. Calculate the mean and standard 12 2
deviation of the height of the plants in
17 1
metres.
19 1
(ii) The mean temperature of soup served 26 1
in a restaurant is 89°F. The standard
deviation of the temperatures is 1.1°F. 27 1
Calculate the mean and standard deviation 46 1
of the temperatures in degrees Celsius.
The formula to convert from f degrees ⑤ Six statements are given here. Decide whether
Fahrenheit to c degrees Celsius is each of them is
c = 5 ( f − 32)
9
■ definitely a TRUE conclusion from
the data
Questions 4 and 5 use the data in Table R.4,
giving how many countries won different ■ definitely a FALSE conclusion from
numbers of gold medals at the 2016 Olympic the data
Games. ■ UNCERTAIN because it is impossible to
The standard deviation of the number of gold say from the information given.
medals per country is 4.79. A Over half the gold medals went to just
4 countries.
④ (i) Describe the distribution of the number
B The mean number of gold medals per
of gold medals per country.
country was 1.5, correct to 1 decimal
(ii) Find the median and the quartiles of the
place.
data.
(iii) Explain why a box-and-whisker plot is not
C Over 80% of countries obtained fewer
than the mean number of gold medals per
an appropriate way to display these data.
country.
(iv) Consider other possible ways of displaying
D It was the smaller countries that did not
the data and comment on the problems
get any gold medals.
associated with them.
E Seven countries can be identified as
Note outliers because the number of gold
medals they won was more than
The five countries with the most medals were: 2 standard deviations greater than the
USA (46), Great Britain (27), China (26), Russia (19) mean.
and Germany (17). F The mode and midrange are both zero.

327
 Statistical problem solving
⑥ As part of a study, a doctor keeps a record
of the duration of the pregnancies of 200
patients and displays the data on this histogram
(Figure R.11).

10

7
per day

6
Births

0
240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300
Days
Figure R.11
(i) Show that this study covers 200 women.
The ‘due date’ of a mother to be is set at 280
Working with a large data set
days. Babies born before 260 days are described TECHNOLOGY
as ‘pre-term’.Those born after 287 days are
Questions 8–11 are based on the data that Robin,
‘post-term’. a reporter from the Avonford Star, collected
(ii) Find the percentage of the births in this in order to investigate cycling accidents. He
study that resulted in babies that were collected data for 93 accidents covering 13 fields.
(a) The full data set is available as a spreadsheet at
born on their due date www.hoddereducation.co.uk/MEIMathsYear2. It
(b) pre-term can also be found on pages 518–519 at the back of
(c) this book. You are expected to use a spreadsheet
post-term.
or statistical software when answering most of the
(iii) Describe the distribution shown in the questions.
histogram. Explain why, given the context,
you would expect this to be the case.
T ⑧ What does ‘cleaning’ a data set mean? Identify
(iv) The vertical scale is labelled ‘Births per cases where you would need to clean the
day’. Explain how this corresponds to the cycling accidents data set.
usual ‘Frequency density’ for a histogram.
⑦ (i) Summary measures for a data set are
T ⑨ Looking at the cycling accidents data
spreadsheet, decide for which fields it is
= x
2
n = 207, ∑ x=309 and ∑ 5183. sensible to calculate some form of average.
Calculate the standard deviation. Where appropriate, say which form of average
( x−x )2 = ∑ x−2 nx 2 is the best one to choose for each field.
(ii) Show that ∑ T ⑩ Robin wants to write case studies of a sample
and so the two formulae for S xx are
of 12 of the cyclists. What sort of sample would
equivalent.
you advise him to select?
(iii) Are there any situations where
T ⑪ How would you compare the risks of serious
one method might be preferred
accidents to young people and to older people?
to the other?

328
KEY POINTS
1 Statistical problem solving uses the standard 4-stage problem solving cycle
R
■ problem specification and analysis
■ information collection
■ processing and representation
■ interpretation.
The information collected is usually in the form of data.
2 Data collection often involves taking a sample. Types of samples include the following:
■ simple random
■ stratified
■ cluster
■ systematic
■ quota
■ opportunity
■ self-selected.
3 Processing and representation involves
■ cleaning the data
selecting, calculating and interpreting summary measures that are appropriate for the type of data
and the context
■

selecting, presenting and interpreting display diagrams that are appropriate for the type of data and
the context.
■

4 Typically summary measures and displays are given in Table R.5.

Table R.5
Summary measures
Type of data Typical display Central tendency Spread
Categorical Bar chart, Pie chart, Dot plot, Modal class
Tally, Pictogram
Ranked Stem-and-leaf diagram Median
Boxplot
Discrete numerical Stem-and-leaf diagram Men, Mode, Mid-range, Range
(ungrouped) Vertical line chart Median, Weighted mean Interquartile range
Semi-interquartile range
Discrete numerical Bar chart (groups as Mean, Modal class, Range
(grouped) categories) Weighted mean Standard deviation
Frequency chart Mean, Median Range
Histogram Modal class Standard deviation
Continuous
Cumulative frequency curve Median Interquartile range
Semi-interquartile range

5 For a data set, x x , , ...

1 2 ■ x
∑
Mean x = ■xi
Sum of squared deviations: S xx = ∑ (xi x− ) = ∑ xi nx− 2 2 2

Variance: s = nS1−xx
2

Sxx
Standard deviation: s = variance =
n −1

329
 Problem solving Trains
The details of this situation are fictitious, but they are based on a real problem.

Here is one of many letters of complaint that a Train Operating Company

receives about a particular train.

Figure 1
I am writing to complain about the overcrowding on your 1723
train. I use this train regularly to get home from work but the 28
minute journey is the most uncomfortable time of my day.
If you thought of your passengers you would add extra coaches to
the train but you don’t. Everyone on the train says it is because you
put profits before passengers.
We are all hoping you lose the franchise when it comes up next year.

What should the company do about the situation?

1 Problem specification and analysis

Letters of complaint like this are not good news for the company and the
danger of losing the franchise is serious. They review the situation.
■ The train mentioned in the letter runs between five stations (A to E) each
weekday from Monday to Friday. The timings are the same each day.
A 1618 B 1648 C 1723 D 1751 E 1827
The letter is complaining about the journey from C to D.
■ The train has 4 coaches with a total of exactly 200 seats. It is possible to
add one more coach with an additional 58 seats but this would have to
be for the whole journey every day. If all the stages are overcrowded this
would be an obvious solution to the problem, but if that is not the case
it might be a costly thing to do. The company has a rule of thumb that a
train is running profitably if at least 50% of its seats are occupied.
■ A slow stopping train leaves C at 1715 and is almost empty when it
arrives at D at 1829. It is run by a different company.
A fast train, also run by a different company, leaves C at 1728 and goes
through D without stopping even though a platform is available. This train
overtakes the 1723 while it is stationary at D.
So, as a first step, the company decides to investigate how many passengers its
train carries at each stage between A and E on a typical day.

330
2 Information collection
Devise an information collection strategy for the company. It should include
advice on
R
■ the number of observations to be made, i.e. the sample size

■ when the observations should be made

■ who should collect the information.

Your report should consider any possible causes of inaccuracy or bias, and
how they might relate to the timescale for the work to be carried out.

3 Processing and representation

The company actually uses the train manager on each train to collect data
on the number of people on the train at the various stages during two
consecutive weeks. The data are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Stage
A to B B to C C to D D to E
Day
Monday 108 124 240 110
Tuesday 85 126 248 116
Wednesday 90 90 90 90
Thursday 76 108 Too crowded to -
count
Friday 42 87 198 98
Monday 121 156 252 108
Tuesday 91 110 238 128
Wednesday 75 98 212 12
Thursday 72 84 204 106
Friday 48 79 201 86

Clean these data, explaining any decisions you make.

Then present them in a way that will be as helpful as possible for the
company’s decision makers. This will include using one or more suitable data
displays.
4 Interpretation
Based on all the available information, state what you would recommend the
company to do.

331
 15

‘Once you eliminate the

impossible, whatever ➜ How does probability affect the outcome in a court of law in
remains, no matter how
improbable, must be the
(i) a civil case
truth.’ (ii) a criminal case?
Sherlock Holmes in The
Sign of the Four
Arthur Conan Doyle
Review: Probability
(1859–1930) The probability of an event
Probability is a number between 0 and 1 which measures likelihood. A probability
of 0 means impossibility and 1 means certainty. Probability may be estimated
experimentally or theoretically.
The probability of an event occurring is estimated by repeating an experiment
and noting how many times the event occurs. This gives the approximate
probability of an event which cannot be calculated theoretically. The more
often the experiment is repeated, the more confident you can be in the result
obtained.

332
 As an example, the probability of a drawing pin landing pin-up is estimated by
throwing it up in the air 10 times. It lands pin-up 3 times so the probability of
this event is estimated to be 3
10 or 0.3. This is not, however, a figure that you
would feel very confident about. So the experiment is repeated to give a total
15
of 100 throws. It lands pin-up 28 times so the probability is now estimated to be
0.28. The experiment is then repeated to obtain a total of 1000 throws, of which
291 are pin-up. You now have three estimates of the probability; with increasing
confidence they are 0.3, 0.28 and 0.291.
In some situations, like tossing a coin, throwing dice or selecting a playing card
from a pack at random, all the possible outcomes are equally likely, or equiprobable.
In such cases, you can calculate the theoretical probability of an event.
For example, the probability of getting a total score of 9 when adding the
scores on two dice is calculated from the sample space diagram which
shows all the possible outcomes from throwing two dice. (You may find it
helpful to think of them as one red and one blue, as indicated in the diagram.)
Figure 15.1
Scores 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
As the dice are 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
different the order
of the outcomes is 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
important. ‘4 and 5’ 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
is not the same as ‘5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
and 4’. 4
P(9) = 36 where
■ 4 is the number of ways you could get a total score of 9. They are 3 and 6;
4 and 5; 5 and 4; 6 and 3.
■ 36 is the total number of possible outcomes.
This is expressed as the following rule for an event A.
nA
P( A) = % ( )
()
n
where n(A) is the number of ways that event A can occur and
n( %) is the total number of ways that the possible events can occur.
The probability of the complement of an event A, that is the event not
happening, is given by
P( A) ʹ1=P(− ) A
where the notation ʹA is used to denote the complementary event ‘not A’.

The probability of two events from a single

experiment
You can show the outcomes of two events resulting from a single experiment on
a Venn diagram like that in Figure 15.2 (overleaf ) for A and B. You can then use
it to work out the probability of any pair of outcomes for the two events. This is
usually referred to as the probability of two events.

333
 Review: Probability
Ᏹ

A B

Figure 15.2
A B This shows you that for any two events, A and B,
P( A B
∪ ) P( A ) +P( B − A B∩ . )
= ) P(
P( A B
∪ ) is the probability of the union of two events, as shown in Figure 15.3.
This is more commonly read as ‘the probability of A or B occurring’.
Figure 15.3 ( A B∪ ) P( A B
∩ ) is the probability of the intersection of two events (Figure 15.4).
This is more commonly read as ‘the probability of A and B occurring’.
A B
Where the events are mutually exclusive (i.e. they cannot both occur) then
A B∪but) the
this is stillP(true, P( A ) +P( B of− A B∩ ) is zero so the equation simplifies
= ) probability
P(
to: A
P( B ∪ ) P( = ) P(A ) +P( B . − A B∩ )
In this case the Venn diagram looks like Figure 15.5.
Figure 15.4 ( A B∩ ) Ᏹ

A B

Figure 15.5 P (A B∩ ) 0= and so ∪

P( A B = ) P(A)B+
) P(

Example 15.1 There are 15 goldfish and 30 tench in a tank at a shop. There are 8 male fish
and 3 of these are goldfish; the other fish are all female.
A fish is caught at random in a net.
(i) Identify the experiment, the events and their possible outcomes, in this
situation.
(ii) Using G for ‘The fish is a goldfish’ and M for ‘The fish is male’, draw a
labelled Venn diagram to illustrate the situation, and write the correct
number in each region.
(iii) Find the probability that the fish is
(a) a male goldfish (b) a male or a goldfish (c) a female tench.
(iv) Show that P(G) P(+ ) P(M − GM
∩ = ) P( G M
∪ ).

334
 Solution
(i) Experiment Events Outcomes 15
Goldfish
Type of fish
Tench
Selec ng a fish
at random
Male
Sex of fish
Female
(ii) Ᏹ
G M

12 3 5 45

25

Figure 15.6 A female tench is not

a goldfish (G´) and
(iii) (a) P(G M ∩ )= 3
45 (∩) not a male (M´).
(b) P(G M ∪ )= 20
45
(c) P(G ʹ ∩ ʹM = ) 25
45
(iv) P(G) P(+ ) P(M − GM
∩ =
) P( GM
∪ )
15 + 8 − 3 = 20
45 45 45 45
as required.

The expected frequency of an event

In the previous example, the probability of catching a male goldfish was 3
45 or 115 .
If the fish was put back and the experiment was repeated 30 times, you would
expect to get a male goldfish on 30 × 1
15 or 2 occasions. The number 2 (in this
case) is the expected frequency or the expectation.

Review exercise
① Aled has three 2p coins, two 10p coins and one ② Figure 15.7 shows the cards in a standard pack.
£1 coin in his pocket. He selects one coin at
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A
random. Assuming that all the coins are equally
likely to be selected, find the probability that it ♠ *************
is worth ♥ *************
(i) 10p (ii) less than 10p ♦ *************
(iii) more than 10p (iv) less than £2
♣ *************
(v) £2 or more. Figure 15.7

335
 Review: Probability
Two cards are chosen at random from a standard ⑦ In a year cohort the probability that a
pack. The first one is not replaced before the randomly chosen student is studying French
second one is chosen. is 0.84, the probability that a randomly
Say whether the following statements are TRUE chosen student is studying German is 0.65,
or FALSE. If FALSE, explain why. and 8% of the cohort study neither French
nor German. Find the probability that a
(i) Figure 15.7 is an example of a sample randomly chosen student is studying both
space diagram. French and German.
(ii) The probability that the two cards are ⑧ Given that P(A) = 0.9 and P(B) = 0.7, find the
those shown by blue stars (*) is 1 smallest possible value of P(A ∩ B).
2652 .
(iii)
Working with a large data set
The probability that both cards are the
Queen of Spades is 0.
(iv) The probability that the first card chosen ⑨ In the Avonford cycling accidents data
is a 4 or a heart is 17
52 . set, information is available on 85 cyclists
(v) The probability that both cards are spades involved in accidents regarding whether
they were wearing helmets and whether
is ( ) = . 161
2
1
4 they suffered from concussion (actual or
(vi)The probability that the total score on the suspected).
two cards is 15 is 0.0362 (to 4 decimal places). ■ Event C is that an individual cyclist suffered
③ Given that P(A) = 0.8, P(B) = 0.6 and from concussion.
P(A ∩ B) = 0.5, find P(A ∪ B). ■ Event H is that an individual cyclist was
④ Given that P(C ) = 0.6, P(D) = 0.7, and that C wearing a helmet.
and D are independent, find P(C ∩ D). ■ 22 cyclists suffered from concussion.
⑤ Given that P(E′) = 0.44, P(F′) = 0.28 and ■ 55 cyclists were wearing helmets.
P(E ∪ F ) = 1, find P(E ∩ F ). ■ 13 cyclists were both wearing helmets and
⑥ A poultry keeper sets a night vision camera to suffered from concussion.
record what predators visit her garden at night (i) Copy this Venn diagram and place the
during the month of June one year. She records correct numbers in the four different
the results and illustrates them on the Venn regions.
diagram in Figure 15.8, using the letters B and Ᏹ
F to denote the following events for any night. C H

■ B: at least one badger visits her garden

■ F: at least one fox visits her garden
Ᏹ

17
B F
25
Figure 15.9
x y z
One of the cyclists is selected at random.
P( B down
(ii) Write F∪ = ) P( B ′)+)P((b)
(a) P(C
) P( −∩ F BH F)
P(C )
2
(iii) Verify that for these data
Figure 15.8 P( P(∪BF=H
P(CB F∪) )=P(=) )P(
B) F)P(
P(
P(C BP(
)+ B−F)∩) H− P(C
B+−F)+FP(H
∩
P( ) )
(i) State the values of the numbers x, y and zP( B F ) P((iv)) Show
∪= B )+P(that
P( F P(C
− ∩′ B H′F) = 1) − P(CBP(F B) P( ∪F )H
=P(
+) )
on the Venn diagram. (v) Compare the percentages of those wearing
helmets who suffered from concussion and
(ii) Find P(B ), P(F ), BP(F ∪ and) B FP( ∩ ). those not wearing helmets who suffered from
(iii) Show that concussion.
P( B F
∪ ) P( B )+P(
= ) P( F − B F∩ )
Comment on whether this is a reliable
(iv) State, with an explanation, whether the comparison.
events B and F are mutually exclusive.

336
 1 The probability of events from two 15
experiments
AVONFORD STAR

A Chance in a Million
l don’t know whether Veronica, 14, saw a black number came up in the programme draw.
cat last Saturday morning, or six magpies, or Veronica said, ‘To be honest, l didn’t even
what, but it was certainly her lucky day. Not know there was a programme draw. l was just
only did her one and only ticket win her the about to throw mine away when they announced
top prize of £100 in the raffle at the Avonford the winning number – l couldn’t believe it –
Summer Fair but later in the afternoon she two wins in one day. lt must be a chance in a
received another £50 when her programme million!’

This story describes two pieces of good fortune on the same day. Veronica said
1
the probability was about 1000000 .What was it really?
The two events resulted from two different experiments, the raffle draw and the
programme draw. This is not the same as two events based on the outcomes from
a single experiment. Consequently, this situation is different from looking at two
outcomes from a single experiment (like a playing card chosen at random from a
pack being a heart or being an ace).
The total sales of raffle tickets were 1245 and of programmes 324. The draws
were conducted fairly, that is each number had an equal chance of being
selected. Table 15.1 sets out the two experiments and their corresponding events
with associated probabilities.

Table 15.1
Experiments Events (and estimated probabilities)
Raffle draw Winning with a single ticket 11245
Not winning with a single ticket 1244
1245
Programme draw Winning with a single programme 1
324
Not winning with a single programme 323
324

If you want to prove that In situations like this, the possible outcomes resulting from the different
events A and B are experiments are often shown on a tree diagram.
independent, you should
show that they satisfy If the events A and B are independent then P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B).
this equation. Multiplying probabilities together can often give incorrect answers when the
events are not independent.

Example 15.2 Find, in advance of the results of the two draws, the probability that Veronica
would do the following:
(i) win both draws,
(ii) fail to win either draw,
(iii) win exactly one of the two draws. ➜

337
 The probability of events from two experiments

Solution
The possible results are shown on the tree diagram in Figure 15.10.
raffle programme draw combined
1 1 1 (i)
324 win
1245 324
1 win
1245 not 1244 1 (iii)
323 win 1245 324
324
1 (iii)
324 1 323
win
1244 1245 324
not
1245 not 1244 (ii)
win 323
323 win 1245 324
324

Figure 15.10
(i) The probability that Veronica wins both
= 1 × 1 = 1
1245 324 403380
This is not quiteVeronica’s ‘one in a million’ but it is not very far off it.
(ii) The probability that Veronica wins neither
= 1244 × 323 = 401812
1245 324 403380
Wins raffle but not This of course is much the most likely outcome.
programme draw. (iii) The probability that Veronica wins one but not the other is given by
= 1 × 323 + 1244 × 1 = 1567
Wins programme 1245 324 1245 324 403380
draw but not raffle.
Look again at the structure of the tree diagram in Figure 15.10.
There are two experiments, the raffle draw and the programme draw. These are
considered as ‘first, then’ experiments and set out ‘first’ on the left and ‘then’ on
the right. The rest of the layout falls into place, with the different outcomes or
Notice that this check events appearing as branches. In this example there are two branches at each
was made easier stage; sometimes there may be three or more. Notice that for a given situation
by not cancelling the component probabilities sum to 1.
common factors in 1 + 323 + 1224 + 401812 = 403380 = 1
the fractions. =
403380 403380 403380 403380 403380

Example 15.3 Some friends buy a six-pack of crisps. Two of the bags are salted potato crisps (S),
the rest are fruit crisps (F). They decide to allocate the bags by lucky dip.
Find the probability that
(i) the first two bags chosen are the same as each other
(ii) the first two bags chosen are different from each other.
first dip second dip combined

Note 1
5 S P(S, S) = 2 ×
1 (i)

P(F, S ) means the 2 S

6 5

probability of drawing a 6
F P(S, F ) = 2 ×
4 (ii)

fruit crisps bag (F ) on

4 6 5
5
the first dip and a salted
potato crisps bag (S ) on
2 (ii)
5 S 2
P(F, S) = 4 ×
the second. 4
6
F
6 5
(i)
3 F P(F, F) = 4 × 3
6 5
5

Figure 15.11
338
 Solution
(i) The probability that the first two bags chosen are the same as each
other = P(S, S ) + P(F, F )
15
Note = ×2 + ×1 4 3
6 5 6 5
The answer to part (ii) = 2 + 12
above hinged on the 30 30
fact that two orderings = 14
(S then F, and F then S) 30

are possible for the (ii) The probability that the first two bags chosen are different from each
same combined event other = P(S, F ) + P(F, S )
(that the two bags
selected include one = ×2 + ×4
6 5
4
6
2
5
salted potato crisps and = 8 + 8
one fruit crisps bag). =
30
16
30

30

The probabilities changed between the first dip and the second dip. This is
because the outcome of the second dip is dependent on the outcome of the first
one (with fewer bags remaining to choose from).
By contrast, the outcomes of the two experiments involved in tossing a coin
twice are independent, and so the probability of getting a head on the second
toss remains unchanged at 0.5, whatever the outcome of the first toss.
Although you may find it helpful to think about combined events in terms of
how they would be represented on a tree diagram, you may not always actually
draw them in this way. If there are several experiments and perhaps more than
two possible outcomes from each, drawing a tree diagram can be very time-
consuming.

Example 15.4 A roulette wheel has 37 numbers on it (0, 1, 2, 3, …, 36); they are all equally
likely to come up. The odds offered by most casinos for a single number are
35–1, meaning that a player who bets £1 on the number that comes up wins
£35 and gets the £1 back. A roulette player has a ‘lucky’ number of 17. He
bets on it 40 times without winning.
(i) Does this mean that his ‘lucky’ number is actually unlucky?
(ii) He bets £1 each time. How much does he expect to win or lose in
40 rolls?

Solution
(i) The probability that a given number (e.g. 17) comes up on any roll is 1
37 .
1
On one roll, P(win) = 37 P(not win) = 1 1− =37 36
37

On 40 rolls, P(no wins) = 36

37
× ×36× × 36
37 37
= 36
37
(36
)
37
40
= 0.334

36
37
× ×36× × 36
37 37
36
37
= (36
)
= 0.334
37
40

So no wins in 40 rolls is not particularly unlikely.

➜

339
 The probability of events from two experiments
(ii) So on one roll the expectation of his winnings is
£ (35 × 1 − 1× 36 ) = −2.7p or a 2.7p loss.
37 37

On 40 rolls his expected loss is 40 × 2.7p = £1.08.

Example 15.5
THE AVONFORD STAR

Is this justice?
ln 2011, local man David Starr was sentenced David well believe he was incapable of such a
to 12 years imprisonment for armed robbery crime. We in the Star are now adding our voice
solely on the basis of an identification parade. to the clamour for a review of his case. How
He was one of 12 people in the parade and conclusive, we ask, is this sort of evidence,
was picked out by one witness but not by three or, to put it another way, how likely is it that a
others. Many Avonford people who knew mistake has been made?

Investigate how likely it is that David Starr really did commit the robbery.
In this you should assume that all the four witnesses at the identity parade
selected one person and that their selections were done entirely at
random.

Solution
In this situation you need to assess the probability of an innocent individual
being picked out by chance alone.
Assume that David Starr was innocent.
Since the witnesses were selecting in a purely random way, probability was
1
12 ofselecting any person and 1112 of not selecting that person.
So the probability that none of the four witnesses chose David Starr is
11× . 11
11 × × 11
12 12 12 12
The probability that at least one of the witnesses selected him is
1 − the probability that none of them did.
P(at least one selection) = 1 − P(no selections)
= −1 × ×11× 11 11 11
12 12 12 12
= −1 0.706 0.294
=

In other words, there is about a 30% chance of an innocent person being

Discussion point chosen in this way by at least one of the witnesses.

➜ Discuss the The same newspaper article concluded:

assumptions
underlying the
calculation in this ls 30% really the sort of figure we have in mind when judges use the phrase ‘beyond reasonable

example.
doubt’? Because if it is, many innocent people will be condemned to a life behind bars.

340
 Exercise 15.1
① The probability of a pregnant woman giving
birth to a girl is about 0.49.
Draw a new tree diagram and calculate
the probability that
15
Draw a tree diagram showing the possible (a) all three witnesses select the accused
outcomes if she has two babies (not twins). person
From the tree diagram, calculate the (b) none of the witnesses selects the
probability that accused person
(i) the babies are both girls (c) at least two of the witnesses select the
(ii)the babies are the same sex accused person.
(iii)
the second baby is of different sex to the first. ④ Ruth drives her car to work - provided she
can get it to start! When she remembers to
② In a certain district of a large city, the
put the car in the garage the night before, it
probability of a household suffering a break-in
starts next morning with a probability of 0.95.
in a particular year is 0.07 and the probability
When she forgets to put the car away, it starts
of its car being stolen is 0.12.
next morning with a probability of 0.75. She
Assuming these two events are independent of remembers to garage her car 90% of the time.
each other, draw a tree diagram showing the
What is the probability that Ruth drives her
possible outcomes for a particular year.
car to work on a randomly chosen day?
Calculate, for a randomly selected household
⑤ All the Jacks, Queens and Kings are removed
with one car, the probability that
from a pack of playing cards. Giving the Ace
(i) the household is a victim of both crimes a value of 1, this leaves a pack of 40 cards
during that year consisting of four suits of cards numbered 1
(ii) the household suffers only one of these to 10. The cards are well shuffled and one is
misfortunes during that year drawn and noted. This card is not returned to
(iii) the household suffers at least one of these the pack and a second card is drawn.
misfortunes during that year. Find the probability that
③ There are 12 people at an identification (i) both cards are even
parade; one of them is guilty and the others are (ii) at least one card is odd
innocent. Three witnesses are called to identify
the guilty person.
(iii) both cards are of the same suit

(i) Assuming they make their choice purely (iv) only one of the cards has a value greater
than 7.
by random selection, draw a tree diagram
showing the possible outcomes labelling ⑥ Three dice are thrown. Find the probability of
them Correct or Wrong. obtaining
(ii) From the tree diagram, calculate the (i) at least two 6s
probability that (ii) no 6s
(a) all three witnesses select the accused (iii) different scores on all the dice.
person ⑦ Explain the flaw in this argument about
(b) none of the witnesses selects the throwing dice and rewrite it as a valid
accused person statement.
(c) at least two of the witnesses select the The probability of getting a 6 on one
accused person.
throw = 16 . Therefore the probability of
(iii) Suppose now that the composition of
getting at least one 6 in six throws is
people in the identification parade is
1 ++ 1 + +1 + =1 so it1 is a1 certainty.
1
changed. Two witnesses now know that the 6 6 6 6 6 6
guilty person is one out of four individuals
in the parade. The third chooses at random.

341
 Conditional probability
⑧ In a Donkey Derby event, there are three races. in those accidents, 35 did not spend a
There are six donkeys entered for the first race, night in hospital.
four for the second and three the third. Sheila Having an accident involving a motor vehicle
places a bet on one donkey in each race. She is referred to as event M. Spending at least one
knows nothing about donkeys and chooses night in hospital is event H.
each donkey at random. (i) Copy this tree diagram and write the
Find the probability that she backs at least missing probabilities on the branches.
one winner. H
⑨ The probability of someone catching flu in a M
particular winter when they have been given HЈ
the flu vaccine is 0.1. Without the vaccine, the
probability of catching flu is 0.4. If 30% of the H
population has been given the vaccine, what is the MЈ
probability that a person chosen at random from HЈ
the population will catch flu over that winter?
⑩ In a game, players pay an entry fee of £1. They
Figure 15.12
then throw dice, one at a time, until one shows 6. (ii) Find the probability that a person selected
If only one throw is needed, the player receives at random from the data set
£3. If two throws are needed, the player receives (a) had an accident involving a motor
£2. If three throws are needed, the player gets his vehicle and spent at least one night in
or her entry fee back; otherwise the £1 is lost. hospital
Find the probability that a player (b) did not spend a night in hospital.
(i) receives £3 (ii) receives £2 (iii) Copy this table and fill in the cells with
(iii) gets the £1 entry fee back the correct numbers of cyclists.
(iv) loses the entry fee Table 15.2
Working with a large data set M
H H′ Total

⑪ This question is based on the Avonford cycling

M′
accidents data set. The relevant data are unclear
or missing for 5 of the cyclists and so are Total 88
excluded from this question, leaving data for a
total of 88 cyclists. You will often find it useful to calculate the
probability of the complement of the event
■ 44 of the cycling accidents involved a motor that you want, particularly if the question
vehicle (car, lorry, bus etc); the others did not. is of the ‘at least once’ type.
■ After an accident involving a motor vehicle,
24 of the cyclists spent at least one night (iv) Robin says ‘The data tell me that accidents
in hospital. The others involved in such involving motor vehicles tend to be more
accidents did not spend a night in hospital. serious’.
■ The other accidents did not involve a Explain why he might come to this
motor vehicle, Out of the cyclists involved conclusion.

2 Conditional probability
What is the probability that somebody chosen at random will die of a heart attack in
the next 12 months? To answer this question, you need to develop a probability model.
One model would be based on saying that, since there are about 150000 deaths per year
from diseases of the circulatory system among the 64000000 population of the UK,

342
 Probability =

=
Number of deaths from circulatory diseases per year in UK

150 000
64 000 000
Total population of UK
= 0.0023
15
However, if you think about it, you will probably realise that this is rather a

ytilibaborP 51 retpahC
meaningless figure. For a start, young people are much less at risk than those in
or beyond middle age.
So you might wish to refine your model so that it gives two answers:
Deaths from circulatory diseases among over-55s
P
1= Population of over-55s
Deaths from circulatory diseases among under-55s
P
2= Population of under-55s
Typically only 5000 of the deaths would be among the under-55s leaving
(on the basis of these figures) 145 000 among the over-55s. ‘Over–55s’
About 18 000 000 people in the UK are over 55, and are those who
have had their
46 000 000 under 55. This gives 55th birthday.
Deaths from circulatory diseases among over-55s
P
1= Population of over-55s
145000
= = 0.0081
18 000 000

Deaths from circulatory diseases among under-55s

P
2= Population of under-55s

= 5000 = 0.00011
46 000 000
So, according to this model, somebody in the older group is over 70 times more likely
to die of a heart attack than somebody in the younger group. Putting them both
together as an average figure resulted in a figure that was representative of neither
group. (The figures used in this section are approximated from those supplied by the
British Heart Foundation who had themselves used a number of official sources.)
But why stop there? You could, if you had the figures, divide the population up
into 10-year, 5-year, or even 1-year intervals. That would certainly improve the
accuracy of this model; but there are also more factors that you might wish to
take into account, such as the following.
■ Is the person overweight?
■ Does the person smoke?
■ Does the person take regular exercise?
The more conditions you build in, the more accurate will be the estimate of the
probability obtained from the model.
You can see how the conditions are brought in by looking at P1:
Deaths from circulatory diseases among over-55s
P
1= Population of over-55s

= 145000 = 0.0081
18 000 000

343
 Conditional probability
You would write this in symbols as follows:
Event G: Somebody selected at random is over 55.
Event H: Somebody selected at random dies from circulatory diseases.
The probability of someone dying from circulatory diseases given that he or she
is over 55 is given by the conditional probability H
P(G) where
P( H G ) means the
probability of event H P( H G ) =
n(H G∩ )
occurring given that n(G)
event G has occurred. n(H G∩ )
= n( %)
n(G)
n( %)
= P( H G )
∩
P(G)
This result may be written in general form for all cases of conditional probability
for events A and B.

Ᏹ
A B

B∩A

Figure 15.13
P( B A
∩ )
P( B A ) =
P( A
)
Conditional probability is used when your estimate of the probability of an event
is altered by your knowledge of whether some other event has occurred. In this
case the estimate of the probability of somebody dying from circulatory diseases,
P(H), is altered by a knowledge of whether the person is over 55 or not.
Thus, conditional probability addresses the question of whether one event is
dependent on another one. It is very important in probability models. If the
probability of event B is not affected by the occurrence of event A, you say
that B is independent of A. If, on the other hand, the probability of event B is
affected by the occurrence (or not) of event A, you say that B is dependent on A.
A ʹ is the event not–A, i.e.
that A does not occur. If A and B are independent, then BP(A) = P( B A ʹ ) and this is just P(B).
If A and B are dependent, then P( B) ≠A P( B A ʹ ).
The probability of both A As you have already seen, the probability of a combined event is the product of
and B occurring. the separate probabilities of each event, provided the question of dependence
between the two events is properly dealt with. Specifically:
The probability
The probability of B For dependent events P( A B∩ = ) P( ) P(A ).× B A of A occurring.
occurring, given that A
has happened. When A and B are independent events, then, because P( B) P(
A ) =this can
B
be written as
For independent events AP(B A)×
∩ = ) P( ) P( B.

344
 Example 15.6 A company is worried about the high turnover of its employees and decides
to investigate whether they are more likely to stay if they are given training.
On 1 January one year the company employed 256 people (excluding those
15
about to retire). During that year a record was kept of who received training
as well as who left the company. The results are summarised in this Table 15.3:

ytilibaborP 51 retpahC
Table 15.3
Still employed Left company Total
Given training 109 43 152
This is a two-way table. Not given training 60 44 104
Total 169 87 256

Find the probability that a randomly selected employee

(i) received training
(ii) did not leave the company
(iii) received training and did not leave the company
(iv) did not leave the company, given that the person had received training
(v) did not leave the company, given that the person had not received training.

Solution
Using the notation T: the employee received training
S: the employee stayed in the company
(i) P(received training) TP( T
)) S)===
P(P(
nn(n(TT
())S) == 152
152
169
N
NN( %)( ) %
256
256

(ii) P(did not leave) P(S) =

n(S) = 169
n( ) 256
Discussion point %

(iii) P(received training and did not leave) TP(S ∩ = ) n(T S )

∩
= 109
➜ How would you show n( ) %
256

that the event T is (iv) P(did not leave given that they received training)
not independent of
the event S? P(S T )=
P(S T
∩ ) =
109
256 = =109 0.72
P(T) 152 152
256

(v) P(did not leave given that they did not receive training)
60
P(S T
∩ʹ )
P(S T ʹ )= = 256 = =60 0.58
P(T) ʹ 104 104
256
Since S S T ʹ ), the event S is not independent of
P(T ) is not the same as P(
the event T. Each of S and T is dependent on the other, a conclusion which
matches common sense. It is almost certainly true that training increases
employees’ job satisfaction and so makes them more likely to stay, but it is
also probably true that the company is more likely to go to the expense of
training the employees who seem less inclined to move on to other jobs.

345
 Conditional probability
In some situations you may find it helps to represent a problem such as this as a
Venn diagram as shown in Figure 15.14.
T(152) T' (104) Ᏹ(256)
S(169)

109 60

43 44

Figure 15.14
Discussion points
➜ What do the various numbers and letters represent?
➜ Where is the region S′?
➜ How are the numbers in Figure 15.14 related to the answers to parts (i) to (v)?

In other situations it may be helpful to think of conditional probabilities in

terms of tree diagrams. Conditional probabilities are needed when events are
dependent, that is when the outcome of one trial affects the outcomes from a
subsequent trial, so for dependent events, the probabilities of the second and
any subsequent layers of a tree diagram are conditional.

Example 15.7 Rebecca is buying two goldfish from a pet shop. The shop’s tank contains seven
male fish and eight female fish but they all look the same (Figure 15.15).

Figure 15.15
Find the probability that Rebecca’s fish are
(i) both the same sex
(ii) both female
(iii) both female given that they are the same sex.

346
 Solution
The situation is shown on the tree diagram in Figure 15.16.
first fish second fish
15
6 7 6 42
M P(both male)

ytilibaborP 51 retpahC
14 15 14 210
7 M
15 8 F P(male, female) 7 8 56
14 15 14 210

7 8 7 56
8 14 M P(female, male)
15 14 210
15 F
7 F P(both female) 8 7 56
14 15 14 210

Figure 15.16
(i) P(both the same sex) = P(both male) + P(both female)
= 42 + 56 = 98
210 210 210

(ii) P(both female) = 56

210
(iii) P(both female
| both the same sex)

= P(both female and the same sex) This is the same as

P(both the same sex) P(both female).
56
= 210 = 4
98 7
210

The idea in the last example can be expressed more generally using formal
notation for any two dependent events, A and B. The tree diagram would be as
in Figure 15.17.
P(B A) BA P(A ∩ B) P(A) P(B A)
A
P(A)
P(B A) BA P( A) P(A)
∩ B P(B A)

P(B A ) BA P( A ∩ B ) P(A ) P(B A )

P(A )
A
P(B A ) BA P( A ∩ B ) P(A ) P(B A )

The probabilities in the second These events are conditional

layer of the tree diagram are upon the outcome of the first
conditional on the outcome of experiment.
the first experiment.
Discussion point Figure 15.17
➜ How were these The tree diagram shows you that
results used in P(B) = P( A ∩B + ) P( AʹB∩ )
Example 15.7 about
the goldfish? = P( A
) P(× B A ) +P( ) P(
Aʹ × B A ʹ)
P( A ∩
B ) P( A × BA)
= ) P(

⇒ P( B A ) = P( A B )
∩
P( A
)

347
 Conditional probability
Exercise 15.2
① In a school of 600 students, of whom 360 are ② Table 15.4 below gives the numbers of
girls, there are 320 hockey players, of whom offenders in England and Wales sentenced for
200 are girls. Among the hockey players there indictable offences, by type of offence and type
are 28 goalkeepers, 19 of them girls. Find the of sentence, in 2013.
probability that (i) Find the probability that a randomly selected
(i) a student chosen at random is a girl person indicted for an offence will be
(ii) a girl chosen at random plays hockey (a) discharged
(iii) a hockey player chosen at random is a girl (b) given a caution
(iv) a student chosen at random is a goalkeeper (c) fined
(v) a goalkeeper chosen at random is a boy (d) sent to jail
(vi) a male hockey player chosen at random is (e) sent to jail for a motoring offence
a goalkeeper (f) sent to jail given that the person has
(vii) a hockey player chosen at random is a committed a motoring offence
male goalkeeper (g) guilty of a motoring offence given
(viii) two students chosen at random are both that the person is sent to jail.
goalkeepers (ii) Criticise this statement:
(ix) two students chosen at random are a male Based on these figures nearly 1.5% of the country’s
goalkeeper and a female goalkeeper prison population are there for motoring offences.
(x) two students chosen at random are one
boy and one girl

Table 15.4
Penalty
notices for
Offence group disorder Cautions Proceedings Convictions Sentenced Discharged Fine Custody Total

Violence against
the person – 11 966 55 161 34 061 33 706 1 439 2 345 12 678 151 356

Sexual offences – 1 447 9 791 5 512 5 489 79 124 3 259 2 571

Burglary – 2 264 26 887 20 500 20 143 332 249 10 658 81 033

Robbery – 160 10 595 7 377 7 368 21 16 4 634 30 171

Theft and handling

stolen goods 25 331 32 006 118 919 105 721 105 033 22 287 16 276 22 148 447 721

Fraud and forgery – 4 347 20 282 15 576 15 352 1 493 1 935 3 789 62 774

Criminal damage – 3 445 3 445 5 394 5 298 1 066 698 834 20 180

Drug offences 15 374 37 515 63 522 57 218 56 518 9 801 20 909 8 617 269 474

Indictable motoring
offences – – 3 193 2 788 2 813 35 182 1 083 10 094

Other indictable
offences – 4 933 51 901 37 811 37 846 2 871 10 967 9 344 155 673

Total indictable
offences 40 705 98 083 363 696 291 958 289 566 39 424 53 701 77 044 1 254 177

348
③ 100 cars are entered for a roadworthiness
test which is in two parts, mechanical and
electrical. A car passes only if it passes both
parts. Half the cars fail the electrical test and
Find the probability that
(ii)
both the hunter and the quark die
(iii)
the hunter lives and the quark dies
15
62 pass the mechanical. 15 pass the electrical (iv)
the hunter lives, given that the quark dies.
but fail the mechanical test. ⑦ There are 90 players in a tennis club. Of

ytilibaborP 51 retpahC
Find the probability that a car chosen at random these, 23 are juniors, the rest are seniors. 34
of the seniors and 10 of the juniors are male.
(i) passes overall There are 8 juniors who are left-handed, 5
(ii) fails on one test only of whom are male. There are 18 left-handed
(iii) given that it has failed, failed the players in total, 4 of whom are female seniors.
mechanical test only.
④ Two dice are thrown. What is the probability
(i) Represent this information in a Venn diagram.
that the total is (ii) What is the probability that
(i) 7 (a) a male player selectedat random is
left-handed?
(ii) a prime number
(iii) 7, given that it is a prime number?
(b) a left-handed player selected at
random is a female junior?
⑤ In a school of 400 students, 250 play a musical
instrument and 100 sing in the choir. The
(c) a player selected at random is either a
junior or a female?
probability that a student chosen at random
neither plays a musical instrument nor sings in
(d) a player selected at random is right-
the choir is 1 . handed?
5
(i) How many students both sing in the choir (e) a right-handed player selected at
random is not a junior?
and play a musical instrument?
(ii) Find the probability that a student chosen
(f) a right-handed female player selected
at random is a junior?
Working with a large data set
at random sings in the choir but does not
play an instrument.
(iii) Find the probability that a member of the
⑧ The Avonford cycling accidents data set
choir chosen at random does not play an covers 93 people. However there are 3 people
instrument. whose sex is not given and 8 more for whom
(iv) Find the probability that someone who there is no information on whether they were
does not play an instrument, chosen at wearing a helmet.
random, is in the choir. This question refers to the group of people
⑥ Quark hunting is a dangerous occupation. On for whom complete information is given.
a quark hunt, there is a probability of 1 that In this group there are:
4
the hunter is killed. The quark is twice as likely ■ 54 people wearing a helmet
to be killed as the hunter. There is a probability ■ 26 females
of 13 that both survive. ■ 13 females wearing a helmet.
(i) Copy and complete this table of probabilities. (i) Copy thisVenn diagram and write the
Table 15.5 number of people in each of the four regions.
M F Ᏹ Key:
Hunter dies Hunter lives Total M = Male
F = Female
Quark dies 1
2 H = Wearing a
H
helmet
Quark lives 1 1
3 2

Total 1
4 Figure 15.18

349
 Conditional probability
A person is chosen at random from the group. (iii) At an editorial meeting, the other
(ii) Find the probability that the person journalists ask Robin ‘Can we say in the
(a) is female paper whether males and females are
(b) was wearing a helmet equally likely to be wearing helmets? Is
there any simple evidence we can quote?’
(c) is female given that the person was
wearing a helmet How might Robin respond to these
(d) was wearing a helmet given that the questions?
person is female.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ know what is meant by mutually exclusive and independent events
➤ use Venn diagrams in probability calculations
➤ calculate probabilities for two events which are not mutually exclusive
➤ calculate conditional probabilities
❍using the formula from Venn diagrams
❍

❍from tree diagrams from sample space

❍

❍from two-way tables diagrams

Make critiques of modelling assumptions in probability and suggest possible
improvements.
➤

KEY POINTS
1 The probability of an event A,
P( A
n(A)
) =%
n( )
where n(A) is the number of ways that A can occur andis the total number
P( A
n(A)
) =%
n( )
of ways that all possible events can occur, all of which are equally likely.
2 The expected frequency of an event is given by:
expected frequency = P(event) × number of times the experiment is repeated
3 For any two events, A and B, of the same experiment,
P( A ∩
B∪ ) P( A ) +P(
= ) P( B − A∩
B )
4 Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot both occur.
5 The regions representing mutually exclusive events on a Venn diagram do not
overlap and so
P( A ∪
B ) P( A )+
= ) P( B
6 Where an experiment produces two or more mutually exclusive events, the
probabilities of the separate events sum to 1.
7 P( A) P(+ ) 1 Aʹ =
8 P(B A ) means the probability of event B occurring given that event A has
already occurred.
P( A ∩B )
P( B A ) =
P( A
)
9 The probability that event A and then event B occur, in that order, is
P(A) P(× | ).B A
10 If event B is independent of event A, P(B | A) = P(B | A′) = P(B).
11 If event A and event B are independent then P(A ∩ B ) = P(A) × P(B ).
350
 16 Statistical distributions

An approximate answer ➜ Contrast this photograph of the 2012 Olympics medal winners with people
to the right problem is driving themselves to work on a typical morning. As a thought experiment,
worth a good deal more imagine choosing a commuter’s car at random. Estimate the probability that it
than an exact answer to contains just 1 person. What about 2, 3, 4, 5, over 5 people? How could you make
an approximate problem.
your estimates more accurate?
John Tukey (1915–2000)
Review: The binomial distribution
The binomial distribution may be used to model situations subject to these conditions.
■ You are conducting trials on random samples of a certain size, denoted by n.
■ On each trial, the outcomes can be classified as either success or failure.
In addition, the following modelling assumptions are needed if the binomial
distribution is to be a good model and give reliable answers.
■ The outcome of each trial is independent of the The probability of success is
outcome of any other trial. usually denoted by p and that
■ The probability of success is the same on each of failure by q, so p + q = 1.
trial.

351
 Review: The binomial distribution

TECHNOLOGY The probability that the number of successes, X, has the

value r is given by This notation means
Your calculator should that the distribution is
have a function to P( X r= =) n Cr qp .
n −r r
binomial, with n trials
calculate binomial For B(n, p) the expectation of the number of successes each with probability of
probabilities. is np. success p.
Example 16.1 National statistics show that in about 60% of all car journeys only the driver
is in the car.
10 cars are selected at random.
(i) What is the expectation of the number of cars that contain only the driver?
(ii) Find the probability that exactly 7 of them contain only the driver.
(iii) Find the probability that fewer than 8 of them contain only the driver.
This is denoted by
B(10, 0.6). Solution
Note (i) The distribution is binomial with n = 10 and p = 0.6.
For the binomial distribution E(X ) = np.
Check for yourself that
C is 120.
10
7
So the expectation is 10 × 0.6 = 6 cars.
(ii) The probability of 7 cars with 1 driver is
You can also find this
from cumulative binomial C × (0.6
) ( )7 × 0.4 3

tables or, if you are a

10 7

glutton for punishment, = 10! × 0.6 70.4

× 3

you can work out the 7!3!

individual probabilities = 0.215 to 3 d.p.
for r = 0, 1, … up to 7 and
add them all together. (ii) Fewer than 8 means 0 or 1 or … up to 7.
You could also find this by So you want the cumulative binomial probability for n = 10, p = 0.6
finding the probability of and r = 7.
8, 9 or 10 and subtracting
that probability from 1. By calculator, this is 0.833 to 3 d.p.

Review exercise
T ① A spinner with four equal sectors numbered 1, 2, (ii)
What are the chances of winning the car?
3 and 4 is rolled 100 times. (iii)
How many tries would be expected
(i) State the distribution. before the car was won?
(ii) What is the expected number of times for ③ A quarter of Flapper fish have red spots, the rest
scoring a 3? have blue spots. A fisherman nets 10 Flapper fish.
(iii) What is the probability of scoring 3 (i) What are the probabilities that
exactly 20 times? (a)
exactly 8 have blue spots
(iv) What is the probability of scoring 3 at (b)
at least 8 have blue spots?
most 20 times? On another occasion, fishing at the same place,
② At a village fete a stall offers the chance to win the fisherman nets 100 Flapper fish.
a car. The game is to roll seven fair dice and if (ii) What is the probability that exactly 80 of
all seven show a 6 on the top face then the car them have blue spots?
is won.
(iii) What is the expected number with blue
(i) Describe this as a binomial distribution, spots in 100?
defining p.

352
 Working with a large data set
(iv) In fact the 100 Flapper fish all came from
the same shoal. Suggest a reason why this
might mean that the binomial distribution
is not a suitable model.
⑦ (i) The random variable X has the distribution
B(22, 0.7). Find the probability that X takes
16
the following values
④ The random variable X ~B(20, 0.3).
(i) State (a)
20 (b) 21 (c) 22 (d) 20, 21 or 22.

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

Over recent years the schools in Avonford have
(a) the number of trials run a campaign called ‘Safe cycling’. Among other
(b) the probability of success in any trial things they emphasise the need to wear safety
(c) the probability of failure in any trial. helmets. There is an immediate target of persuading
(ii) Show that the probability of at least 10 70% of cyclists to do so.
successes is just under 5%. Table 16.1 shows whether those involved in
(iii)
Find the values of the integer a such that accidents were wearing helmets, according to age
P(X < a) < 0.05 and P(X ¯ a) > 0.05. group.
⑤ A company manufactures light bulbs in batches Table 16.1
of 1000. The probability of a light bulb being
Under 15 15 to 29 Over 29
faulty is known to be 0.01. Wearing a 20 19 15
What is the probability that in a batch of light helmet
bulbs that there are less than 12 faulty light bulbs? Not wearing a 2 8 19
helmet
⑥ Fred travels to work by train each morning.
No usable 4 2 4
The probability of his train being late is 0.15.
information
(i) What is the probability that his train is late
once in a 5-day working week? (ii) The organiser of the campaign says ‘Look at
the under-15s. If only 70% of that age group
(ii) What is the probability that it is late at least
were wearing helmets, then the chances that
once in a 5-day working week?
out of the 22 having accidents, 20 or more
(iii) Fred buys a season ticket which allows were wearing helmets is tiny. So we can be
him to travel for four weeks. How many certain that we are exceeding our target.’
times would he expect the train to be late
in this four week period? Comment on this statement.
(iii) Estimate the percentages of cyclists in the
other two age groups wearing helmets.
What do you conclude from these figures?

1 Discrete random variables

THE AVONFORD STAR
Traffic chaos in town centre – car-share scheme to go ahead
In an attempt to reduce the volume of traffic coming into and going

Discussion point
out of Avonford town centre at peak times Avonford Council are to
promote a car-share scheme.

How would you

Council spokesman, Andrew Siantonas, told the Star, ‘In a recent
➜ traffic survey we found that there were far too many cars with only
collect information the driver in the car. We need to take action now to reduce the number
on the volume of of vehicles travelling through the town centre in the early morning

traffic in the town and late afternoon.

centre? The Council have put aside a sum of money to fund a car-share
scheme. Interested drivers will be put in touch with one another using
a central database. An advertising campaign is to start in the next
few weeks. In six months’ time we will conduct another survey to
measure the success of the scheme.’

353
 Discrete random variables

Discussion point A traffic survey, at critical points around the town centre, was conducted at peak
travelling times over a period of a working week. The survey involved 1000 cars.
➜ What are the main The number of people in each car was noted, with the following results.
features of this Table 16.2
distribution? How
would you illustrate
such a distribution? Number of people per car 1 2 3 4 5 >5
Frequency 560 240 150 40 10 0
The numbers of people per car are necessarily discrete. A discrete frequency
distribution is best illustrated by a vertical line chart, as in Figure 16.1. This
shows you that the distribution has positive skew, with the bulk of the data at the
lower end of the distribution.

600

500
Frequency

400

300

200

100

00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of people

Figure 16.1
The survey involved 1000 cars. This is a large sample and so it is reasonable to
use the results to estimate the probabilities of the various possible outcomes: 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 people per car. You divide each frequency by 1000 to obtain the relative
frequency, or probability, of each outcome (number of people).
Table 16.3
Outcome (number of people) 1 2 3 45 >5
Probability (relative frequency) 0.56 0.24 0.15 0.04 0.01 0

A probability distribution provides a mathematical model to describe a particular

situation. In statistics you are often looking for models to describe and explain
the data you find in the real world. In this chapter you are introduced to some
of the techniques for working with probability distributions. In the example
above, the model describes the distribution of a discrete random variable.
In this case, the only
possible values are all The variable is discrete since it can only take certain values. The number of people
positive integers. in a car is a random variable since the actual value varies from one car to another
and can only be predicted with a given probability, i.e. the values occur at random.
Discrete random variables may take a finite or an infinite number of values. In
this case the number is finite; in the survey the maximum number of people
observed was five, but the maximum could be larger but only up to the seating
capacity of the largest available car. It would be finite. A well-known example
of a finite discrete random variable is the number of successes in a binomial
distribution.

354
 On the other hand, if you decided to throw a fair coin until you got a head,
there is no theoretical maximum as each throw has the probability of 0.5, so
each could land with tails. There is also the case where the maximum is so
large that it can be considered to be infinite; one example of this would be the
16
number of hits on a website in a given day.

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

The study of discrete random variables in this chapter is limited to finite cases.

Notation and conditions for a discrete random

variable
■ A random variable is denoted by an upper case letter, such as X, Y, or Z.
■ The particular values that the random variable takes are denoted by lower
case letters, such as x, y, z and r.
■ In the case of a discrete variable these are sometimes given suffixes such as
r 1, r 2, r 3 , … .
■ Thus P(X = r 1) means the probability that the random variable X takes a
particular value r 1.
■ The expression P(X = r) is used to express a more general idea, as, for
example, in a table heading.

Note ■ If a finite discrete random variable can take n distinct values r 1, r 2, … , r n,

with associated probabilities p 1, p 2, … , p n, then the sum of the probabilities
The various outcomes must equal 1.
cover all possibilities; In that case p 1 + p 2 + … + p n = 1.
they are exhaustive. ■

n n
■ This can be written more formally as ∑ p=k ∑ P( X r= =k ) 1 .
n k =1 k =1
■ If there is no ambiguity then∑ P(
=X r k) is often abbreviated to∑ P(
= X.) r
k =1

Diagrams of discrete random variables

Just as with frequency distributions for discrete data, the most appropriate
diagram to illustrate a discrete random variable is a vertical line chart. Figure 16.2
shows the probability distribution of X, the number of people per car. Note that
it is identical in shape to the corresponding frequency diagram. The important
difference is that the vertical axis is now for probability rather than frequency.
P(X = r)
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

00
1 2 3 4 5 6 r

Figure 16.2
355
 Discrete random variables
Example 16.2 Two tetrahedral dice, each with faces labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4, are thrown and the
random variable X represents the sum of the numbers face-down on the dice.
(i) Find the probability distribution of X.
(ii) Illustrate the distribution and describe the shape of the distribution.
(iii) What is the probability that any throw of the dice results in a value of
X which is an odd number?
Solution
The table shows all the possible total scores when the two dice are thrown.
Table 16.4 Table 16.5
First throw Total
2345678
+ 1 234 score
worht dnoceS

1 2 3 4 3 2 1
1 2 345 P(X = r) 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
2 3 455
(i) You can use the table to write down
3 4 557
the probability distribution for X.
4 5 578

(ii) The vertical line chart illustrates this distribution, which is symmetrical.
P(X = r)
0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 r

Figure 16.3
(iii) The probability that X is an odd number
= P(X = 3) + P(X = 5) + P(X = 7)
= 2 + +4 2
Discussion point = 12
16 16 16

➜ What other situations

give rise to a uniform
distribution? Notice that the score on one of these dice has
a uniform distribution. The probability is
Table 16.6
the same for each value. Score 1234
1 1 1 1
Probability 4 4 4 4

As well as defining a discrete random variable by tabulating the probability

distribution, another effective way is to use an algebraic definition of the form
P(X = r) = f(r) for given values of r.

356
Example 16.3
The following example illustrates how this may be used.

The probability distribution of a random variable X is given by

16
P(X = r) = kr for r = 1, 2, 3, 4
P(X = r) = 0 otherwise.

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

(i) Find the value of the constant k.
(ii) Illustrate the distribution and describe the shape of the distribution.
(iii) Two successive values of X are generated independently of each other.
Find the probability that
(a) both values of X are the same
(b) the total of the two values of X is greater than 6.

Solution
(i) Tabulating the probability distribution for X gives this table.
Table 16.7
r 1 234

P(X = r) k 2k 3k 4k

Since X is a random variable,

∑ P(= X r )=1

k + 2k + 3k + 4k = 1
10k = 1
k = 0.1
(ii) Hence P(X = r ) = 0.1r, for r = 1, 2, 3, 4, which gives the following
probability distribution.
Table 16.8
r 1 234
P(X = r) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
The vertical line chart in Figure 16.4 illustrates this distribution.
It has negative skew.
P(X = r)
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

00
1 2 3 4 5 r

Figure 16.4 ➜

357
 Discrete random variables
(iii) (a) P(both values of X are the same)
= P(1 and 1 or 2 and 2 or 3 and 3 or 4 and 4)
= P(1 and 1) + P(2 and 2) + P(3 and 3) + P(4 and 4)
= P(X = 1) × P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) × P(X = 2)
+ P(X = 3) × P(X = 3) + P(X = 4) × P(X = 4)
= (0.1) 2 + (0.2) 2 + (0.3) 2 + (0.4) 2
= 0.01 + 0.04 + 0.09 + 0.16
= 0.3
(b) P(total of the two values is greater than 6)
= P(4 and 3 or 3 and 4 or 4 and 4)
= P(4 and 3) + P(3 and 4) + P(4 and 4)
= P(X = 4) × P(X = 3) + P(X = 3) × P(X = 4) + P(X = 4)
× P(X = 4)
= 0.4 × 0.3 + 0.3 × 0.4 + 0.4 × 0.4
= 0.12 + 0.12 + 0.16
= 0.4

Exercise 16.1
① The random variable X is given by the sum of (iii)
Find the values of
the scores when two ordinary dice are thrown. (a) P(Y < 3) (b) P(Y is odd).
(i) Find the probability distribution of X. ④ The probability distribution of a discrete
(ii) Illustrate the distribution and describe the random variable X is given by
shape of the distribution. kr
P(X = r) = 8 for r = 2, 4, 6, 8
(iii) Find the values of
P(X = r) = 0 otherwise.
(a) P(X > 8) (i) Find the value of k and tabulate the
(b) P(X is even) probability distribution.
(c) P(|X − 7| < 3). (ii) Two successive values of X are generated
② The probability distribution of a discrete independently. Find the probability that
random variable is given by P(X = r) = k for (a) the two values are equal
1 < r < 20. (b) the first value is greater than the second
(i) Find the value of k. value.
(ii) Describe the distribution. ⑤ A curiously shaped six-sided spinner produces
(iii) Find (3 < X < 12). scores, X, for which the probability distribution
③ The random variable Y is given by the absolute is given by
difference between the scores when two k
P(X = r) = r for r = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
ordinary dice are thrown.
P(X = r) = 0 otherwise.
(i) Find the probability distribution of Y. (i) Find the value of k and illustrate the
(ii) Illustrate the distribution and describe the distribution.
shape of the distribution.

358
 (ii)Show that, when this spinner is used twice,
the probability of obtaining two equal
scores is very nearly 1 .
⑥ Three fair coins are tossed.
4
⑨ In a game, each player throws three ordinary
six-sided dice. The random variable X is the
largest number showing on the dice, so for
example, for scores of 2, 5 and 4, X = 5.
16
(i) By considering the set of possible (i) Find the probability thatX = 1, i.e. P(X = 1).
(ii) Find P(X< 2)7 and deduce that

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

outcomes, HHH, HHT, etc., tabulate the
probability distribution for X, the number P(X = 2) = 216 .
of heads occurring. (iii) Find P(X< r) and so deduce
(ii) Illustrate the distribution and describe the P(X = r), for r = 3, 4, 5, 6.
shape of the distribution. (iv)
Illustrate and describe the probability
(iii) Find the probability that there are more distribution of X.
heads than tails. ⑩ A box contains six black pens and four red pens.
(iv) Without further calculation, state whether Three pens are taken at random from the box.
your answer to part (i) By considering the selection of pens as
(iii) would be the same if four fair coins sampling without replacement, illustrate
were tossed. Give a reason for your answer. the various outcomes on a probability tree
⑦ Two tetrahedral dice, each with faces labelled diagram.
1, 2, 3 and 4, are thrown and the random The random variable X represents the number
variable X is the product of the numbers of red pens obtained.
shown on the dice.
(ii) Find the probability distribution of X.
(i) Find the probability distribution of X.
(ii) What is the probability that any throw of
the dice results in a value of X which is an
Working with a large data set
odd number? ⑪ (i) All the people covered by the Avonford
⑧ A sociologist is investigating the changing cycling accidents data set went to a hospital.
pattern of the numbers of children which The table below gives the frequency
women have in a country. She denotes the distribution of the numbers of nights spent in
present number by the random variable hospital by the 93 cyclists involved. A number
X which she finds to have the following is missing from one of the cells.
probability distribution. Table 16.10
Table 16.9 Nights 0 1 2 3 4 5 >5 No data
r 0 123 4 Frequency 58 23 20221
5+
P(X = r) 0.09 0.22 a 0.19 0.08 negligible What is the missing value?
(i) Find the value of a. (ii) A model for the probability distribution
She is keen to find an algebraic expression for for 0, 1, 2, 3, ... nights is given by the terms
the probability distribution and suggests the of the sequence
following model. (1 2 p), p(1 2 p), p2(1 2 p), p3(1 2 p),
P(X = r) = k(r + 1)(5 − r) p4(1 2 p), ... , where 0 < p ,1.
for r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Prove that the sum to infinity of these
terms is 1.
P(X = r) = 0 otherwise.
(ii) Find the value of k for this model.
(iii) It is suggested that this model, with the value
of p taken to be 0.35, would be suitable for
(iii) Compare the algebraic model with the Avonford. Find the frequency distribution
probabilities she found, illustrating both that this model predicts for 92 people.
distributions on one diagram. Do you
think it is a good model?
(iv) Compare the frequency distributions in parts
(i) and (iii) and comment on any outliers.
(v) The model is based on the parameter p.
State what p and (1 − p) represent. Hence
explain how the model has been set up.
359
 The Normal distribution

2 The Normal distribution

THE AVONFORD STAR

VILLAGERS GET GIANT BOBBY

The good people of Middle Fishbrook have special reason to be good
these days. Since last week, their daily lives are being watched over
by their new village bobby, Wilf ‘Shorty’ Harris.
At 195cm, Wilf is the tallest policeman in the country. ‘I don’t expect
any trouble’, says Wilf. ‘But I wouldn’t advise anyone to tangle with
me on a dark night.’
Seeing Wilf towering above me, I decided that most people would Towering bobby, Wilf
prefer not to put his words to the test. ‘Shorty’ Harris, is bound
to deter mischief in Middle
Fishbrook

Wilf Harris is clearly exceptionally tall, but how much so? Is he one in a
hundred, or a thousand or even a million? To answer that question you need to
know the distribution of heights of adult British men.
The first point that needs to be made is that height is a continuous variable and
not a discrete one. If you measure accurately enough it can take any value.
This means that it does not really make sense to ask ‘What is the probability that
somebody chosen at random has height exactly 195 cm?’The answer is zero.
However, you can ask questions like ‘What is the probability that somebody
chosen at random has height between 194 cm and 196 cm?’ and ‘What is the
probability that somebody chosen at random has height at least 195 cm?’.When
the variable is continuous, you are concerned with a range of values rather than
a single value.
Like many other naturally occurring variables, the heights of adult men may
be modelled by a Normal distribution, shown in Figure 16.5. You will see that
this has a distinctive bell-shaped curve and is symmetrical about its middle. The
curve is continuous as height is a continuous variable.
In Figure 16.5, area represents probability so the shaded area to the right of 195 cm
represents the probability that a randomly selected adult male is at least 195 cm tall.

174 195
Height (cm)

Figure 16.5

360
 Before you can start to find this area, you must know the mean and standard
deviation of the distribution, in this case about 174 cm and 7 cm respectively.
So Wilf ’s height is 195 cm − 174 cm = 21 cm above the mean, and that is
16
21 = standard deviations.
3
7

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

The number of standard deviations beyond the mean, in this case 3, is denoted
by the letter z. Thus the shaded area gives the probability of obtaining a value
of z > 3.
Your calculator will provide this value. The answer is 0.0013.

TECHNOLOGY The probability of a randomly selected adult male being 195 cm or over is 0.0013.
Slightly more than one man in a thousand is at least as tall as Wilf.
Some calculators
will give the answer It is also possible to find this area by using tables. You look up the value of F(z),
in this case when z = 3, in a Normal distribution table of F(z) as shown in
P(z > 3) = 0.0013
directly. Make sure you Figure 16.6, and then calculate 1 − F(z).
can work out how to do
this on your calculator. z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 123456789

Others only give the 0.0 .5000 5040 5080 5120 5160 5199 5239 5279 5319 5359 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

area to the left. This 0.1 .5398 5438 5478 5517 5557 5596 5636 5675 5714 5753 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 35

is the cumulative 0.2 .5793 5832 5871 5910 5948 5987 6026 6064 6103 6141 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35

probability and is 0.3 .6179 6217 6255 6293 6331 6368 6406 6443 6480 6517 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
0.4 .6554 6591 6628 6664 6700 6736 6772 6808 6844 6879 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32
denoted by F(z). In
that case the area to
0.5 .6915 6950 6985 7019 7054 7088 7123 7157 7190 7224 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 27 31
0.6 .7257 7291 7324 7357 7389 7422 7454 7486 7517 7549 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
the right is given by 0.7 .7580 7611 7642 7673 7704 7734 7764 7794 7823 7852 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
1 − F(z). 0.8 .7881 7910 7939 7967 7995 8023 8051 8078 8106 8133 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 25

3.0 .9987 9987 9988 9988 9988 9989 9989 9989 9990 9990
3.1 .9990 9991 9991 9991 9992 9992 9992 9992 9993 9993
The symbol F is the Greek 3.2 .9993 9993 9994 9994 9994 9994 9994 9995 9995 9995
differences

letter phi. The equivalent 3.3 .9995 9995 9996 9996 9996 9996 9996 9996 9996 9997
untrustworthy

in English is PH. 3.4 .9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9998

Figure 16.6
This gives F(3) = 0.9987, and so 1 − F(3) = 0.0013.

Note
It is often helpful to know that in a Normal distribution, roughly
• 68% of the values lie within ±1 standard deviation of the mean
• 95% of the values lie within ±2 standard deviations of the mean
• 99.75% of the values lie within ±3 standard deviations of the mean.
These figures are particularly useful when you are doing a rough estimate or
checking that your answer is sensible.

361
 The Normal distribution
Notation
The function F(z) gives the area under the Normal distribution curve to the
left of the value z, that is the shaded area in Figure 16.7. It is the cumulative
distribution function. The total area under the curve is 1, and the area given by
F(z) represents the probability of a value smaller than z.

Notice the scale for the

z values; it is in standard
deviations from the mean.
µϪ 3σ Ϫ 2σ
µ µ Ϫσ µ µ ϩ σ µ ϩ 2σ µ ϩ 3σ x

Note Ϫ3 Ϫ2 Ϫ1 0 1 2 3 z
The shaded area is ⌽(1)

Notice how lower Figure 16.7

case letters, x and z,
are used to indicate If the variable X has mean m and standard deviation s then x, a particular value
particular values of of X, is transformed into z by the equation
the random variables, z= x
−
whereas upper case
letters, X and Z , are
used to describe or z is a particular value of the variable Z which has mean 0 and standard deviation
name those variables. 1 and is the standardised form of the Normal distribution.
Table 16.11
Actual distribution, X Standardised distribution, Z
Mean 0

Standard deviation 1
x −
Particular value x z =

The Normal distribution function on your calculator is easy to use but you
should always make a point of drawing a diagram and shading the region you
are interested in.

Example 16.4 Assuming the distribution of the heights of adult men is Normal, with mean
174 cm and standard deviation 7 cm, find the probability that a randomly
selected adult man is
(i) under 185 cm
Expect to use your calculator to
(ii) over 185 cm find the values of F(z). You may
find that your calculator allows
(iii) over 180 cm you to obtain these values without
transforming to the standardised
(iv) between 180 cm and 185 cm Normal distribution, i.e. entering
(v) under 170 cm values of x rather than z.
giving your answers to 3 decimal places.

362
Solution
16

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µ ϭ 174 x ϭ 185
zϭ0 z ϭ 1.571

Figure 16.8
The mean height, m = 174.
The standard deviation, s = 7.
(i) The probability that an adult man selected at random is under 185 cm.
The area required is that shaded in Figure 16.8.
x = 185 cm
−
And so z 185= 174 = 1.571
7
F(1.571) = 0.9419
= 0.942 (3 d.p.)
Answer: The probability that an adult man selected at random is
under 185 cm is 0.942.
(ii) The probability that an adult man selected at random is over 185 cm.

µ ϭ 174 x ϭ 185
zϭ0 z ϭ 1.571

Figure 16.9
The area required is the complement of that for part (i).
Probability = 1 − F(1.571)
= 1 − 0.9419
= 0.0581
= 0.058 (3 d.p.)
Answer: the probability that an adult man selected at random is over
185 cm is 0.058.
➜

363
 The Normal distribution
(iii) The probability that an adult man selected at random is over 180 cm.

µ ϭ 174 x ϭ 180
zϭ0 z ϭ 0.857

Figure 16.10
−
x = 180 and so z 180
= 174
7
= 0.857

The area required = 1 − F(0.857)

= 1 − 0.8042
= 0.1958
= 0.196 (3 d.p.)
Answer: the probability that and adult man selected at random is over
180 cm is 0.196.
(iv) The probability that an adult man selected at random is between
180 cm and 185 cm.

µ ϭ 174 x ϭ 180, 185

zϭ0 z ϭ 0.857, 1.571

Figure 16.11
The required area is shown in Figure 16.11. It is

F(1.571) − F(0.857) = 0.9419 − 0.8042

= 0.1377
= 0.138 (3 d.p.)
Answer: the probability that an adult man selected at random is over
180 cm but less than 185 m is 0.138.

364
(v) The probability that an adult man selected at random is under 170 cm.
16

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x ϭ 170 µ ϭ 174

z ϭ Ϫ0.571 z ϭ 0

Figure 16.12
In this case x = 170
−
And so z 170
= 174
7
= − 0.571

However, when you come to look up F(−0.571), you will find that
only positive values of z are given in your tables. You overcome this
problem by using the symmetry of the Normal curve. The area you
want in this case is that to the left of −0.571 and this is clearly just the
same as that to the right of +0.571.
So F(−0.571) = 1 − F(0.571)
= 1 − 0.7160
= 0.2840
= 0.284 (3 d.p.)
Answer: the probability that an adult man selected at random is under
170 cm is 0.284.

Φ(Ϫz)

Ϫz 0

These graphs illustrate

that Φ − = 1−Φ(z)
( z)

Φ(z)
1 Ϫ Φ(z)

0 z

Figure 16.13

365
 The Normal distribution

A word of caution
The Normal curve
There are two symbols which you will need to distinguish between. The Normal
The symbols for curve is y = f(z) (using a lower case Greek letter phi and it is also written φ )
phi F, f (or φ) look while the cumulative distribution is denoted by F(z) (using an upper case phi).
very alike and are easily
confused. All Normal curves have the same basic shape, so that by scaling the two axes
suitably you can always fit one Normal curve exactly on top of another one.
■ F is used for
the cumulative Sometimes you may wish to change your measurements, denoted by x i , in two ways.
distribution and ■ Changing your units so that x i is now recorded as bx i.
is the symbol you ■ Measuring from a different datum level so that x i becomes a + x i.
will often use.
Taken together these changes result in your data values being transformed from
φ and f are used
■
x i to y i where y i = a + bx i.
for the equation of
the actual curve; If your original distribution was Normal with mean x, standard deviation s and
you won’t actually variance s2 then your new distribution will also be Normal. The new mean will be
need to use them y = a + bx, the new standard deviation will be bs and the new variance will be 2bs 2.
in this book. The curve for the Normal distribution with mean and standard deviation
(i.e. variance 2) is given by the function (x) in
is an
y i = a + bx i 1 e− 2 (
x− )
example of a linear
1 2

( x) =
transformation. 2π

The notation N( , 2) is used to describe this distribution. The mean and

standard deviation (or variance 2) are the two parameters used to define the
distribution. Once you know their values, you know everything there is to know
about the distribution. The standardised variable Z has mean 0 and variance 1, so

Note
its distribution is N(0, 1).

z x−
After the variable X has been transformed to Z using =
The variable on the , the form of
vertical axis, denoted by the curve (now standardised) becomes
f(z), is the probability ( z) = 1 e − 21 (z) 2
The points on
density. You have 2π the Normal
already met frequency curve that lie
density for continuous However, the exact shape one standard
grouped data with
φ(z)
deviation from
of the Normal curve is
histograms. This curve the mean
is like a histogram with often less useful than the are points of
infinitesimally narrow area underneath it, which inflection of
class intervals and a represents a probability. For the curve.
total area of 1. example, the probability
that z < 2 is given by the
shaded area in Figure 16.14.
Discussion point Easy though it looks, the
zϭ0 2 z

➜ In what ways is the function f(z) cannot be Figure 16.14

Normal curve similar integrated algebraically
to a histogram? to find the area under the curve; this can only be found by using a numerical
method. The values found by doing so are given on your calculator or as a table
and this area function is called F z ( ).
The next example shows how you can use experimental data to estimate the
mean and standard deviation of a Normal distribution.

366
 Example 16.5 Skilled operators make a particular component for an engine. The
company believes that the time taken to make this component may be
modelled by the Normal distribution. They time one of their operators,
16
Sheila, over a long period.
They find that only 10% of the components take her over 90 minutes to

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

make, and that 20% take her less than 70 minutes. Estimate the mean and
You are asked to infer the standard deviation of the time Sheila takes.
mean, m, and standard
deviation, s, from the
areas under different There are two pieces of information.
parts of the graph in The first is that 10% take her 90 minutes or more. This means that the
Figures 16.15 and 16.16. shaded area is 0.1.

0.1

µ 90

Figure 16.15
−=
z = 90 m 0.1
s

(z) = 1 − 0.1 = 0.9

TECHNOLOGY The next step is to use the inverse Normal function on your calculator,
F−1 (p) = z
Make sure that you F−1 (0.9) = 1.282
know how to do this So z = 1.282
on your calculator. (It
is also possible to use 90 − m=
1.282 ⇒ −90= m 1.282s
tables to find the value So
s
of z.) The second piece of information, that 20% of the components took Sheila
under 70 minutes, is shown in Figure 16.16.

0.2

70 µ

Figure 16.16
−
z = 70 m
s
(z has a negative value in this case, the point being to the left of the mean.)
➜

367
 The Normal distribution

F(z) = 0.2
and so, by symmetry
F(−z) = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8.
Using the table or the inverse Normal function gives
−z = 0.8416 or z = −0.8416
This gives a second equation for and .
70 − m=−
⇒ − = −m
0.8416 70 0.8416s
s
The two simultaneous equations are now solved:
90 − = 1.282
70 − = − 0.8416
=
20 2.123

= 9.418 = 9.4 (1 d.p.)

= 77.926 = 77.9 (1 d.p.)
Sheila’s mean time is 77.9 minutes with standard deviation 9.4 minutes.

Modelling discrete situations

Although the Normal distribution applies strictly to a continuous variable, it is
also common to use it in situations where the variable is discrete providing that
■ the distribution is approximately Normal; this requires that the steps in
possible values are small compared to its standard deviation.
■ continuity corrections are applied where appropriate.
The next example shows how this is done and the meaning of the term
continuity correction is explained.

Example 16.6 The result of an Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test is an integer score, X.
Tests are designed so that X has a mean value of 100 and standard deviation 15.
A large number of people have their IQs tested.
(i) Explain why it is reasonable to use a Normal approximation in this
situation.
(ii) What proportion of them would you expect to have IQs measuring
between 106 and 110 (inclusive)?

Solution
(i) If you assume that an IQ test is measuring innate, natural intelligence
(rather than the results of learning), then it is reasonable to assume a
Normal distribution.
Although the random variable X is an integer and so discrete, the
steps of 1 in its possible values are small compared with the standard
deviation of 15. So it is reasonable to treat it as if it is continuous.

368
 (ii)
section of
Normal curve 16

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106 107 108 109 110
105.5

106.5

107.5

108.5

109.5

110.5
106

107

108

109

110
z1 z2

Figure 16.17
If you draw the probability distribution function for the discrete variable
X it looks like the blue part of Figure 16.17. The area you require is the
total of the five bars representing 106, 107, 108, 109 and 110.
You can see that the equivalent section of the Normal curve, outlined
in red, does not run from 106 to 110 but from 105.5 to 110.5.
When you change from the discrete scale to the continuous scale the
numbers 106, 107, etc. no longer represent the whole intervals, just
their centre points.
So the area you require under the Normal curve is given by
F (z)2 (−)F z
1 where

− −
110.5 100
z1 = 105.515100 and z
2= 15
.

This is F(0.7000) − F(0.3667) 0.7580

= − 0.1149
0.6431 =
Answer: The proportion with IQs between 106 and 110 (inclusive)
should be approximately 11.5%.

Continuity corrections
In Example 16.6, both end values needed to be adjusted to allow for the fact
that a continuous distribution was being used to approximate a discrete one.
The adjustments
106 → 105.5 and 110 → 110.5
are called continuity corrections. Whenever a discrete distribution is approximated
by a continuous one a continuity correction may need to be used.

369
 The Normal distribution
You must always think carefully when applying a continuity correction. Should
the corrections be added or subtracted? In the previous example 106 and 110
were both inside the required interval and so any value (like 105.7 and 110.4)
which would round to them must be included. It is often helpful to draw a
sketch to illustrate the region you want, like the one in Figure 16.17.
If the region of interest is given in terms of inequalities, you should look
carefully to see whether they are inclusive ( < or or exclusive ( or ).
For example, 20 < < X 30 becomes 19.5 < , X 30.5 whereas , 20, X 30
becomes 20.5 < , X 29.5.
A common situation where the Normal distribution is used to approximate a
discrete one occurs with the binomial distribution.

Approximating the binomial distribution

You may use the Normal distribution as an approximation for the binomial B(n, p)
(where n is the number of trials each having a probability p of success) when
■ n is large
■ np is not too close to 0 or n.
These are combined as the condition
■ 0 np . n
This condition ensures that, like the Normal, the binomial distribution is
reasonably symmetrical and not skewed from either end. This is illustrated in
Figure 16.18. The larger the value of n, the greater the range of values of p for
which this is the case.

Positive skew Negative skew

Symmetrical

Figure 16.18
The parameters for the Normal distribution are then
Mean: = np
Variance:
2 = np (1 − =p )npq

so that it can be denoted by N (,np npq ).

370
 Example 16.7
Note
This is a true story. During voting at a by-election, an exit poll of 1700
voters indicated that 50% of people had voted for the Labour party candidate.
When the votes were counted, it was found that he had in fact received 57%
16
In theory you could support.
expand (0.43 + 0.57t) 1700
Of the 1700 people interviewed 850 said they had voted Labour but 57% of
and use the answer

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

1700 is 969, a much higher number. What went wrong? Is it possible to be so
to find the probability
of obtaining 0, 1, 2, 3, far out just by being unlucky and asking the wrong people?
… , 850 Labour voters
in your sample of Solution
1700. However, such
a method would be This situation can be modelled by the binomial distribution B(1700, 0.57).
impractical because
of the work involved. The conditions for a Normal approximation apply.
Instead you can use the ■ n is large. It is 1700.
Normal approximation. ■ np is not too close to 0 or n. The value of np is 969. So it is not near 0
nor is it near 1700.
The parameters for the Normal approximation are given by
Mean: m np
= =1700 0.57 969
× =
Notice that the standard
deviation of 20.4 is large Variance: s 2 = np (1 − =p ) 1700 × × 416.67
0.57 0.43 =
compared with the steps
of 1 in the possible Standard deviation: s = =
416.67 20.4
number of voters. So the approximating Normal distribution can be written as N(969,416.67).
The probability of selecting no more than 850 Labour voters is given by
F(z)where
Notice the continuity correction
z 850.5
= 969
20.4
−
= − 5.8 with 850.5 rather than 850.

Discussion point
➜ What do you think
went wrong with the
exit poll? 850.5 969
(Remember that this Figure 16.19
really did happen.)
This value of z corresponds to a probability of about 0.000 01. So, allowing
for an equivalent result in the tail above the mean, the probability of a
result as extreme as this is 0.000 02. It is clearly so unlikely that this was a
consequence of random sampling that another explanation must be found.

371
 The Normal distribution
Exercise 16.2
① The times taken to complete a skills test are ⑤ When he makes instant coffee, Tony puts a
distributed Normally with mean 75 seconds spoonful of powder into a mug. The weight of
and standard deviation 15 seconds. coffee in grams on the spoon may be modelled
Find the probability that a person chosen at by the Normal distribution with mean 5 g and
random standard deviation 1 g. If he uses more than
6.5 g Julia complains that it is too strong and if
(i) took less than 80 seconds to complete the he uses less than 4 g she tells him it is too weak.
task
Find the probability that he makes the coffee
(ii) took more than 85 seconds to complete
(i) too strong
the task
(iii) took between 80 and 85 seconds to
(ii) too weak
complete the task. (iii) all right.
② The distribution of the heights of 18-year- ⑥ A machine is set to produce metal rods of
old girls may be modelled by the Normal length 20 cm, with standard deviation 0.8 cm.
distribution with mean 162.5 cm and standard The lengths of rods are Normally distributed.
deviation 6 cm. Find the probability that the (i) Find the percentage of rods produced
height of a randomly selected 18-year-old between 19 cm and 21 cm in length.
girl is The machine is reset to be more consistent
(i) under 168.5 cm so that the percentage between 19 cm and
(ii) over 174.5 cm 21 cm is increased to at least 95%.
(iii) between 168.5 and 174.5 cm. (ii) Calculate the new standard deviation to 1 d.p.
③ The heights of the tides in a harbour have been ⑦ An aptitude test for applicants for a senior
recorded over many years and found to be management course has been designed to
Normally distributed with mean 2.512 fathoms have a mean mark of 100 and a standard
above a mark on the harbour wall and standard deviation of 15. The distribution of the marks
deviation 1.201 fathoms. A change is made so is approximately Normal.
that the heights are now recorded in metres (i) What is the least mark needed to be in the
above a different datum level, 0.755 metres top 35% of applicants taking this test?
lower than the mark on the harbour wall. (ii) Between which two marks will the middle
Given that 1 fathom is 1.829 metres, describe 90% of applicants lie?
the distribution of the heights of the tides as (iii) On one occasion 150 applicants take
now measured. this test. How many of them would be
④ A pet shop has a tank of goldfish for sale. All expected to score 110 or over?
the fish in the tank were hatched at the same ⑧ (i) A fair coin is tossed 10 times. Evaluate the
time and their weights may be taken to be probability that exactly half of the tosses
Normally distributed with mean 100 g and result in heads.
standard deviation 10 g. Melanie is buying
a goldfish and is invited to catch the one
(ii) The same coin is tossed 100 times. Use the
Normal approximation to the binomial to
she wants in a small net. In fact the fish are
estimate the probability that exactly half of
much too quick for her to be able to catch
the tosses result in heads.
any particular one and the fish which she
eventually nets is selected at random. Find the (iii) Also estimate the probability that more
probability that its weight is than 60 of the tosses result in heads.
(i) over 115 g (iv) Explain why a continuity correction
is made when using the Normal
(ii) under 105 g approximation to the binomial.
(iii) between 105 and 115 g [MEI adapted]

372
⑨ When a butcher takes an order for a Christmas
turkey, he asks the customer what weight in
kilograms the bird should be. He then sends his
order to a turkey farmer who supplies birds of
⑪ A farmer knows the cut height of her daffodils
can be taken to be Normally distributed with
mean 40 cm and standard deviation 10 cm.
(i) Find the probability that a daffodil chosen
16
about the requested weight. For any particular at random will be more than 45 cm tall.
weight of bird ordered, the error in kilograms
(ii)

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

Find the probability that a daffodil is
may be taken to be Normally distributed with
between 35 and 45 cm tall.
mean 0 kg and standard deviation 0.75 kg.
Mrs Jones orders a 10kg turkey from the butcher.
(iii) The farmer can sell daffodils which
are over 32 cm tall. She has cut 10 000
Find the probability that the one she gets is
daffodils – how many can she expect to be
(i) over 12 kg tall enough to sell?
(ii) under 10 kg ⑫ During an advertising campaign, the
(iii) within 0.5 kg of the weight she actually manufacturers of Wolfitt (a dog food) claim
ordered. that 60% of dog owners preferred to buy
⑩ A biologist finds a nesting colony of a Wolfitt.
previously unknown sea bird on a remote island. (i) Assuming that the manufacturers’ claim is
She is able to take measurements on 100 of the correct for the population of dog owners,
eggs before replacing them in their nests. She calculate the probability that at least 6 of a
records their weights, w g, in this frequency table. random sample of 8 dog owners prefer to
Table 16.11 buy Wolfitt, using
Weight, w Frequency
(a) the binomial distribution

25 w < 27 2 (b) a Normal approximation to the

binomial.
27 w < 29 13
29 w < 31 35 (ii) Comment on the agreement, or
disagreement, between your answers to
31 w 33
part (i)(a) and (b). Would the agreement
< 33
33 w < 35 17
have been better if the proportion had
35 w < 37 0 been 80% instead of 60%?
(i) Find the mean and standard deviation of (iii) Continuing to assume the manufacturers’
these data. figure of 60% is correct, use the Normal
approximation to the binomial to estimate
(ii) Assuming the weights of the eggs for this
the probability that, of a random sample of
type of bird are Normally distributed and
that their mean and standard deviation are 100 dog owners, the number preferring to
the same as those of this sample, find how buy Wolfitt is between 60 and 70 inclusive.
many eggs you would expect to be in each [MEI adapted]
of these categories.
(iii) Do you think the assumption that
the weights of the eggs are Normally
distributed is reasonable?

373
 The Normal distribution
Working with a large data set To the nearest whole number, the mean age of
the cyclists in the Avonford data set is 30 and
⑬ The histogram in Figure 16.20 illustrates the the standard deviation is 20. Robin decides for
ages of those involved in cycling accidents in comparison to draw the histogram based on a
the Avonford cycling accidents data set. Normal distribution with the same mean and
standard deviation as the Avonford data. Robin
2.5
uses the same population size and the same
2 class intervals.
(iii)
density

Copy and complete Table 16.12 giving the

1.5
Frequency

frequency density for each of the intervals.

1 Give your answers to 3 decimal places.

0.5
(iv) How many people would this histogram
represent?
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Explain why this is not 91.
Age (years) (v) The data include 14 people in their 60s.
Figure 16.20 Robin thinks that there may be two
different Normal populations of cyclists
(i) Verify that the histogram represents involved, one of young and working
91 people. age people, and another of people who
have just retired or are about to do so.
(ii) State two features of this histogram which
Comment briefly on whether Robin's
suggest that the data do not come from a
Normal distribution. idea is consistent with the data.

Table 16.12
Age, a years 0 < a , 10 10 < a , 20 20 < a , 30 30 < a , 40 40 < a , 50 50 < a , 70 70 < a , 90
Frequency
0.836 1.743 0.098
density

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ recognise situations that give rise to a binomial distribution, and express a
binomial model in the form B(n, p)
➤ calculate probabilities using the binomial distribution
➤ find the mean of a binomial distribution
➤ calculate expected frequencies associated with the binomial distribution
➤ use a probability function given algebraically or in a table
➤ use the discrete uniform distribution
➤ use the Normal distribution as a model
know the shape of a Normal curve and the location of its line of symmetry
and points of inflection
➤

➤ be able to standardise a Normal variable

➤ calculate probabilities from a Normal distribution
understand how and why a continuity correction is applied when the Normal
distribution is used to model the distribution of discrete data including the
➤

binomial distribution
know that a linear transformation of a Normal variable gives another Normal
variable
➤

know the effect of a linear transformation on the mean and the standard
deviation.
➤

374
KEY POINTS
1 For a discrete random variable, X, which can only take the values r 1, r 2, … , r n,
16
with probabilities p 1, pn 2, … , p nn respectively:
p + p + … + p n =∑ =∑ P X (p = k ) = 1; p i > 0

snoitubirtsid lacitsitatS 61 retpahC

■ 1 2
k
P k
−1 k =1

2 The binomial distribution may be used to model situations subject to these

conditions.
■ You are conducting trials on random samples of a certain size, n.
■ On each trial, the outcomes can be classified as either success or failure.
■ The probabilities of success and failure are denoted by p and q, and p + q = 1.
In addition, the following modelling assumptions are needed if the binomial
distribution is to be a good model and give reliable answers.
■ The probability of success in any trial is independent of the outcomes of
previous trials
■ The probability of success is the same on each trial.
The probability that the number of success, X, has the value r, is given by
P( X r= =) nC
r qnp−r r
For B(n, p) the expectation of the number of successes is np.
3 The Normal distribution with mean and standard deviation is denoted by
N( , ). 2

4 This may be given in standardised form by using the transformation

z= x .
−

5 In the standardised form, N(0, 1), the mean is 0, the standard deviation and
the variance both 1.
6 The standardised Normal curve is given by
1 e − 21 (z) 2

f (z) =
2π
7 The area to the left of the value z in Figure 16.21, representing the probability
of a value less than z, is denoted by F(z), and can be read from a calculator
or tables.
φ(z)

zϭ0 z
Figure 16.21
8 The Normal distribution may be used to approximate suitable discrete
distributions but continuity corrections are then required.
9 The binomial distribution B(n, p) may be approximated by N(np, npq),
provided n is large and p is not close to 0 or 1.

375
 17 Statistical hypothesis testing

When we spend money ➜ How can you be certain that any medicine you get from a pharmacy is safe?
on testing an item, we
are buying confidence in
its performance.
Tony Cutler (1954–) Review
Inference
It is often the case in statistics that you want to find out information about a large
population. One way of doing this is to take a sample and use it to infer what you
want to know about the population. Usually, this is the value of a parameter of the
population such as its mean, standard deviation or the proportion with the same
characteristic. An obvious danger in this is that, for some reason, the sample is not
representative of the population as a whole. Even if the procedure for collecting
the sample is sound, it may be that the items that happen to be selected give an
inaccurate impression.
A statistical hypothesis testing is a procedure that allows you to estimate how
reliable your conclusions from a sample are likely to be.

376
 Steps for conducting a hypothesis test
■ Establish the null and alternative hypotheses.
❍ The null hypothesis, H0, is the default position that nothing special has
17
occurred. The parameter has the expected value.

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

❍ The alternative hypothesis, H1, is that there has been a change in the
value of the parameter indicated by the null hypothesis.
❍ The alternative hypothesis may be 1-tail or 2-tail according to whether
the direction of change is or is not specified.

Note ■ Decide on the significance level. This is the level at which you say there is
enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favour of your alternative
The significance level hypothesis.
is the probability of
rejecting the null ■ Collect suitable data using a random sampling procedure that ensures the
hypothesis when it is items are independent.
actually true. This is Use the data to determine the test statistic. This is the measure that will be
called a Type 1 error.
■

used to decide whether the test is significant. In the case of a binomial test it
Accepting the null
hypothesis when it is is the number of successes.
false is called a Type 2 ■ Conduct the test doing the necessary calculations. Then:
error. ❍ either work out the p-value, the probability of a result at least as
extreme as that obtained, and compare it with the significance level
❍ or work out the critical value for the particular significance level and
compare it with the test statistic
❍ or work out the critical (or rejection) region for the particular
significance level and determine whether the test statistic lies within
it or outside it in the acceptance region. (The terms rejection and
acceptance refer to the null hypothesis.)

Typical ways of describing the outcome of a

hypothesis test
■ Either:
❍ the evidence is not strong enough to reject the null hypothesis in
favour of the alternative hypothesis
❍ there is not enough evidence to conclude that the value of the
parameter has changed/increased/decreased.
■ Or:
❍ there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favour of the
alternative hypothesis
❍ there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the value of the parameter
has changed/increased/decreased.
■ You should then add a comment relating to the situation you are investigating.

Hypothesis testing for the proportion in a

binomial distribution
The next two examples illustrate hypothesis tests for the proportion, p, of a
binomial distribution.

377
 Review
Example 17.1 Sunita is a zoologist. She finds a colony of a previously unknown species of
bat roosting in a cave in a remote region. There are 16 bats. Among other
things, Sunita wants to know if males and females occur in equal proportions
for this species. She observes that 5 of them are male and the rest female. She
carries out a hypothesis test at the 10% significance level.
(i) State the null and alternative hypotheses for Sunita’s test and state
whether it is 1-tail or 2-tail.
(ii) Find the critical region for the test.
(iii) Illustrate the critical region on a bar chart.
(iv) State what conclusion can be drawn from the test.

So q = 1 − p is the Solution
proportion of females. (i) Let p be the proportion of males.
Null hypothesis, H 0: p 0.5
= males and females of this species occur
The test is 2-tail in equal proportions.
because the alternative Alternative hypothesis, H 1: p 0.5
≠ males and females of this species
hypothesis is p ≠ 0.5
and so is two sided. If the occur in different proportions.
alternative hypothesis 2-tail test
had been p > 0.5 or if it
had been p < 0.5 then Significance level: 10%
it would have been one (ii) Let X be the number of male bats in a sample of size 16. X ∼ B(16, p).
sided and a 1-tail test
would have been needed. Since the test is 2-tail, the critical region should be up to 5% at
each side.
On the assumption that the null hypothesis is true, and so p = 0.5,
the probabilities for small values of X and the cumulative percentages
are given in Table 17.1.
You would expect to use Table 17.1
your calculator to do this
work for you. Use the X p(X) Cumulative % (1 d.p.)
figures here to check 0
that you know how to 0.000 015 … 0.0
do this. 1 0.000 244 … 0.0
2 0.001 831… 0.2
3 0.008 544 … 1.1
4 0.027 770 … 3.8
5 0.066 650 … 10.5
This shows that the critical region for the left-hand tail is X < .4
Since the null hypothesis is p = 0.5, the equivalent critical region for
the right-hand tail can be found by symmetry. It is X > .12

378
 (iii) This is illustrated in the bar chart in Figure 17.1.
0.25
17
0.2

Probability

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Figure 17.1
(iv) Sunita observed the number of male bats to be 5.
Since 4 < 5 < 12, this value of X is not in the critical region. So the
evidence is not strong enough to reject the null hypothesis that the
proportions of male and female bats of this species are the same in
favour of the alternative hypothesis that they are different.
Although there were fewer male bats than females the difference is
not great enough to be certain, even at the 10% significance level,
that this is not just by chance.

Example 17.2 A driving instructor claims that 60% of his pupils pass their driving test at the
first attempt.
(i) Supposing this claim is true, find the probability that, of 20 pupils
taking their first test
(a) exactly 12 pass (b) more than 12 pass.
A local newspaper reporter suspects that the driving instructor is
exaggerating his success rate and so she decides to carry out a statistical
investigation.
(ii) State the null and alternative hypotheses which she is testing, and
whether the test is 1- or 2-tail.
(iii) She contacts 20 of his pupils who have recently taken their first test
and discovers that N passed. Given that she performs a 5% significance
test and that she concludes that the driving instructor’s claim was
exaggerated, what are the possible values of N ?
[MEI adapted]

Solution
This statement can be The number of passes is modelled by a random variable X, with a binomial
written as X ∼ B(20, 0.6). distribution for which n = 20 and p = 0.6.
(i) (a) (from calculator) P(X = 12) = 0.180
(b) (from calculator) P(X > 12) = 1 − P(X ¯ 12) = 1 − 0.584 = 0.416
➜

379
 Review
(ii) Let p be the probability that a randomly selected pupil passes the test
at the first attempt.
Null hypothesis, H0:
p = 0.6 The probability of passing first time is 0.6.
Alternative hypothesis, H1:
p < 0.6 The probability of passing first time is less than 0.6.
1-tail test The reporter is only interested in
Significance level: 5%
whether the claim is exaggerated.
T (iii) The binomial function on a calculator gives the following cumulative
probabilities
So X = 7, Cumulative probability = 0.0210 (2.1%)
7 is in the critical region
8 is outside the critical
X = 8, Cumulative probability = 0.0565 (5.65%)
region So, at the 5% significance level, the critical region is 0 < X < 7.
The possible values for the number of passes, N, are between 0 and 7
inclusive.

Review exercise
① A firm producing mugs has a quality control The management is not satisfied with 20%
scheme in which a random sample of 10 mugs of mugs being defective and introduces a
from each batch is inspected. For 50 such new process to reduce the proportion of
samples, the numbers of defective mugs are as defective mugs.
follows. (iii) A random sample of 20 mugs, produced by
Table 17.2 the new process, contains just one which is
Number of Number of defective. Test, at the 5% level, whether it is
defective mugs samples reasonable to suppose that the proportion
of defective mugs has been reduced, stating
0 5
your null and alternative hypotheses clearly.
1 13
(iv) What would the conclusion have been if
2 15 the management had chosen to conduct
3 12 the test at the 10% level? [MEI]
4 4 ② A leaflet from the Department of Health
5 1 recently claimed that 70% of businesses
operate a no smoking policy on their
6+ 0
premises. A member of the public who
believed the true figure to be lower than 70%
(i) Find the mean and standard deviation of
rang a random sample of 19 businesses to ask
the number of defective mugs per sample.
whether or not they operated a no smoking
(ii) Show that a reasonable estimate for p, policy. She then carried out a hypothesis test.
the probability that a mug is defective,
is 0.2. Use this figure to calculate the
(i) Write down the null and alternative
hypotheses under test.
probability that a randomly chosen
sample will contain exactly two defective (ii) Of the 19 businesses, k say that they do
mugs. Comment on the agreement operate a no smoking policy. Use tables to
between this value and the observed data. write down the critical region for a 10% test.

380
 (iii) A second person decided to carry out
a similar test, also at the 10% level, but
sampled only 4 businesses. Write down the
critical region in this case.
(a)
12 males
(b)
at least 12 males.
(ii) State the null and alternative hypotheses
the ornithologists should use.
17
(iv) Find, for each test, the probability that
In one sample of 16 blackbirds there are 12
the null hypothesis is rejected if the true

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

males and 4 females.
figure is 65%. Hence state which of the
two tests is preferable and explain why. (iii) Carry out a suitable test using these data
[MEI] at the 5% significance level, stating your
conclusion clearly. Find the critical region
③ In a certain country, 90% of letters are for the test.
delivered the day after posting.
A resident posts eight letters on a certain day.
(iv)
Another ornithologist points out that,
because female birds spend more time
Find the probability that
sitting on the nest, females are less likely to
(i) all eight letters are delivered the next day be caught than males.
(ii) at least six letters are delivered the next day Explain how this would affect your
(iii) exactly half the letters are delivered the conclusions. [MEI]
next day. ⑤ A seed supplier advertises that, on average,
It is later suspected that the service has 80% of a certain type of seed will germinate.
deteriorated as a result of mechanisation. Suppose that 18 of these seeds, chosen at
To test this, 17 letters are posted and it is random, are planted.
found that only 13 of them arrive the next (i) Find the probability that 17 or more seeds
day. Let p denote the probability that, after will germinate if
mechanisation, a letter is delivered the
next day.
(a)
the supplier’s claim is correct
(b)
the supplier is incorrect and 82% of
(iv) Write down suitable null and alternative the seeds, on average, germinate.
hypotheses for the value of p.
Mr Brewer is the advertising manager for the
(v) Carry out the hypothesis test, at the 5% level seed supplier. He thinks that the germination
of significance, stating your results clearly. rate may be higher than 80% and he decides to
(vi) Write down the critical region for the test, carry out a hypothesis test at the 10% level of
giving a reason for your choice. [MEI] significance. He plants 18 seeds.
④ For most small birds, the ratio of males to (ii) Write down the null and alternative
females may be expected to be about 1:1. In one hypotheses for Mr Brewer’s test, explaining
ornithological study birds are trapped by setting why the alternative hypothesis takes the
fine-mesh nets. The trapped birds are counted form it does.
and then released. The catch may be regarded as (iii) Find the critical region for Mr Brewer’s
a random sample of the birds in the area. test. Explain your reasoning.
The ornithologists want to test whether there (iv) Determine the probability that Mr Brewer
are more male blackbirds than females. will reach the wrong conclusion if
(i) Assuming that the sex ratio of blackbirds (a) the true germination rate is 80%
is 1:1, find the probability that a random
sample of 16 blackbirds contains
(b) the true germination rate is 82%.
[MEI]

381
 Interpreting sample data using the Normal distribution
⑥ Given that X has a binomial distribution in
which n = 15 and p = 0.5, find the probability
Working with a large data set
of each of the following events. ⑦ Sally conjectures that among children aged
under 13, boys are more likely than girls to
(i) X = 4 (ii) X < 4 have cycling accidents.
(iii) X = 4 or X = 11 (iv) X < 4 or X > 11 (i) In the Avonford cycling accidents data
A large company is considering introducing set, there are 13 boys and 7 girls under 13
a new selection procedure for job applicants. (there is also one person whose sex is not
The selection procedure is intended to result given).Treating this group as a random
over a long period in equal numbers of men sample, use these figures to test Sally’s
and women being offered jobs. The new conjecture at the 10% significance level.
procedure is tried with a random sample of
applicants and 15 of them, 11 women and
(ii) In the complete data set, for all ages, there
are 59 males, 31 females and 3 people
4 men, are offered jobs.
whose sex is not given. Comment on Sally’s
(v) Carry out a suitable test at the 5% level conjecture in the light of these figures.
of significance to determine whether it is
reasonable to suppose that the selection
(iii) Three suggestions are put forward to
explain the disparity in the numbers
procedure is performing as intended.
between the sexes.
You should state the null and alternative
hypotheses under test and explain carefully ■ Females are safer cyclists.
how you arrive at your conclusions. ■ More males than females cycle regularly.
(vi) Suppose now that, of the 15 applicants ■ Males tend to cycle further, and so
offered jobs, w are women. Find all spend longer on their bicycles, than
the values of w for which the selection females.
procedure should be judged acceptable at Do the data support any of these
the 5% level. [MEI] suggestions?

1 Interpreting sample data using

the Normal distribution
THE AVONFORD STAR

Avonford set to become greenhouse?

From our Science Correspondent
Ama Williams
On a recent visit to Avonford Community
College, I was intrigued to find experiments
being conducted to measure the level of
carbon dioxide in the air we are all breathing.
Readers will of course know that high levels
of carbon dioxide are associated with the
greenhouse effect.
Lecturer Ray Sharp showed me round his
laboratory. ‘It is delicate work, measuring parts
‘I have taken hundreds of these measurements
per million, but I am trying to establish what
in the past,’ he said. ‘There is always a standard
is the normal level in this area. Yesterday we
deviation of 2.5. That’s just natural variation.’
took ten readings and you can see the results for
yourself: 336, 334, 332, 332, 331, 331, 330, 330, I suggested to Ray that his students should test
328, 326.’ whether these results are significantly above the
accepted value of 328 parts per million. Certainly
When I commented that there seemed to be a lot
they made me feel uneasy. Is the greenhouse
of variation between the readings, Ray assured
effect starting here in Avonford?
me that that was quite in order.

382
Ray Sharp has been trying to establish the carbon dioxide level at Avonford. How
do you interpret his figures? Do you think the correspondent has a point when she
says she is worried that the greenhouse effect is already happening in Avonford?
If suitable sampling procedures have not been used, then the resulting data may
17
be worthless, indeed positively misleading. You may wonder if this is the case

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

with Ray’s figures and about the accuracy of his analysis of the samples too.
His data are used in subsequent working in this chapter, but you may well feel
there is something of a question mark hanging over them. You should always be
prepared to treat data with a healthy degree of caution.
Putting aside any concerns about the quality of the data, what conclusions can
you draw from them?

Estimating the population mean, m

Ray Sharp’s data were as follows.
336, 334, 332, 332, 331, 331, 330, 330, 328, 326
His intention in collecting them was to estimate the mean of the parent
population, the population mean.
The mean of these figures, the sample mean, is given by
+ + + + +++++
x = (336 334 332 332 331 331 33010330 328 326)
= 331.
What does this tell you about the population mean, m?
It tells you that m is about 331 but it certainly does not tell you that it is
definitely and exactly 331. If Ray took another sample, its mean would probably
not be 331 but you would be surprised (and suspicious) if it were very far away
from it. If he took lots of samples, all of size 10, you would expect their means to
be close together but certainly not all the same.
If you took 1000 such samples, each of size 10, a histogram showing their means
might look like Figure 17.2.

You will notice that this distribution looks rather like the Normal distribution
and so may well wonder if this is indeed the case.
density
Frequency

329 330 331 332 333

Sample mean (parts per million)

Figure 17.2
383
 Interpreting sample data using the Normal distribution
The distribution of sample means
In this section, it is assumed that the underlying population has a Normal
distribution with mean m and standard deviation s so it can be denoted by
N(m, s2 ). In that case the distribution of the means of samples is indeed
Normal; its mean is m and its standard deviation is ns . This is called the
⎛ 2⎞
⎜
sampling distribution of the means and is denoted by N ⎝,m s .This ⎟
n ⎠ is
illustrated in Figure 17.3.

distribution of sample means

()
N μ, σ2n

distribution of individual
()
items N μ, σ2

Figure 17.3

Note
Both of the distributions shown in Figure 17.3 are Normal, but the distribution of
the sample means has a smaller spread. Its standard deviation is calculated by
dividing the population standard deviation by n. If you increase the sample size,
n, the spread of the distribution of their means is reduced.

A hypothesis test for the mean using

the Normal distribution
If your intention in collecting sample data is to test a theory, then you should set
up a hypothesis test. There are many different hypothesis tests. You have already
met that for the proportion in a binomial distribution. The test that follows is for
the mean of a Normal distribution.
Ray Sharp was mainly interested in establishing data on carbon dioxide levels
for Avonford. The correspondent, however, wanted to know whether levels were
above normal and so she could have set up and conducted a test.
The following example shows you how this hypothesis test would be carried
out. You will see that there are three ways in which the essential working can
be expressed.

384
 Example 17.3 Ama Williams believes that the carbon dioxide level in Avonford has risen
above the usual level of 328 parts per million. A sample of 10 specimens
of Avonford air are collected and the carbon dioxide level within them is
17
determined. The results are as follows.
336, 334, 332, 332, 331, 331, 330, 330, 328, 326
This is a much smaller

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

significance level than Extensive previous research has shown that the standard deviation of the
has been used before. levels within such samples is 2.5, and that the distribution may be assumed to
This makes this test quite be Normal.
severe; the smaller the
significance level, the Use these data to test, at the 0.1% significance level, Ama’s belief that the
more severe the test. level of carbon dioxide at Avonford is above normal.

Solution
As usual with hypothesis tests, you use the distribution of the statistic you
are measuring, in this case the Normal distribution of the sample means, to
decide which values of the test statistic are sufficiently extreme as to suggest
that the alternative hypothesis, not the null hypothesis, is true.

The test is 1-tail because Null hypothesis, H0:

the alternative hypothesis m = 328 The level of carbon dioxideat Avonford is as expected.
is m > 328 and so is one
sided. If the alternative Alternative hypothesis, H1:
hypothesis had been
m 328 then it would
≠ m > 328 The level of carbon dioxide at Avonford is above that expected.
have been two sided and 1-tail test
a 2-tail test would have
been needed. Significance level: 0.1%
Method 1: using critical regions
k is the critical value for ⎛ 2 ,⎞ critical values for a test
the standardised value, z. Since the distribution of sample means is N ⎝⎜m ,s n ⎠⎟
Make sure that you know
how to get this value from k
on the sample mean are given by m ± × s
your calculator. n
In this case if H 0 is true, m = 328; s = 2.5; n = 10.
The test is one-tail, for m > 328, so only the right-hand tail applies.
By using the inverse Normal function on a calculator, the value of
k = 3.09 is obtained. For some calculators, you may need to use
1 − 0.001 = 0.999.
For a 1-tail test at the 0.1% significance level, the critical value is thus
+ 2.5×
328 3.09 = 330.4, as shown in Figure 17.4.
10

critical value
for x− = 330.4
328 331
x− = 331
Figure 17.4 ➜

385
 Interpreting sample data using the Normal distribution

However, the sample mean x 331

= , and 331 > 330.4.

Note Therefore the sample mean lies within the critical region and so the null
hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis: that the mean
This does not mean carbon dioxide level is above 328, at the 0.1% significance level.
that the null hypothesis
is definitely incorrect Method 2: Using probabilities
but that the evidence
suggests, at this ⎛ 2⎞
The distribution of sample means, X, is N ⎜⎝,m s . ⎟⎠
significance level, that n
this is the case. According to the null hypothesis, m = 328 and it is known that s = 2.5
and n = 10.
⎛ 2 ⎞
So this distribution is N ⎝328, 2.5 ⎠ , see Figure 17.5.
10
This area represents
the probability of
a result at least as
extreme as that found.
328 331
µ x− = 331
Figure 17.5
The probability of the mean, X , of a randomly chosen sample being greater
than the value found, i.e. 331, is given by
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 331 −328 ⎟
P( X > 331) 1= − F ⎜
2.5 ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
= −1 F(3.79)
= −1 0.999 93
0.000 07is the p-value of = 0.000 07
Ama’s test.
Since 0.000 07 < 0.001, the required significance level (0.1%), the null
hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis: that the mean
carbon dioxide level is above 328, at the 0.1% significance level.
Method 3: Using critical ratios
−
The critical ratio is given by z = observed value expected value
standard deviation
⎛ ⎞
z
−
= ⎜ 331 328 ⎟ = This is the
⎜ 2.5 ⎟ 3.79 value of k in
⎜⎝
10
⎟⎠
Method 1.
This is now compared with the critical value for z, in this case z = 3.09.
Since 3.79 > 3.09, H 0 is rejected.

386
 Notes
1 A hypothesis test should be formulated before the data are collected and
not after. If sample data lead you to form a hypothesis, then you should plan
17
a suitable test and collect further data on which to conduct it. It is not clear
whether or not the test in the previous example was being carried out on the
same data which were used to formulate the hypothesis.

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

2 If the data were not collected properly, any test carried out on them may be
worthless.

ACTIVITY 17.1
The test in the example was 1-tail and the significance level was 0.1%. The
critical value, k, of the standardised value of z was 3.09.
Copy and complete Table 17.3 for the values of k for other common tests of
this type.
Table 17.3
1-tail 2-tail
10%
5%

21
2%
1%

Known and estimated standard deviation

Notice that you can only use this method of hypothesis testing if you already
know the value of the standard deviation of the parent population; Ray Sharp
had said that from taking hundreds of measurements he knew it to be 2.5.

Note
If the population standard deviation is estimated from a small sample and the
population is known to have a Normal distribution, a different hypothesis test
must be used. This is the t-test. It is beyond the scope of this book.
It is more often the situation that you do not know the population standard
deviation or variance and have to estimate it from your sample data. Provided
the sample size, n, is sufficiently large – at least 50 as a rule of thumb, but the
larger the better – the sample standard deviation may be used as an estimate of
the population standard deviation. Theoretically, it can be shown that the sample
variance, s 2, is an unbiased estimate of the population variance, s 2.
This approximation is used in the following example.

387
 Interpreting sample data using the Normal distribution
Example 17.4 Some years ago a reading test for primary school children was designed to
produce a mean score of 100. Recently, a researcher put forward the theory
that primary school pupils have changed in their reading skills and score
differently in this test. She selects a random sample of 150 primary school
pupils, all of whom have taken the test. Each score is denoted by x; the values
of x are not necessarily whole numbers.
The results of the tests are summarised as follows.
n = 150 ∑ x=15483 ∑ x= 2
1 631 680
Carry out a suitable hypothesis test on the researcher’s theory, at the
1% significance level. You may assume that the test scores are Normally
distributed.

Solution
H 0: The parent population mean is unchanged, i.e. m = 100
H 1: The parent population mean has changed, i.e. m ≠ 100.
2-tail test
Significance level 1%
From the sample summary statistics, the mean and standard deviation are
as follows.
∑x
x = = 15483 = 103.22
n 150

s=
∑ x 2nx− 2 1 631 680 −150
× 103.22 2
=
n 1− 50
= 15.0 (to 3 s.f.)
The standardised z value corresponding to x = 103.22 is calculated using
m = 100 and using s = 15.0 as an estimate for s.
x
z = − 0 = 103.22 100 − = 2.629
15.0
n 150
For the 1% significance level, the critical value is z = 2.576.
The test statistic is compared with the critical value and since 2.629 > 2.576
the null hypothesis is rejected; the evidence supports the view that scores on
this reading test are now different. This is shown in Figure 17.6.

critical value
2.576
critical region
standardised −2.576
value
0 2.576 2.629 z
test statistic
2.629
actual value 100 103.22 x
µ

Figure 17.6
388
 Exercise 17.1
① For each of the following, the random variable
X ∼ N(m, s2), with known standard deviation. A
(ii) Carry out the test at the 5% significance
level and write down your conclusion.
17
random sample of size n is taken from the parent (iii)
Would your conclusion have been the
population and the sample mean, x, is calculated.

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

same at the 10% significance level?
Carry out hypothesis tests, given H 0 and H 1, at ④ Observations over a long period of time
the significance level indicated. have shown that the midday temperature at
Table 17.4 a particular place during the month of June
is Normally distributed with a mean value of
Sig.
x 23.9°C with standard deviation 2.3°C.
sn H 0 H 1 level
(i) 8 6 195 m = 190 m > 190 5%
An ecologist sets up an experiment to collect
data for a hypothesis test of whether the climate
(ii) 10 10 47.5 m = 55 m < 55 1% is getting hotter. She selects at random twenty
(iii) 15 25 104.7 m = 100 m ≠ 100 10% June days over a five-year period and records
(iv) 4.3 15 34.5 m = 32 m > 32 2% the midday temperature. Her results (in °C) are
as follows.
(v) 40 12 345 m = 370 m ≠ 370 5%
20.1 26.2 23.3 28.9 30.4 28.4 17.3
22.7 25.1 24.2 15.4 26.3 19.3 24.0
② A machine is designed to make paperclips with
19.9 30.3 32.1 26.7 27.6 23.1
mean mass 4.00 g and standard deviation 0.08 g.
The distribution of the masses of the paperclips (i) State the null and alternative hypotheses
is Normal. Find the following. that the ecologist should use.
(i) The probability that an individual (ii) Carry out the test at the 10% significance
paperclip, chosen at random, has mass level and state the conclusion.
greater than 4.04 g. (iii) Calculate the standard deviation of the
(ii)The probability that the mean mass of a sample data and comment on it.
random sample of 25 paperclips is greater ⑤ A zoo has a long established colony of a
than 4.04 g. particular type of rodent which is threatened
A quality control officer weighs a random with extinction in the wild. Observations over
sample of 25 paperclips and finds their total several years indicate that the life expectancy
mass to be 101.2 g. for the rodent is 470 days, with standard
(iii)
Conduct a hypothesis test at the 5% deviation 45 days. The staff at the zoo suspects
significance level to find out whether this that the life expectancy can be increased by
provides evidence of an increase in the improvements to the rodents’ environment.
mean mass of the paperclips. State your As an experiment they allow 36 individuals to
null and alternative hypotheses clearly. spend their whole lives in new surroundings.
Their lifetimes are as follows.
③ It is known that the mass of a certain type
of lizard has a Normal distribution with 491 505 523 470 468 567 512
mean 72.7 g and standard deviation 4.8 g. A 560 468 498 471 444 511 508
zoologist finds a colony of lizards in a remote 508 421 465 499 486 513 500
place and is not sure whether they are of the 488 487 455 523 516 486 478
same type. In order to test this, she collects a
470 465 487 572 451 513 483
sample of 12 lizards and weighs them, with the
following results. 474
80.4, 67.2, 74.9, 78.8, 76.5, 75.5, 80.2, (i) What do you need to assume about the
81.9, 79.3, 70.0, 69.2, 69.1 parent population of lifetimes, of which
the 36 is regarded as a random sample?
(i) Write down, in precise form, the zoologist’s
null and alternative hypotheses, and state (ii) State the null and alternative hypotheses
which these data have been collected to test.
whether a 1-tail or 2-tail test is appropriate.
389
 Interpreting sample data using the Normal distribution
(iii)
Carry out the test at the 2% significance (i) Write down a distributional assumption
level and state the conclusion. for the test to be valid.
(iv) How could increased longevity help the (ii) Write down suitable null and alternative
rodent population to survive? hypotheses.
⑥ Some years ago the police did a large survey (iii) Carry out the test at the 2.5% significance
of the speeds of motorists along a stretch of level and state the conclusion that the
motorway, timing cars between two bridges. lighthouse keeper would have come to.
They concluded that their mean speed was (iv)Criticise the sampling procedure used by
80 mph with standard deviation 10 mph. the keeper and suggest a better one.
Recently the police wanted to investigate ⑧ The packaging on a type of electric light bulb
whether there had been any change in states that the average lifetime of the bulbs is
motorists’ mean speed. They timed the first 1000 hours. A consumer association thinks
20 green cars between the same two bridges that this is an overestimate and tests a random
and calculated their speeds (in mph) to be as sample of 64 bulbs, recording the lifetime, in
follows. hours, of each bulb. You may assume that the
85 75 80 102 78 96 124 distribution of the bulbs’ lifetimes is Normal.
70 68 92 84 69 73 78 The results are summarised as follows.
86 92 108 78 80 84
n = 64 ∑ x=63 910.4
(i) State an assumption you need to make
about the speeds of motorists in the survey ∑ x=2
63 824 061
for the test to be valid. (i) Calculate the mean and standard deviation
(ii) State suitable null and alternative of the data.
hypotheses and use the sample data to (ii) State suitable null and alternative
carry out a hypothesis test at the 5% hypotheses to test whether the statement
significance level. State the conclusion. on the packaging is overestimating the
One of the police officers involved in the lifetime of this type of bulb.
investigation says that one of the cars in the (iii) Carry out the test, at the 5% significance
sample was being driven exceptionally fast and level, stating your conclusions carefully.
that its speed should not be included within the
⑨ A sample of 40 observations from a Normal
sample data. distribution X gave x∑24=
(iii)
Would the removal of this outlier alter the and ∑x =2 . Performing
596 a two-tail
conclusion?
test at the 5% level, test whether the mean of
⑦ The keepers of a lighthouse were required to the distribution is zero.
keep records of weather conditions. Analysis of
⑩ A random sample of 75 eleven-year-olds
their data from many years showed the visibility
performed a simple task and the time taken,
at midday to have a mean value of 14 sea miles
with standard deviation 5.4 sea miles. A new
t minutes, was noted for each. You may assume
that the distribution of these times is Normal.
keeper decided he would test his theory that
the air had become less clear (and so visibility The results are summarised as follows.
reduced) by carrying out a hypothesis test on n = 75 ∑ t=1215 ∑ t=2 21708
data collected for his first 36 days on duty. (i) Calculate the mean and standard deviation
His figures (in sea miles) were as follows. of the data.
35 21 12 7 2 1.5 (ii) State suitable null and alternative
1.5 1 0.25 0.25 15 17 hypotheses to test whether there is
18 20 16 11 8 8 evidence that the mean time taken to
9 17 35 35 4 0.25 perform this task is greater than 15 minutes.
0.25 5 11 28 35 35 (iii) Carry out the test, at the 1% significance
16 2 1 0.5 0.5 1 level, stating your conclusions carefully.

390
⑪ Bags of sugar are supposed to contain, on average,
2kg of sugar. A quality controller suspects that
they actually contain less than this amount, and
so 90 bags are taken at random and the mass, x kg,
Name the type of distribution in this
conjecture.
Table 17.5 summarises the Avonford cyclists data.
17
of sugar in each is measured. You may assume that
Table 17.5
the distribution of these masses is Normal. Day Frequency

gnitset sisehtopyh lacitsitatS 71 retpahC

The results are summarised as follows. Monday 19
n = 90 ∑ x=177.9 ∑ x=2 353.1916 Tuesday 21
(i) Calculate the mean and standard deviation Wednesday 14
of the data.
Thursday 8
(ii) State suitable null and alternative Friday 10
hypotheses to test whether there is any
evidence that the sugar is being sold Saturday 12
‘underweight’. Sunday 8
(iii) Carry out the test, at the 2% significance Sally carries out a test with the following
level, stating your conclusions carefully.
hypotheses.
⑫ A machine produces jars of skin cream, filled
H0: The probability is the same for each day
to a nominal volume of 100 ml. The machine
of the week.
is supposed to be set to 105 ml, to ensure
that most jars actually contain more than the H1: The probability is not the same for each
nominal volume of 100 ml. You may assume day of the week.
that the distribution of the volume of skin The test statistic comes out to be 12.24.
cream in a jar is Normal. Critical values for this test for different
To check that the machine is correctly set, significance levels are given in Table 17.6.
80 jars are chosen at random and the volume,
x ml, of skin cream in each is measured.
Table 17.6
The results are summarised as follows. Significance level 10% 5% 2.5% 1%

n = 80 ∑ x=8376 ∑ x=2 877687 Critical value 10.64 12.59 14.45 16.81

(i) Calculate the mean and standard deviation (ii) What should Sally conclude from the test?
of the data. Robin’s conjecture, based on conversations
(ii) State suitable null and alternative with people from other areas, is that cycling
hypotheses for a test of whether the accidents are more common on weekdays
machine is set correctly. than at weekends, and so the probability of an
(iii) Carry out the test, at the 10% significance accident occurring on a weekday is greater
level, stating your conclusions carefully. than 5 .
7

Working with a large data set (iii) Give a common sense reason why cycling
accident rates on weekdays might be
⑬ Sally and Robin have slightly different different from those at the weekend.
conjectures about the probabilities of accidents (iv) Use a Normal approximation to
on different days of the week. the distribution B(92, 5 to find the
7)
Sally’s conjecture is that an accident is equally probability of a number of weekday
likely to occur on any day of the week. accidents at least as great as the number in
(i) Using Sally’s conjecture, write down the the Avonford data.
probability of an accident occurring on (v) Robin uses this probability in a hypothesis
any particular day. test at the 5% significance level.
Hence write down the expected number State the null and alternative hypotheses
of accidents on each day of the week for a for this test, and interpret the result.
total of 92 accidents.

391
 Bivariate data: correlation and association

2 Bivariate data: correlation and

association
Bivariate data are typically displayed on a scatter diagram and this gives an
informal impression of whether there is any correlation or association between
the two variables, and, if so, of its direction.

Vocabulary
The relationship is described as correlation when
■ a change in the value of one of the variables is likely to be accompanied by
a broadly related change in the other variable
■ the relationship is linear
■ both variables are random.
Correlation is a special case of association. This is a more general term covering
relationships that are not necessarily linear and where one of the variables need
Note not be random.
Association does Correlation and association are described as positive when both the variables
not have to be either increase or decrease together, and as negative when an increase in one is
positive or negative. accompanied by a decrease in the other.

Discussion point A C

➜ Describe the
relationships
between the
variables in the four
scatter diagrams in
Figure 17.7.
DB

Figure 17.7

Measuring correlation
In both A and C in Figure 17.7 it looks as though there is strong correlation
between the variables. The points lie reasonably close to straight lines, but how
can you measure it?

392
 Note The usual measure of correlation is Pearson’s product moment correlation
coefficient (pmcc).You should be able to enter a bivariate data set into your
The name Pearson is calculator and obtain the value of the pmcc.
often omitted and it is
common to abbreviate You can calculate the value of the pmcc by hand. The notation commonly used
‘product moment is as follows.
correlation coefficient’ The size of the data set is n.
to ‘pmcc’. ■

■ The data items are (x 1, y 1), (x 2, y 2) ... (x n, y n ).

■ The general data item is (x i, y i ).
■ Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient is denoted by r.

Using this notation,

To see how this formula arises, look at this scatter diagram in Figure 17.8.
Your calculator
does not know
anything about the
source of the data you
enter and so will give
you a value for the
correlation coefficient
whether or not the
conditions for
correlation apply. It is
up to you to check
that first.

Figure 17.8
There are 10 points; the mean of their x values is 17 and of their y values is 10.
So the mean point, (x y), , is (17, 10) and this can be thought of as a new origin,

Note with the red lines, x = 17 and y = 10, as new axes, dividing the graph up into
4 quadrants.
The point (x, y) has a Relative to these axes the coordinates of a point that was (x, y) are now
moment of (x − 17) (x − 17, y − 10).
about the vertical axis
and of (y − 10) about If you just look at the 8 points that are now in the first and third quadrants there
the horizontal axis. appears to be quite a strong positive correlation. However, there are two other
So (x − 17)(y − 10)
is called its product points, one in the 2nd quadrant and the other in the 4th quadrant for which this
moment. is not the case. So the 1st and 3rd quadrants show positive correlation and the
2nd and 4th negative correlation.

ACTIVITY 17.2
(i) Work out the value of the product x( − 17 )(y − 10 ) for the point (20, 8).
(ii) Show that ∑ (x − 17 )(y − 10 ), i.e. the sum of the products for all the
10 points on the scatter diagram, comes out to be 77.

393
 Bivariate data: correlation and association

Note The value of 78 you obtained in Activity 17.2 is positive and so that indicates
that the overall correlation is positive but it does not make any allowance for the
78 7.8 size of the data set or for the spread of the two variables.
10 =
■ To allow for the number of items in the data set, you divide by n.
Note ■ To allow for their spread, you divide by the root mean square deviation
(rmsd) for each of the variables. In this example they are
Reminder. the rmsd =
15 3.872 ... for x and 8 2.828 = ... for y.
for x is given by
So the product moment correlation coefficient for the data in the scatter
∑ (xi x− )2

rmsd =
n , diagram is 0.712.
as on page 325.
ACTIVITY 17.3
Note Generalise the work in the above example to obtain the formula
7.8 ∑ (xi x−y y)( i − )
15 × 8
= 0.712 r =
( − )× ( − )
.
∑ xi x 2
∑ yi y 2

Note If the points on the scatter diagram all lie on a sloping straight line, there is
If you calculate a value perfect correlation.
of r and it comes out
to be outside the −1 ■ If the gradient of the line is positive the value of r works out to be +1,
to 1 range, you have corresponding to perfect positive correlation.
definitely made a If the gradient of the line is negative, r = − 1 and there is perfect negative
mistake. ■
correlation.
These are the extreme cases. For all bivariate data −1 < < r +.1
Note
There are two other ways that the formula for the pmcc is currently written.
All three are equivalent.
∑ (xi x−y y)( i − ) ∑ xi yi n−x y Sxy
r= = =
∑ (xi x− ) × ∑ (yi y− )
2 2
(∑ xi nx− )(∑ yi ny− ) SxxSyy
2 2 22

where Sxx = ∑ (xi x− ) , Syy = ∑ (yi y− ) , as given on page 325.

2 2

and Sxy = ∑ (xi x−y y)( i − . )

Interpreting the product moment correlation

coefficient
The product moment correlation coefficient provides a measure of the
correlation between the two variables. There are two different ways in which it
is commonly used and interpreted.
When the data cover the whole of a population the correlation coefficient tells
you all that there is to be known about the level of correlation between the
variables in the population and is denoted by r.
The symbol is the Greek
r
letter rho, pronounced
‘row’ as in ‘row a boat’. It is
equivalent to rh.
394
The term ‘big data’ is
used to discribe a very
large data set.
The same is true for a very large sample. This is a common situation with
big data where the calculation is carried out by computer and might cover
millions of data items. Such data sets are often not just bivariate but multivariate
covering many fields. It is quite common to find unexpected correlations but at
17
a low level, say less than 0.1, as well as those expected at a higher level, say 0.5.
The level of such correlations
is called the effect size; it is y
beyond the scope of this book.
A different situation occurs when
a reasonably small sample is taken
from a bivariate population as in
Figure 17.9.
In this case the value of the
sample correlation coefficient
may be used
■ either to estimate the this item is in
the sample
correlation coefficient, r, in
the parent population, x
■ or to test whether there is
any correlation.
Figure 17.9

Using the sample correlation coefficient

as a test statistic
The correlation coefficient may be used as the test statistic in a test of the null
hypothesis
H0 : r = 0 There is no correlation between the variables
against one of three possible alternative hypotheses.
1 H : r ≠ 0 There is correlation between the variables (2-tail test)
1

2 H1: r > 0 There is positive correlation between the variables (1-tail test)
3 H1: r < 0 There is negative correlation between the variables (1-tail test)
The test is carried out by comparing the value of r with the appropriate critical
value. This depends on the sample size, the significance level of the test and
whether it is 1- or 2-tail. Critical values can be found from statistical software or
tables.
The next example shows such a test.

Example 17.5 Here is a letter to a newspaper.

Dear Sir,
The trouble with young people these days is that they spend too much time
watching TV. They just sit there gawping and as a result they become steadily
less intelligent. I challenge you to carry out a proper test and I am sure you will
find that the more TV children watch the less intelligent they are.
Yours truly,
Concerned Citizen

395
 Bivariate data: correlation and association
A reporter on the newspaper manages to collect the following data for six
children.
Table 17.7
Hours of TV, x 9 11 14 7 10 9
IQ, y 142 112 100 126 109 89
Note The reporter then sets about conducting the ‘proper test’ that the letter
This example is writer requested. She uses a 5% significance level.
designed just to show
you how to do the (i) State the null and alternative hypotheses and describe the test.
calculations, and no (ii) Determine the critical value.
more. A sample of size
6 is so tiny that using it (iii) Calculate the product moment correlation coefficient for the data.
would be bad practice. (iv) Carry out the test and comment on the result
.

Solution
(i) Null hypothesis, H 0: r = 0 There is no correlation between
hours watching TV and IQ.
Alternative hypothesis H 1: r < 0 There is negative correlation
between hours watching TV
and IQ.
The test is 1-tailed.
(ii) The critical value for n 6= for a 1-tail test at the 5% significance
level is found from the table in Figure 17.10 to be 0.7293.

5% 21 1% 1
1-tail test
2% 2%
10% 5% 2% 1% 2-tail test
n
1 − − − −
2 − − − −
3 0.9877 0.9969 0.9995 0.9999
4 0.9000 0.9500 0.9800 0.9900
5 0.8054 0.8783 0.9343 0.9587
6 0.7293 0.8114 0.8822 0.9172
7 0.6694 0.7545 0.8329 0.8745
8 0.6215 0.7067 0.7887 0.8343
9 0.5822 0.6664 0.7498 0.7977
10 0.5494 0.6319 0.7155 0.7646
11 0.5214 0.6021 0.6851 0.7348
12 0.4973 0.5760 0.6581 0.7079
13 0.4762 0.5529 0.6339 0.6835
14 0.4575 0.5324 0.6120 0.6614
15 0.4409 0.5140 0.5923 0.6411
Figure 17.10

396
 (iii) Start by working out x and y .

x
( +++++
= 9 11 14 7 10 9
6
) 60
==
6 10
17
( + + + ++ )
y = 142 112 100 126 109 89 = =679 113
6 6

The calculation is then continued in Table 17.8.

Table 17.8
x x x− (x x− )2 y y y− (y y− )2 (x) x− y− y ( )
9 −1 1 142 29 841 −29
11 1 1 112 −1 1 −1
14 4 16 100 −13 169 −52
7 −3 9 126 13 169 −39
10 0 0 109 −4 16 0
9 −1 1 89 −24 576 24
∑ = 28 ∑ = 1778 ∑ = −97

∑ (xi x−y y)( i − )

Substituting into r =
∑ (xi x− × ) ∑ (yi y− )
2 2

−97
gives r =
×
= − 0.4347
28 1778
(iv) The critical value is −0.7293 and the value of r of −0.4347 is
less extreme.
So there is not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis in
favour of the alternative hypothesis.
The evidence does not support the letter writer’s conjecture.

Correlation and causation

In the example above, the letter writer said ‘They just sit there gawping and as a
result they become steadily less intelligent’. This was thus suggesting that watching
television causes children to become less intelligent. Even if the result of the test
had been significant, it would not have shown this. It is only one among many
possible explanations. Another might be that the less intelligent children were
set less homework and so had more time to watch television. No doubt you can
think of other possible explanations.
In general, although there may be a high level of correlation between variables
A and B, it does not mean that A causes B or that B causes A. It may well be
that a third variable, C, causes both A and B, or it may be that there is a more
complicated set of relationships.

397
 Bivariate data: correlation and association
As an example, gures for the years 1985 to 1993 showed a high correlation
between the sales of personal computers and those for microwave ovens. There
is of course no direct connection between the two variables. You would be quite
wrong to conclude that buying a microwave oven predisposes you to buy a
computer as well, or vice versa.
This is an important point: just because there is a correlation between two
variables, it does not mean that one causes the other. It is summed up by the
saying
‘Correlation does not imply causation.’

Measuring association
You have seen that in some bivariate data sets there is association but not
correlation between the variables. It may be that the relationship is non-linear
or it may be that one of the variables is non-random. So sometimes you need a
measure of association rather than correlation.
Such a measure can be found by a two-step process:
■ rank each of the variables
■ then work out the product moment correlation coeecient for the ranks.
The resulting measure is sometimes called a rank correlation coeecient
although a more accurate description would be an association coeecient.
Sometimes your data will already be ranked and so the rst step in this process is
not needed, as in the example that follows.

THE AVONFORD STAR

Punch-up at the village fete

Pandemonium broke out at the Normanton village fete last Saturday when the adjudication for the
Tomato of the Year competition was announced. The two judges completely failed to agree in their
rankings and so a compromise winner was chosen to the fury of everybody (except the winner).
Following the announcement there was a moment of stunned silence, followed by shouts of
‘Rubbish’, ‘It’s a fix’, ‘Go home’ and further abuse. Then the tomatoes started to fly and before
long fighting broke out.
By the time police arrived on the scene ten people were injured, including last year’s winner Bert
Wallis who lost three teeth in the scrap. Both judges had escaped unhurt.
Angry Bert Wallis, nursing a badly bruised jaw, said ‘The competition was a nonsense. The judges
were useless. Their failure to agree shows that they did not know what they were looking for’. But
fete organiser Margaret Bramble said this was untrue. ‘The competition was completely fair; both
judges know a good tomato when they see one,’ she claimed.

The judgement that caused all the trouble was as follows.

Table 17.9
Tomato A B C D E F G H
Judge 1 1 8 4 6 2 5 7 3
Judge 2 7 2 3 4 6 8 1 5
Total 8 10 7 10 8 13 8 8
Winner

398
 You can see that both judges ranked the eight entrances 1st, 2nd, 3rd, … , 8th.
The winner, C, was placed 4th by one judge and 3rd by the other. Overall the
rankings of the two judges do look different so perhaps they were using different
criteria on which to assess the tomatoes. A coefficient of association (or of rank
17
correlation) might be helpful in deciding whether this was the case.

ACTIVITY 17.4
Show that the product moment correlation coefficient of the ranks in the table
above is −0.690.
Although you can carry out the calculation as in Example 17.5, it is usually done
a different way.
Denoting the two sets of ranks by x 1x,2 ,..., n x and y 1y,2 ,...,
y n , the coefficient of
association is given by
6∑ di2
rs = −1
n (n 2 − 1)
where
■ r s is called Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
■ d i is the difference in the ranks for a general data item x( y)i ,i ; d x iyi i= −
■ n is the number of items of data.
The calculation of d∑i can
2
then be set out in a table like this.
Table 17.10
Tomato Judge 1, xi Judge 2, x2 d i= x i− y i d 2i
A 1 7 −6 36
B 8 2 6 36
C 4 3 1 1
Note D 6 4 2 4
If several items are E 2 6 −4 16
ranked equally you give F
them the mean of the 5 8 −3 9
ranks they would have G 7 1 6 36
had if they had been H 3 5 −2 4
slightly different from
each other. ∑ d=i 142
2

×
The value of n is 8, so rs = −1 6 142 2 = − 0.690
(
881 − )
You will notice that this is the same answer as you found in Activity 17.4.
With a little algebra you can prove that the two methods are equivalent.

399
 Bivariate data: correlation and association
Using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is often used as a test statistic for a
hypothesis test of
H0 : There is no association between the variables
against one of three possible alternative hypotheses:
either H1 : There is association between the variables (2-tail test)
or H1 : There is positive association between the variables (1-tail test)
or H1 : There is negative association between the variables (1-tail test)
The test is carried out by comparing the value of rs with the appropriate critical
value. This depends on the sample size, the significance level of the test and
whether it is 1- or 2-tail. Critical values can be found from statistical software or
tables.
Once you have found the value of rs , this test follows the same procedure as that
for correlation. However, the tables of critical values are not the same and so you
need to be careful that you are using the right ones.

Historical note

Karl Pearson was one of the founders of

modern statistics. Born in 1857, he was a
man of varied interests and practised law for
three years before being appointed Professor
of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics at
University College, London in 1884. Pearson
made contributions to various branches of
mathematics but is particularly remembered
for his work on the application of statistics to
biological problems in heredity and evolution.
He died in 1936.
Figure 17.11 Karl Pearson
Charles Spearman was born in London in
1863. After serving 14 years in the army
as a cavalry officer, he went to Leipzig
to study psychology. On completing his
doctorate there he became a lecturer,
and soon afterwards a professor also at
University College, London. He pioneered
the application of statistical techniques
within psychology and developed the
technique known as factor analysis in order
to analyse different aspects of human
ability. He died in 1945.
Figure 17.12 Charles Spearman

400
 Exercise 17.2
① These three scatter diagrams in Figure 17.13 In each case
17
cover all the countries of the world. Each (a) Describe the relationship as
point is one country. The variables are life Correlation, Association or Neither.
expectancy, birth rate and mean GDP per
person.
(b) Explain your decision, adding
any relevant comments about the
(a) For each scatter diagram describe suggested data set.
the relationship between the two
variables.
(i) X The age of a girl who is no more
than 20
(b) Interpret each of these diagrams in Y Her height
terms of what is happening around the
world.
(ii) X The date in May one year
Y The temperature at noon at a particular
(i) y place in England
Birthrate (per 1000 people)

50
45
40
(iii) X The score on one of two dice that are
35
rolled together
30 Y The score on the other one
25
20
15
(iv) X The distance between service stations
10 on the same motorway
5
0
Y The time it takes to travel between
0 20 40 60 80 100 x them
Life expectancy at birth (years)
(v) X Temperatures in Celsius, every 10° from
0° to 100°
(ii) y
Y The equivalent temperatures in
birth (years)

100
90 Fahrenheit
(vi) X A person’s age
80
70
Y The length of time that person has left
expectancy

60
at

50
40 to live
③ A small set of bivariate data points (xi, yi ) are
30
20
Life

10 plotted on the scatter diagram in Figure 17.14.

0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 x The two variables are both random.
Mean GDP per person (US$)
y
10
(iii) y 9
Birthrate (per 1000 people)

50 8
40 7
6
30
5
20 4
10 3
2
0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 x 1
Mean GDP per person (US$) 0 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x

Figure 17.13 Figure 17.14

② Several sources of possible bivariate data sets (i) Describe any possible correlation.
are listed as (i) to (vi). The two variables are
designated X and Y.
(ii) Find the values of x and y .
(iii) Show that ∑ (xi x−y y)( i − ) = 51.

401
 Bivariate data: correlation and association
④ Sachin conducts a chemistry experiment; his ⑥ Charlotte is a campaigner for temperance,
readings form a bivariate data set which he believing that drinking alcohol is an evil habit.
plots on the scatter diagram in Figure 17.15. Michel, a representative of a wine company,
He works out the correlation coefficient for all presents her with these figures which he claims
16 readings. It is −0.761. show that wine drinking is good for marriages.
y
18
Table 17.11
17 Wine consump- Divorce rate
16 tion (litres per (per 1000
15 Country person per year) inhabitants)
14 Belgium 20 2.0
13
Denmark 20 2.7
12
11 Germany 26 2.2
10 Greece 33 0.6
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20x
Figure 17.15 Italy 63 0.4
Portugal 54 0.9

Sachin says ‘The pmcc shows there is strong Spain 41 0.6

negative correlation between the variables’. UK 13 2.9
Is he correct? Justify your answer.
⑤ A sports reporter believes that those who are (i) Write Michel’s claim in the form of a
good at the high jump are also good at the hypothesis test.
long jump, and vice versa. He collects data For these data r = −0.854. At the 1%
on the best performances of nine athletes significance level, the critical values for
and carries out a hypothesis test, using a n = 8 are 0.789 (1-tail) and 0.834 (2-tail).
5% significance level. (ii) Carry out the test.
Table 17.10 (iii) Charlotte claims that Michel is indulging
Athlete High jump (m) Long jump (m) in ‘pseudo-statistics’.What arguments
could she use to support this point of
A 2.0 8.0
view?
B 2.1 7.6
⑦ The manager of a company wishes to evaluate
C 1.8 6.4 the success of its training programme. One
D 2.1 6.8 aspect which interests her is to see if there
E 1.8 5.8 is any relationship between the amount of
F
training given to employees and the length
1.9 8.0
of time they stay with the company before
G 1.6 5.5 moving on to jobs elsewhere. She does not
H 1.8 5.5 want to waste company money training
I 1.8 6.6 people who will shortly leave. At the same
time she believes that the more training
(i) State suitable null and alternative employees are given, the longer they will stay.
hypotheses. She collects data on the average number of
days training given per year to 25 employees
For these data r = 0.715. At the 5% who have recently left for other jobs, and the
significance level, the critical values for n = 9 length of time they worked for the company.
are 0.582 (1-tail) and 0.666 (2-tail).
(ii) Carry out the test and comment on the
result.

402
Table 17.12
Training
(days/year)
2.0
Work
(days)
354
⑧ Each point on the scatter diagram in Figure
17.16 shows a measurement of the height, h,
of a balloon in hundreds of metres at time
t minutes after it was released from ground
17
level. The observations were not all made on
4.0 820
the same day.
0.1 78
y
5.6 1480 1000

9.1 980 900

800
2.6 902
700
0.0 134 600

hm
2.6 252 500

7.2 867 400

300
3.4 760
200
1.8 125 100
0.0 28 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 x
5.7 1360 t min

7.2 1520 Figure 17.16

7.5 1380
3.0 121
(i) Explain why it would be appropriate to
calculate Spearman’s rank correlation
2.8 457
coefficient for this data set but not the
1.2 132 product moment correlation coefficient.
4.5 1365 (ii) Find Spearman’s rank correlation
1.0 52 coefficient. What can you conclude from
7.8 1080 its value?
3.7 508 ⑨ During their course two trainee tennis coaches,
Rachel and Leroy, were shown videos of seven
10.9 1281
people, A, B, ... , G, doing a top spin serve and
3.8 945 were asked to rank them in order according to the
2.9 692 quality of their style. They placed them as follows.
Table 17.13
(i) Plot the data on a scatter diagram.
A B C D E F G
(ii) State suitable null and alternative
hypotheses. Rachel’s rank 5 1 6 4 7 3 2
For these data r = 0.807. At the 5% Leroy’s rank 6 2 7 3 4 1 5
significance level, the critical values for
n = 25 are 0.3365 (1-tail) and 0.3961 (i) Calculate the product moment correlation
(2-tail).
coefficient of the ranks from Rachel and
(iii) Carry out the hypothesis test at the 5% Leroy.
significance level.
6 ∑ di
2

(iv) What conclusions would you come to if (ii) Use the formula r s = −1
n (n )2 − 1
you were the manager?
to calculate Spearman’s rank correlation
coefficient for their ranks.
(iii) Comment on your answers to parts (i)
and (ii).

403
 Bivariate data: correlation and association
⑩ The two variables in a bivariate data set are
both random. Their values are denoted by x i
Working with a large data set
⑬ The two variables represented in the scatter diagram
and y i . You are given that in Figure 17.17 are the age of cyclists and their
distance from home, in km, when they had their
accidents. The data are taken from the Avonford
cycling accidents data set. Two extreme data items are
not shown on the scatter diagram and two outliers
have been excluded from the data set. A spreadsheet
Find the value of the product moment has been used to draw the scatter diagram.
correlation coefficient for this set. Dave Smith
37 years 23 km
⑪ The two variables in the bivariate data set Millie Smith
given in Table 17.14 are both random. 88 years 3.2 km
Table 17.14
x y
1 5
4 0
6 2
4 1
Figure 17.17
10 12
(i) Identify two different actions that have
3 3 been taken in cleaning the data.
3 7 (ii) State whether each of the variables is
3 4 random or non-random.
4 2 (iii) Identify one feature of the scatter diagram
which suggests that some of the distances
2 4
have been rounded to the nearest kilometre.
Describe the rounding that has occurred
(i) Find Pearson’s product moment for the cyclists’ ages.
correlation coefficient.
(iv) As the scatter diagram is drawn, which is
(ii) Find Spearman’s rank correlation the independent variable and which the
coefficient. dependent?
(iii) Plot the data points on a scatter diagram. Explain why it is reasonable to draw the
(iv) Comment on the difference between your diagram in this way, rather than with the
answers to parts (i) and (ii). variables on the other axes.
Is it possible to say which is the more Robin says,‘I think that older people tend to
informative measure? have accidents further from home’.
He uses suitable software to carry out a
⑫ Here are three different formulae for calculating
the product moment correlation coefficient. hypothesis test for positive association, based
on the ranks of this variables. It reports the test
result as a p-value of 3.7 × 10−9.
(v) Write down the null and alternative
hypotheses for the test and interpret the result
in terms of the situation being investigated.
Robin also uses the spreadsheet to calculate
the product moment correlation coefficient for
the data. It is 0.316.
(vi) Comment on whether this figure should
Prove algebraically that they are all equivalent. improve Robin’s understanding of the
situation.
404
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
17
➤ carry out a hypothesis test for the proportion, p, of a binomial distribution
know the distribution of the mean of samples of size n from a Normal
distribution
➤

carry out a hypothesis test for a single mean using the Normal distribution,
using either a p-value or a critical region
➤

❍where the population variance is known

❍where the population variance is unknown but the sample size is large
➤ identify the critical and acceptance regions for a hypothesis test
➤ understand the meaning of correlation, association and rank correlation
use a given correlation coefficient for a sample to make an inference
about correlation or association in the population for a given p-value or
➤

critical value
➤ know that correlation does not imply causation.

KEY POINTS
1 Steps for conducting a hypothesis test
■Establish the null and alternative hypotheses.
■Decide on the significance level.
Collect suitable data using a random sampling procedure that ensures the
items are independent.
■

Use the data to determine the test statistic. This is the measure that will
be used to decide whether the test is significant.
■

■Conduct the test doing the necessary calculations. Then:

either work out the p-value, the probability of a result at least as
extreme as that obtained, and compare it with the significance level
❍

or work out the critical value for the particular significance level and
compare it with the test statistic
❍

or work out the critical (or rejection) region for the particular
significance level and determine whether the test statistic lies within
❍

it or outside it in the acceptance region. (The terms rejection and

acceptance refer to the null hypothesis.)
■Interpret the result in terms of the original claim, theory or problem.
2 Hypothesis test for the proportion of a binomial distribution
Sample data may be used to carry out a hypothesis test on the null
hypothesis that the proportion, p, in a binomial distribution has some
■

particular value.
The test statistic for a binomial test is the number of successes during
the trial.
■

To find the critical region it is usual to find the cumulative probability and
compare it with the significance level, and many calculators have the
■

facility to do this.
3 Hypothesis test for the mean of a Normal distribution
For samples of size n drawn from a Normal distribution with mean m and
variance s , the distribution of sample means is Normal with mean m and
■
2

variance

405
 Bivariate data: correlation and association

■ Sample data may be used to carry out a hypothesis test on the null
hypothesis that the population mean has some particular value m 0, i.e.
H 0: m = m 0.
= x
−m
■ The test statistic z s is used. 0

n
■ Software packages
cumulative Normal and many calculators
distribution zF(. )
have the facility to calculate the
4 Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient (pmcc)
■ Softwaremoment
product packagescorrelation
and manycoefficient
calculators(pmcc),
have the
r.
facility to calculate the
■ Alternativelyformulae
equivalent you can do the calculation by hand using one of three

■ If theasdataa test
used are statistic
drawn from a bivariatecorrelation
for population Normal distribution the pmcc can be
H 0: r = 0
H 1: r < 0 or r > 0 (1-tail tests) or r ≠ 0 (2-tail test)
The test requires access to critical values, using tables or a suitable
software package.
5 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
■ Spearman’s rank correlation coefficent is a measure of association.
■ It can be calculated using the formula
6∑ di2
rs = −1
n (n 2 − 1)
■ r s can be used as a test statistic.
■ The test requires
software package.access to critical values, using tables or a suitable
6 Hypothesis testing checklist
■ Was the test set up before or after the data were known?
■ Was the sample involved chosen at random and are the data independent?
■ Is the statistical procedure actually testing the original claim?

406
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS: STATISTICS
Questions 3 and 8 are based on large data sets published by MEI and located at
www.mei.org.uk/data-sets. You may find it valuable to visit this site and familiarise yourself
with the data sets.
PS ① A story carried on a news website in 2017 had the headline ‘Women work
39 days a year more than men’. It went on to say that women work, on
average, 50 minutes per day more than men. The extra minutes worked
by women per day compared to men is shown in Figure 1 for each of
29 different countries.

Figure 1
(i) Discuss briefly whether or not the chart supports the figure quoted of
50 minutes per day. [2 marks]
(ii) Determine whether or not the figure of 50 minutes per day is
consistent with headline figure of 39 days per year. [2 marks]

② A textbook on agriculture has a chapter

on statistics with the diagram shown 95%
in Figure 2. 2.5% 2.5%
2σ
The text below the diagram states that
‘in a Normal distribution 95% of the
distribution is within 1 standard deviation Figure 2
of the mean’.
Correct this statement and suggest how the diagram should be modified.
[2 marks]

407
 Practice questions: Statistics
M PS ③ Table 1 and Figure 3 are based on a data set about slugs. They show,
for each month of the year, the numbers of slugs of a particular species
observed in the categories ‘Hatchling’, ‘Immature’ and ‘Adult’.The
observations were made by volunteers in Britain. Month 1 is January.
Table 1
Month Hatchling Immature Adult
1 6 7 0
2 26 53 30
3 38 133 26
4 106 196 83 Numbers of slugs observed
250
5 83 223 95 Key:
6 79 197 104 200 Hatchling
Immature
7 59 206 114 150
Adult
8 50 169 93 100
9 61 235 107
50
10 51 191 99
0
11 59 209 93 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12 50 47 35 Figure 3
(i) Suggest two possible reasons for the fact that the numbers of observations
are low at the beginning and the end of the year. [2 marks]
(ii) Identify, for the Adult category, a figure that appears to be inconsistent
with the general pattern of observations over the year. How would you
account for this inconsistency? [2 marks]
(iii) The information given with the data says that some species of slugs have
an annual life cycle. Discuss briefly whether or not the data suggest an
annual life cycle is a reasonable model for this species. [2 marks]
④ At my local supermarket there are two check-outs. I always choose
whichever check-out looks as though it will serve me more quickly. Past
experience suggests that I get this correct about 65% of the time.
(i) Find the probability that, in a random sample of 10 visits, I choose the
correct check-out on more than half of the occasions. [2 marks]
The supermarket intends to open a third check-out, but I suspect that
having a third check-out will make it harder to choose the quickest.
(ii)Write down the null and alternative hypotheses for a statistical test
I could carry out. [2 marks]
Suppose that in a random sample of 20 visits after the third check-out has
been introduced I correctly choose the quickest check-out on k occasions.
(iii) Find the set of values of k for which I should decide, using a 1%
significance level, that it is now harder to choose the quickest
check-out. [3 marks]
(iv) In fact, rather than taking a random sample of 20 visits, I am
considering using my first 20 visits after the third check-out is opened
as my sample. Discuss briefly whether or not doing that would
invalidate the statistical test. [2 marks]

408
 ⑤ In a test of manual dexterity, children are asked to carry out three particular
tasks as quickly as possible.
A model for a child’s performance assumes that successes are independent
with probabilities of 0.4, 0.7 and 0.8 for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd tasks respectively.
(i) Use the model to calculate the following probabilities for a randomly
chosen child:
(a) the child is successful on exactly two tasks [2 marks]
(b) the child is successful on at least one task. [2 marks]
(ii)
Given that the child is successful on at least one task, find the
probability that the child is successful on all three tasks. [3 marks]
⑥ A farmer is investigating the yield per plant of a particular variety of potato,
A, that he grows. He estimates that 15% of plants yield over 4 kg of potatoes,
and that 20% of plants yield less than 2 kg.
(i) Assuming that the yields are Normally distributed, obtain estimates of
the mean and standard deviation for variety A. [4 marks]
The farmer is considering growing a new variety of potato, B, hoping for a
higher yield per plant. He discovers data from an agricultural research centre
stating that, for variety B, the mean yield is 3.2 kg with a standard deviation
of 0.9 kg. However, the farmer suspects that he won’t be able to achieve a
mean as high as that because his land has low fertility. He decides to carry
out a trial with variety B and to use an appropriate hypothesis test.
(ii) State the null and alternative hypotheses that the farmer should use.
[2 marks]
The farmer grows 100 plants of variety B and finds the total yield, for all
100 plants, to be 306 kg.
(iii) Carry out the appropriate hypothesis test using a 5% significance level.
[4 marks]
The hypothesis test makes a number of assumptions.
(iv) Identify a statistical assumption relating to the agricultural research
centre’s data. Discuss briefly whether it is safe to make that assumption.
[2 marks]
(v) Identify a statistical assumption relating to how the farmer grows his
trial crop. Explain briefly how, if this assumption is not met, the results
of the trial could be misleading. [2 marks]
PS ⑦ The discrete random variable X has the following probability function.
k
P(X = r) = r for r = 1, 2, 3, 4,
P(X = r) = 0 otherwise.
(i) Prove that the constant k takes the value 12 .25
[2 marks]
(ii) Sketch the distribution. [1 mark]
Two independent values of X are generated. They are denoted by X1 and X2 .
(iii) Find P(X1 = X2 ). Hence find P(X1 < X2 ). [4 marks]

409
 Practice questions: Statistics
M T ⑧ The data in this question are taken from a large data set about blackbirds.
Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for wing length and
weight for large samples of adult male and adult female blackbirds captured
at random over a number of years.
Table 2
Wing length (mm) Weight (g)
Sample size Mean SD Mean SD
Males 963 134.1 3.28 111.2 11.8
Females 687 128.6 2.96 108.4 13.7

(i) Avis, an amateur ornithologist, looks at these data and comments that
it is easier to distinguish males from females by their wing length than
by their weight. Explain, with reference to the data, whether or not this
comment is correct. [3 marks]
(ii) Give one reason that might account for the fact that females have a
larger standard deviation of weights than males. [1 mark]

Avis wishes to investigate whether there is any correlation between wing

span and weight. She constructs the following scatter diagram for the 687
adult female blackbirds.
Wing length and weight for adult female blackbirds
160

140
(g)

120
Weight

100

80

60
115 120 125 130 135 140
Wing length (mm)

Figure 4
(iii) Explain why the data points appear in vertical lines. [1 mark]
(iv) What does the shape of the set of data points suggest?
How is this relevant to Avis’s investigation? [2 marks]
Avis uses a spreadsheet to find that the product moment correlation for this
dataset is 0.47. The spreadsheet reports that the corresponding p-value is ‘less
than 0.000 001’.
(v) How should Avis interpret this result? [2 marks]
(vi) Avis now says that it wouldn’t be worthwhile to repeat this analysis
for adult male blackbirds. She also says that, with hindsight, it wasn’t
necessary to have separated out males and females when investigating
the correlation. Briefly discuss these two comments. [2 marks]

410
 18 Kinematics

There was a young lady

named Bright The motion of a spacecraft like Voyager on its way to the outer reaches of the
Whose speed was far solar system involves travel along curved paths. In this chapter you will see how
faster than light, to deal with motion in more than one dimension.
She set out one day in a
relative way
And returned home the
previous night.
A. H. R. Butler (1874–1944) –
Review: Motion in one dimension
on motion in four dimensions Direction of motion in one dimension
In one dimension motion is along a straight line. So there are only two possible
directions and according to the context they can be described using words like
right–left, forwards–backwards, up the slope–down the slope, east–west, etc. However,
it is most satisfactory to define one of the directions as positive (+) and the other as
negative (−).

– +
Figure 18.1
411
 Review: Motion in one dimension
Vocabulary for motion
■ Displacement is the distance moved in a particular direction so is + or −.
It is a vector quantity.
■ Distance is always positive whatever the direction. It is a scalar quantity.
■ Velocity is a vector quantity. This is the rate of change of the displacement.
In one dimension, the direction is usually indicated by a + or − sign.
■ Speed is a scalar quantity. This is the magnitude of the velocity or the rate
of change of distance.
■ Since velocity is the rate of change of displacement, average velocity is
the total displacement divided by the time taken:
displacement
average velocity = .
time taken
■ Similarly, average speed is given by:

average speed = total distance travelled .

total time taken
■ Acceleration is strictly a vector quantity and so is + or −. It is the rate of
change of the velocity.
■ However, you need to be careful with the word acceleration because it is
often used loosely to mean the magnitude of acceleration.

Conventions for motion in one dimension

Certain letters are commonly used to denote these quantities in one dimension:
■ s, h, r, x, y and z for displacement
■ t for time
■ u and v for velocity
■ a for acceleration.

Units
The S.I. (Système International d’Unités) unit for distance is the metre (m), that
for time is the second (s) and that for mass is the kilogram (kg). Other units
follow from these, so speed is measured in m s −1 and acceleration in m s −2.

Example 18.1 James walks 150 m due north in 2 minutes. He stops for 5 minutes and then
walks 600 m due south in 10 minutes.
(i) Draw a diagram of the journey.
(ii) Find
(a) his average velocity
(b) his average speed.

412
 (i) 18
150 m
N

+ 600 m

Take North
as positive.

Figure 18.2
(ii) (a) James’ displacement is 150 − 600 = −450 m or 450 m south.
The time taken for his walk is 17 minutes = 1020 s.
−450
James’ average velocity is = − 0.44 m s−1.
1020
+ = 750 m.
(b) The total distance travelled by James is 150 600
750 = −
The time taken is 1020 s. The average speed is 0.74 m s 1.
1020

Graphical representation
James’s walk is illustrated in a displacement–time graph (Figure 18.3).
150
Displacement
(m)

O
120 420 1020
Time (s)

–450

Figure 18.3
The corresponding velocity–time graph is shown in Figure 18.4.
1.25
(ms −1)
Velocity

O
120 420 1020
Time (s)

–1

Figure 18.4
413
 Review: Motion in one dimension
The distance–time graph for James’s walk is shown in Figure 18.5.
750

(m)
600

Distance travelled
450

300

150

O
120 420 1020
Time (s)

Figure 18.5
Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity changes.
Over a period of time
change in velocity
average acceleration = .
time
Acceleration is represented by the gradient of a velocity–time graph.

The area between a velocity–time graph and

the time axis
Example 18.2 Lucy cycles east for 90 s at 10 m −1
s and then west for 30 s at 5 m −1
s.
Draw
(i) the speed–time graph
(ii) the velocity–time graph.

Solution
(i) Speed–time graph

Total area = 900 + 150 = 1050

This is the total distance travelled
in metres.
10
–1
)
(m
s

900
Speed

150

O 30 60 90 120
Time (s)

Figure 18.6

414
 (ii) Taking east as the positive direction gives this velocity–time graph.
Velocity–time graph

10
18
Total area =
900 – 150 = 750
900 This is the
displacement from

–1
)
the start in metres.

s
(m
Velocity
0
Time (s)
–150

–5

Figure 18.7
The area between a velocity–time graph and the time axis represents the change
in position, that is, the displacement.

Example 18.3 A train starts from rest and accelerates at 0.9 m s−2 for 20 seconds. It then
travels at constant speed for 100 s and finally decelerates uniformly to rest in
a further 30 s.
(i) Sketch the speed–time graph.
(ii) Find the acceleration of the train in the last part of the journey.
(iii) Find the total distance travelled.

Solution
(i) The train reaches a speed of 0.9 × 20 = 18 m s−1.

18
–1
)
(m
s
Speed

O 20 120 150
Time (s)
A negative acceleration
like this is sometimes Figure 18.8
called a deceleration.
So in this part of the a
−18
journey the train has a (ii) =
−
150 120
= − 0.6 m s−2
deceleration of 0.6 ms .
−2
(iii) distance = 1 (100 + 18) ×
150 = m
2 250
2

415
 Review: Motion in one dimension
The constant acceleration formulae
A common situation for motion in one dimension occurs when a particle moves
along a straight line with constant acceleration.
■ It starts at the origin.
■ Its initial velocity is u.
■ Time is denoted by t.
■ Its position along the line at time t is denoted by s.
■ Its speed at time t is v.
■ The constant acceleration is a.
There are five relationships (the constant acceleration formulae) each one
involving four out of s, u, v, a and t .
■ v u= at+
s = 21 (u v+ t )
Note
■

■ s ut= + 21 at 2
These are sometimes
called the suvat ■ s vt= − 21 at 2
equations. ■ v 2 = u 2 + 2as
If the particle does not start at the origin but at position s0 instead, then s is
replaced by (s − s0 ) in the last four of these formulae.
These formulae can only be used when it has already been established that the
acceleration is constant, as in the next example.

Example 18.4 A skier increases her speed uniformly from 8 m s −1 to 20 m s −1 in 10 s.

(i) How far does she travel in this time?
(ii) What is her acceleration?

Solution You are given u, v and t and

(i) u = 8, v = 20 and =t10. want to find s. You need
the formula that does not
s = 1 (u
2
v+ t ) = 1 (8
2
+ =) 140
20×10 include a.
s = 1 (u
2
v+ t ) = 1 (8
2
20 10) ×140
+ =

The skier travels 140 m. You are given u, v and

u = 8, v = 20 and =t 10. t and want to find a. So
(ii)
use =v u+ at.
20 8− =
a v=u− =t 10
1.2

The acceleration of the skier is 1.2 m s−2.

Vertical motion under gravity

A common situation involves an object falling under gravity. This is often
modelled by ignoring air resistance. In such cases, all objects fall with the same
constant acceleration, g. The value of g actually varies slightly from one place on

416
 the Earth’s surface to another but, as another modelling assumption, it is assumed
that all situations encountered here occur in a place where it is 9.8 m s −2 . 18
Example 18.5 A coin is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 5 m s −1 and is caught at
the same height.
(i) For how long is it in the air?
(ii) How high does it go?
(iii) What is its velocity when it is caught?

Solution
Start by defining the positive direction to be vertically upwards ↑+.
(i) You are looking for the time the coin was in the air. You know that
the initial velocity is +5 m s−1, the acceleration is −9.8 m s−2 and the
displacement is zero. You can use the formula =s ut + at 21 2.
−t
0 5= 4.9 t2 = −t(5 4.9 ) t
t = 0 or = 5 = 1.02
t 4.9
The coin starts at =t 0 and returns at = t 1.02. It is in the air for
1.02 s.
(ii) You are looking for the displacement s and are given
u = 5, a = − 9.8 and =v 0. You can use the formula v 2u2 =as+ 2.
0 5= 2 − ×2 9.8 ×s
= 25 = 1.28
s
Note 19.6
The coin reaches a height of 1.28 m.
The value of +5 m s −1

occurred when the coin (iii) You are looking for v and are given =u 5, − and = s0.
a =9.8
was thrown up in the air v2 = +u 2 2as gives you v 2 = 25 ⇒ =v ± 5.
initially. Using the formula
The velocity of the coin as it is caught is −5 m s−1.

General motion in a straight line

Variable acceleration
It is not, of course, always the case that an object has constant acceleration.
In such cases you cannot use the constant acceleration formulae and must resort
to calculus instead.
The velocity of the object is the rate of change of its displacement so at any time
= ds .
v
dt
Similarly, its acceleration is the rate of change of its velocity. So that

= dv = d 2s .
2
a
dt dt

417
 Review: Motion in one dimension
In the reverse process, the displacement may be found from the velocity, which
itself may be found from the acceleration

s = ∫ v dt
and v = ∫ a dt .
The use of calculus is shown in the next two examples.

Example 18.6 The displacement s m of a particle at time t s is given by

s = 1 t3
3
t 2 − .2t1
−+
Find (i) the velocity and (ii) the acceleration of the moving point when t = 4.

Solution
Note (i) = ds = −t 2 + 2t2
dt
v
Notice that a is not When t = 4 v = 4 2 − 2 × 4 + 2 = 10
constant so you could
not have used the The velocity is +10 m s−1.
constant acceleration = dv = −2t2
formulae. (ii) dt
a
When t = 4 a = 2 × 4 − 2 = 6
The acceleration is +6 m s−2.

Example 18.7 A particle leaves the point O with a velocity +4 m s−1 and its acceleration a
after time t is given by
Note a = 2 − t.
Notice that the
acceleration is not Find
constant so you cannot (i) its velocity v after time t
use the constant
acceleration formulae. (ii) its displacement after time t
(iii) the velocity and displacement after 3 seconds.

Solution
(i) v = ∫ a dt = ∫ (2 )d− t t
v = −2t1
2
t c
2 +

When t = 0, v = 4
so substituting in the equation for v gives
4=0−0+c⇒c=4
v = −2t 1 t2
2
+4

418
 (ii) s =

s t= −2
∫ v dt
1 t3
6
= ∫ (2t − 21 t
+ +4t k
2 +4d )t 18
When =t s=0
0,
0 0= 0− 0+ + k ⇒ =k 0

s t= −2 1 t3
6
+ 4t

(iii) When =t 3

v 2= 3× − × + =21 324 5 1
2

s 3= 2 − ×1 + ×33=4 3 16
6
1
2

The particle has a velocity of +5.5 m s−1 and is at +16.5 m after

3 seconds.

Review exercise
① A car is moving at 10 ms −1 when it begins to ③ The velocity–time graph in Figure 18.9 shows
accelerate at a constant rate of 0.5 m s −2 until it the motion of a particle along a straight line.
reaches its maximum speed of 25 ms −1 which it (i) The particle starts at A at t = 0 and moves
retains. to B in the next 20 s. Find the distance AB.
(i) Draw a speed–time graph for the car’s (ii) T seconds after leaving A the particle is at
motion. C, 50 m from B. Find T.
(ii) When does the car reach its maximum (iii) Find the displacement of C from A.
speed of 25 ms −1?
(iii) Find the distance travelled by the car after 20
100 s.
(iv) Write down expressions for the speed
(ms –1)

of the car t seconds after it begins to

Velocity

speed up.
0
② A, B and C are three points on a straight road 20 T Time (s)
with AB = 1200 m and BC = 200 m and B
is between A and C. Claire cycles from A to –10
B at 10 m s −1, pushes her bike from B to C at
an average speed of 0.5 m s −1 and then cycles Figure 18.9
back from C to B at an average speed of ④ A car accelerates uniformly from 5 m s −1 to
15 m s −1.
20 m s −1 in a distance of 100 m.
(i) Find Claire’s average speed for the whole (i) Find the acceleration.
journey.
(ii) Find the speed when the car has covered
(ii) Find Claire’s average velocity for the half the distance.
journey.

419
 Motion in two or three dimensions
⑤ (i) Find v when u = 5, a = −2 and t = 1. The particle is then 200 m from its starting
point.
(ii) Find s when v = 10, a = 1 and t = 10.
Find the time for which the particle is moving.
(iii) Find a when v = 10, u = 2 and s = 5.
(iv) Find s when u = 2, v = 5 and t = 10. ⑨ A particle is moving in a straight line so that its
displacement s at time t is given by
(v) Find u when s = 5 a = −2 and t = 4.
⑥ A stone is dropped down a well. It takes s t=t −8 1 3.6
4 seconds to reach the bottom. How (i) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of
deep is the well? the particle after 3 s.
⑦ A ball is projected vertically upward from a
point which is 0.5 m above ground level with a
(ii) Find the distance travelled by the particle,
when it first comes to rest.
speed of 20 m s−1.
⑩ Find the velocity v and displacement s of a
(i) Find the time for which the ball is in the particle at time t, given that its acceleration a is
air.
given by
(ii) Find the speed with which the ball hits (i) a t= −6 8 when
the ground.
t = 0, s4=and 6 v =
⑧ A particle starts from rest and moves in a
straight line with constant acceleration until it (ii) a = − 10 when
reaches a speed of 25 m s−1. It is then brought to t = 1, s5=and 2. v =
rest by a constant deceleration of 2.5 m s−2.

1 Motion in two or three dimensions

Prior knowledge For motion in two or three dimensions, the equivalent vector quantities to those
you used in one dimension are written using bold type, or as column vectors.
You have seen how
vectors can be ■ The position vector of a point is denoted by r. It is the displacement
expressed in terms of from the origin and can be written as xi + yj or alternatively as the column
components as well as ⎛ x⎞
in terms of magnitude vector
⎝⎜y ⎠⎟
.
and direction.
■ Distance from the origin is the magnitude of the position vector and is the
scalar quantity x + y 2 .
2

dr . Differentiating a vector with respect to the

■ Velocity is given by =v t
d
scalar t involves differentiating each component with respect to t, so that

⎜ dx ⎟
⎛ ⎞
dr = dx + dy ⎜ dt ⎟
v = i j.Written as a column vector v = .
dt dt dt ⎜ dy ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠

■ Speed is the magnitude of velocity and so is (ddxt) + ⎛ d⎝dyt ⎞⎠ .

2 2

420
■ Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity and so is given by

a = dv = d 2 r
dt dt 2
It can be written as
18
d x
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟
d 2 x + d y or as = ⎜ dt ⎟
2
= a
a
dt 2 i
dt 2 j ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎜d y⎟
⎝ dt 2 ⎠

d 2 ⎞2
x ⎛ d 2y ⎞ 2
■ Magnitude of acceleration is given by ⎛ ⎝ 2 ⎠ + .
dt ⎝⎜dt 2 ⎠⎟

Newton’s notation
When you write derivatives in column vectors, the notation becomes very
cumbersome so many people use Newton’s notation when differentiating
with respect to time. In this notation a dot is placed over the variable for each
differentiation.

= dx and x = d x
2
For example x dt dt 2 .

Speed |v| = x√ · ·+. y

Direction ofy· motion
2 2

tan α = · .
x
v ẏ

α
ẋ

Magnitude of the
acceleration |a| = (x√ · +··· y · · .
2 2)

Direction: θ = arctan ··xy .

a ӱ

θ
ẍ

Figure 18.10
⎛ x⎞
v r= = xiy+ j or ⎜ ⎟
⎝y⎠

a v= r=
⎛ x⎞
a = x i + y j or ⎜ ⎟
⎝y⎠

421
 Motion in two or three dimensions
The vector forms of the constant acceleration
formulae
When the acceleration a is constant, then c is a vector constant so it
v = ∫ a dt = atc+ has components in the x
and y directions.
where c is a constant vector. Substituting t = 0 shows that c is equal to the initial
velocity vector u. So
v = u + at
integrating again gives
r = ∫ v dt = ∫ (u a+ t )t d
r u= t+ 1 at 2 + r0
2

where r 0 is the initial position vector. If the motion starts at the origin, the vector
⎛ ⎞ u a .t t 1 2
r 0 is 0, or⎜ 0 ⎟ . In that case this equation is written as =r + 2
⎝ 0⎠

As you may have noticed, the vector forms of the constant acceleration
equations are similar to those for motion in one dimension.
In one dimension Vector form
v u= at+ → v u= a+ t

s ut= + 1 at 2 → r u= a+ t 1 t2
2 2

s = 1 (u v+ t ) → r = 1 (u v+ t )
2 2

s vt= − 1 at 2 → r v=a− t 1 t2
2 2

If the motion does not start at the origin, s is replaced by s − s 0 in the one-
dimensional equations and in the vector equations r is replaced by r − r 0.
In one dimension there is a fifth constant acceleration equation, v u= as +. 2
22

There is a vector form of this equation but it involves more advanced vector
operations that are beyond the scope of this book.

ACTIVITY 18.1
Use the equations v u= a+ t and =r +u t 21 atto derive the other two
2

vector equations given above: r = 21 (u v+ and

t ) = − r v a .t t 21 2

422
 The path
Prior knowledge
You will have seen how
to obtain the Cartesian
When a ball is thrown into the air, its position can be represented by
⎛ x⎞
18
equation of the path a vector =r ⎝⎜y ⎠⎟ or = +xiy j. For example, it might be given by
in your work on
parametric equations 5t
in Chapter 11. r =
⎛
⎜
⎝ 12t 5−
⎞
2 ⎟ so in this case =x 5t and = y− 12t5t
2
.
t ⎠

You can plot the path of the ball by finding the values of x and y and hence of
r for several values of t. The initial position of the ball is a point on the ground
which is taken to be the origin.

Discussion point Table 18.1

➜ Why is 2.4 chosen as t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.4
the last value for t? ⎛ 0⎞ ⎛ 2.5 ⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 7.5 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞
r ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝ 4.75⎠ ⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ 6.75⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 0⎠

You can also plot the path of the ball by finding the Cartesian equation. This is
obtained by elimination of t between the two equations
x = 5t ①
y = 12t5− t2 ②

From ① you can derive t =

x and then substitute for t in ② to give
5

y ()()
= 12 5x − 5 5x
2

y = 2.4 x − 0.2 x 2

Figure 18.11 shows the path of the ball and also its position r when =t 2 .

The path has

Cartesian equation
y
y = 2.4x − 0.2x 2.

8
t=1
7 t = 1.5

6
5 t = 0.5
t=2
4
3
2 r
j
1
t=0 t = 2.4
i 0 1 2 3 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 x

Figure 18.11

423
 Motion in two or three dimensions

Note The equation for r can be differentiated to give the velocity and acceleration.

The direction of the

acceleration is not at all In this case
obvious when you look
at the diagram of the
path of the ball. and so

and

Example 18.8 Relative to an origin on a long, straight beach, the position of a speedboat is
modelled by the vector

where i and j are unit vectors perpendicular and parallel to the beach.
Distances are in metres and the time t is in seconds.
(i) Calculate the distance of the boat from the origin, O, when the boat is
6 m from the beach.
(ii) Sketch the path of the speedboat for
(iii) Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration of the speedboat at
time t. Is the boat ever at rest? Explain your answer.
(iv) For t = 3, calculate the speed of the boat and the angle its direction of
motion makes to the line of the beach.
(v) Suggest why this model for the motion of the speedboat is unrealistic
for large t.

Solution
Notice that the beach is
in the y direction. The x (i) r = (2t2+ ) i + (12 − t 2 ) j so the boat is 6 m from the beach when
direction is out to sea. x = +2t=2 6 then = t 2 and y 12 2=8− = . 2
2+ =
The distance from O is 6 8 210 m.
(ii) The table shows the position at different times and the path of the
boat is shown on the graph in Figure 18.12.

Table 18.2 y (m)

t=0
12
t 0 1 2 3 BEACH
t=1
10
r 2i + 12j 4i + 11j 6i + 8j 8i + 3j 8 t=2

6
(iii) r = (2t2+ ) i + (12 − t 2 )j 4
t=3
⇒ =v =r − t 2 i2 j 2
j
0 x (m)
and a v= = − 2j i 24 68

The boat is at rest if both components Figure 18.12

of velocity ( x and y ) are zero at the
same time. But x is always 2, so the velocity can never be zero.

424
 (iv) When = t 3 v = −2 i6 j
The angle v makes with the beach is α as shown
in Figure 18.13 where
2

6
18
tan α = 2 α
6
=
α 18.4 °
Notice how in Figure 18.13
part (iv) the (v) According to this model, the speed after time t is
direction of motion is v = 2 i2− tj = 2 2( +2 −) = t+2 44 t2
found using the
velocity and not the As t increases, the speed increases at an increasing rate so there must
position. That is always come a time when the boat is incapable of going at the predicted
the case. speed and the model cannot then apply.

Example 18.9 A particle is moving in two dimensions with constant acceleration.

⎛1⎞ ⎛ ⎞
The unit vectors ⎜ ⎟ and 0⎜ ⎟ are pointing east and north respectively.
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝1⎠
⎛− ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
Initially the particle is at 1⎜ ⎟ m, with velocity ⎜2 ⎟ m s−1;
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ −3⎠
⎛ ⎞
after 4 s the particle has velocity ⎜22 ⎟ m s−1.
⎝ 27⎠

(i) Calculate the acceleration of the particle.

(ii) Find the velocity of the particle at time t and use it to find the time at
which the particle is moving north-east.
(iii) Calculate the position of the particle after 4 s. How far has it moved
from its original position?

Solution
(i) The acceleration is constant so you can use the constant acceleration
formula v = u + at to find a, giving
vu −
a =
t
⎛ 22⎞
− −⎜ 2⎟
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
=
4

1 ⎜ 20⎟
⎛ ⎞
=
4 ⎝ 30⎠

⎛ 5 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7.5⎠

⎛ ⎞
The acceleration of the particle is 5⎜ ⎟⎠ m s .
−2
⎝ 7.5
➜

425
 Motion in two or three dimensions

⎛ 5 ⎞
= −⎜ 2⎟ and a = ⎜ ⎟ gives
⎛ ⎞
(ii) Now using v = u + at with u ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 7.5⎠

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
v = −⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ t
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 7.5⎠

⎛ 2+
⎜ 5 t ⎞
⎟
= ⎜− +
⎝ 3 7.5 t ⎟⎠
⎛ 2+ 5 t ⎞
The velocity of the particle at time t is ⎜⎜− +
= ⎟
.
⎝ 3 7.5 t ⎟⎠
The particle is moving north-east when the bearing is 045°,
i.e when the components of v are equal.
2 5+ =t− + 3 7.5 t
=
5 2.5 t
t 2=
The particle is moving north-east when =t 2.
⎛ −1⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
(iii) Now using r r= u+0 + t 1 at 2 ,
2 with r
0 =
⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 2⎠
= −
u ⎜⎝ 3⎟⎠
⎛ 5 ⎞
and a =
⎝ 7.5⎟⎠ gives
⎜

⎛ −1+⎞ − ⎛ 2⎞ × + × ⎛ 5 ⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 4 1 ⎜ ⎟ × 42
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 2 ⎝ 7.5⎠

⎛ −1+⎞ − ⎛ 8⎞ + ⎛ 40⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 12⎠ ⎝ 60⎠
⎛ 47⎞
=
r ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 50⎠

⎛ 47⎞
The position of the particle after 4 s is ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 50⎠

The distance from the starting position, r 0, is

⎛− ⎞
= ⎜ 47⎟ − ⎜ 1⎟ = ⎜ 48⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
r r− 0 ⎝ 50⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 48⎠

= + 2
48 248
= 48 2 = 67.88
The particle is 67.9 m from its starting position.

When you are given the velocity or acceleration and wish to work backwards to
the displacement, you need to integrate. The next two examples show how you
can do this with vectors.

426
 Example 18.10 An aircraft is dropping a crate of supplies onto level ground. Relative to an
observer on the ground, the crate is released at the point with position vector
⎛ 650⎞ ⎛ −100⎞
18
⎝ 576⎟⎠ m and with initial velocity ⎝ 0⎟⎠ , where the directions are
⎜ ⎜

horizontal and vertical. Its acceleration is modelled by

⎛ −t+ 12⎞
a = ⎜ t 12 s
⎟ for <
⎝ 21 t − 10 ⎠
(i) Find an expression for the velocity vector of the crate at time t.
(ii) Find an expression for the position vector of the crate at time t.
(iii) Verify that the crate hits the ground 12s after its release and find how
far from the observer this happens.

Solution
⎛ −t+ 12⎞
dv =
(i) a = ⎜ ⎟ ①
dt ⎜⎝ 1 t − 10 ⎟⎠
2
You can treat
horizontal and
vertical motion ⎛ − 1+2+
⎜ 2t 12t c ⎞

separately if you
1 ⎟
Integrating gives v = ⎜1 2 −+ ⎟
wish. ⎝ 4t 10t c 2 ⎠

c 1 and c 2 are constants of integration which can be found by using the

initial conditions.
When you
integrate a vector ⎛ −100⎞ 0 0+ + = −c 1 100 c1 = − 100
At =t 0 v = ⎜
0 0− + = c 2
⇒
in two dimensions you ⎝ 0⎟⎠ ⇒ 0 c2 = 0
need a constant of
integration for each t 12t100
⎛ − 1+ 2− ⎞
Velocity v = ⎜ 2 ⎟
component, for ⎜ 1 t 2 − 10t ⎟ ②
example c 1 and c 2 in this ⎝
4
⎠

example.
⎛− 1+ 2− ⎞
⎜ 2t 12t100
v = dr =
⎟
(ii) dt ⎜⎜
1 t 2 − 10t
⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠

⎛− 1+ 3−2 + ⎞
⎜ 6 t t 6 100 tk 1⎟
Integrating again gives r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 t 3t2−k 5
+ ⎠
2
12

k 1 and k 2 are found by using the initial conditions att=0.

⎛ 650⎞ k1 = 650
r = ⎜
⎝ 576⎟⎠ ⇒ k2 = 576

⎛− 1+ 3−2 + ⎞
⎜ 6 t t 6 100 650 t ⎟
Position vector r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ③
⎝ 1 t 3t2− 5
+ 576 ⎠
12
➜

427
 Motion in two or three dimensions
⎛− 1× +12
× 3− ⎞
⎜ 6 6×12+1002 12 650 ⎟
(iii) When = t 12 r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 × 12
− ×35+12 5762 ⎠
12

⎛ 26⎞
r = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
Since =y 0 , the crate hits the ground after 12 s and it is = x 26 m
in front of the observer.

Point at which crate

y is released: 650
576 .

600

(m)
Vertical distance
500
400
Approximate
300 path of crate.
200

Note 100

O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

It is a good idea to
x

number your equations Point at which crate hits

Horizontal distance (m)

for a , v and r so that the ground: 260 .

you can find them easily
if you want to use them Figure 18.14
later.

Force as a function of time

When the force acting on an object is given as a function of t you can use
Newton’s second law to find out about its motion. You can now write this as
F = m a because force and acceleration are both vectors.

Example 18.11 A force of (12i 3+ )t N,

j where t is the time in seconds, acts on a particle of
mass 6 kg. The directions of i and j correspond to east and north respectively.
(i) + )
Show that the acceleration is (2 i0.5 t j m s−2 at time t.
(ii) Find the acceleration and the magnitude of the acceleration when t = 12.
(iii) At what time is the acceleration directed north-east (i.e. a bearing of
045°)?
(iv) If the particle starts with a velocity of j ) m s −1 when =t 0, what
(2 i3−
will its velocity be when =t 3?
(v) When = t 3, a second constant force begins to act. Given that the
acceleration of the particle at that time due to both forces is 4 m s−2 due
south, find the second force. [MEI]

428
 Solution
(i) By Newton’s second law the force = mass × acceleration
(12i + 3t )j 6= a
18
a = 1 (12i3+)
6
tj
a = +2 i0.5 tj ①
(ii) When = t 12 a = +2 i6j

magnitude of a a = 2 6+6.32
22 =

The acceleration is 2 i6+with

j magnitude 6.32 m s −1
.
(iii) The acceleration is north-east when its northerly component is equal
to its easterly component. From ①, this happens when =2 0.5 , t
i.e. when =t 4.
(iv) The velocity at time t is ∫ a dt = ∫ (2i0.5
+ d t jt)

⇒ v = 2t i + 0.25t 2 j +c c is a constant vector

When =t 0, v = −2 i3 j such as c ci .+j12

so 2 i3− j = +0 i+0 jc ⇒ c i=j−2 3

v = 2t i + 0.25t 2 j +i j−
23
v = (2t2+ ) i + (0.25t 32 − )j ②
When =t 3 v = −8 i0.75 j
(v) Let the second force be F so the total force when = t 3 is
(12i + ×3 3 j)F+ .
The acceleration is −4j, so by Newton’s second law
(12i9+ j)F+ = × −6 ( 4 ) j
F = − 24
− −j12 9 i j

F = − 12
− i33 j
The second force is − −
12 i33 . j

Note r = xiy+z+j k , v = +x i+yjzk and

k

You can use the a = x iy+z+ j k

same methods in
three dimensions And similarly in column vectors
just by including a ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
third direction, z, r=
⎜ ⎟
⎜ y⎟ v =
⎜ ⎟
⎜ y⎟ and a =
⎜ ⎟
⎜ y⎟
j

perpendicular to both z
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
z
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
z
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
x and y. The unit vector
in the z direction is The distance of a point with position vector r from the origin iis
usually denoted by k. r = =r (x 2 + +
y 2z 2
) Figure 18.15
The speed is given by =v v = ( x 2y2+2z + )
. 2. 2+
.2)+
The acceleration has magnitude =a = a (x y z

429
 Motion in two or three dimensions

Historical note

Newton’s work on motion required more mathematical tools than were

generally used at the time. He had to invent his own ways of thinking about
continuous change and in about 1666 he produced a theory of ‘fluxions’ in
which he imagined a quantity ‘flowing’ from one magnitude to another. This
was the beginning of calculus. He did not publish his methods, however, and
when Leibniz published his version in 1684 there was an enormous amount
of controversy amongst their supporters about who was first to discover the
Figure 18.15a Figure 18.15b calculus. The sharing of ideas between mathematicians in Britain and the
Isaac Newton Gottfried Leibniz rest of Europe was hindered for a century. The contributions of both men are
remembered today by their notation. Leibniz’s xddt is common and Newton’s
x is widely used in mechanics.

Exercise 18.1
① The first part of a race track is a bend. As the ④ A rocket moves with a velocity (in m s −1)
leading car travels round the bend its position, modelled by
in metres, is modelled by: 1 t i + 1 t2 j
v = 10 10
r = 2t 2 i + 8t j
where i and j are horizontal and vertical unit
where t is in seconds.
vectors respectively and t is in seconds. Find
(i) Find an expression for the velocity of the (i) an expression for its position vector relative
car.
to its starting position at time t
(ii) Find the position of the car when
(ii) the displacement of the rocket after 10 s of
t = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. its flight.
Use this information to sketch the path of
the car. ⑤ A particle is initially at rest at the origin. It
experiences an acceleration given by
(iii) Find the velocity of the car when
a = +4t−6i 2 ( t) j
t = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Find expressions for the velocity and position
Add vectors to your sketch to represent
of the particle at time t.
these velocities.
⑥ A particle has position vector r i=j−3t 4t
2
(iv)
Find the speed of the car as it leaves the
at time t. Find the angle between its position
bend at t = 5.
vector and its direction of motion at
② As a boy slides down a slide his position vector
time =t 2.
in metres at time t is
⑦ While a hockey ball is being hit it experiences
⎛x ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =
⎛16 −
⎜ 4 t ⎞⎟ an acceleration (in m s−2) modelled by
⎝y ⎠ ⎜
⎝ 20 −
5 t ⎟⎠ . a = 1000[6t0.2(t − ) i(+ −t t 0.2 )]j

Find his velocity and acceleration. 0 <t

for < 0.2 (in seconds)
③ Calculate the magnitude and direction of the and i and j are unit vectors along and
acceleration of a particle that moves so that its perpendicular to the side of the pitch.
position vector in metres is given by The ball is initially at rest. At t = 0.2 it loses
r = (8t2− t 2 )i (+ +6−4 t t 2 ) j contact with the hockey stick.
where t is the time in seconds. Find its speed when t = 0.2.

430
⑧ A speedboat is initially moving at 5 m s −1 on a
bearing of 135°.
(i) Express the initial velocity as a vector in
terms of i and j, which are vectors east
⑪ An owl is initially perched on a tree. It then
goes for a short flight which ends when
it dives onto a mouse on the ground. The
position vector (in metres) of the owl t seconds
18
and north respectively. into its flight is modelled by
The boat then begins to accelerate with (12.5 4.5
an acceleration modelled by
r = t 2 (6) − +t i + t t − )j
23

a = 0.1t i + 0.3t j in m s−2. where the foot of the tree is taken to be

the origin and the unit vectors i and j are
(ii) Find the velocity of the boat 10 s after it horizontal and vertical.
begins to accelerate and its displacement
over the 10 s period.
(i) Draw a graph showing the bird’s flight.
⑨ A girl throws a ball and, t seconds after she
(ii) For how long (in s) is the owl in flight?
releases it, its position in metres relative to the (iii) Find the speed of the owl when it catches
point where she is standing is modelled by the mouse and the angle that its flight
makes with the horizontal at that instant.
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ 15t ⎞
= +⎜ − ⎟
⎝⎜y ⎠⎟ ⎝ 2 16 5t t 2 ⎠
(iv)
Show that the owl’s acceleration is never
zero during the flight.
where the directions are horizontal and ⑫ A particle P of mass 5 units moves under
vertical. ⎛ 10 ⎞
(i) Find expressions for the velocity and ⎜ ⎟
the action of a force ⎜ −5⎟ .
acceleration of the ball at time t. ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
20
(ii) The vertical component of the velocity is ⎛ −3⎞
zero when the ball is at its highest point. ⎜ ⎟
Find the time taken for the ball to reach Initially P has velocity 2⎟ and is at
⎜
⎟ ⎜⎝
this point. 0⎠ ⎛ ⎞
2
(iii) When the ball hits the ground the vertical ⎜ ⎟
the point with position vector ⎜ −5⎟ .
component of its position vector is zero. ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8⎠
What is the speed of the ball when it hits Find, at time =t 4,
the ground? (i) the speed of P
(iv)
Find the equation of the trajectory of (ii)the position vector of P.
the ball.
⑬ Ship A is 5 km due west of ship B and is
⑩ The position (in metres) of a tennis ball t travelling on a course 035° at a constant but
seconds after leaving a racquet is modelled by unknown speed v km h −1. Ship B is travelling
(2− t 5t 2 ) j
r = 20t i + + at a constant 10 km h −1 on a course 300°.
where i and j are horizontal and vertical unit (i) Write the velocity of each ship in terms
vectors. of unit vectors i and j with directions east
and north.
(i) Find the position of the tennis ball when
t = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8. (ii)Find the position vector of each ship
at time t hours, relative to the starting
Use these to sketch the path of the ball.
position of ship A.
(ii) Find an expression for the velocity of the
The ships are on a collision course.
tennis ball.
Use this to find the velocity of the ball (iii) Find the speed of ship A.
when t = 0.2. (iv) How much time elapses before the
collision occurs?
(iii) Find the acceleration of the ball.
(iv) Find the equation of the trajectory of
the ball.

431
 Motion in two or three dimensions
⑭ A particle of mass 0.5 kg is acted on by a force,
in newtons,
F = t 2 i + 2t j .
The particle is initially at rest at the origin and
t is measured in seconds.
(i) Find the acceleration of the particle at
time t.
(ii) Find the velocity of the particle at time t.
j

(iii) Find the position vector of the particle at

time t. O i
bench

(iv)
Find the speed and direction of motion of
the particle at time t = 2. Figure 18.16
⑮ The position vector r of a moving particle at Model A for the position vector of the
time t after the start of the motion is given by microchip at time t is
r = (5 20
+ t ) i + (95 10
+ 5 t. − t 2 ) j (16 4 t 2 )j (t0).>
rA = 5t 2 i + −

(i) Find the initial velocity of the particle.

(i) How far above the bench is the microchip
initially (i.e. when t = 0)?
At time t = T the particle is moving at right
angles to its initial direction of motion. (ii) Show that this model predicts that the
microchip reaches the bench after 2 s and
(ii) Find the value of T and the distance of state the horizontal distance moved in this
the particle from its initial position at this time.
time.
(iii) Calculate the predicted horizontal and
⑯ A small, delicate microchip which is initially at vertical components of velocity when
rest is to be moved by a robot arm so that it is t = 0 and t = 2.
placed gently onto a horizontal assembly bench.
Model B for the position vector at time
Two mathematical models have been proposed
for the motion which will be programmed
t of the microchip is
into the robot. In each model the unit of rB = (15t 52t3− )i (+ −16+ −24 16t 2t33t4 )j
length is the centimetre and time is measured (t0).
>
in seconds. The unit vectors i and j have
directions which are horizontal and vertical
(iv) Show that model B predicts the same
positions for the microchip at t = 0 and
respectively and the origin is the point O on
t = 2 as model A.
the surface of the bench, as shown in
Figure 18.16. (v) Calculate the predicted horizontal and
vertical components of velocity for the
microchip at t = 0 and t = 2 from
model B and comment, with brief reasons,
on which model you think describes the
more suitable motion.

432
⑰ The position vector of a motorcycle of mass
150 kg on a track is modelled by
r = 4t 2 i + 18t ( − t ) j 0< <t
8
2
8
⑱ A hawk H and a sparrow S fly with
constant velocities v Hi j=k+ + 2 3
v S = − i+ j+k 2 respectively.
and

At time t = 0 the position vector of the hawk

18
r = (64t256
− ) i 8 < t < 20
is rH = j and that of the sparrow is =rS i 5 .
where t is the time in seconds after the start of
the race.
(i) Write down the velocity of H
relative to S.
The vectors i and j are in directions along and
perpendicular to the direction of the track as
(ii) Write down the position vector of H
relative to S at time t.
shown in Figure 18.17. The origin is in the
middle of the track. The vector k has direction (iii) Find the time at which the birds are
vertically upwards. closest together and determine their least
distance apart.
j ⑲ A particle moves in the xy plane and at
time t has acceleration =a i 2 . Initially the
O i particle is at (3, 1) and is moving with velocity
u = −2+i j . Show that the path of the
particle is a parabola and find its Cartesian
Figure 18.17 equation.
(i) Draw a sketch to show the motorcycle’s ⑳ At time t two points P and Q have position
path over the first 10 seconds. The track is vectors p and q respectively, where
20 m wide. Does the motorcycle leave it? p i= +2 cos vt j + sinv t k
(ii) Find, in vector form, expressions for the q = sinv t i − cos vt j +
k3
velocity and acceleration of the motor
where v is a constant. Find r, the position
cycle at time t for 0 < t < 20.
vector of P relative to Q, and v the velocity of
(iii) Find in vector form an expression for the P relative to Q.
resultant horizontal force acting on the
motorcycle during the first 8 s, in terms of t.
(iv) Why would you expect the driving
force from the motorcycle’s engine to be
substantially greater than the component
in the i direction of your answer to
part (iii)?
When t = 22 s the motorcycle’s velocity is
given by v = 60 i 6 + k.
(v) What has happened?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ use vectors to model motion in two dimensions
❍ using calculus
❍ using constant acceleration formulae
➤ find the Cartesian equation of the path of a particle when the components of
its position vector are given in terms of time
➤ solve problems in kinematics using vectors.

433
 Motion in two or three dimensions

KEY POINTS
1 Constant acceleration formulae
In one dimension Vector form
v u= at+ v u= +
a t
s ut= + 1 at 2
2
r u= + t 1 at 2
2

s = 1 (u
2
v+ t ) r = 1 (u
2
v )t
+

s vt= − 1 at 2
2
r v= − t 1 at 2
2

v2 = u2 + 2as
If the motion does not start at the origin, s is replaced by s − s and r is 0

replaced by r − r 0.

2 Relationships between the variables describing general motion

Displacement → Velocity → Acceleration

s → v = ds → a = =d v d2s
dt dt dt 2
r = xiy+ j → v = dr = +x→
iyj vr 2
a = =d = + d 2 x iy j
dt dt dt
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
r= ⎝⎜y ⎠⎟ v = ⎜ ⎟ a = ⎜ ⎟
⎝y⎠ ⎝y⎠

Acceleration → Velocity → Displacement

a → v = ∫ ad t → r vd = ∫ t

3 Vocabulary
Distance r = =r x y + 22

Speed v = v = x y + 22

Magnitude of acceleration a = =a x y + 22

4 The equation of the path of a moving point

To find the Cartesian equation (y on x) of the path of a moving point with
coordinates given in terms of t, [x = f(t); y = g(t)]
express t in terms of one of the coordinates e.g. = t f ( )x
−1
■

■ then=substitute for
. t in the expression for the other coordinate
■ y g(f ( ))x −1

434
 19 Forces and motion

Give me matter and

motion and I will
This cable car is stationary. How is this possible?
Review: Forces and motion
construct the Universe. ➜
René Descartes
(1596–1650)
Modelling vocabulary
Mechanics is about modelling the real world. In order to do this, suitable simplifying
assumptions are often made so that mathematics can be applied to situations and
problems. This process often involves identifying factors that can be neglected
without losing too much accuracy. Listed below are some commonly used
modelling terms which are used to describe such assumptions:
■ negligible small enough to ignore
■ inextensible for a string with negligible stretch
■ light for an object with negligible mass
■ particle an object with negligible dimensions
■ smooth for a surface with negligible friction
■ uniform the same throughout.

435
 Review: Forces and motion
Forces
A force is defined as the physical quantity that causes a change in motion. As it
depends on magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity.
Forces can start motion, stop motion, speed up or slow down objects, change
the direction of their motion. In real situations, several forces usually act on
an object. The sum of these forces, known as the resultant force, determines
whether there is a change of motion or not.
There are several types of force that you often use.

The force of gravity

Every object on or near the earth’s surface is pulled vertically downwards by the
force of gravity. The size of the force on an object of mass M kg is Mg newtons
where g is a constant whose value is about 9.8 m s−2.The force of gravity is also
known as the weight of the object.

Tension and thrust

When a string is pulled, it exerts a tension force opposite to the pull. The tension
acts along the string and is the same throughout the string (Figure 19.1).A
rigid rod can exert a tension force in a similar way to a string when it is used to
support or pull an object (Figure 19.2). It can also exert a thrust force when it is
in compression. The thrust acts along the rod and is the same throughout the rod.

W (weight of block)

T (thrust pushing up on block)

T (thrust pushing down on floor)

T T R (reaction from floor)

Figure 19.1 Forces on the end of a string Figure 19.2 Forces in a rigid rod
The tension on either side of a smooth pulley is the same (Figure 19.3).
Forces actingForces
on theacting
ends of
onthe
therope
ends of the rope Forces actingForces
on theacting
pulleyon the pulley

S S

T
T T T

T T T T

T T

mg mg
Figure 19.3
436
 Normal reaction
A book resting on a table is subjected to two forces: its weight and the normal
reaction of the table. It is called normal because its line of action is normal (at
19
right angles) to the surface of the table. Since the book is in equilibrium, the
normal reaction is equal and opposite to the weight of the book.

Note RN
The acceleration
is shown with a
In this diagram the different type
normal reaction is a m s–2 of arrow.
vertical but this is not Forces acting
always the case. For on the book.
example, the normal The weight of
reaction on an object on the book is mg.
a slope is perpendicular mg N

to the slope.
Figure 19.4

Frictional force
In Figure 19.5, the book on the table is being pushed by a force P parallel to the
surface. The book remains at rest because P is balanced by a frictional force, F,
in the opposite direction to P. The magnitude of the frictional force is equal to
the pushing force: P = F.

R Normal
reaction

F, frictional P Force
force from hand

mg Weight
Figure 19.5
If P is increased and the book starts to move, F is still present but now P > F.
Friction always acts in the direction opposed to the motion. Friction may prevent
the motion of an object or slow it down if it is moving.

Driving force
In problems about moving objects such as cars, all the forces acting along the
line of motion can usually be reduced to two or three, the driving force, the
resistance to motion and possibly a braking force.
resistance

driving force

braking force

Figure 19.6
437
 Review: Forces and motion
Example 19.1 Draw force diagrams illustrating the forces acting on a sledge which is lying
on a slope which makes an angle a with the horizontal.
(i) The sledge is at rest on the slope.
(ii) The sledge is being pulled up the slope by a rope inclined at an angle u
to the slope.
(iii) The sledge is prevented from sliding down the slope by a rope inclined
at an angle u to the slope.

Solution
(i) The sledge is at rest on the slope.

Normal reaction at right

angles to the slope.

Friction up the slope,

R

F preventing sledge from

α sliding down.
Mg
Weight acting vertically
downwards.
Figure 19.7
(ii) The sledge is pulled up the slope.
Tension pulling
Friction down the up along the rope.
slope opposing the
motion of the sledge. R
T
θ

F
α
Mg

Figure 19.8
(iii) The sledge is prevented from sliding down the slope.
Tθ
R
Friction is up the slope,
This is a simplified
F
preventing the sledge
version of what
α
Mg
from sliding down.
Newton actually said. It
assumes the mass of the
Figure 19.9
object is constant.
Motion with a variable Newton’s laws of motion
mass, e.g. a rocket taking The relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion is summarised
off, is beyond the scope by Newton’s laws of motion. These are fundamental to the study of mechanics.
of this book.
1 Every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
F is the resultant 2
line unless it is acted on by a resultant external force.
force, m is the mass The acceleration of an object is proportional to, and in the same direction
of the object, a is the as, the resultant of the forces acting on the object.
acceleration. F = ma

438
 3
Notice that this is a vector equation since both the magnitudes and
directions of the resultant force and the acceleration are involved. If the
motion is along a straight line it is often written in scalar form as F = ma.
When one object exerts a force on another there is always a reaction which
19
is equal and opposite in direction to the acting force.

Equation of motion

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

The equation resulting from Newton’s second law is often described as an
equation of motion, as in the next example.

Example 19.2 A box of mass 10 kg is being lifted by a rope. The acceleration is 0.5 m s −2

upwards.
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the box and the
direction of its acceleration.
(ii) Write down the equation of motion of the box.
(iii) Find the tension in the rope.

Solution
(i) The forces acting on the box and the acceleration are shown in
Figure 19.10.

TN

Forces acting 10 kg
on the box. 0.5 m s−2

10g N
Figure 19.10
(ii) The resultant force acting on the box is T − 10g upwards.
The resulting equation
T − 10g = 10a = 5 Since 10a = 10 × 0.5 = 5
is called the equation of motion.
(iii) T − 10 × 9.8 = 5
T = 103
The tension in the rope is 103 N.

439
 Review: Forces and motion
Example 19.3 A car of mass 800 kg travels at constant speed along a straight horizontal road.
Its engine is producing a driving force of 400 N.
(i) What is the resistance to its motion?
Later the driving force is increased to 1000 N.
(ii) Find the acceleration of the car, given that the resistance force remains
the same.

Solution
(i) The car is travelling at constant speed, so that the resultant force
acting on the car is zero.

RN 400 N

Figure 19.11
Let the resistance force be R N.
400 − R = 0
R = 400 N
The resistance force is 400 N.
(ii) The resultant force is now 1000 − 400 = 600 N.
a m s−2

400 N 1000 N

Figure 19.12
The equation of motion is 600 = 800a.

a = 600
800
= 0.75

The acceleration of the car is 0.75 m s−2.

Motion of connected particles

Example 19.4 Two particles, A of mass 2 kg and B of mass 5 kg, are connected by a light
inextensible string passing over a smooth fixed pulley. Find the acceleration of
Note the particles and the tension in the string.
A smooth pulley turns
freely so the tension of
the string is the same
on both sides of it.

440
 Solution
Equation of motion for A
19
T − 2g = 2a ①
Equation of motion for B

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

5g − T = 5a ②
T T
① + ② 3g = 7a

a = 3 g = ×3 9.8 = 4.2
7 7
In Example 19.4 A B

there is just one Substitute in ①

string and it passes over T = 2a + 2g = 2 × 4.2 + 2 × 9.8 = 28
a smooth pulley so the
The acceleration of the particles is 4.2 m s−2 and 2g 5g
tension is the same in
both parts of it. You will
the tension in the string is 28 N.
Figure 19.13
meet other situations,
like the one illustrated T1 T2
in Figure 19.14, where
there are two or more
different strings; in such
cases the tensions will T1 T2
not be the same even
though the pulleys they
pass over are smooth.
Figure 19.14
Review exercise
① Find the accelerations produced when a force ④ A load of mass 2.5 kg is held on the end of a
of 5 N acts on an object string. In each of the following cases calculate
(i) of mass 15 kg the tension in the string.
(ii) of mass 10 g. (i) The load is raised with an acceleration of
2 m s−2.
② A box of mass 25 kg is falling with an
acceleration of 7.2 m s−2.What is the resistance (ii) The load is lowered with an acceleration
acting on the box? of 2 m s−2.
③ A car of mass 800 kg is travelling along a (iii) The load is raised with a constant speed of
straight level road. 2 m s−1.
(i) Calculate the acceleration of the car when ⑤ Two boxes A and B are descending vertically
a resultant force of 2400 N acts on it in the supported by a parachute. Box A has mass
direction of its motion. How long does 50 kg. Box B has mass 25 kg and is suspended
it take the car to increase its speed from from box A by a light vertical wire. Both boxes
4 m s−1 to 12 m s−1? are descending with acceleration 2 m s−2.
The car has an acceleration of 1.2 m s−2 when (i) Draw a labelled diagram showing all the
there is a driving force of 2400 N. forces acting on box A in Figure 19.15
(overleaf ) and another diagram showing
(ii) Find the resistance to motion of
all the forces acting on box B in
the car.
Figure 19.15.

441
 Review: Forces and motion
(ii) Write down separate equations of motion (iii) Find the acceleration of the system and
for box A and for box B. the tension in each string.
(iii) Find the tensions in both wires.

A B

A
C

B
Figure 19.17
Figure 19.15 ⑧ A light scale pan holding two blocks A and
B, of masses 100 g and 500 g is being lifted
⑥ A block A of mass 5 kg is lying on a smooth vertically upwards with an acceleration of
horizontal table. A light inextensible string 0.8 m s−2 (Figure 19.18).
connects A to a block B of mass 4 kg which
hangs freely over a smooth pulley at the edge
of the table (Figure 19.16).

A
0.8 m s−2

A
B
B

Figure 19.16 Figure 19.18

(i) Draw diagrams showing all the forces acting
(i) Draw force diagrams to show the forces on each one of the masses.
acting on each block. (ii) Write down equations of motion for each
(ii) Write down separate equations of motion of A and B.
for A and B. (iii) Find the reaction forces between A and B
(iii) Find the acceleration of the system and and between B and the scale pan.
the tension in the string. ⑨ A car of mass 900 kg tows a caravan of mass
800 kg along a horizontal road. The engine of
⑦ A particle A of mass 8 kg is connected to a
the car produces a driving force of 2250 N.
particle B of mass 2 kg by a light inextensible
The car is subjected to a resistance of 250 N and
string which passes over a smooth xed
the caravan to a resistance of 300 N.
pulley. B is connected to a third particle C
of mass 5 kg by another string as shown in (i) Show in separate diagrams the horizontal
Figure 19.17. forces acting on the car and the caravan.
(i) Draw diagrams showing all the forces (ii) Find the acceleration of the car and
caravan.
acting on each one of the three particles.
(ii) Write down equations of motion for each
(iii) Find the tension in the coupling between
the car and the caravan.
of A, B and C.

442
⑩ A train consists of an engine and two trucks
with masses and resistances to motion as shown
in Figure 19.19. The engine provides a driving
force of 18 000 N. All the couplings are light,
(ii)
(iii)
Find the force in the coupling between
the two trucks.
Find the force in the coupling between
the engine and the first truck.
19
rigid and horizontal. With the driving force removed, brakes are

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

200 N 200 N 500 N applied, so adding an additional resistance of
18 000 N to the total of the resistances shown
20 000 kg 20 000 kg 50 000 kg in Figure 19.19.

Figure 19.19 (iv) Find the new acceleration of the train.

(v) Find the force in the coupling between
(i) Show that the acceleration of the train is the two trucks.
0.19 ms −2.

1 Forces in equilibrium
Resolving forces
It is often helpful to replace a single force by two perpendicular forces acting in the
directions in which you are most interested. This is called resolving the force.
Thus in Figure 19.20 the force F is acting at angle u to the horizontal. It can
be resolved into a horizontal component of F cos u and a vertical component
of F sin u. These two resolved components are exactly equivalent to the single
force, F.
F sin θ
F

θ
F cos θ

Figure 19.20
Figure 19.21 illustrates another common situation. A block is on a surface
sloping at an angle of a to the horizontal. Its weight, W, acts vertically
downwards but it can be resolved into components.
■ W cos a perpendicular to the slope
■ W sin a parallel to it.

W sin α

W W cos α
α

Figure 19.21
The reverse process involves finding the resultant of two perpendicular forces,
using Pythagoras’ theorem and simple trigonometry. The single force is the
resultant of the other two. This is illustrated in Figure 19.22 overleaf.

443
 Forces in equilibrium
Resultant
F

F sin θ = ((F sinu ) (+ 2

F cosu )2 )
F cos θ = (F sin u +
22
F 2 2cos u )
Figure 19.22 = F 2 (sin 2 u + cos 2 u )
= F
It is not only forces that you can resolve but any vector quantity.

Equilibrium
When forces are in equilibrium their vector sum is zero and the sum of the
resolved parts in any direction is zero.
Example 19.5 A brick of mass 3 kg is at rest on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal. Find the frictional force F N, and the normal reaction R N of
the plane on the brick.

Solution
Figure 19.23 shows the forces acting on the brick.
R

Components
F
of weight
3g sin 30°

j
i 30° 30°
3g 3g cos 30°

30° 3g All forces in newtons

Figure 19.23
Take unit vectors i and j parallel and perpendicular to the plane as shown.
Since the brick is in equilibrium the resultant of the three forces acting on
it is zero. 3g = 29.4
Resolving in the i direction: F − 29.4 sin 30° = ①
0
F = 14.7
Resolving in the j direction: R − 29.4 cos 30° = ②
0
R = 25.5
Written in vector form the equivalent is
⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛ −29.4 sin 30° ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⎝⎜0 ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜R ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜−29.4 cos 30°⎠⎟ = ⎝⎜0 ⎠⎟

Or alternatively
F i + R j − 29.4 sin 30°i − 29.4 cos 30°j = 0
Both these lead to the equations ① and ②.

444
The triangle of forces
When there are only three (non-parallel) forces acting and they are in
equilibrium, the polygon of forces becomes a closed triangle as shown for the
19
brick on the plane (Figures 19.24 and 19.25).
R

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

F

60°
30°

All forces in newtons

3g

Figure 19.24
The triangle is
closed because
R the resultant
3g is zero.
F All forces in newtons
60° 30°

Figure 19.25
Then
F = cos 60°
3g
F = 29.4 cos 60° = 14.7 N
And similarly R = 29.4 sin 60° = 25.5 N
This is an example of the theorem known as the triangle of forces.

Triangle of forces
When a body is in equilibrium under the action of three non-parallel forces, then
1 the forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
triangle
2 the lines of action of the forces pass through the same point.
When more than three forces are in equilibrium the first statement still holds
but the triangle is then a polygon. The second statement is not necessarily true.
The next example illustrates two methods for solving problems involving forces
in equilibrium. With experience, you will find it easy to judge which method is
best for a particular problem.

445
 Forces in equilibrium
Example 19.6 A sign of mass 10 kg is to be
30°
suspended by two strings arranged 45°

as shown in Figure 19.26. Find the

tension in each string.
SIGN

Figure 19.26
Solution
The force diagram for this situation is given in Figure 19.27.
T2
Notice that there are two T1

different strings and the

tensions in them, called 30° 45°

T and T here, are not

the same.
1 2

All forces in newtons

10g
Figure 19.27
Method 1: Resolving forces
Vertically (↑): T 1 sin 30° + T 2 sin 45° − 10g = 0
0.5T 1 + 0.707T 2 = 98 ①
Horizontally (→): −T 1 cos 30° + T 2 cos 45° = 0
−0.8666T 1 + 0.707T 2 = 0 ②
Subtracting ② from ① 1.3667T 1 = 98
T 1 = 71.74
Back substitution gives T 2 = 87.87
The tensions are 71.7 N and A
30°
87.9 N (to 1 d.p.). 60°
T1
Method 2: Triangle of forces
Since the three forces are in C

Discussion point equilibrium they can be represented 10g

➜ In what order by the sides of a triangle taken in

would you draw the order. T2
three lines in this You can estimate the tensions by scale
diagram? measurements. This will tell you that 45°
0 20 N
T 1 ≈ 72 and T 2 ≈ 88 in newtons. B
45°

Alternatively, you can use the sine Figure 19.28

rule to calculate T 1 and T 2 accurately.
In the triangle ABC, ∠CAB = 60°and ∠ ABC = 45°, so ∠BCA
= 75°.

So
T1 = T2 = 98
sin 45° sin 60° sin 75°
98 sin 45° 98 sin 60°
giving T1 = and T2 =
sin 75° sin 75°
As before the tensions are found to be 71.7 N and 87.9 N.

446
 Discussion point
Lami’s theorem states that when three forces acting at a point as shown in
Figure 19.29 are in equilibrium then
19
F = F = F .
1 2 3
sin a sin b sin g

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

F3
F2
α

γ β

F1
Figure 19.29
➜ Sketch a triangle of forces and say how the angles in the triangle are related
to a, b and g.
➜ Hence explain why Lami’s theorem is true.

Example 19.7 Figure 19.30 shows three men involved in moving a packing case up to
the top floor of a warehouse. Brian is pulling on a rope which passes round
smooth pulleys at X and Y and is then secured to the point Z at the end of
the loading beam.
roof X loading beam Z

β β
David
Brian

wind
warehouse P
force F N
packing
case
weight W N
Eric
α

Figure 19.30
The wind is blowing directly towards the building. To counteract this, Eric is
pulling on another rope, attached to the packing case at P, with just enough
force and in the right direction to keep the packing case central between
X and Z.
At the time of the picture the men are holding the packing case motionless.
(i) Draw a diagram showing all the forces acting on the packing case
using T1 and T2 for the tensions in Brian and Eric’s ropes, respectively.
➜

447
 Forces in equilibrium
(ii) Write down equations for the horizontal and vertical equilibrium of
the packing case.
In one particular situation, W = 200, F = 50, a = 45° and b = 75°.
(iii) Find the tension T1 .
(iv) Explain why Brian has to pull harder if the wind blows more strongly.
[MEI adapted]

Solution
(i) Figure 19.31 shows all the forces acting on the packing case and the
relevant angles.
β β
The tension is the
same all along
T 1N T 1N
Brian’s rope because
the pulleys are smooth.
FN

T 2N
WN

Figure 19.31
(ii) Equilibrium equations
Resolving horizontally (→)
T 1 cos b + T 2 cos a − F − T 1 cos b = 0
T 2 cos a − F = 0 ①
Resolving vertically (↑)
This tells you that T 1 sin b + T 1 sin b − T 2 sin a − W = 0
T = cos5045 ° but you 2T 1 sin b − T 2 sin a − W = 0 ②
2
(iii) When F = 50 and a = 45° equation ① gives
don’t need to work it out
because cos 45° = sin 45° T 2 cos 45° = 50
⇒ T 2 sin 45° = 50
Substituting in ② gives 2T 1 sin b − 50 − W = 0
So when W = 100 and b = 75° 2T 1 sin 75° = 150

Note T1 = 150
2 sin 75 °
= 77.65

Or F = T cos a, so as The tension in Brian’s rope is 78 N (to the nearest N).

F increases,
2

T 2 increases ⇒ (iv) When the wind blows harder, F increases. Given that all the angles
T sin a + W increases ⇒
2
remain unchanged, Eric will have to pull harder so the vertical
2T sin b increases.
1
component of T2 will increase. This means that T1 must increase and
Hence T increases.
1
Brian must pull harder.

448
 Exercise 19.1
① Figure 19.32 shows a boy, Halley, holding
onto a post while his two older sisters, Sheuli
A 19
B
and Veronica, try to pull him away. Using
perpendicular horizontal directions the forces,

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

in newtons, exerted by the two girls are:
⎛ 24 ⎞ C 40° 40° D
Sheuli
⎝⎜18 ⎠⎟
⎛ 25⎞ Figure 19.33
Veronica
⎝⎜60 ⎠⎟ (i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting
on the girder.
(ii) Write down, in terms of T, the horizontal
and vertical components of the tensions in
the ropes acting at C and D.
(iii) Hence show that the tension in the rope
BC is 152.5 kN (to 1 d.p.).
(iv) Draw a diagram to show the three forces
acting on the ring at B.
(v)Hence calculate the tension in the rope AB.
(vi)
How could you have known the answer to
part (v) without any calculations?
③ A box of mass 8 kg is at rest on a horizontal
floor.
Figure 19.32 (i) Find the value of the normal reaction of
the floor on the box.
(i) Calculate the magnitude and direction of The box remains at rest on the floor when
the force of each of the girls. a force of 15 N is applied to it at an angle
(ii) Use a scale drawing to estimate the of 35° to the upward vertical as shown in
magnitude and direction of the resultant Figure 19.34.
of the forces exerted by the two girls.
(iii)
Write the resultant as a vector and so 15N
calculate (to 3 significant figures) its 35°
magnitude and direction.
Check that your answers agree with those 8kg
obtained by scale drawing in part (ii).
② Figure 19.33 shows a girder CD of mass Figure 19.34
20 tonnes being held stationary by a crane
(which is not shown).The rope from the crane (ii) Draw a diagram showing all the forces
(AB) is attached to a ring at B. Two ropes BC acting on the box.
and BD, of equal length attach the girder to B; (iii) Calculate the new value of the normal
the tension in each of these ropes is T N. reaction of the floor on the box and also
the frictional force.

449
 Forces in equilibrium
④ A block of weight 75 N is on a rough plane ⑦ Each of three light strings has a particle attached
that is inclined at 25° to the horizontal. The to one of its ends. The other ends of the strings
block is in equilibrium with a horizontal force are tied together at a point A. The strings are
of 25 N acting on it as shown. Calculate the in equilibrium with two of them passing over
frictional force acting on the block. fixed smooth pulleys and with the particles
hanging freely. The weights of the particles,
and the angles between the sloping parts of the
25N
strings and the vertical, are as shown in Figure
19.38. Find the values of W1 and W2.
25°

Figure 19.35
40°
60°
⑤ A particle is in equilibrium under the three
forces shown in Figure 19.36. Find the force F A
and the angle u.

2N W 1N 5N W 2N
5N
Figure 19.38
⑧ An angler catches a very large fish. When
F he tries to weigh it, he finds that it is more
Figure 19.36 than the 10 kg limit of his spring balance. He
borrows another spring balance of exactly the
⑥ Figure 19.37 shows a simple model of a crane.
same design and uses the two to weigh the fish,
The structure is at rest in a vertical plane. The
as shown in diagram A, both balances read 8 kg.
rod and cables are of negligible mass and the
load suspended from the joint at A is 30 N. (i) What is the mass of the fish?

70° 70°

70° cable 1

a stick of
A mass 0.25 kg

80° cable 2
rod

load

Figure 19.37 (A) (B) (C)

Figure 19.39
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces The angler believes the mass of the fish is a
acting on record and asks a witness to confirm it.
(a) the load The witness agrees with the measurements
(b) the joint at A. but cannot follow the calculations. He asks
(ii) Calculate the forces in the rod and cable 1 the angler to weigh the fish in two different
and state whether they are in tension or positions, still using both balances. These are
compression. shown in diagrams B and C. Assuming the
spring balances to have negligible mass, state
the readings of the balances as set up in
(ii) diagram B (iii) diagram C.
(iv) Which of the three methods do you think
is best?
450
 19
⑨ Figure 19.40 shows a device for crushing scrap (i) Using perpendicular directions as shown
cars. The light rod AB is hinged at A and raised in the diagram, show that the force of
by a cable which runs from B round a pulley ⎛ 15.5⎞
60 N may be written as
at D and down to a winch at E. The vertical ⎝⎜−58 ⎠⎟ N
strut EAD is rigid and strong and AD = AB. A (to 3 significant figures).
weight of mass 1 tonne is suspended from B

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

by the cable BC. When the weight is correctly (ii) Find T in both component form and
situated above the car it is released and falls magnitude and direction form.
onto the car. ⎛ 40 ⎞
(iii) The force T is changed to ⎝⎜35⎠⎟ N. Show
D D D D
that there is now a resultant force on the
θ B θ B pole and find its magnitude and direction.
A A B C
C A A ⑪ A ship is being towed by two tugs
C (Figure 19.42). Each tug exerts forces on
B
E C E E E the ship as indicated. There is also a drag force
on the ship.
Figure 19.40
Just before the weight is released the rod AB
makes an angle u with the upward vertical AD
and the weight is at rest. T 1 6000N

(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting 30°

20°
at point B in this position. T2
(ii) Explain why the rod AB must be in thrust l
and not in tension.
(iii) Draw a diagram showing the vector sum
of the forces at B (i.e. the polygon of
forces).
Figure 19.42
(iv) Calculate each of the three forces acting at
(i) Write down the components of the tensions
B when in the towing cables along and perpendicular
to the line of motion, l, of the ship.
u = 90° (a) (b) u = 60°.
⑩ Four wires, all of them horizontal, are attached
(ii) There is no resultant force perpendicular
to the line l. Find T 2.
to the top of a telegraph pole as shown in
the plan view in Figure 19.41. The pole is in (iii) The ship is travelling with constant velocity
equilibrium and tensions in the wires are as along the line l. Find the magnitude of the
shown. drag force acting on it.

TN
50 N

30°
45° 75°

40 N
60 N

Figure 19.41

451
 Forces in equilibrium
⑫ A skier of mass 50 kg is skiing down a 15° slope.
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting 15°
60N

on the skier.
(ii) Resolve these forces into components 10° 60 N
parallel and perpendicular to the slope.
(iii) The skier is travelling at constant speed.
Figure 19.44
Find the normal reaction of the slope on
the skier and the resistance force on her.
(i) Resolve the two forces into components
(iv)
The skier later returns to the top of the parallel and perpendicular to the line of
slope by being pulled up it at constant speed
the sledge.
by a rope parallel to the slope. Assuming the
resistance on the skier is the same as before, (ii) Hence find
calculate the tension in the rope. (a) the overall forward force from the dogs
⑬ Figure 19.43 shows a block of mass 5kg on a (b) the sideways force.
rough inclined plane. The block is attached to a The resistance to motion is 20 N along the line
3kg weight by a light string which passes over a of the sledge but up to 400 N perpendicular to it.
smooth pulley, and is on the point of sliding up (iii) Find the magnitude and direction of the
the slope. overall horizontal force on the sledge.
(iv)How much force is lost due to the dogs
not pulling straight forwards?
⑮ One end of a string of length 1 m is fixed to
5 kg
a particle P of mass 1 kg and the other end is
3 kg
25° fixed to a point A. Another string is fixed to
the mass and passes over a frictionless pulley
Figure 19.43 at B which is 1 m horizontally from A but
2 m above it. The tension in the second string
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting is such that the particle is held at the same
on the block. horizontal level as the point A.
(ii) Resolve these forces into components B
parallel and perpendicular to the slope.
(iii)
Find the force of resistance to the block’s
motion. 2m
The 3 kg mass is replaced by one of mass m kg.
(iv)
Find the value of m for which the block
A
1m 1m
is on the point of sliding down the slope, P
assuming the resistance to motion is the Figure 19.45
same as before.
⑭ Two husky dogs are pulling a sledge. They (i) Show that the tension in the horizontal
both exert forces of 60 N but at different string AP is 4.9 N and find the tension in
angles to the line of the sledge, as shown in the string which passes over the pulley
Figure 19.44. The sledge is moving straight at B. Find also the angle that this second
forwards. string makes with the horizontal.
(ii) The tension in this second string is slowly
increased by drawing more of it over the
pulley at B. Describe the path followed by
P. Will the points A, P and B, ever lie in a
straight line? Give reasons for your answer.

452
⑯ Figure 19.46 shows a man suspended by means
of a rope which is attached at one end to a peg
at a fixed point A on a
(i)
(ii)
Explain why a > 0.
By considering the horizontal and
vertical equilibrium separately, obtain two
equations connecting T, R and a.
19
A
(iii) Given that a = 45°, show that T is about

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

563 N and find R.
TN RN
35°
α°
(iv)What is the magnitude and the direction
of the force on the peg at A?
The peg at A is replaced by a smooth pulley.
The rope is passed over the pulley and tied to a
hook at B directly below A. Calculate
80g N (v) the new value of the tension in the rope
section BA.

Figure 19.46 (vi) the magnitude of the force on the pulley

at A.
vertical wall and at the other end to a belt
round his waist. The man has weight 80g N, the
tension in the rope is T and the reaction of the
wall on the man is R. The rope is inclined at
35° to the vertical and R is inclined at a to the
vertical as shown. The man is in equilibrium.

2 Finding resultant forces

When forces are in equilibrium their resultant is zero, but of course forces
may not always be in equilibrium. The next example shows you how to find
the resultant of forces that are not in equilibrium. You know from Newton’s
second law that the acceleration of the body will be in the same direction as the
resultant force; remember that force and acceleration are both vector quantities.

Example 19.8 A child on a sledge is being pulled up a smooth slope of 20° by a rope which
makes an angle of 40° with the slope. The mass of the child and sledge
together is 20 kg and the tension in the rope is 170 N.
(i) Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the child and sledge
together.
(ii) Find the resultant of these forces.

Note
When the child and sledge are modelled as a particle, all the forces can be
assumed to be acting at a point.
There is no friction force because the slope is smooth.
➜

453
 Finding resultant forces

Solution
(i) Here is the force diagram.

Normal reaction T Tension

R
40°

20°

mg Weight
Figure 19.47
Discussion point (ii) You can find the normal reaction and the resultant force on the
➜ The sledge is sliding
along the slope. sledge using two methods.
What direction is Method 1: Scale drawing
the resultant force
acting on it? Draw a scale diagram with the three forces represented by three of the sides
of a quadrilateral taken in order (with the arrows following each other) as
shown in Figure 19.48. The resultant is represented by the fourth side AD.

Discussion point Resultant D

force F

In what order would

A R
➜ 20°
you draw the lines in
the diagram?
70°
C

mg 200

Note
170

Remember that in this scale

case the resultant force 0 50 100 N

60°

must be parallel to the B

slope (Figure 19.48). Figure 19.48
From the diagram you can estimate the normal reaction to be about 80 N
and the resultant 60 N. This is a good estimate but more precise values are
obtained using the second method.

Discussion points F
What can you say about the acceleration of the
A
➜ D
sledge in the cases when
(i) the length AD is not zero?
(ii) the length AD is zero so that the starting point 200 R
on the quadrilateral is the same as the finishing C
point?
(iii) BC is so short that the point D is to the left of A 60°

as shown in Figure 19.49? B

Figure 19.49

454
 Method 2: Using components
This method involves resolving forces into components in two
perpendicular directions. It is easiest to use the components of the forces
19
parallel and perpendicular to the slope in the directions of i and j as shown.

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

170 components
of weight

A dot in this angle 20°

20g sin 20°

j
R
could remind you
ofthattheit slope)
is (90°– angle
40°
20g
i 20g cos 20°
20°
components
20g making this the of tension
angle of slope 170 170 sin 40°

40°
170 cos 40°

The force R is Figure 19.50

perpendicular to the cos(90° − 20°) = sin 20°
slope so it has no Resolve parallel to the slope:
component in this The resultant is F = 170 cos 40°−20 sing 20 °
direction.
= 63.191 …
Resolve perpendicular to the slope:
There is no resultant
Note R + 170 sin 40°− 20 gcos 20 0°= in this direction because
the motion is parallel
Try resolving R = 20 gcos 20 170
°− sin 40 ° to the slope.
horizontally and
vertically. You will = 74.905
obtain two equations To 3 significant figures, the normal reaction is 74.9 N and the resultant is
in the two unknowns 63.2 N up the slope.
F and R. It is perfectly
possible to solve these Alternatively, you could have worked in column vectors as follows.
equations, but quite a Parallel to slope
lot of work. It is much ⎛ 0 ⎞ ⎛ 170 cos 40°⎞ ⎛ −20 gsin 20 ° ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞
easier to resolve in the Perpendicular to slope ⎝⎜R ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜170 sin 40° ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜−20 gcos 20 °⎠⎟ = ⎝⎜0 ⎠⎟
directions which ensure
that one component
of at least one of the Normal reaction Tension Weight Resultant
unknown forces is zero.
Once you know the resultant force, you can work out the acceleration of the
sledge using Newton’s second law.
F = ma
63.191= 20a

a 63.191
=
20
= 3.159

The acceleration is 3.2 m s−2 (correct to 1 d.p.).

455
 Finding resultant forces
Example 19.9 Two forces P and Q act at a point O. Force P has magnitude 20 N and acts
along a bearing of 060°. Force Q has magnitude of 15 N and acts along a
bearing of 330°.
Find the magnitude and bearing of the resultant force P + Q.

Solution
Note Forces P and Q are shown in Figure 19.51.
N

Notice that P and Q are

N Q

written as vectors. P Since Q acts on a

20N
bearing of 330°,
15N 30° ∠QON =
60° 360° − 330° = 30°.
30° 60°
O O
Figure 19.51
⎛ 20 cos 30°⎞
P =
⎝⎜20 sin 30° ⎠⎟
⎛17.32... ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝10 ⎠
⎛ −15cos60 ° ⎞
=
Q ⎜ ⎟
°
⎝ 15sin 60 ⎠
⎛ −7.5 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ Q
⎝12.99... ⎠
P+Q
⎛17.32...⎞ ⎛ −7.5 ⎞ 60°
P +Q= ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
⎝10 ⎠ ⎝12.99...⎠ P

⎛ 9.82...⎞
=⎜ ⎟ 30°
⎝ 22.99...⎠
The resultant is shown in Figure 19.52. Figure 19.52
Figure 19.53 shows how you can calculate the magnitude and bearing from
this resultant.

Magnitude P Q + = 9.82 …2 + 22.99 …2

= 625 P+Q
= 25 22.99

22.99 …
Direction tan u =
9.82 …
θ
= 2.34 …
9.82

u = 66.86 … ° Figure 19.53

The bearing is 90 ° − 66.86 … ° = 23.13… °
The force P + Q has magnitude 25 N and bearing 023°.

456
 Sometimes, as in the next example, it is just as easy to work with the
trigonometry of the diagram as with the components of the forces.
19
Example 19.10 Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces P and Q
inclined at an angle u.

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

Solution
Q D C

F = │P + Q│

Q
θ
φ
P AA B
P

Figure 19.54
Use the cosine rule in triangle ABC. The magnitude of the resultant is F.
F = PQ
+ = AB 2BC
+ 2 − 2 AB BC
××∠ cos( ABC)

= P 2 + Q 2 − 2PQ cos(180°− u )

= P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ
cos u

Use the sine rule in triangle ABC. The resultant makes an angle φ with the
P force.
sin ∠
CAB = sin ∠ ABC
BC AC
sinφ = sin(180 ° − θ )
Q F
sin φ =
Q sinθ
F
Q
φ = arc sin sin
F
( )θ
The resultant of the two forces P and Q inclined at u has magnitude
F = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ Q
cos u and makes an angle φ = arc sin sin θ (F )
with the P force.

457
 Finding resultant forces
Exercise 19.2
For questions 1–6, carry out the following steps. ⑦ Four horizontal wires are attached to a telephone
All forces are in newtons. post and exert the following tensions on it: 2N
(i) Draw a scale diagram to show the forces in the north direction, 3N in the east direction,
and their resultant. 4N in the south-west direction and 5N in
the south-east direction. Calculate the resultant
(ii) State whether you think the forces are tension on the post and find its direction.
in equilibrium and, if not, estimate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant. ⑧ Forces of magnitude 12 N, 8 N and 5 N act
on a particle in the directions shown in
(iii) Write the forces in component form, Figure 19.56.
using the directions indicated and so y
obtain the components of the resultant. 12 N
Hence find the magnitude and direction
8N
of the resultant.
(iv) Compare your answers to parts (ii) and (iii). 70° 50°
5N x
Figure 19.56
(i) Find the components of the resultant of
the three forces in the i and j directions.
(ii) Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant.

① 5N ②
6N

5N 30° j
3N 6N
i

10 N 10 N

③ 2N ④ 4N 6N

3 N 60° 5N 45° 45° j

45° 45°
60° i

2N 6N 4N

32.14 N
⑤ 24.77N ⑥ 38.30 N

18.66 N

10 N
j
j i
i 30 N 50 N
20° 40°

Figure 19.55

458
⑨ Find the resultant of the set of four forces
whose magnitudes and directions are shown
in Figure 19.57
3N
⑩ The resultant of two forces P and Q acting on
a particle has magnitude P = |P|.The resultant
of the two forces 2P and Q acting in the
same directions as before also has magnitude
19
2N P. Find the magnitude of Q and show that the
direction of Q makes an angle of 150° with P.

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

30° 60°
4N

1N

Figure 19.57

3 Newton’s second law in two

dimensions
When the forces acting on an object are not in equilibrium the object will have
an acceleration and you can use Newton’s second law to solve problems about
its motion.
The equation F = m a is a vector equation. The resultant force acting on a
particle is equal in both magnitude and direction to the mass × acceleration.
It can be written in component form as
⎛ F1 ⎞ ⎛ a1 ⎞
⎟ = m or F1iF+ 2 j = m(a 1ai2 j+ )
⎝⎜F2 ⎠ ⎝⎜a 2 ⎠⎟

so that F 1 = ma 1 and F 2 = ma 2.

Discussion point

Figure 19.58
A child is on a sledge sliding down a smooth straight slope inclined at 15° to
the horizontal.
➜ In what direction is the resultant force acting on the sledge?

Example 19.11 Sam is sledging. His sister gives him a push at the top of a smooth straight
15° slope and lets go when he is moving at 2 m−1s. He continues to slide for
5 seconds before using his feet to produce a braking force of 95 N parallel to the
slope. This brings him to rest. Sam and his sledge have a combined mass of 30 kg.
How far does he travel? ➜

459
 Newton’s second law in two dimensions

Solution
start
A
Sam brakes here 5s
2 ms 1
B
finish
v ms 1 a 1 ms 2
C
a 2 ms 2

0 ms 1
15°
Figure 19.59
To answer this question, you need to know Sam’s acceleration for the two
parts of his journey. In both cases it is constant so you can use the constant
acceleration formulae.
Sliding freely

The acceleration
is down the plane.
R
2 ms 1

R
A
a 1 ms 2

15°
B
15° Initial velocity 30g sin 15°

30g 30g cos 15°

All forces are in newtons

Figure 19.60
Using Newton’s second law in the direction of the acceleration gives
30 gsin15 ° = 30a1 Resultant force down the plane
a1 = 2.54 = × mass acceleration.
Now you know a 1 you can find how far Sam slides (s 1 m) and his speed
(v m −1
s ) before braking.
s ut= + 21 at 2 u= t=a=2, 5, 2.54 Given
s1 = ×2 +5 0.5 2.54 ×25 41.75× =
v u= at+
v 2= 2.54
+ 5 14.7× =
Braking
R
14.9 ms 1

95 R
a 2 ms 2 B
0ms 1
15° 95
C
15° 30g sin 15°

30g
30g cos 15°

All forces are in newtons

Figure 19.61 ➜

460
 By Newton’s second law down the plane
Resultant force = mass × acceleration 19
Discussion point 30 gsin 15 ° − 95 30
= 2 a

noitom secroF retpahC

a2 = − 0.63
➜ Make a list of
the modelling To find s 2 use v = u + 2as
2 2

assumptions used in
this example. What =
0 14.7 2 0.63 × s 2
2 − ×
Given =u v a= = −
14.7, 0, 0.63
would be the effect
of changing these?

1
2
= 14.7 = 171.5

9
s2 1.26
+
Sam travels a distance of 41.75 171.5 213= m to the nearest metre.

a
Example 19.12

dn
A skier is being pulled up a smooth 25° dry ski slope by a rope which makes
an angle of 35° with the horizontal. The mass of the skier is 75 kg and the
tension in the rope is 350 N. Initially the skier is at rest at the bottom of the
slope. Find the skier’s speed after 5 s and find the distance he has travelled in
that time.

Solution

350 R 350 sin 10°

R 10° 350 cos 10°

ams 2
25°

75g sin 25°

25° 75g 75g cos 25°

All forces in newtons

Figure 19.62
In Figure 19.62 the skier is modelled as a particle. Since the skier moves
parallel to the slope consider motion in that direction.
= acceleration
Resultant force mass ×
× sin×25 75 ° = × a
350 cos10° − 75 9.8
= 34.06 = 0.454 (to 3 d.p.)
a
75
This is a constant acceleration so use the constant acceleration formulae.
v u= at+
v 0= 0.454
+ 5 2.27× = u = =0, a0.454, 5 t =
The speed after 5 seconds is 2.27 m s−1 (to 2 d.p.)

s ut= + 2 at
1 2

s = +0 × 1
2
× =5.68
0.454 25

The distance travelled is 5.68 m (to 2 d.p.)

461
 Newton’s second law in two dimensions
Example 19.13 A car of mass 1000 kg, including its driver, is being pushed along a horizontal
road by three people, Kelly, Dean and Emma as indicated in Figure 19.63.
The car is moving in the direction PQ.
Kelly
15° 200 N
Dean 270 N
P Q

240 N
25°
Emma

Figure 19.63
(i) Calculate the total force exerted by the three people in the direction PQ.
(ii) Calculate the force exerted overall by the three people in the direction
perpendicular to PQ.
(iii) Explain briefly why the car does not move in the direction
perpendicular to PQ.
Initially the car is stationary and 5 s later it has a speed of 2 m s−1 in the
direction PQ.
(iv) Calculate the force of resistance to the car’s movement in the direction
PQ, assuming the three people continue to push as described above.
[MEI part]

Solution
(i) Resolving in the direction PQ (→) the components in newtons are:
Kelly 200 cos15°193
=
Dean 270
Emma 240 cos 45° 218
=

Total force in the direction PQ = 681 N.

(ii) Resolving perpendicular to PQ (↑) the components are:
Kelly − 200 sin15°= − 51.8
Dean 0
Emma 240 sin 25° 101.4
=

Total force in the direction perpendicular to PQ = 49.6 N.

(iii) The car does not move perpendicular to PQ because the force in this
direction is balanced by a sideways (lateral) friction force between the
tyres and the road.
(iv) The acceleration of the car is constant, so you can use the constant
acceleration formula
v u= at+
2 0= 5+ a u = =0,=v2,t 5
a 0.4
=

When the resistance to motion in the direction QP is R N, Figure 19.64

shows all the horizontal forces acting on the car and its acceleration.

462
 The weight of the car
is in the third dimension,
perpendicular to this plane
and is balanced by the normal
R
49.6

681
1000 kg
a m s–2 19
reaction of the ground. 49.6

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

All forces in newtons
Sideways friction
Figure 19.64
The resultant force in the direction PQ is (681 – R) N. So by Newton’s
second law.
681 − =R 1000a
R 681
= 400−

The resistance to motion in the direction PQ is 281 N.

Exercise 19.3
① The forces =F1 4 i − 5 j and F2 = 2 i j+ , in (ii) Find the magnitude of the tension in the
newtons, act on a particle of mass 4 kg. rope.
(i) Find the acceleration of the particle in The girl comes to an area of ice where the
component form. resistance force on the sledge is only 2N. She
continues to pull the sledge with the same force as
(ii) Find the magnitude of the particle’s
before and with the rope still taut at 30°.
acceleration.
② Two forces P 1 and P 2 act on a particle of (iii) What acceleration must the girl have in
mass 2 kg giving it an acceleration of +
5i 5 j order to do this?
(in m s ).
−2
(iv)
How long will it take to double her initial
(i) If P1 = 6i j− (in newtons), find P 2. speed of 0.4 m s −1?
④ A block of mass 12kg is placed on a smooth
(ii) If instead P 1 and P 2 both act in the same plane inclined at 40° to the horizontal. It
direction but P 1 is four times as big as P 2
find both forces. is connected by a light inextensible string,
which passes over a smooth pulley at the top
③ Figure 19.65 shows a girl pulling a sledge at
of the plane, to a mass of 7kg hanging freely
steady speed across level snow-covered ground
(Figure 19.66). Find the common acceleration
using a rope which makes an angle of 30° to
and the tension in the string.
the horizontal. The mass of the sledge is 8 kg
and there is a resistance force of 10 N.

kg
12
7 kg
40°

Figure 19.66
30°

Figure 19.65
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting
on the sledge.

463
 Newton’s second law in two dimensions
⑤ Figure 19.67 shows a situation which has The resistances to motion of the trucks are
arisen between two anglers, Davies and Jones, 2.5 N for truck A and 1.5 N for truck B.
standing at the ends of adjacent jetties. Their The initial speed of the trucks is 2 m s −1.
lines have become entangled under the water
Calculate the speed of the trucks after
with the result that they have both hooked
the same fish, which has a mass 1.9 kg. Both 3 seconds and also the force in the rod
connecting the trucks, stating whether the rod
are reeling in their lines as hard as they can in
is in tension or in thrust.
order to claim the fish.
⑧ A car of mass 1000 kg is towing a trailer of
mass 250 kg along a slope of 1 in 20 (i.e. at an
30 N 40 N 1
angle u to the horizontal and usin=
40° 50° 20 ).The
Davies Jones driving force of the engine is 2500 N and there
are resistances to the motion of both the car,
700 N, and the trailer, 300 N.
Figure 19.67 Find the acceleration and the tension in the
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting tow bar.
on the fish. ⑨ A cyclist of mass 60 kg rides a cycle of mass
(ii) Resolve the tensions in both anglers’ lines 7 kg. The greatest forward force that she can
into horizontal and vertical components produce is 200 N but she is subject to air
and so find the total force acting on the resistance and friction totalling 50 N.
fish. (i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting
(iii) Find the magnitude and direction of the on the cyclist when she is going uphill.
acceleration of the fish. (ii) What is the angle of the steepest slope that
(iv)
At this point Davies’ line breaks. What she can ascend?
happens to the fish? The cyclist reaches a slope of 8° with a speed
⑥ A crate of mass 30 kg is being pulled up a of 5 m s−1 and rides as hard as she can up it.
smooth slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal (iii) Find her acceleration and the distance she
by a rope which is parallel to the slope. The travels in 5 s.
crate has acceleration 0.75 m s−2.
(iv)
What is her speed now?
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces ⑩ A builder is demolishing the chimney of a
acting on the crate and the direction of its
house and slides the old bricks down to the
acceleration.
ground on a straight chute 10 m long inclined
(ii) Resolve the forces in directions parallel at 42° to the horizontal. Each brick has a mass
and perpendicular to the slope. of 3 kg.
(iii)
Find the tension in the rope. (i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting
(iv)
The rope suddenly snaps. What happens on a brick as it slides down the chute,
to the crate? assuming the chute to have a flat cross
⑦ Two toy trucks are travelling down a slope section and a smooth surface.
inclined at an angle of 5° to the horizontal (ii) Find the acceleration of the brick.
(Figure 19.68).Truck A has a mass of 6 kg, (iii)Find the time the brick takes to reach the
truck B has a mass of 4 kg. ground.
1.5 N
2.5 N In fact the chute is not smooth and the brick
B takes 3s to reach the ground.
A
5°
(iv) Find the frictional force acting on the
Figure 19.68 brick, assuming it to be constant.
The trucks are linked by a light rigid rod
which is parallel to the slope.

464
⑪ A box of mass 80 kg is to be pulled along a
horizontal floor by means of a light rope. The
rope is pulled with a force of 100 N and the
rope is inclined at 20° to the horizontal, as
5 kg
19
m kg
shown in Figure 19.69.
100 N 15 N

noitom dna secroF 91 retpahC

rope 30°
80 kg 20°

floor Figure 19.70

Figure 19.69 Give your answers to two significant figures.
(i) Copy the diagram and mark in all the
(i) Explain briefly why the box cannot be in forces acting on the block and the hanging
equilibrium if the floor is smooth. mass, including the tension in the string.
In fact the floor is not smooth and the box is (ii) Calculate the value of m when the block
in equilibrium. slides up the plane at a constant speed and
(ii) Draw a diagram showing all the external find the tension in the string.
forces acting on the box. (iii)
Calculate the acceleration of the system
(iii)
Calculate the frictional force between the when m = 6 kg and find the tension in the
box and the floor and also the normal string in this case. [MEI]
reaction of the floor on the box, giving ⑬ A sledge is found to travel with uniform speed
your answers correct to three significant down a slope of 1 in 50 (i.e. at an angle u with
figures. the horizontal such that usin
= 1
50 ). If the
The maximum value of the frictional force sledge starts from the bottom of the same slope
between the box and the floor is 120 N and the with a speed of 2 m s−1 how far will it travel up
box is now pulled along the floor with the rope the slope before coming to rest?
always inclined at 20° to the horizontal. ⑭ A train of mass 200 tonnes is travelling
(iv) Calculate the force with which the rope uniformly on level ground at 10 m s−1 when it
must be pulled for the box to move at a begins an ascent of 1 in 50. The driving force
constant speed. Give your answers correct exerted by the engine is equal to 25 kN and
to three significant figures. the resistance force on the train is a constant
10 kN. Show that the train comes to a standstill
(v)Calculate the acceleration of the box if the
after climbing for 413 m.
rope is pulled with a force of 140 N.
[MEI] ⑮ A railway truck runs down a slope of 1 in 250
⑫ A block of mass 5 kg is at rest on a plane which and at the foot continues along level ground.
is inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A light Find how far it will run on the level if the
inelastic string is attached to the block, passes speed was a constant 5 m s−1 on the slope and
over a smooth pulley and supports a mass the resistance is unchanged on the level.
m kg which hangs freely. The part of the string
between the block and the pulley is parallel to
a line of greatest slope of the plane. A friction
force of 15 N opposes the motion of the
block. Figure 19.70 shows the block when it is
slipping up the plane at a constant speed.

465
 Newton’s second law in two dimensions

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤resolve a force into components
➤find the resultant of several forces by resolving and adding components
➤know the condition for equilibrium of a particle
➤formulate and solve equations of a particle in equilibrium
➤formulate
a plane. the equation of motion for a particle moving in a straight line or in

KEY POINTS
1 Resolving a force
A force may be resolved into components in
perpendicular directions so the force F in Figure 19.71 j
F

can be written as F = F cos ui + F sin uj or as θ

F = (F cos u, F sin u). i

2 The resultant force Figure 19.71

The forces acting on a body can be combined to form
the resultant force. Its magnitude and direction
can be found using scale drawing or by R
calculation using components. F
3 Scale drawing
3

Draw an accurate diagram, then measure the F

length and direction of the resultant. This is
1

less accurate than calculation. F

2

4 Calculating the resultant Figure 19.72

To calculate the resultant of several forces,
resolve all of them in two perpendicular directions and then add the various
components. Finally combine them to find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant.
5 Combining components
When R is X i + Y j R
Y

Magnitude R = X Y+ 2 2

Direction tanu= YX θ

X
6 Equilibrium When the forces are in equilibrium Figure 19.73
the resultant R is zero.
7 Triangle of forces If a body is in equilibrium under three non-parallel forces,
their lines of action are concurrent and they can be represented by a triangle.
8 Newton’s second law When the resultant R is not zero there is an
acceleration a and R = ma.
9 When a particle is on a slope, it is usually helpful to resolve in directions
parallel and perpendicular to the slope.

466
 20 Moments of forces

Give me a firm place to The photo shows a swing bridge over a canal. It can be raised to allow barges and
stand and I will move the boats to pass. It is operated by hand, even though it is very heavy.
earth ➜ How is this possible?
Archimedes The bridge depends on the turning effects or moments of forces. To understand these
(ca. 287–212 BC) you might find it helpful to start by looking at a simpler situation.
Two children sit on a simple see-saw, made of a plank balanced on a fulcrum as in
Figure 20.1. Will the see-saw balance?

fulcrum

Figure 20.1
If both children have the same mass and sit the same distance from the fulcrum, then
you expect to see the see-saw balance.
Now consider possible changes to this situation:
■ If one child is heavier than the other then you expect the heavier one to go down.
■ If one child moves nearer to the centre you expect that child to go up.
You can see that both the weights of the children and their distances from the fulcrum
are important.
What about this case? One child has mass 35 kg and sits 1.6 m from the fulcrum and
the other has mass 40 kg and sits on the opposite side 1.4 m from the fulcrum (see
Figure 20.2).
A B

1.4 m 1.6 m

40g 35g

Figure 20.2
467
 Rigid bodies
Taking the products of their weights and their distances from the fulcrum, gives
A: 40 g × 1.4 = 56 g
B: 35 g × 1.6 = 56 g
So you might expect the see-saw to balance and this indeed is what would happen.

1 Rigid bodies
Rigid bodies
Until now the particle model has provided a reasonable basis for the analysis
of the situations you have met. In examples like the see-saw, however, where
turning is important, this model is inadequate because the forces do not all act
through the same point.
In such cases you need the rigid body model. In this model an object, or
body, is recognised as having size and shape, but is assumed not to be deformed
when forces act on it.
Suppose that you push a tray lying on a smooth table with one finger so that the
force acts parallel to one edge and through the centre of mass (Figure 20.3)

Figure 20.3
The particle model is adequate here: the tray travels in a straight line in the
direction of the applied force. If you push the tray equally hard with two fingers
as in Figure 20.4, symmetrically either side of the centre of mass, the particle
model is still adequate.
F

2F

Figure 20.4
However, if the two forces are not equal or are not symmetrically placed, or as in
Figure 20.5 are in different directions, the particle model cannot be used.
F

Figure 20.5

468
The resultant force is now zero, since the individual forces are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. What happens to the tray? Experience tells
you that it starts to rotate about G. How fast it starts to rotate depends, among
other things, on the magnitude of the forces and the width of the tray. The rigid
20
body model allows you to analyse the situation.

Moments

secrof fo stnemoM 02 retpahC

In the example of the see-saw you looked at the product of each force and its
distance from a fixed point. This product is called the moment of the force
about the point.
The see-saw balances because the moments of the forces on either side of the
fulcrum are the same magnitude and in opposite directions. One would tend
to make the see-saw turn clockwise, the other anticlockwise. By contrast, the
moments about G of the forces on the tray in the last situation do not balance.
They both tend to turn it anticlockwise, so rotation occurs.

Notation
The moment of a force F about a point O is defined by
moment = Fd
where d is the perpendicular distance from the point O to the line of action of
the force (Figure 20.6).
F
The line of the
force and its
O
perpendicular
d
make a T
(for ‘turning’).
Figure 20.6
In two dimensions, the sense of a moment is described as either positive
(anticlockwise) or negative (clockwise) as shown in Figure 20.7.
F
(i) (ii)
O O

F
clockwise moment anticlockwise
(negative) moment (positive)
Figure 20.7
If you imagine putting a pin at O and pushing along the line of F, your page
would turn clockwise for (i) and anticlockwise for (ii).
In the S.I. system the unit for moment is the newton metre (Nm), because a
moment is the product of a force, the unit of which is the newton, and distance,
the unit of which is the metre.
Remember that moments are always taken about a point and you must always
specify what that point is. A force acting through the point will have no moment
about that point because in that case d = 0.

469
 Rigid bodies

Discussion point
➜ Figure 20.8 shows two tools for undoing wheel nuts on a car. Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of each.

Figure 20.8
When using the spider wrench (the tool with two ‘arms’), you apply equal and
opposite forces either side of the nut. These produce moments in the same
direction. One advantage of this method is that there is no resultant force and
hence no tendency for the nut to snap off.

Couples
Whenever two forces of the same magnitude act in opposite directions along
different lines, they have a zero resultant force, but do have a turning effect.
In fact the moment will be Fd about any point, where d is the perpendicular
distance between the forces. This is demonstrated in Figure 20.9.

O d
d
O
F

F a
A
A
a B
B

Figure 20.9
In each of these situations: anticlockwise is positive
Moment about O: F d2 F2+ d=Fd
Moment about A: 0 + Fd = Fd
Moment about B: −aF + (a + d)F = Fd
Any set of forces like these with a zero resultant but a non-zero total moment is
known as a couple. The effect of a couple on a rigid body is to cause rotation.

470
 Equilibrium revisited
20
D C P
a
2
G
a
In Chapter 19 an object was said to be in equilibrium if the resultant force
2 acting on it is zero. This definition is adequate provided all the forces act
P A B through the same point on the object. However, in a situation where forces act
at different points, there may be an overall moment even if the resultant of the
Figure 20.10

secrof fo stnemoM 02 retpahC

forces is zero.
Figure 20.10 shows a tray on a smooth surface being pushed equally hard at
opposite corners.

Note The resultant force on the tray is clearly zero, but the resultant moment about its
centre point, G, is
You could have taken
moments about any of P 2a P+ a Pa2 = .
the corners, A, B, C or
D, or any other point in
the plane of the paper The tray will start to rotate about its centre and so it is clearly not in
and the answer would equilibrium.
have been the same, Pa So the mathematical definition of equilibrium now needs to be tightened
anticlockwise. to include moments. For an object to remain at rest (or moving at constant
velocity) when a system of forces is applied, both the resultant force and the total
moment must be zero.
To check that an object is in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces,
you need to check two things:
1 that the resultant force is zero;
2 that the resultant moment about any point is zero. (You only need to check
one point.)

Example 20.1 Two children are playing with a door

(Figure 20.11). Kerry tries to open it by
pulling on the handle with a force of 50 N
at right angles to the plane of the door, at a
distance 0.8 m from the hinges. Peter pushes
at a point 0.6 m from the hinges, also at
right angles to the door and with sufficient
force to just stop Kerry opening it.
(i) What is the moment of Kerry’s
force about the hinges?
(ii) With what force does Peter push?
(iii) Describe the resultant force on the
hinges.
Figure 20.11
➜

471
 Rigid bodies

Solution
Looking down from above, the line of the hinges becomes a point, H.
The door opens clockwise. Anticlockwise is taken as positive.
H
(i)
0.8 m
50 N

Figure 20.12
Kerry’s moment about H = −50 × 0.8
= −40 Nm
The moment of Kerry’s force about the hinges is −40 Nm.
(Note that it is a clockwise moment and so negative.)
(ii) H

0.6 m
FN

Figure 20.13
Note Peter’s moment about H = + F × 0.6

The reaction force at Since the door is in equilibrium the total moment on it must be
a hinge may act in any zero, so
direction, according to F 0.6
× 40 −0 =
the forces elsewhere
in the system. A hinge F = 40
can be visualised in 0.6
cross section as shown
in Figure 20.15. If the = 66.7 (to 3 s.f.)
hinge is well oiled, and Peter pushes with a force of 66.7 N.
the friction between
the inner and outer (iii) Since the door is in equilibrium
parts is negligible, the the overall resultant force on it
hinge cannot exert any must be zero. All the forces are R 66.7 N 50 N
moment. In this situation at right angles to the door, as
Figure 20.14
the door is said to be
‘freely hinged’. shown in Figure 20.14.
Resolving perpendicular to door:
Contact may
occur anywhere R + 50 = 66.7
inside this circle. R = 16.7 (to 3 s.f.)
The total reaction at the hinges is a force of 16.7 N in the same
Figure 20.15 direction as Kerry is pulling.

472
 Example 20.2 The diagram shows a man of weight 600 N standing on a footbridge that
consists of a uniform wooden plank just over 2 m long of weight 200 N. Find
the reaction forces exerted on each end of the plank.
20

secrof fo stnemoM 02 retpahC

2m
0.5 m

Figure 20.16
Notes Solution
1 You cannot solve Figure 20.17 shows the forces acting on the plank.
this problem without
taking moments.
2 You can take
RN SN
0.5 m 0.5 m 1m
moments about any
point. For example, A B
if you take moments
about B you get the
600 N 200 N

same answer. Figure 20.17

3 The whole weight of
the plank is being For equilibrium both the resultant force and the total moment must be zero.
considered to act at All forces act
its centre of mass. Forces:
vertically.
4 When a force acts R + S − 800 = 0 ①
through the point You could take moments
about which moments Moments:
about B instead, or any
are being taken, its Taking moments about the point A gives other point.
moment about that
point is zero. R × −0 600 0.5× 200 1− ×+×S = 20 ②
From equation ② S = 250 and so equation ① gives R = 550.
The reaction forces are 250 N at A and 550 N at B.

Levers
A lever can be used to lift or move a heavy object using a relatively small force.
Levers depend on moments for their action.
Two common lever configurations are shown overleaf. In both cases a load W
is being lifted by an applied force F, using a lever of length l. The calculations
assume equilibrium.

473
 Rigid bodies
Case 1 (2nd class levers)
The fulcrum is at one end of the lever (Figure 20.18).

Applied
force F load
a
R

W
fulcrum

Figure 20.18
Taking moments about the fulcrum
F l×W− a 0 × =
FW = a ×
l
Since a is much smaller than l, the applied force F is much smaller than the load W.

Case 2 (1st class levers)

The fulcrum is within the lever (Figure 20.19).
l

load

Applied a

force F fulcrum W

Figure 20.19
Taking moments about the fulcrum:
F × −(l −a W) a 0 ×=

FW
=× a
l a−
Provided that the fulcrum is nearer the end with the load, the applied force is
less than the load.
These examples also indicate how to find a single force equivalent to two
parallel forces. The force equivalent to F and W should be equal and opposite to
Discussion points R and with the same line of action.
➜ How do you use Discussion points
moments to open a
screw-top jar? ➜ Describe the single force equivalent to P and Q in each of these cases.
➜ Why is it an
➜ In each case state its magnitude and line of action.
advantage to press
hard when it is stiff? P Q P

O
O a b
a b
Q

Figure 20.20

474
 5N
O 2m
2m
3m

Exercise 20.1
20
3m
11 N
O
11 N
① In each of the situations shown below, find the O
moment
of the force about the point and state
whether it is positive (anticlockwise) or negative (clockwise). O
5N
(i) 5N
(ii) O
O (iii) O (iv)

secrof fo stnemoM 02 retpahC

2m 3m 7N
2m O
7N 4m
3m
O
3m 4m
3m
11 N 6N
O 11 N
O 6N

Figure 20.21
O
O
② The situations below involve several forces acting on each object. For each one, find the total moment.
(i)3 m 3m
7N
7N (ii) O
4m O
4m
1.7 N
3N
2N 1.4 m

6N O
0.6 m O6 N
1.1 m 1.8 m 2.1 N

(iii) 5N
(iv)
1.2 N 2.1 m 1.6 N

0.9 m
1.7 m 1m
O 1N 2.4 m
O
0.8 m
4N 1.7 m
3N

1.3 N

Figure 20.22
③ A uniform horizontal bar of mass 5 kg has
length 30 cm and rests on two vertical supports,
10 cm and 22 cm from its left-hand end. Find
the magnitude of the reaction force at each of
the supports.
④ The diagram shows a motorcycle of mass
250 kg, and its rider whose mass is 80 kg. The 0.7 m 0.7 m
centre of mass of the motorcycle lies on a
vertical line midway between its wheels. When Figure 20.23
the rider is on the motorcycle, his centre of Find the vertical reaction forces acting through
mass is 1 m behind the front wheel. the front and rear wheels when
(i) the rider is not on the motorcycle
(ii) the rider is on the motorcycle.

475
 Rigid bodies
⑤ Find the reaction forces on the hi-fi shelf shown below. The shelf itself has weight 25 N and its centre of
mass is midway between A and D.
XN YN
5 .m0 m7.0 m8.0

A B C D

25 N
80 N 60 N 70 N

Figure 20.24
⑥ Kara and Jane are trying to find the positions (i) Find the reaction forces, P and Q (in N),
of their centres of mass. They place a uniform from the ground on the two supports of
board of mass 8 kg symmetrically on two the bench.
bathroom scales whose centres are 2 m apart. (ii) The child now moves to the mid-point of
When Kara lies flat on the board, Jane notes the bench. What are the new values of P
that scale A reads 37 kg and scale B reads 26 kg. and Q?
(iii)
Is it possible for the child to move to
a position where P = 0? What is the
A B significance of a zero value for P?
2m (iv) What happens if the child leaves the
bench?
Figure 20.25 ⑧ Figure 20.27 shows a diving board which some
children have made. It consists of a uniform
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting plank of mass 20 kg and length 3 m, with 1 m of
on Kara and the board and calculate Kara’s its length projecting out over a pool. They have
mass. put a boulder of mass 25 kg on the end over the
(ii)
How far from the centre of scale A is her land; and there is a support at the water’s edge.
centre of mass? (i) Find the forces at the two supports when
⑦ The diagram shows two people, an adult and a nobody is using the diving board.
child, sitting on a uniform bench of mass 40 kg;
their positions are as shown. The mass of the
(ii) A child of mass 50 kg is standing on the
end of the diving board over the pool.
child is 50 kg; that of the adult is 85 kg.
What are the forces at the two supports?
(iii) Some older children arrive and take over
the diving board. One of these is a heavy
boy of mass 90 kg. What is the reaction at
A if the board begins to tip over?
A B (iv) How far can the boy walk from B before
the board tips over?
0.5 m 1.0 m 0.5 m
boulder
P Q 3 m total length 1 m sticks out over pool

A
Figure 20.26 B C

Figure 20.27
476
⑨ A lorry of mass 5000 kg is driven across a
bridge of mass 20 tonnes. The bridge is a
roadway of length 10 m which is supported at
both ends.
(iii)
What is the mass of a person standing on the
end of the bridge when the tension in one
cable is four times that in the other cable?
⑬ Find the magnitude, direction and line of
20
(i) Find expressions for the reaction forces action of the resultant of this system of forces.

secrof fo stnemoM 02 retpahC

at each end of the bridge in terms of the 7N 5N
distance x in metres travelled by the lorry
from the start of the bridge. 1m1m1m 3m B
A
(ii)From what point of the lorry is the
distance x measured? 3N3N 4N
Two identical lorries cross the bridge at the
same speed, starting at the same instant, from
Figure 20.29
opposite directions.
⑭ Figure 20.30 shows a stone slab AB of mass
(iii) How do the reaction forces of the 1 tonne resting on two supports, C and D.
supports on the bridge vary as the lorries
The stone is uniform and has length 3 m. The
cross the bridge? supports are at distances 1.2 m and 0.5 m from
⑩ A non-uniform rod AB of length 20 cm rests the end.
horizontally on two supports at C and D, where
3m
AC = BD = 4 cm. The greatest mass that can be
hung from A without disturbing equilibrium A 1.2 m C D 0.5 m B
is 8 g, and the greatest mass that can be hung
from B is 10 g. Find the mass of the rod and the
distance of its centre of mass from A.
⑪ A uniform plank of mass 80 kg is 12 m long Figure 20.30
and 5 m of it project over the side of a quay.
What is the minimum load that must be placed (i) Find the reaction forces at the two
on the end of the plank so that a woman of supports.
mass 45 kg can walk to the other end of the Local residents are worried that the
plank without tipping into the water? arrangement is unsafe since their children play
⑫ A simple suspension bridge across a narrow on the stone.
river consists of a uniform beam, 4 m long (ii) How many children, each of mass 50 kg
and of mass 60 kg, supported by vertical cables would need to stand at A in order to tip
attached at a distance 0.75 m from each end of the stone over?
the beam. The stone’s owner decides to move the support
at C to a point nearer to A. To take the weight
cables
of the slab while doing this, he sets up the lever
system shown in the diagram. The distance XF
is 1.25 m and FY is 0.25 m.
1.25 m 0.25 m

F
X Y

Figure 20.28
(i) Find the tension in each cable when a boy
The lever is light
of mass 50 kg stands 1 m from the end of Figure 20.31
the bridge.
(ii) Can a couple walking hand-in-hand cross (iii) What downward force applied at X would
the bridge safely, without it tipping, if reduce the reaction force at C to zero (and
their combined mass is 115 kg? so allow the support to be moved)?

477
 Rigid bodies
⑮ Four sailors are using a light capstan to pull in (i) Find the tension in the cable.
their ship’s anchor at a steady rate. One of them The mass of the ship is 2000 tonnes.
is shown in the diagram. The diameter of the (ii) Find the acceleration of the ship, assuming
capstan’s drum is 1 m and the spokes on which that no other horizontal forces act on the
the sailors are pushing each project horizontally ship.
from the centre of the capstan. Each sailor is In fact the acceleration of the ship is
pushing with a force of 300 N, horizontally and 0.0015 m s −2. Part of the difference can be
at right angles to his spoke at a distance of 1.5 m explained by friction with the capstan, resulting
from the centre of the capstan. The anchor cable in a resisting moment of 100 Nm, the rest by
is taut; it passes over a frictionless pulley and the force of resistance, R N, to the ship passing
then makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. through the water.
(iii) Find the value of R.
Note: Only one of the
four sailors is shown.

20°

Figure 20.32
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ calculate the moment of a force about a point or axis
➤ know the meaning of the term couple
➤ know the conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body
➤ solve problems involving equilibrium of a rigid body.

KEY POINTS
1 The moment of a force F about a point O is given by the product Fd where
d is the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of the force.
F

O
d

Figure 20.33
2 The S.I. unit for moment is the newton metre (Nm).
3 Anticlockwise moments are usually called positive, clockwise negative.
4 A body is in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces if
(i) the resultant force is zero
(ii) the resultant moment about any point is zero.
5 A set of forces with zero resultant but non-zero moment is called a couple.
478
 21 Projectiles

Swift of foot was

Hiawatha; Look at the water jet in the picture. Every drop of water in a water jet follows
its own path which is called its trajectory. You can see the same sort of
He could shoot an arrow trajectory if you throw a small object across a room. Its path is a parabola.
from him, Objects moving through the air like this are called projectiles.
Modelling assumptions for projectile motion
And run forward with
such fleetness,
That the arrow fell The path of a cricket ball looks parabolic, but what about a boomerang?
behind him! There are modelling assumptions which must be satisfied for the motion
Strong of arm was of a projectile to be parabolic. These are
Hiawatha; ■ the projectile is a particle
He could shoot ten ■ it is not powered
arrows upwards,
Shoot them with such
■ the air has no effect on its motion
strength and swiftness, ■ it has no spin.
That the last had left the
bowstring,
Ere the first to earth had
fallen!
The Song of Hiawatha
Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow (1807–1882)

479
 Equations for projectile motion
Notes
• Horizontal distance
1 Equations for projectile motion
travelled is small A projectile moves in two dimensions under the action of only one force, the
enough to assume force of gravity, which is constant and acts vertically downwards. This means
that gravity is that the acceleration of the projectile is g m s−2 vertically downwards and there
always in the same
direction. is no horizontal acceleration. You can treat the horizontal and vertical motion
separately using the equations for constant acceleration.
• Vertical distance
travelled is small To illustrate the ideas involved, think of a ball being projected with a speed of
enough to assume 20 m s−1 at 60° to the ground as illustrated in Figure 21.1. This could be a first
that gravity is model for a football, a chip shot from the rough at golf or a lofted shot at cricket.
constant. y

Note
15
acceleration Resolving
velocity
the initial
The value of g varies 20
around the world from
20 m s −1 9.8 m s −2
10
60°
9.766 m s in Kuala
−2

Lumpur to 9.825 m s −2

in Oslo. A typical value 5

is 9.8 m s and that
20 sin 60°
−2

is used in this book.

In some projectile 00
60° 20 cos 60°
problems a value of 10 20 30 40 x

10 m s is used to
−2
Figure 21.1
simplify the working. This is negative because the
Using axes as shown, the components are:
positive y-axis is upwards.
Horizontal Vertical as vectors
⎛ 0 ⎞
Initial position 0 0 ⎜ ⎟
a=−
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Acceleration a x= 0 a y = −9.8 ⎝ 9.8 ⎠
⎛ 20cos 60° ⎞
Initial velocity u x = 20 cos 60° u y = 20 sin 60° ⎜
u=⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜ 20sin 60° ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 10 = 17.32
Using v = u + at in the two directions gives the components of the velocity.
ax = ⇒0 Velocity Horizontal Vertical
vx is constant
v x = 20cos60 ° v y=
20 sin 60°−9.8 t
⎛
⎜ 10 ⎞
⎟
v x = 10 ① v y = 17.32 9.8
− t ②
v = ⎜
⎝17.32 −
9.8 t ⎟⎠
Using s ut
=+ 1 at 2
2
in both directions gives the components of position.

Position Horizontal Vertical

x = (20cos60 ° )t y = (20 sin 60° )4.9
−t t2
⎛
⎜ 10t ⎞
⎟ x = 10t ③ y = 17.32t4.9
− t2 ④
r =
⎝17.32t 4.9 t⎠
⎜ − 2⎟

480
These results are summarised in Table 21.1. It is assumed that the projectile has
started at the origin.
Table 21.1
21
Horizontal motion Vertical motion
a ax = 0 ay = − 9.8

selitcejorP 12 retpahC
u ux = 20 cos 60 °= 10 uy = 20 sin 60 °=
17.32

v v x = 10 ① v y = 17.32 9.8
− t ②
r x = 10t ③ y = 17.32t4.9
− t2 ④

The four equations ①, ②, ③ and ④ for velocity and position can be used to
find several things about the motion of the ball.

ACTIVITY 21.1
(i) What, if anything, can you say about the values of the variables x, y, v x and v y
in Table 21.1 when the projectile is at
(a) the top-most point of the path of the ball?
(b) the point where it is just about to hit the ground?
(ii) What about the other four quantities in the table, a x, a y, u x and u y?
When you have decided the answer to these questions you have sufficient
information to find the greatest height reached by the ball, the time of flight and
the range (the total distance travelled horizontally before it hits the ground).
The maximum height
When the ball is at its maximum height, the vertical component of its velocity is
zero. It still has a horizontal component of 10 m s−1 which is constant. Equation
② from Table 21.1 above gives the vertical component as
v y = 17.32 9.8
− t
At the top: =
0 17.32 9.8− t
t 17.32
=
9.8
= 1.767

To find the maximum height, you now No vertical

need to find y at this time. Substituting velocity
for t in equation ④,
y

y = 17.32t4.9
− t2
H
y 17.32
= × 4.9 1.767
1.767 − × 2

= 15.3 O x

The maximum height is 15.3 m. Figure 21.2

481
 Equations for projectile motion
The time of flight
The flight ends when the ball returns to the ground, that is when y = 0.
Substituting y = 0 in equation ④,
y = 17.32t4.9
− t2
=
0 17.32 4.9t − t2
0 = t(17.32 4.9
− )t

t 0= or t 3.53=
Clearly t = 0 is the time when the ball is projected, so t = 3.53 is the time when
it lands and the time of flight is 3.53 s.

The range
The range, R m, of the ball is the horizontal distance it travels before landing.
R is the value of x when y = 0.
R can be found by substituting t = 3.53 in equation ③: x = 10t.
The range is 10 × 3.53 = 35.3 m
y

y = 0, x = R

O
R x

Figure 21.3
Discussion points
1 Notice in this example that the time to maximum height is half the flight
time. Is this always the case?
2 Decide which of the following have flights that could be modelled as
projectiles.
a balloon a bird a bullet shot from a gun a glider
a golf ball a parachutist a rocket a tennis ball
➜ Which modelling assumptions do not apply in the particular cases?

Exercise 21.1
In this exercise take upwards to be positive and use (b) write down the horizontal and
9.8 m s−2 for g unless otherwise stated. All the projectiles vertical components of the initial
start at the origin. velocity
① In each case you are given the initial velocity (c) write down equations for the velocity
of a projectile. For each part after time t seconds
(a) draw a diagram showing the initial (d) write down equations for the position
velocity and the path after time t seconds.

482
 (i) 10 m s−1 at 35° above the horizontal
(ii) 2 m s −1 horizontally, 5 m s−1 vertically
(iii) 4 m s −1 horizontally
③ In each case find
(a) the time of flight of the projectile
(b) the horizontal range.
21
(iv) 10 m s −1 at 13° below the horizontal (i) Initial velocity 20 m s−1 horizontally and

selitcejorP retpahC
19.6 m s−1 vertically.
(v) U m s −1 at angle a to the horizontal
(vi) u x m s −1 horizontally, u y m −1s vertically. (ii) Initial velocity 5 m s −1
at 60° above the
horizontal.
② In each case find
④ A ball is projected from ground level
(a) the time taken for the projectile to

12
⎛ u x⎞
reach its highest point and
with initial velocity =u ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ .⎟ Find
⎝u y ⎠
(b) the maximum height.
(i) Initial velocity 5 m s−1 horizontally and (i) the maximum height
14.7 m s−1 vertically. (ii) the time of flight
(ii) Initial velocity 10 m s −1 at 30° above the (iii) the range.
horizontal.

2 Projectile problems
Representing projectile motion by vectors
Figure 21.4 shows a possible path for a marble which is thrown across a room
from the moment it leaves the hand until just before it hits the floor.
y
2.5
Initial velocity Position after t seconds
2.0
u (ms –1 )
R
Velocity after t seconds
1.5
A v (ms –1 ) Acceleration
r
Notice that 1.0
a (ms –2 )
Figure 21.4 shows
0.5
the trajectory of the
marble. It is its path 0
through space, not a 1 2 3 4 5 x

position–time graph. Figure 21.4

=
The vector r OR is the position vector of the marble after a time t seconds
and the vector v represents the velocity in m s−1 at that instant of time.
You can use equations for constant acceleration in vector form to describe the
motion.
Velocity v u= +
a t
Displacement r−
r =0 + ut 1 at 2
2
so r r= u+0a+ tt 1
2
2

483
 Projectile problems

This is what displacement

would be without gravity.
ut 1 at 2
u 2
Always check
This is the
whether or not at
Initial distance ‘fallen’
the projectile starts at
the origin. The change
displacement due to gravity:
v u at
in position is the vector r0 ⎛ 0⎞
a = ⎝−g ⎠
r – r 0. This is the 1
r r 0 ut at 2
equivalent of s − s 0 in 2
one dimension.
Figure 21.5
When working with projectile problems, you can treat each direction separately
or you can write them both together as vectors. The next example shows both
methods.

Example 21.1 A ball is thrown horizontally at 5 m s−1 out of a window 4 m above the
ground.
(i) How long does it take to reach the ground?
(ii) How far from the building does it land?
(iii) What is its speed just before it lands and at what angle to the ground is
it moving?

Solution
Figure 21.6 shows the path of the ball.
It is important to decide y
at the outset where the 5ms −1
origin and axes are. You 4 –

may choose any axes 9.8ms −2

that are suitable, but 3
you must specify them
carefully to avoid making 2
mistakes. Here the origin j

is taken to be at ground 1
level below the point of
projection of the ball i

and upwards is taken as

00 x
dm
positive. Figure 21.6
s 0 is the initial Method 1: Resolving into components
position so that the
displacement at Position: Using axes as shown and =s +s ut+ 0at 1
2
2 in each of the two
time t is s − s 0. directions
Horizontally x 0, ux = 5, ax = 0
=
0
x = 5t ①
Vertically y0 = 4, uy = 0, ay = − 9.8
y = −4 4.9 t 2 ②

484
 (i) The ball reaches the ground when y 0= . Substituting in equation ②
gives
0 4= 4.9
− t2
21
0.904… means 0.904 t2 = 4
and subsequent figures. 4.9
This number is kept in

selitcejorP 12 retpahC
your calculator for use in t = 0.904 …= 0.904 (to 3 s.f.)
subsequent working.
The ball hits the ground after 0.904 s.
(ii) When the ball lands x = d so, from equation ①,
d = 5t = ×5 0.904 …= 4.52 (to 3 s.f.)
The ball lands 4.52 m from the building.
(iii) Velocity: Using v u at = + in the two directions
Horizontally v 50
x=+
Vertically v y = −0 9.8 t
To find the speed and direction just before it lands:
The ball lands when t = 0.904 so
v x = 5 and v y = −9.8 × 0.904… = −8.886…
The components of velocity are shown 5ms −1
in Figure 21.7. The speed of the ball is α

52 + 8.86…2= 10.2 m s−1 (to 3 s.f.).

It hits the ground moving downwards 8.86ms −1
v ms −1
at an angle a to the horizontal where
…
tan a = 8.86 α
5
a 60.6° (to 3 s.f.)
=
Figure 21.7
Note Method 2: Using vectors
These vectors could ⎛0 ⎞
just as well have been The initial position is r0 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and the ball hits the ground when
⎝4 ⎠
written in terms of unit d⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
5
vectors i and j along the = ⎜
r ⎜ ⎟ . The initial velocity is =u ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and the acceleration is
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝0 ⎠
x and y directions. ⎛
0 ⎞⎟
= − ⎟.
a ⎜⎜
⎝ 9.8 ⎠ ➜

485
 Projectile problems

Using r r= u+0 + t 1 at 2
2

⎜d ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎛0 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜5 ⎟ t 1
+ − ⎜⎜ ⎟t 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠ ⎝0 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 9.8 ⎟⎠
d = 5t ①
and 0 4= 4.9
− t2 ②

(i) Equation ② gives t 0.904

= … and substituting this into ① gives
(ii) d 4.52
= (to 3 s.f .).
(iii) The speed and direction of motion are the magnitude and direction
of the velocity of the ball. Using
v= u +a t
⎛ v x⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟=
v y t
⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎜0 ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜
− 9.8 ⎠⎟

⎛ v x⎞ ⎛ ⎞
So when t 0.904
= …, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 5 ⎟
⎜ v y⎟ = −⎝ …
8.86 ⎠
⎝ ⎠
You can find the speed and angle as before.

Notice that in both methods the time forms a link between the motions in
the two directions. You can often find the time from one equation and then
substitute it in another to find out more information.

Exercise 21.2
In this exercise take upwards as positive and use 9.8 m −2 (ii) Initial position (0, 7 m); initial velocity
for g in numerical questions. 10 m s at 35° above the horizontal.
−1

① In each case (iii) Initial position (0, 20 m); initial velocity

(a) draw a diagram showing the initial 10 m s at 13° below the horizontal.
−1

velocity and path (iv) Initial position O; initial velocity

(b) write the velocity after time t s in
⎛ ⎞
7
⎜ ⎟ m s−1..
vector form ⎝ 24 ⎠
(c) write the position after time t s in (v) Initial position a b( ), m;
vector form. ⎛u 0 ⎞
(i) Initial position (0, 10 m); initial velocity
initial velocity ⎜ ⎟ m s−1.
⎝v0 ⎠
4 m s−1 horizontally.

486
② In each case find
(a) the time taken for the projectile to
reach its highest point
(b) the maximum height above the
③ Find the range for these projectiles which
start from the origin.
⎛2⎞
(i) Initial velocity ⎜⎝7 ⎟⎠ m s−1.
21
origin. ⎛7 ⎞
(i) (ii) Initial velocity

selitcejorP 12 retpahC
Initial position (0, 15 m) velocity 5 m s−1 ⎜ ⎟ m s−1.
⎝2⎠
horizontally and 14.7 m s−1 vertically.
(ii) Initial position (0, 10 m); initial (iii) Sketch the path of these two projectiles
using the same axes.
⎛5 ⎞
velocity ⎜ ⎟ m s−1. ⎛0 ⎞
⎝ 3⎠ ④ A projectile starts at h ⎜ ⎟ and is projected
⎝ ⎠
with initial speed u at an angle with the
⎛ 0⎞
horizontal under the acceleration
⎝⎜− g ⎠⎟ .
Find the time taken for the projectile to hit
the ground and its horizontal range.

3 Further examples
Example 21.2 1.8 m

2.0 m
22 m s 1

30°

Figure 21.8
In this question use 10 m s−2 for g and neglect air resistance.
In an attempt to raise money for a charity, participants are sponsored to kick
a ball over some vans. The vans are each 2 m high and 1.8 m wide and stand
on horizontal ground. One participant kicks the ball at an initial speed of
22 m s−1 inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
(i) What are the initial values of the vertical and horizontal components
of velocity?
(ii) Show that while in flight the height y metres at time t seconds satisfies
the equation y = 11t 5t− . 2
Calculate at what times the ball is at least 2 m above the ground.
The ball should pass over as many vans as possible.
(iii) Deduce that the ball should be placed about 3.8 m from the first van
and find how many vans the ball will clear.
(iv) What is the greatest vertical distance between the ball and the top of
the vans? [MEI]
➜

487
 Further examples

Solution
(i) Initial velocity
22sin30°
22

30°
22cos30°

Figure 21.9
Horizontal component: 22cos 30°19.05
= … m −1
s
Vertical component: =ms
22 sin 30° 11 −1

(ii) When the ball is above 2 m

y

0
x

Figure 21.10
Using axes as shown and
a = −10 m s−2 because s ut= + 2 at
1 2 vertically
the positive direction is
upwards. ⇒ =y 11t 5− t2
The ball is 2 m above the ground when y = 2 , so
= 5 t t− 2
2 11
5t 2 − 11t 2+0=
(5t 1− )(t − =2 )0
t 0.2
= or 2
t
The ball is at least 2 m above the ground when 0.2 < < 2.
(iii) How many vans?
Horizontally, s ut= +at 1
2
2
with a = 0
⇒ x = 19.05…t

When t = 0.2, x 3.81

= … (at A)

When t = 2, x 38.1
= … (at B)

488
 y

2
C
21

selitcejorP 12 retpahC
0 x
A B

The vans are between

A and B.

Figure 21.11
To clear as many vans as possible, the ball should be placed about
3.8 m in front of the first van. The distance between the first and last
van cleared is AB
AB =38.1 … −…=
3.81 34.29…m
The number of vans is
34.29… =
19.05…
1.8

The maximum possible number of vans is 19.

(iv) Maximum height
At the top (C), vertical velocity = 0, so using v = u + at vertically
⇒ ⇒ 0 11 = −−10t
=0 11
10 t
t 1.1
=
Substituting in y = 11t 5t− , the
2
maximum height is found to be
11 ×1.1 5 −
1.1× 6.05m2 =
The greatest vertical distance between the ball and the top of the vans is
6.05 2− 4.05
= m.

Example 21.3 Sharon is diving into a swimming pool. During her dive she may be
modelled as a particle. Her initial velocity is 1.8 m s −1 at an angle of 30° above
the horizontal and initial position 3.1 m above the water. Air resistance may
be neglected.
(i) Find the greatest height above the water that Sharon reaches during
her dive.
(ii) Show that the time t, in seconds, that it takes Sharon to reach the water
is given by 4.9t 2 − 0.9t − 3.1 = 0 and solve this equation to find t.
Explain the significance of the other root to the equation.
Just as Sharon is diving a small boy jumps into the swimming pool. He hits
the water at a point in line with the diving board and 1.5 m from its end.
(iii) Is there an accident?
➜

489
 Further examples

Solution
y
(m)
1.8ms –1
4
S 30° 9.8ms –2
3

0
x (m)

Figure 21.12
Referring to the axes shown
Horizontal motion Vertical motion
Initial
position 0 3.1
a 0 −9.8
u ux = 1.8cos 30°=
1.56 …u 1.8 sin 30°=0.9
y=

v v x = 1.56 … ① v y = −0.9 9.8 t ②

r x = 1.56…t ③ y = +3.1− 0.9 4.9
tt 2
④
(i) At the top v y = 0 0 = 0.9 − 9.8t from ②

t 0.9
=
9.8
= 0.0918…

When t 0.0918
= … y 3.1=0.9
+ ×0.0918 4.9 0.0918
…− × …2
=3.14 (to 2 d.p.)
Sharon’s greatest height above the water is 3.14 m.
(ii) Sharon reaches the water when y = 0
= + 0.9 4.9 t −
0 3.1 t2 from ④
4.9t 2 − 0.9t3.1
− 0 =
± 2 + × ×
t 0.9 0.9 4 4.9 3.19.8
=

t = − 0.71 or 0.89 (to 2 d.p.)

Note Sharon hits the water after 0.89 s. The negative value of t gives the
point on the parabola at water level to the left of the point where
When the point at which
Sharon dives is taken as Sharon dives.
the origin in Example (iii) At time t the horizontal distance from the diving board is
21.3, the initial position x = 1.56…t
is (0, 0) and from ③
y = 0.9t −4.9t . In this
2
When Sharon hits the water x 1.56
= 0.89
…×1.39
…= (to 2 d.p.)
case Sharon hits the Assuming that the particle representing Sharon and the boy are
water when y = −3.1.
This gives the same located at their centres of mass, the difference of 11 cm between
equation for t. 1.39 m and 1.5 m is not sufficient to prevent an accident.

490
Example 21.4 A boy kicks a small ball from the floor of a gymnasium with an initial
velocity of 12 m s −1 inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. Air resistance may
be neglected. Use 10 m s−2 for g.
21
y

selitcejorP 12 retpahC
ceiling

12ms –1

α
O floor
x

Figure 21.13
(i) Write down expressions in terms of a for the vertical speed of the ball
and the height of the ball after t seconds.
The ball just fails to touch the ceiling which is 4 m high. The highest point of
the motion of the ball is reached after T seconds.
(ii) Use one of your expressions to show that 6 sin a = 5T and the other
to form a second equation involving sin a and T.
(iii) Eliminate sin a from your two equations to show that T has a value of
about 0.89.
(iv) Find the range of the ball when kicked at 12 m s −1 from the floor of the
gymnasium so that it just misses the ceiling.
[MEI adapted]

Solution
(i) Vertical components
speed v y = 12 sina − 10t ①
height y = (12 sina ) t t− 5 2 ②
(ii) Time to highest point
At the top v 0
y=and t = T, so equation ① gives
12 sina − 10T = 0
12 sina = 10T
6 sina = 5T ③

When t = T, y = 4 so from ②
= sin aT − 5T 2
4 12 ④

(iii) Substituting for 6 sin a from ③ into ④ gives

4 2= 5× T T× T− 5 2
4 5= T2
T = =
0.8 0.894 … = 0.90 (to 2 d.p.)
➜

491
 Further examples

Discussion point (iv) Range

Two marbles start The path is symmetrical so the time of flight is 2T seconds.
simultaneously from
the same height. One Horizontally a = 0 and u x = 12 cos a
(P) is dropped and the ⇒= x (12cos a) t
other (Q) is projected
horizontally. The range is 12cos a × 2T = 21.466 … cos a
➜ Which reaches the From ③ 6 sina = 5T = 4.472 …
ground first? =
a 48.189 …

The range is 21.466 × cos 48.189 …° = 14.310 = …14.3 m (to 1 d.p.)

Exercise 21.3
Use 9.8 m s −2 for g in this exercise unless otherwise (iv) Calculate the maximum height the ball
specified. reaches and the horizontal distance it travels
① A ball is thrown from a point at ground level before bouncing. Compare your answers
with velocity 20 m s −1 at 30° to the horizontal. with the estimates you found from your
The ground is level and horizontal and you graph.
should ignore air resistance. (v)
State the modelling assumptions you made
(i) Find the horizontal and vertical in answering this question.
components of the ball’s initial velocity. ④ Clare scoops a hockey ball off the ground,
giving it an initial velocity of 19 m s −1 at 25° to
(ii) Find the horizontal and vertical
the horizontal.
components of the ball’s acceleration.
(iii) Find the horizontal distance travelled by
(i) Find the horizontal and vertical
the ball before its first bounce. components of the ball’s initial velocity.
(iv) Find how long the ball takes to reach (ii) Find the time that elapses before the ball
maximum height. hits the ground.
(v)
Find the maximum height reached by (iii) Find the horizontal distance the ball
the ball. travels before hitting the ground.
② A golf ball is hit with a velocity of 45 m s −1 at (iv) Find how long it takes for the ball to reach
an elevation of 30°, along a level fairway. Find maximum height.
(i) the greatest height reached (v) Find the maximum height reached.
A member of the opposing team is standing
(ii)
the time of flight
20 m away from Clare in the direction of the
(iii)
the distance travelled along the fairway.
ball’s flight.
③ Nick hits a golf ball with initial speed 50 m s −1
at 35° to the horizontal. (vi)
How high is the ball when it passes her?
Can she stop the ball?
(i) Find the horizontal and vertical
⑤ A footballer is standing 30 m in front of
components of the ball’s initial velocity.
the goal. He kicks the ball towards the goal
(ii) Specify suitable axes and calculate the with velocity 18 m s −1 and angle 55° to the
position of the ball at one second intervals
horizontal. The height of the goal’s crossbar is
for the first six seconds of its flight.
2.5 m. Air resistance and spin may be neglected.
(iii) Draw a graph of the path of the ball (its (i) Find the horizontal and vertical
trajectory) and use it to estimate
components of the ball’s initial velocity.
(a) the maximum height of the ball
(ii) Find the time it takes for the ball to cross
(b) the horizontal distance the ball travels the goal line.
before bouncing.

492
 (iii) Does the ball bounce in front of the goal, ⑦ s in this question.
Use g = 10 m −2
go straight into the goal or go over the A firework is buried so that its top is at ground
crossbar? level and it projects sparks at a speed of 8 m s−1.
In fact the goalkeeper is standing 5 m in front Air resistance may be neglected.
of the goal and will stop the ball if its height is
less than 2.8 m when it reaches him.
(iv)
Does the goalkeeper stop the ball?
8ms 1

⑥ A plane is flying at a speed of 300 m s −1 and 30° 30°

maintaining an altitude of 10 000 m when
a bolt becomes detached. Ignoring air
resistance, find Figure 21.14
(i) the time that the bolt takes to reach the (i) Calculate the height reached by a spark
ground projected vertically and explain why no
(ii) the horizontal distance between the point spark can reach a height greater than this.
where the bolt leaves the plane and the
point where it hits the ground
(ii) For a spark projected at 30° to the
horizontal over horizontal ground, show
(iii) the speed of the bolt when it hits the that its height in metres t seconds after
ground projection is t4t 5− 2 and hence calculate
(iv) the angle to the horizontal at which the the distance it lands from the firework.
bolt hits the ground.
(iii) For what angle of projection will a spark
reach a maximum height of 2m? [MEI]

⑧ 1m

Juliet’s window 1m

11.5ms –1
1.5 m

60°
1m
downstairs window
1m
0.5 m

10 m
Figure 21.15
The picture shows Romeo trying to attract ⑨ To kick a goal in rugby you must kick the
Juliet’s attention without her nurse, who is in a ball over the crossbar of the goal posts (height
downstairs room, noticing. 3.0 m), between the two uprights. Dafydd
He stands 10 m from the house and lobs a attempts a kick from a distance of 35 m.
small pebble at her bedroom window. Romeo The initial velocity of the ball is 20 m s−1 at 30°
throws the pebble from a height of 1 m with to the horizontal. The ball is aimed between
a speed of 11.5 m s −1 at an angle of 60° to the the uprights and no spin is applied.
horizontal. (i) How long does it take for the ball to reach
(i) How long does the pebble take to reach the goal posts?
the house? (ii) Does it go over the crossbar?
(ii) Does the pebble hit Juliet’s window, the Later in the game Daffyd takes another kick
wall of the house or the downstairs room from the same position and hits the crossbar.
window?
(iii) Given that the initial velocity of the ball in
(iii) What is the speed of the pebble when it this kick was also at 30° to the horizontal,
hits the house? [MEI] find the initial speed.
493
 Further examples
⑩ Reena is learning to serve in tennis. She hits (ii) Show algebraically that the range is the
the ball from a height of 2 m. For her serve same when the angle of projection is a as
to be allowed it must pass over the net which it is when the angle is 90 – a .
is 12 m away from her and 0.91 m high, and it The catapult is angled with the intention that
must land within 6.4 m of the net. the pellet should hit a point on the ground
Make the following modelling assumptions to 36 m away.
answer the questions. (iii)Verify that one appropriate angle of
■ She hits the ball horizontally. projection would be 32.1° and write
■ Air resistance may be ignored. down another suitable angle.
■ The ball may be treated as a particle. In fact the angle of projection from the
catapult is liable to error.
■ The ball does not spin.
(i) How long does the ball take to fall to the (iv) Find the distance by which the pellet
misses the target in each of the cases
level of the top of the net?
in (iii) when the angle of projection is
(ii) How long does the ball take from being hit subject to an error of 0.5°.Which angle
to first reaching the ground? should you use for greater accuracy?
(iii) What is the lowest speed with which ⑭ A cricketer hits the ball on the half-volley,
Reena must hit the ball to clear the net? that is when the ball is at ground level. The
(iv) What is the greatest speed with which ball leaves the ground at 30° to the horizontal
she may hit the ball if it is to land within and travels towards a fielder standing on the
6.4 m of the net? boundary 60 m away.
⑪ A stunt motorcycle rider attempts to jump (i) Find the initial speed of the ball if it hits
over a gorge 50 m wide. He uses a ramp at the ground for the first time at the fielder’s
25° to the horizontal for his take-off and has a feet.
speed of 30 m s −1 at this time.
(ii) Find the initial speed of the ball if it is at a
(i) Assuming that air resistance is negligible, height of 3.2 m (well outside the fielder’s
find out whether the rider crosses the reach) when it passes over the fielder’s
gorge successfully. head.
The stuntman actually believes that in any jump In fact the fielder is able to catch the ball
the effect of air resistance is to reduce his distance without moving provided that its height, h m,
by 40%. when it reaches him satisfies the inequality
(ii) Calculate his minimum safe take-off speed 0.25 < h < 2.1.
for this jump. (iii) Find a corresponding range of values of u,
⑫ A ball is kicked from a point A on level ground the initial speed of the ball.
and hits a wall at a point 4m above the ground. ⑮ A horizontal tunnel has a height of 3 m.
The wall is at a distance of 32m from A. A ball is thrown inside the tunnel with an
Initially the velocity of the ball makes an angle of initial speed of 18 m s−1.What is the greatest
()
arctan 34 with the ground. Find the initial horizontal distance that the ball can travel
speed of the ball and the speed when it hits before it bounces for the first time?
the goalpost.
⑬ In this question take g to be 10 m s−2. A catapult
projects a small pellet at speed 20 m s −1 and can
be directed at any angle to the horizontal.
(i) Find the range of the catapult when the
angle of projection is
(a) 30° (b) 40° (c) 45°
(d) 50° (e) 60°.

494
 Discussion points
What is the initial
4 The path of a projectile
➜
velocity of the
projectile?
Prior knowledge
➜ What is its initial
You will have seen how to obtain the Cartesian equation of the path in Chapter 18
position? on motion in two and three dimensions and in Chapter 11 on parametric equations.
➜ What value of g is
assumed? Look at the equations
x = 20t
y = +6 30 5 t − t2
They represent the path of a projectile.
These equations give x and y in terms of a third variable t. They are called
parametric equations and t is the parameter.
You can find the Cartesian equation connecting x and y directly by
eliminating t as follows:

x = 20t ⇒ =t x
20
So y = +6 30 5 t t− 2

can be written as = +6 ×30− 20

× x 5 (20x ) 2

2
y = +6 1.5 x x− 80 This is the Cartesian equation.

Exercise 21.4
① Find the Cartesian equation of the path of (ii) Eliminate t between your equations for x
each of these projectiles by eliminating the and y to show that
parameter t. = −3x x
2
y
(i) x = 4t y = 5t 2 4 320
(ii) x= 5t y = +6 −2 5 t t2 (iii) Plot the graph of y against x using a scale
of 2 cm for 10 m along both axes.
(iii) x = −2 t y = −3t 5 t2
(iv) x = +1 5 t y = +8 10 5 t − t 2 (iv) Mark on your graph the points
corresponding to the position of the
(v) x ut= y = 2ut − 1 gt 2
2 particle after 1, 2, 3, 4, … seconds.
② A particle is projected with initial velocity ③ A golfer hits a ball with initial velocity
50 m s−1at an angle of 36.9° to the horizontal. 50 m s−1 at an angle a to the horizontal where
The point of projection is taken to be the sin a = 0.6 .
origin, with the x-axis horizontal and the y-axis (i) Find the equation of its trajectory,
vertical in the plane of the particle’s motion. assuming that air resistance may be
(i) Show that at time t s, the height of the neglected. The flight of the ball is
particle in metres is given by recorded on film and its position vector,
from the point where it was hit, is
y = 30t5− t 2 calculated. The results (to the nearest
and write down the corresponding 0.5 m) are as shown in Table 21.2 overleaf.
expression for x.

495
 General equations
Table 21.2 (ii) On the same piece of graph paper draw
Time (s) Position (m)
the trajectory you found in part (i) and that
found from analysing the film. Compare
⎛0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ the two graphs and suggest a reason for
0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 ⎠ any differences.
⎛ 39.5 ⎞ (iii) It is suggested that the horizontal
1
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟ component of the resistance to motion
⎝ 24.5 ⎠ of the golf ball is almost constant. Are the
⎛ 78 ⎞ figures consistent with this?
⎜ ⎟
2 ⎜ ⎟ ④ A particle is projected from a point O with
⎝ 39 ⎠
initial velocity having components ux and uy
⎛116.5 ⎞ along the horizontal and vertical directions,
3 ⎜ ⎟ respectively.
⎝ 44 ⎠
(i) If (x, y) is a point on the trajectory of the
⎛152 ⎞ projectile, show that
4 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 39 ⎠ yu x2ux−yu x + 4.9x02 =

⎛187.5 ⎞
(ii) Find the speed of projection and the
elevation, if the particle passes through the
5 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 24.5 ⎠ points with coordinates (2, 1) and (10, 1).

⎛ 222 ⎞
6 ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 ⎠

5 General equations
The work done in this chapter can now be repeated for the general case using
algebra. Assume a particle is projected from the origin with speed u at an angle a
to the horizontal and that the only force acting on the particle is the force due to
gravity. The x- and y-axes are horizontal and vertical through the origin, O, in the
plane of motion of the particle.
y No vertical velocity

g
u
H y = 0, x = R
α
O
R x

Figure 21.16

496
 The components of velocity and position
Horizontal motion Vertical motion
Initial position 0 0
a 0 −g
u ux = ucos a uyusin
=
a
v v x = ucos a ① v yu= sina − gt ②
r x ut= cos a ③ y ut= sina − 21 gt 2 ④

t abecause this
ut cosais preferable to u cos
could mean ucos( a) which
t is incorrect.

The maximum height, H

At its greatest height, the vertical component of the velocity is zero.
From equation ②
u sina − =gt 0
t u= sing a

Substitute in equation ④ to obtain the height of the projectile:

× (usin 2)a
2
y u= u× sin a × sin a − 1 g
g 2 g
= u 2 sin
2
a − u 2 sin
2
a
g 2g
The greatest height is
22
H u= sin a
2g

The time of flight, T

When the projectile hits the ground y 0= .
From equation ④ y ut= sina − 21 gt 2
0= ut sina − 1 gt 2
2

tu
0 (=sin a− 1 gt )
2

The solution t = 0 is at = 2usin a

the start of the motion. t = 0 or t g
2usin a .
The time of flight is T = g

497
 General equations
The range, R
u a
The range of the projectile is the value of x when t = 2 sin
g
From equation ④: x ut
= cos a

⇒ R u= × 2using a × cos a
Prior knowledge
This is one of the = 2usin cos
2
R aa
double angle formulae g
which you will have
seen in your work on It can be shown that 2 sinacos
a = sin 2a, so the range can be expressed as
trigonometry. R u=
2
sin 2a
g
The range is a maximum when sin 2a = 1, that is when 2a = 90 ° or a = 45°.
The maximum possible horizontal range for projectiles with initial speed u is

Rmax = u2 .
g
It is important
that you
understand the methods
used to derive these
The equation of the path
formulae and don’t rely From equation ③ t = x = x seca
u cos a u
on learning the results
by heart. They are only Substitute into equation ④ to give
true when the given
y u= × x × sina − ×1 g x
2
sec 2a
assumptions apply and u cosa 2 u 2

the variables are as

defined in Figure 21.16. sina − gx sec 2a
2
y x= cosa 2u 2
Discussion point So the equation of the trajectory is
➜ What are the gx 2 sec 2a
assumptions on y x= tana −
which this work is 2u 2
based? Using the identity sec a = +1 tan
2 2
a gives

y x= tana − gx 2 (1 +tan ) 2a
2u 2

Exercise 21.5
In this exercise use the modelling assumptions that air (ii) Show that the equation of the path is the
resistance can be ignored and the ground is horizontal. parabola y = x − 0.0108 x².
① A projectile is launched from the origin with (iii) Find y when x = 10.
an initial velocity 30 m s −1 at an angle of 45° to
the horizontal.
(iv) Find x when y = 20.

(i) Write down the position of the projectile

after time t.

498
② Jack throws a cricket ball with velocity 10 m s −1 ⑤ Use 10 m s−2 for g in this question.
at 14° to the horizontal. The ball leaves his The equation of the trajectory of a projectile
hand 1.5 m above the origin. which is projected from a point P is given by
(i) Show that the equation of the path is the y = +1 0.16 0.008
x− x2
parabola y = 1.5 0.25
+ x − 0.052x 2. where y is the height of the projectile above
(ii) Jack is aiming at a stump 0.7 m high. horizontal ground and x is the horizontal
How far from the stump is he standing if displacement of the projectile from P.
the ball just hits the top?
The projectile hits the ground at a point Q.
③ While practising his tennis serve, Matt hits the
ball from a height of 2.5 m with a velocity of y

magnitude 25 m s −1 at an angle of 5° above the

horizontal as shown in Figure 21.17. P

5° O
Q x

Figure 21.18
(i) Write down the height of P and find the
coordinates of Q.
(ii) Find the horizontal distance x from P
of the highest point of the trajectory
Figure 21.17 and show that this point is 1.8 m above
the ground.
(i) Show that while in flight
y = 2.5 0.087
+ x − 0.0079x 2 . (iii) Find the time taken for the projectile to
fall from its highest point to the ground.
(ii) Find the horizontal distance from the (iv) Find the horizontal component of the
serving point to the spot where the ball velocity. Deduce from this the time of flight
lands. for the projectile to travel from P to Q.
(iii) Determine whether the ball would clear the (v) Calculate the speed of the projectile when
net, which is 1m high and 12m from the it hits the ground.
serving position in the horizontal direction.
⑥ A particle is projected from a point O and
④ Ching is playing volleyball. She hits the ball passes through a point P on its trajectory when
with initial speed u m s−1 from a height of 1 m it is travelling horizontally. The coordinates of
at an angle of 35° to the horizontal. P are (16, 12). Find the angle of projection and
(i) Define a suitable origin and x and y-axes the magnitude of the initial velocity.
and find the equation of the trajectory of
the ball in terms of x, y and u.
The rules of the game require the ball to pass
over the net, which is at height 2 m, and land
inside the court on the other side, which is of
length 5 m. Ching hits the ball straight along the
court and is 3 m from the net when she does so.
(ii) Find the minimum value of u for the ball
to pass over the net.
(iii) Find the maximum value of u for the ball
to land inside the court.

499
 General equations
⑦ In this question take g to be 10 m s −2. ⑧ A boy is firing small stones from a catapult at
A golf ball is driven from the tee with speed a target on the top of a wall. The stones are
30 2 m s −1 at an angle a to the horizontal. projected from a point which is 5 m from the
(i) Show that during its flight the horizontal wall and 1 m above ground level. The target
and vertical displacements x and y of the is on top of the wall which is 3 m high. The
ball from the tee satisfy the equation stones are projected at a speed of 7 2 m s −1 at
an angle of u with the horizontal.
y x= tan a − x 2 (1 +tan ) 2a .
360 (i) The stone hits the target. Show that u
(ii) The golf ball just clears a tree 5 m high must satisfy the equation
which is 150 m horizontally from the tee. u −tan 13 0u + =
5tan 220
Find the two possible values of tan a.
(ii) Find the two values of u .
(iii) Use the discriminant of the quadratic
equation in tan a to find the greatest
distance by which the golf ball can clear the
tree and find the value of tan a in this case.
(iv) The ball is aimed at the hole which is on
the green immediately behind the tree.
The hole is 160 m from the tee. What
is the greatest height the tree could be
without making it impossible to hit a hole
in one?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ model projectile motion under gravity in a vertical plane using vectors
➤ formulate the equations of motion of a projectile using vectors
➤ find the position and velocity of a projectile at any time
➤ find the range and maximum height of a projectile
➤ find the equation of the trajectory of a projectile.

500
KEY POINTS
1 Modelling assumptions for projectile motion with acceleration due to gravity:
■ a projectile is a particle
■ it is not powered
■ the air has no effect on its motion.
2 Projectile motion is usually considered in terms of horizontal and vertical
components.
y

g
u

α
O
R x

Figure 21.19
When the initial position is the origin (0, 0) and the angle of projection = a

⎛u cos a ⎞
■ Initial velocity, =
u ⎜
⎝u sina ⎠
⎟

⎛ 0⎞
■ Acceleration, a =−
⎝⎜ g ⎠⎟
⎛ v x⎞ ⎛ u cos a ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
At time t, velocity, v u= +
a t ⎜ ⎟= t
■
⎝ v y ⎠ ⎝⎜u sin a ⎠⎟ + ⎝⎜
− g ⎠⎟

v xu= cos a
v yu= sina − gt
⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ u cos α ⎞ ⎛ 0⎞ 2
■ Displacement, r u= + t 2 at
1 2 t
⎝⎜y ⎠⎟ = ⎝⎜u sin α ⎠⎟ +
1
2 ⎝⎜− g ⎠⎟
t
x ut= cosa
y ut= sina − 21 gt 2
3 At maximum height v y = . 0
4 y 0= when the projectile lands.
5 The time to hit the ground is twice the time to maximum height.
6 The equation of the trajectory of a projectile is
y x= tan a − gx or y x= tan a − gx (1 +tan ) a
2 2
2

2ucos a 2u
22 2

7 When the point of projection is x( y , ) rather than (0, 0)

00

⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x0 ⎞ ⎛ u cosα ⎞ ⎛ 0⎞ 2
r r= u+0 + t 1 at 2
2 ⎜ ⎟ + t 1
⎝⎜y ⎠⎟ = ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝⎜u sin α ⎠⎟ + −2 ⎝⎜ g ⎠⎟
t
0

501
 Problem solving Fireworks and aeroplanes
Robert lives underneath the glide path of aeroplanes coming in to land at an
airport. They take 11 minutes from passing over his house to touching down.
2

Robert buys some fireworks from a supermarket. Will it be safe for him to let
them off in his garden?

Problem specification and analysis

This problem has already been specified.
The basic analysis is straightforward. You need to know the height of the
aeroplanes as they pass over Robert's garden and the maximum height that a
firework is likely to reach. For it to be safe the aeroplanes need to be much
higher than the fireworks. So you need to find ways of estimating these two
heights.
The situation for the aeroplanes is illustrated in Figure 1 where R is Robert's
garden, P is the position of an aeroplane when it is overhead and L is the point
where it lands. You need to find PR.
P

L R

Figure 1
There are various ways to estimate the height that a firework reaches.
In Robert's method he stands a measured distance from the place where it is
launched and points to the place in the sky where it reaches maximum height.
A friend measures the angle his arm makes with the horizontal. Robert uses this
information to estimate the firework's maximum height; he assumes that the
firework travels vertically upwards.
The fireworks that go highest are called shells. However, they are not available
to the general public. Of the fireworks that you can buy in a supermarket (often
called ‘garden fireworks'), rockets go the highest; however, such rockets are not
as powerful as those used in professional displays and so will not go so high.
Notice too that they are not drones which should never be flown anywhere near
aeroplanes.

502
Information collection
The information you need to estimate PR in Figure 1 can be found on the
internet or by talking to someone who knows about aviation.
Robert stood 30 metres from the spot where the rocket was launched.
The angle between his arm and the horizontal was judged to be 55°.

Processing and representation

Using the information you now have, calculate estimates of the height of the
aeroplanes and the maximum height of a rocket.
Illustrate your answers on a suitable scale diagram.

Interpretion
State whether or not the results indicate that it is safe for Robert to light the
fireworks in his garden, explaining your answer.
How robust is your conclusion?
■ Write down any modelling assumptions you have made.
■ Write down any measurements involved in coming to your conclusion.
■ List any other data you have used, for example any you may have obtained
from the internet.
Your conclusion is based on your two estimated heights. Use the list you have
just made to consider upper and lower bounds for these estimates.
As an example, your estimate of the height of the rocket probably depends on
the modelling assumption that it travels vertically upwards. Suppose, instead, that
its flight makes an angle of 20° with the vertical. How could this affect your
estimate of its greatest height?
Taking everything into consideration, are you still convinced that your
conclusion is correct?

503
 22 A model for friction

Theories do not have to

be ‘right’ to be useful. This statement about a road accident was offered to a magistrate’s court by a
Alvin Toffler (1928–2016) solicitor.
‘Briefly the circumstances of the accident are that our client was driving
his Porsche motor car. He had just left work at the end of the day. He was
stationary at the junction with Victoria Road when a motorcyclist travelling
north down Victoria Road lost control of his motorcycle due to excessive
speed and collided with the front of our client’s motor car.
‘The motorcyclist was braking when he lost control and left a 26-metre
skid mark on the road. Our advice from an expert witness is that the
motorcyclist was exceeding the speed limit of 30 mph.’
It is the duty of a court to decide whether the motorcyclist was innocent
or guilty.
➜ Is it possible to deduce his speed from the skid mark? Draw a sketch map
and make a list of the important factors that you would need to consider
when modelling this situation.

504
1 A model for friction
Clearly the key information is provided by the skid marks. To interpret it, you
need a model for how friction works; in this case between the motorcycle’s tyres
and the road.
As a result of experimental work, in 1785 Coulomb formulated a model for
friction between two surfaces. The following laws are usually attributed to him.
1 Friction always opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
2 Friction is independent of the relative speed of the surfaces.
3 The magnitude of the frictional force has a maximum which depends on
the normal reaction between the surfaces and on the roughness of the
surfaces in contact.
4 If there is no sliding between the surfaces
F < mR
where F is the force due to friction and R is the normal reaction. m is
called the coefficient of friction.
5 When sliding is just about to occur, friction is said to be limiting
and F = m R.
6 When sliding occurs F = m R.
According to Coulomb’s model, m is a constant for any pair of surfaces.
Typical values and ranges of values for the coefficient of friction m are given
in Table 22.1.
Table 22.1
Surfaces in contact m
Wood sliding on wood 0.2–0.6
Metal sliding on metal 0.15–0.3
Normal tyres on dry road 0.8
Racing tyres on dry road 1.0
Sandpaper on sandpaper 2.0
Skis on snow 0.02

How fast was the motorcyclist going?

You can proceed with the problem. As an initial model, you might make the
following assumptions.
1 The road is level and horizontal.
2 The motorcycle was at rest just as it hit the car. (Obviously it was not, but
this assumption allows you to estimate a minimum initial speed for the
motorcycle.)
3 The motorcyclist’s deceleration from full speed to rest was uniform.
4 The motorcycle and rider may be treated as a particle, subject to
Coulomb’s laws of friction with m = 0.8 (i.e. dry road conditions).

505
 A model for friction
The calculation then proceeds as follows.
Taking the direction of travel as positive, let the motorcycle and rider
have acceleration a m s −2 and mass m kg. You have probably realised that the
acceleration will be negative. The forces (in N) and acceleration are shown
in Figure 22.1.

direction of travel
R
a m s–2

F µR

mg

Figure 22.1
Apply Newton’s second law:
Perpendicular to the road. Since there is no vertical acceleration
R mg
− 0 = ①
Parallel to the road. There is a constant force −μR from friction
−mR ma= ②
Solving for a gives from
=
① R mg

a = − m R = − mmg = − m g
m m
Taking =m 0.8 and g 9.8 = m s−2 gives a= − 7.84 m −2
s.
Discussion points The constant acceleration formula
➜ How good is this v 2 = u 2 + 2as
model and would
you be confident in can be used to calculate the initial speed of the motorcycle.
= , v 0 = and a 7.84=
offering the answer Substituting s 26 gives
as evidence in court? u = × 26×20.2 =
2 7.84 m s−1
Look carefully at the
three assumptions. Convert this figure to miles per hour (using the fact that 1 mile = 1600 m):
➜ What effect do they = 3600 ×
have on the estimate speed 20.2
1600
of the initial speed? = 45.5 mph
So this first model suggests that the motor cycle was travelling at a speed of at
least 45.5 mph before skidding began.

Modelling with friction

While there is always some frictional force between two sliding surfaces its
magnitude is often very small. In such cases the frictional force is ignored and
the surfaces are described as smooth.

506
Discussion point In situations where frictional forces cannot be ignored the surface(s) are described
as rough. Coulomb’s law is the standard model for dealing with such cases.
➜ In what direction is
the frictional force Frictional forces are essential in many ways. For example a ladder leaning against
between the back a wall would always slide if there were no friction between the foot of the ladder
wheel of a bicycle and the ground. The absence of friction in icy conditions causes difficulties for
and the road? road users: pedestrians slip over, cars and motorcycles skid.
Remember that friction always opposes sliding motion.

Example 22.1 A horizontal rope is attached to a crate of mass 70 kg at rest on a flat surface.
The coefficient of friction between the surface and the crate is 0.6. Find the
maximum force that the rope can exert on the crate without moving it.

Solution
The forces acting on the crate are shown in Figure 22.2. Since the crate
does not move, it is in equilibrium.
R

T
F

mg forces in N
Figure 22.2
Horizontal forces: T F=
Vertical forces: R mg
=
= 70 9.8
× 686=
The law of friction states that
F < mR
for objects at rest.
So in this case
F < 0.6 ×
686
F < 412
The maximum frictional force is 412 N. As the tension in the rope and the
force of friction are the only forces which have horizontal components, the
crate will remain in equilibrium unless the tension in the rope is greater
than 412 N.

507
 A model for friction
Example 22.2 Figure 22.3 shows a block of mass 5 kg resting on a rough table and
connected by light inextensible strings passing over smooth pulleys to blocks
of mass 2 kg and 7 kg. The coefficient of friction between the block and
the table is 0.4.
B
5 kg

A 2 kg 7 kg C

Figure 22.3
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the three blocks and the
direction of the system’s acceleration.
(ii) Show that acceleration does take place.
(iii) Find the acceleration of the system and the tensions in the strings.

Solution
a m s –2
(i) F is the R

frictional force T1 T2
B
F
T1 T2

a m s –2
ams –2
A 5g C

Forces in newtons
2g μ= 0.4 7g

Figure 22.4
(ii) The direction of the acceleration is clearly from left to right.
You now need to show that a must be greater than 0 for any
motion to take place.

The equation of motion for the 2 kg mass is T1g−a=2 2 ①

For the 5 kg block, the equation of motion is T T2 F1−a− = 5 ②
For the 7 kg mass, the equation of motion is 7g T− =a 2 7 ③
Adding ①, ② and ③ 5 g F− a= 14 ④

The 5 kg block has no vertical acceleration so that R g= 5

The maximum possible value of F is mR = 0.4 5× 2= g g
In ④ a can only be zero if F = 5 g , so that a 0> and sliding occurs.

508
 (iii) When sliding occurs, you can replace F by mR = 2 g
Then ④ gives 3 g14= a
3 =
a = 14 g 2.1

Back-substituting gives T1 = 2 (a g+ = )× 2 11.9 23.8 =

T2 = 7 ( g a− =)× = 7 7.7 53.9
The acceleration of the system is 2.1 m s −2 and the tensions are
23.8 N and 53.9 N.

Example 22.3 Angus is pulling a sledge of mass 12 kg at steady speed across level snow
by means of a rope which makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal.
The coefficient of friction between the sledge and the ground is 0.15.
What is the tension in the rope?

Solution
Since the sledge is travelling at steady speed, the forces acting on it are in
equilibrium. They are shown in Figure 22.5.
R
T
20°

12g

Figure 22.5
Horizontally: T cos 20° = F
= 0.15R F = m R when the sledge slides.
Vertically: T sin 20 ° + =
R 12 g
R = ×12−9.8 T sin 20°
Notice that the
normal reaction is Combining these gives
reduced when the rope T cos 20°0.15(12
= − 20 )T
9.8×sin °
is pulled in an upward
direction. This has the T (cos 20 ° + 0.15sin 20°)= 0.15 12
× ×9.8
effect of reducing the T 17.8
= (to 3 s.f.)
friction and making the
The tension is 17.8 N.
sledge easier to pull.

509
 A model for friction
Example 22.4 A ski slope is designed for beginners. Its angle to the horizontal is such that
skiers will either remain at rest on the point of moving or, if they are pushed
off, move at constant speed. The coefficient of friction between the skis and
the slope is 0.35. Find the angle that the slope makes with the horizontal.

Solution
Figure 22.6 shows the forces acting on the skier.

mg

Figure 22.6
The weight mg can be resolved into components mg cos a perpendicular to
the slope and mg sin a parallel to the slope.

You can think of the weight

mg as the resultant of two
R resolved components
mg sin α
F
90°− α
mg sin α

mg cos α mg
α mg cos α α
α

Figure 22.7
Since the skier is in equilibrium (at rest or moving with constant speed),
applying Newton’s second law:
Parallel to the slope: mg sin a − =F 0
⇒ =F mg sin a ①
Perpendicular to the slope: −R mg cos 0a =
⇒ =R mg cos a ②

510
 In limiting equilibrium or moving at constant speed,
F =mR substituting for and from ① and ②
F R
mg sina m= mg cosa
⇒ =m sina =
tan a
cosa
In this case =
m 0.35, so tan a = 0.35 and a
= 19.3
° .

Notes
1 The result is independent of the mass of the skier. This is often found in
simple mechanics problems. For example, two objects of different mass fall
to the ground with the same acceleration. However, when such models are
refined, for example to take account of air resistance, mass is often found to
have some effect on the result.
2 The angle for which the skier is about to slide down the slope is called the
angle of friction. The angle of friction is often denoted by (lambda) and is
defined by tan =m. When the angle of the slope (a) is equal to the angle
of friction ( ), it is just possible for the skier to stand on the slope without
sliding. If the slope is slightly steeper, the skier will slide immediately, and
if it is less steep he or she will find it difficult to slide at all without using
ski poles.
Exercise 22.1
① A block of mass 10 kg is resting on a horizontal
surface. It is being pulled by a horizontal force
T (in N), and is on the point of sliding. Draw a
diagram showing the forces acting and find the
coefficient of friction when
(i) T 10=
(ii) T 5 = .
② In each of the following situations find:
(i) the acceleration
(ii) the tension in the string(s)
(iii) the magnitude of the frictional force.

Figure 22.8
③ The brakes on a caravan of mass 700 kg have
seized so that the wheels will not turn. What
force must be exerted on the caravan to
make it move horizontally? The coefficient
of friction between the tyres and the road
is 0.7.

511
 A model for friction
④ A block of mass 5 kg is resting on a rough ⑧ A car of mass 1200 kg is travelling at 30 m s −1
horizontal surface. The block is being pulled when it is forced to perform an emergency stop.
by a light inextensible string which makes an Its wheels lock as soon as the brakes are applied
angle of 25° with the horizontal. The tension so that they slide along the road without
in the string is 15 N. Given that the block is on rotating. For the first 40 m the coefficient of
the point of sliding, find friction between the wheels and the road is
(i) the normal reaction between the block 0.75 but then the road surface changes and the
and the surface coefficient of friction becomes 0.8.
(ii) the coefficient of friction. (i) Find the deceleration of the car
R immediately after the brakes are applied.

25°
T = 15 N
(ii) Find the speed of the car when it comes
to the change of road surface.
F
(iii)
Find the total distance the car travels
before it comes to rest.
⑨ Shona, whose mass is 30 kg, is sitting on a
5g sledge of mass 10 kg which is being pulled at
constant speed along horizontal ground by her
Figure 22.9 older brother, Aloke. The coefficient of friction
⑤ Jasmine is cycling at 12 m s −1 when her bag between the sledge and the snow-covered
falls off the back of her bicycle. The bag ground is 0.15. Find the tension in the rope
slides a distance of 9 m before coming to rest. from Aloke’s hand to the sledge when
Calculate the coefficient of friction between (i) the rope is horizontal
the bag and the road. (ii)
the rope makes an angle of 30° with the
⑥ A boy slides a piece of ice of mass 100 g across horizontal.
the surface of a frozen lake. Its initial speed is ⑩ In each of the following situations a brick is
10 m s −1 and it takes 49 m to come to rest. about to slide down a rough inclined plane.
(i) Find the deceleration of the piece of ice. Find the unknown quantity.
(ii) Find the frictional force acting on the (i) The plane is inclined at 30° to the horizontal
piece of ice. and the brick has mass 2 kg: find m.
(iii) Find the coefficient of friction between (ii) The brick has mass 4 kg and the coefficient
the piece of ice and the surface of the lake. of friction is 0.7: find the angle of the slope.
(iv)
How far will a 200 g piece of ice travel if (iii) The plane is at 65° to the horizontal and
it too is given an initial speed of 10 m s −1? the brick has mass 5 kg: find m.
⑦ A box of mass 50 kg is being moved across a (iv)
The brick has mass 6 kg and m is 1.2:
room. To help it slide a suitable mat is placed find the angle of the slope.
underneath the box. ⑪ A particle of mass 2 kg is projected up an
(i) Explain why the mat makes it easier to inclined plane, making an angle of 20° with
slide the box. the horizontal, with a speed of 6 m s −1.
A force of 100 N is needed to slide the mat at a The particle comes to rest after 4 m.
constant velocity. (i) Find the deceleration of the particle.
(ii)What is the value of the coefficient of (ii)Find the frictional force F and the normal
friction between the mat and the floor? reaction R, and hence deduce the
A child of mass 20 kg climbs onto the box. coefficient of friction between the
particle and the plane.
(iii) What force is now needed to slide the mat
at constant velocity? The particle then starts to move down the
plane with acceleration a m s −2.
(iii) Find a and the speed of the particle as it
passes its starting point.
512
 A

40°

B C

Figure 22.10 rope

⑫ Figure 22.10 shows a boy on a simple 15°
playground slide. The coefficient of friction sledge
between a typically clothed child and the
slide is 0.25 and it can be assumed that no
30°
speed is lost when changing direction at B.
The section AB is 3 m long and makes an Figure 22.12
angle of 40° with the horizontal. The slide
is designed so that a child, starting from rest, (i) Draw a force diagram showing the forces
stops at just the right moment of arrival at C. on the sledge and find the values of the
normal reaction of the ground and the
(i) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting frictional force on the sledge.
on the boy when on the sloping section AB.
(ii) Show that the coefficient of friction is
(ii) Calculate the acceleration of the boy slightly more than 0.1.
when on the section AB.
Veronica stops and when she pulls the rope to
(iii)
Calculate the speed on reaching B. start again it breaks and the sledge begins to
(iv)Find the length of the horizontal section slide down the hill. The coefficient of friction
BC. is now 0.1.
⑬ The coefficient of friction between the skis (iii)
Find the new value of the frictional force
and an artificial ski slope for learners is 0.3. and the acceleration down the slope.
During a run the angle, a, which the slope [MEI, adapted]
makes with the horizontal varies so that ⑮ A 5 kg block lies on a rough horizontal table.
initially the skier accelerates, then travels at
The coefficient of friction between the block
constant speed and then slows down. What can and the table is 1 . The block is attached by a
you say about the values of a in each of these 5
three parts of the run? light inextensible string, which passes over a
smooth pulley, to a mass of 2 kg hanging freely.
The 5 kg block is 1.5 m from the pulley and
the 2 kg mass is 1 m from the floor. The system
is released from rest. Find
(i) the acceleration of the system
(ii) the time taken for the 2 kg mass to reach
the floor

Figure 22.11 (iii) the velocity with which the 5 kg mass hits
the pulley.
⑭ One winter day, Veronica is pulling a sledge
5 kg
up a hill with slope 30° to the horizontal at a
steady speed. The weight of the sledge is 40 N.
Veronica pulls the sledge with a rope inclined
2 kg
at 15° to the slope of the hill (Figure 22.12).
The tension in the rope is 24 N. Figure 22.13
513
 A model for friction
⑯ A box of mass 410 kg is placed on a Assume that the box slides on its underside
rough inclined plane of slope arcsin ( 9) and does not tip up.
and coefficient of friction 15 . A rope is
41
(i) Find the tension in the string when the
value of a is
attached to the box and the direction
of the rope makes an angle arcsin ( 3)
5
(a) 10° (b) 20° (c) 30°.
with the upper surface of the plane. If the (ii) Find an expression for the value of T for
any angle a.
tension in the rope is T N, find the limiting
values of T for which the box remains in (iii)
For what value of a is T a minimum?
equilibrium. ⑱ If the least force which will move a body up
⑰ A box of weight 100 N is pulled at a steady a plane of inclination a, is 2.5 times the least
speed across a rough horizontal surface by force which will just prevent the body sliding
a rope which makes an angle a with the down the plane, show that m = 3 tan a, where
7
horizontal. The coefficient of friction m is the coefficient of friction between the
between the box and the surface is 0.4. body and the plane.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Now you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
➤ draw force diagrams including frictional force and normal reaction (normal
contact force) between surfaces
➤ model the frictional force as F < m R
➤ model friction using =Fm R when sliding occurs
➤ apply Newton’s Laws of motion to problems involving friction.

KEY POINTS
Coulomb’s laws
1 The frictional force, F, between two surfaces is given by
F < m R when there is no sliding except in limiting equilibrium
F = m R in limiting equilibrium
F = m R when sliding occurs
where R is the normal reaction of one surface on the other and m is the
coefficient of friction between the surfaces.
2 The frictional force always acts in the direction to oppose sliding.
3 The size of the normal reaction, and so possibly of the frictional force, is
affected by any other force which has a component perpendicular to the
surface on which sliding may take place.

514
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS: MECHANICS
① A medal of mass 0.5 kg hangs in equilibrium from two ribbons AP and BP.
The ends A and B of the ribbons are fixed in place as shown in Figure 1.
Calculate the tensions in the two ribbons. [5 marks]
A

60° P 30°

Figure 1
PS ② Juan is 1.80 m tall. He stands on accurate bathroom scales which read 72 kg.
(i) Write down the magnitude of the contact force between
Juan and the scales. [1 mark]
He wants to know where the centre of mass of his body is. He uses a
uniform plank of wood AB which is 1.80 m long and has mass 8 kg. He
places it horizontally on two bathroom scales, one at each end, as shown
in Figure 2.
A B

Figure 2
He lies down on the plank with the top of his head at A and his feet at B.
The scales at A read 48 kg.
(ii)
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the plank. [2 marks]
(iii)
Find the distance of Juan’s centre of mass from his feet at B. [3 marks]
PS ③ A block of mass 1.2 kg is placed on a rough horizontal surface. The block is
pushed by a force P which is at 20° to the horizontal as shown in Figure 3.
The block remains stationary.

20°

Figure 3
(i) Draw a diagram showing all the forces on the block. [3 marks]
The coefficient of friction between the block and the surface is m = 0.4.
The force P is increased until the block begins to slide.
(ii) Find the value of P when the block on the point of sliding. [6 marks]

515
 Practice questions: Mechanics
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
PS ④ In this question, the unit vectors ⎜1 ⎟ and 0⎜ ⎟ are
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝1 ⎠ in the directions of East
and North respectively. Distance is measured in metres and time in seconds.
A remote controlled toy boat sails on a pond. The boat starts at the origin.
Its velocity at time t seconds is given by the vector v.
⎛ −0.03t 2 + 0.8t0.4
− ⎞
=
v ⎝⎜ −0.4t8+ t 20.
⎠⎟for 0 < <

(i) Is there a time at which the boat is stationary? [2 marks]

(ii)
Find the displacement vector r at time t s. [2 marks]
(iii)
Find the bearing of the boat from the origin after 5 seconds. [3 marks]
(iv)
Find the time at which the boat is travelling North-East. Give your
answer to the nearest 0.1 s. [3 marks]
PS ⑤ Jenny attaches a block of mass 1.5 kg to a bucket with a light inextensible
string. She places the block on a smooth plane which is inclined at 40⁰ to
the horizontal. The string is parallel to the slope and passes over a smooth
pulley. The bucket hangs down with the string vertical, as shown in Figure 4.

40°

Figure 4
When the bucket is empty, the system is in equilibrium.
(i) Find the mass of the bucket. [3 marks]
Jenny holds the block at rest on the plane. She pours water into the bucket,
increasing its mass to 1.7 kg. She lets go of the block, allowing it to move up
the plane.
(ii)
Find the acceleration of the block. [3 marks]
(iii)
When the bucket has travelled 0.8 m, it reaches the ground and the
string goes slack. Calculate how much further the block will travel
before it comes momentarily to rest. [5 marks]
P M T ⑥ A projectile has initial speed u m s −1 at an angle a to the horizontal.
The projectile is initially on the ground which is level and horizontal.
The flight time of the projectile is T s and its range is R m.
(i) Using the standard projectile model, prove that
= 2usin cos
2
R a a. [3 marks]
g
(ii) Write down one of the modelling assumptions you have used. [1 mark]
(iii) Use the formula for sin 2a to prove that the maximum value of
2
R is ug and that this occurs when a = 45°. [3 marks]

516
Charlie has a machine that launches table tennis balls. It states on the box
that they will be launched at 10 m s −1 . He uses columns A, B and C of the
spreadsheet shown in Figure 5 to predict the time of flight and the range for
various angles of projection, using the standard projectile model.
He then launches the ball at each of the angles and records the observed
range in column D of the spreadsheet.

Home Insert Page Layout Formulas Data

fx

A B C D E
α (°) T (s) R (m) Observed
1 range (m)
2 30 7.1 7.28
3 35 1.17 9.59 7.3 7.53
4 40 1.31 10.05 7.4 7.47
5 45 1.44 10.2 7.1
6 50 1.56 10.05 6.4 6.38
7 55 1.67 9.59 5.5 5.4
8 60 1.77 8.84 4.2 4.15

Figure 5
(iv) Calculate the values for cells B2 and C2. [2 marks]
Charlie notices that the observed values are much lower than the predicted
values. He adapts the model by considering a lower launch velocity u.
(v) Find, to 1 decimal place, the value of u that would give a maximum
value of 7.1 m for R. [2 marks]
(vi)Without doing any further calculations, state one respect in which the
observed values of the range are still different from those given by the
standard projectile model. [1 mark]
Charlie tries a refined model in which the displacement of the ball is given by
⎛10tcos a − 1.5t 2 ⎞
r =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10tsin a − 4.9t 2 ⎠
He uses column E of the spreadsheet for the values of R predicted by this
model; some of the values have already been entered.
(vii) Show that the initial speed of the ball in this model is 10 m s−1. [3 marks]
(viii) Explain why the values in column B can also be used in the refined
model. [1 mark]
(ix) Calculate the value in the cell E5. [2 marks]
(x) State whether the revised model is an improvement of the standard
projectile model, justifying your answer. [1 mark]

517
 Data set

CYCLING ACCIDENTS DATA SET

Distance Nights
First Last Sex from Wearing in Time of Day of Month of Officer
name name M/F Age home Cause Injuries a helmet hospital accident accident accident reporting
Farhan Ali M 13 250 m hit lamp-post compression 1 9.15 am Saturday October 39014
Martin Anderson M 31 drunk abrasions n 1 23.30 Friday February 78264
Marcus Appleton M 64 2 miles car pulled out concussion n 2 8.25am Monday August 97655
Lucy Avon F 52 500 m lorry turning abrasions 0 7.50am Thursday 39014
Thomas Bailey M 10 500 m hit friend suspected concussion y 0 4pm Sunday June 78264
Andrew Burke M 18 1 km car door opened abrasions y 3pm Sunday September 45211
Lee Burnett M 18 3 km kerb sprains y 0 8am Monday April 78264
Clive Burrows M 16 about 1 mile slipped on wet leaves sprained wrist y 0 6.00am Tuesday November 78264
Nathaniel Carley M 32 1.4 miles hit by car concussion n 1 6.30 am Monday July 39813
Rory Clark M 44 100 m hit by car while concussion, multiple n 1 17.20 Friday January 97655
turning fractures
Crystal Cook F 61 1.5 miles didn’t see car broken arm, bruising, n 1 10.45am Wednesday August 97655
shock
Christopher Court M 60 7 km turning lorry dislocated elbow y 0 8.30am Tuesday August 97655
Sally Darby F 18 2 km knocked by bus concussion y 1 5pm Tuesday December 78264
Terry Davidson M 7 outside hit tree suspected concussion y 1 6pm Monday June 78264
Matthew de Leon M 46 4 miles knocked by car sprains and shock y 0 10am Saturday April 78264
Michael Delaney M 20 300 m skidded into wall abrasions n 0 7.10am Tuesday February 78264
Sarah Doyle F 62 2 miles hit kerb fractured wrist n 0 10.30 Wednesday Oct 78264
Alexander Duggan M 34 0.5 miles brakes failed concussion n 0 7.30 am Monday January 39813
Selena Fenney F 10 0 m fell over concussion y 1 6pm Wed February 39813
Ceri Flynn F 9 300 yds fell off sprained wrist y 0 3pm Friday August 97655
Harry Francis M 9 1 mile car hit broken leg and y 0 10am Monday August 97655
abrasions
Fred Fuller M 6 20 m fell over concussion y 1 3.15 Sunday September 39813
Toby Geary M 14 1.5 km knocked off by car broken wrist and arm y 0 8am Wednesday October 78264
Stacey Geary F 44 2 miles minibus turning abrasions, shock n 0 8.25am Thursday June 39813
Mary Geraghty F 67 1 mile pedestrian abrasions, shock n 0 11.30am Wednesday March 39813
broken leg,
Luke Grainger M 13 0.5 km lorry turning 1 8pm Saturday Spetember 54211
concussion
Sharon Griffin F 7 75 m uneven pavement broken leg y 1 2.35 Saturday May 45211
Lara Haas F 28 3 miles sprained wrist n 0 1630 Tuesday November 39813
multiple fractures, head
Joseph Hall M 63 0.5 miles lorry n 5 4.30 pm Friday November 39813
injury
Aidan Hart M 66 3 miles hit cyclist abrasions, shock y 0 3.30pm Tuesday June 39813
Penny Hickey F 26 3 miles hit hedge to avoid bus abrasions y 0 4.45 Tuesday February 39813
Claire Higgins F 19 10 km hit by car at fractured arm and y 0 7.45am Monday Feb 78264
roundabout sprained wrist
Francesca Hill F 22 0.5 miles car broken arm n 0 5.50pm Tuesday September 78264
Fortune Hilton F 29 12 km car changing lanes broken arm and leg y 2 6.50pm Wednesday January 97655
Rhys Hooper M 22 115 km multiple vehicles multiple fractures y 3 8.30am Monday March 39813
Adam Housman M 39 11 km hit by car broken arm y 0 5.50pm Monday January 97655
Eden Howell M 14 50 m brakes failed abrasions y none 6.30 am Tues March 97655
David Huker M 8 50 m hit cyclist concussion n 1 10 Saturday May 97655
Edward Hunton M 7 50 m fell off severe abrasions y 0 2.30pm Friday August 97655
Avril Johnson 9 at home hit wall dislocated knee y 1 1700 Thusrday August 39813
George Jones F 37 9 km lorry collision punctured lung y 8 7.15am Wednesday February 78264
Roger Kenny M 62 7 miles car changed lanes multiple fractures y 1 1800 Thursday May 39813
Henry Kerridge M 3 miles hit by car abrasions y 0 8.30am Tuesday August 97655
Debbie Lane F 5 75 km hit kerb broken arm y 0 9.00am Sunday April 78264
Scott Learman M 61 3 miles avoiding children sprained wrist and n 0 4.15pm Monday November 39813
broken arm
Gary Lighter M 59 car braking concussion n 1 1730 Friday November 39813
Seren Maher F 16 20 m hit kerb dislocated elbow n 0 7am Wednesday November 78264
Shelley Mann F 21 50 m slipped on wet leaves deep cuts to legs, y 0 9pm Friday January 97655
strained wrist

518
 Distance Nights
First Last Sex from Wearing in Time of Day of Month of Officer
name name M/F Age home Cause Injuries a helmet hospital accident accident accident reporting
Harry Markson M 15 3 km collision with cyclist unreadable y 0 8am Monday March 39813
Jeremy Marlow M 55 6.5 km lorry at roundabout multiple fractures y 2 Monday June 97655
Michael Marston M 23 3 miles car braked suddenly head injuries y 1 8.20am Friday November 97655

tes ataD
concussion and
Joanne Mason F 26 2 miles lorry turning left 1 10am Saturday May 39014
broken arm
Jennifer Massey F 10 100 m fell off suspected concussion 0 8 am Saturday Sept 39014
Justin Matthews M 6.5 1 mile hit wall broken arm y 0 noon Tuesday August 97655
Sam Maynard M 28 1.5 km pothole unreadable n 0 5.20 pm Thursday July 97655
Richard McLennan M 22 1 mile car bruising y 0 8.10am Wednesday April 78264
Owen Mitchell M 61 1 mile pothole suspected concussion n 1 9.30am Tuesday June 39813
Lisa Mont- F 16 300 m fell over abrasions n 0 3pm Saturday June 39813
gomery
James Moore M 20 2 km trying to fix chain partially severed finger n 0 7am Monday June 97655
Glyn Morgan M 36 6 km lorry concussion y 0 8.50am Wednesday September 39813
Luke Murphy M 20 3 miles messing around broken arm y 0 10pm Saturday April 78264
concussion, sprained
Lewis Ofan M 36 4 miles hit car y 0 10.30 Sunday August 45211
wrists
Matthew Ogunwe M 25 10 km car turning broken leg y 0 8.30am Thursday May 97655
concussion, multiple
Dylan Omerod M 42 8 km bus pulled out y 2 8.45am October 78264
fractures
Patrick O’Toole M 21 5 miles slipped on oil patch broken arm y 0 8.20am Monday June 39813
Zoe Painter F 21 2 miles skidded abrasions 0 10am Wednesday July 78264
Eric Passant M 67 3 miles slipped on leaves abrasions, shock n 1 9.50am Friday November 97655
Anthony Patrick M 17 3 miles dragged under lorry severe head injuries y 5 4.30pm Monday April 97655
Cath Pickin F 16 half mile puncture by nail abrasions on leg y 0 7.30am Tuesday 79655
Kobi Pitts M 34 3 miles bus broken arm and y 0 11am Tuesday August 97655
sprained wrist
Simon Porter M 66 5 miles hit cyclist broken arm y 0 3.30pm Tuesday June 39813
Kate Price F 17 5 miles car collision concussion y 0 8am Friday June 39813
Dee Pugh F 11 about 1 car hit dislocated shoulder y 1 3.30pm Monday August 97655
mile
Simon Rice M 11 100m hit friend suspected concussion y 0 4pm Sunday June 78264
Bob Roberts M 138 3 miles lorry collision broken arm n 0 8.25am Monday January 79264
Benjamin Ronan M 60 1 mile collision with cyclist abrasions n 0 8am Monday March 39813
Michael Root M 13 30 m wing mirror deep cuts y 0 5pm Monday August 39813
Jonathan Sanders M 9 200 m hit car concussion y 1 2.30pm Tuesday December 39813
Simon Sefton M 15 3 km car hit concussion n 1 Tuesday May 97655

Arvinder Sethi M 12 1200 m lorry multiple fractures n 40 4.40pm Thursday May 39813
Dave Smith M 37 23 km van pulled out concussion, multiple 2 3.30pm Saturday June 39014
fractures
John Smith M 45 3 km skid concussion y 0 7.45 Tuesday May 78264
Millie Smith F 88 2 miles hit by car bruising, shock n 1 2pm Tuesday April 78264
Jacob Squires M 46 7 km skidded on wet road severe abrasions y 0 8.50am Sunday September 45211
Jodie Stanton F 18 5 km hit brick in road abrasions to left leg y 0 5.15pm Thursday January 97655
Sam Thomas F 9 hit tree broken wrist y 0 15.45 Wednesday December 39813
Manny Umberton M 9 2m hit kerb dislocated thumb y 0 9.30am Sunday April 78264
Ian Wade M 12 2 km car concussion with com- y 3 10 am Tuesday March 39813
plications
Natalie Walken F 50 50 m brakes failed, hit kerb broken wrist, bruising n 0 1300 Wednesday March 39813
Agatha Walker F 64 1 mile knocked by car fractured wrist n 0 10am Wednesday October 78264
Kerry Wilde F 52 3 km car didn’t look abrasions to left arm n 0 10 Saturday May 97655
Jordan Williams M 35 4 km hit fence broken fingers y 0 9.15am Tuesday May 97655
Marion Wren F 8.5 300 m cyclist collision bruising 0 10 Saturday May 39014

519
 Answers

Chapter 1 (8, 9)
(ii) False – e.g. N ² = 225 =
12² + 9², but N = 15
Discussion point (page 3) (4, 5) is not the sum of the
squares of two integers.
Since odd numbers cannot be
written as the sum of two odd (2, 3)
(8, 1)
numbers, the only way of writing
an odd number as the sum of
two primes is when one of the
4 There are 4 different
arrangements, one of which
Chapter 2
two primes is 2. There are many
odd numbers that cannot be
is shown below.
7
Opening activity (page 12)
174.5 m
written as the sum of 2 and a 3 1 4

prime number, e.g. 11. 5 8 6

Exerciseπ 2.1 (page 16)
Discussion point (page 3)
2
1 (i)
6 (i) 14 + 12 + 7 and
2 3
4
There are many prime numbers
15 + 19 2 + 5 3 (ii) π
2
which are not 5.

Discussion point (page 3) Discussion point (page 7) (iii) 2π

3
No, reversing 90 does not give a
For example, 10 is even but 5 two-digit number.
(iv) 5π
12
is not.
Exercise 1.2 (page 10) (v) 5π
3
Exercise 1.1 (page 4) 1 True – direct proof (vi) 0.4 radians
1 (i) ⇒ 2 True – direct proof (vii) 5π
(ii) ⇔ 3 True – proof by exhaustion 2
(iii) ⇒ 4 False – e.g. a hexagon (viii) 3.65 rad
(iv) ⇐ (6 sides) has 9 diagonals (ix) 5π
2 (i) No, because BC and AD 5 True – direct proof
6
may not be parallel 6 True – proof by contradiction (x) π
25
(ii) ABCD is a parallelogram 7 (i) True – direct proof 2 (i) 18°
⇒ AB is parallel to CD. (ii) True – direct proof (ii)
The converse is true. 8 (i) True – direct proof (iii)
135°
3 (ii) The total distance if R (ii) True – direct proof (iv)
114.6°
is (5,5) is 5 + 13 , but 9 False – e.g. n = 10 (v)
80°
if R is (4,5) the total 10 True – proof by contradiction
(vi)
540°
distance is 6 2 which 11 (i) True – direct proof
240°
(vii) 28.6°
is smaller. (ii) False – e.g. 1² + 2² + 3² (viii) 450°
(iii) The best position for + 4² = 30
(ix) 420°
R is (4,5). The distance 12 True – direct proof
(x) 77.1°
is equivalent to the 16 Numbers of the form 2 n 3 (i) (a) 1 cm
case where Q is (8,9) 17 (i) If N ² is the sum of the
(b) 3 cm
(see diagram below), squares of two integers,
and (4,5) is on the then N is the sum of the (ii) (a) π3
straight line y = x + 1
between (2,3) and (8,1).
squares of two different
integers.
(b) π6

520
 (iii) (a) 23 9 (i) x 2π= 7
Discussion point (page 22)
Because the formula area of a
(b) 1 2 (ii) y 8π
=
5 sector = 12 r 2 assumes is in
(c) 3 (iii) =k 1 3
radians.

(d) 21 Discussion point (page 23)

(e) 23 Activity 2.1 (page 18) By the shape and symmetry
of the graphs, in each case the
Radians Degrees
maximum percentage error will
(f) 33 Angle uc (
a° a u= × 180
π ) occur for = 0.1 radians.
4 Q Arc
length
ru π
ra × 180 y = sin : = 0.1 rad
true value = 0.099 833
Area of 1
r 2 1 2 r × π approximate value = 0.1
√ 2cm 2θ 2 a 180
sector % error = 0.167%
1cm
y = tan : = 0.1 rad
Exercise 2.2 (page 20)
π
4 true value = 0.100 335
P R
1cm
1 (i) (a) 3.14 cm approximate value = 0.1
% error = 0.334%
PQ = 1 1 +
2 2 =
2 , the (b) 9.14 cm y = cos : = 0.1 rad
triangle is a right-angled so (c) 4.71 cm 2
true value = 0.995 004
∠QPR + ∠PQR = π (ii) (a) 22.0 cm approximate value = 0.995
2
and the triangle is isosceles (b) 30.0 cm % error = 0.000 419%
(c) 44.0 cm 2
so ∠QPR = ∠PQR = π
4 2 r (cm) (rad) s (cm) A (cm 2) Exercise 2.3 (page 24)
(i)sin π 4 =
1 = 2
2 2 4 1
2
2 4 1 (i) u2
u2
(ii)cos π4 =
1 = 2 1
12 π π 3π (ii) 2
2 2 3 2 8

(iii) 1
tan π4 = =1 1
5 0.8 4 10 (iii) 1(2− u ) 2

1.875 0.8 1.5 1.41

(iv) 2u
5 =
sin 9π cos π−
4 ( )=
4 2
2
3.46 2π
3
7.26 4π 2 (i) 2
tan 5π− ()
3
= tan 4π = 3
3
3 (i) 140 yards (ii) 1 5− u2
2

(ii) 5585 square yards (iii) 12

cos 11π = sin 2π = 3
6 3 2 4 (i) 15π cm 2

(ii) 9 cm 2
(iv) −3
cos π = tan 3π = −1
4 (iii) (15π – 9) cm 2 3 (i) 5
7 1.05 cm 3
(ii) 5
sin 5π = cos 5π = 12
6 3 8 (i) 5.16 m 4 (i) 2 u
2

6 x = 0.6 and x = 2.5 (ii) 3.11 m 2

to 1 d.p. 9 (i) 9π8 = 3.53 m to 2 d.p. (ii) 1 8

7
2
x = 0.8 and x = 3.9 5 (i) 8 2

to 1 d.p. (ii) 40π = 41.89 m to 2 d.p. 2

(ii) 4 2

8 (i) k=π 3
(iii) 2
(iii) 32.14 m 2
6 0.24 radians
(ii) k = π 2 10 (i) 16.9 cm 7 0.102 radians; the other
2

(iii) k = π (ii) 19.7 cm 2

(iv) k = π2 11 (i) 1.98 mm 2 roots are not small angles

8 (ii) ∠BAE = 90° − ∠OAB
(ii) 43.0 mm

521
 Review: Algebra (1) (ii) N Exercise 3.1 (page 41)
1 (i) 19, 22, 25, 28, …
Exercise R.1 (page 29) Arithmetic, 1st term
a = 7, common
1 (i) 6 − 3
200 difference d = 3
(ii)
1−5+2 0 t
(ii) 4, 3, 2, 1, … Arithmetic,
(iii) − 2
17 12
(iii) 4017 bees 1st term a = 8,
(iv) 1 (v) The model is not suitable
common difference
2 (i) 3 3 in the long term since
d = −1
(ii) 5 1 − not enough room, no
(iii) 3.3, 3.1, 2.9, 2.7, …
+ 2 Arithmetic, 1st term
(iii) 16 10 7
allowance made for bees
a = 4.1, common
dying, etc.
( + ) 7 (ii) difference d = −0.2
(iv) 5 3 5294 p = 1.4, q = 0.8 (iv)
8 (ii) k = 5, n = 0.5 48, 96, 192, 384, …
3 (i) 1 32 Geometric, 1st term

Chapter 3
a = 3, common ratio r = 2
(ii) 3 (v) 4, 2, 1, 0.5, … Geometric,
(iii) 125 1st term a = 64,
(iv) 34 Discussion point (page 36) common ratio r = 0.5

4 (i) x 7 (i) (a) Avonford Savings (vi) 16, −32, 64, −128, …
Geometric, 1st term
(ii) x (b) 80 000, 160 000,
a = 1, common ratio
(iii) x −6

(c)
320 000, …
r = −2
(iv) x 4 Exponential geometric
sequence (vii) 2, 2, 2, 5, … Periodic
(v) x 4

(d) with period 4

5 (i) x 6y 55 The sequence could go
(viii) 1, 3, 5, 3, … Periodic
(ii) x y 24 on but the family will
not live forever. with period 4, oscillating
(iii) x3y 42

(ii) (a) about 3

(iv) (1 +3 )(1x + x ) 2 Pizza outlet opening
hours 2 (i) 3, 5, 7, 9, …
(b) (ii) 6, 12, 24, 48, …
Exercise R.2 (page 33) (c)
10, 10, 10, 10, 12 …
There is a cycle that (iii) 4, 8, 14, 24, …
1 (i) log 9 repeats every week. (iv) 1, 12 , 31, 41 , …
(ii) log 48 (d) (v) 4, 6, 4, 6, …
(iii) log 2
The sequence will
continue as long as
3 (i) 12, 15, 18, 21, …
2 (ii)
3
(i) 2 log x they keep the same −5, 5, −5, 5, …
(ii) 6 log x Opening hours. (iii) 72, 36, 18, 9, … .
(iii) log x
3
(iii) (a) The clock (iv) 1, 4, 9, 16, … .
3 (v)
2

(i) x = − 1.15 (3 s.f.) (b) 0, −3.5, −5, −3.5, …

4 (i)
4, 6, 4, 6, …
(ii) x 0.222
= (3 s.f.) (c) The pattern of 8 numbers 58
(iii) x 1.20
= (3 s.f.) keeps repeating. (ii) 90
(iv) x 2= (d) The sequence continues (iii) 25
4 (i) x 99999
= for as long as the clock (iv) 8
(ii) x = 5 is working. (v) 40
(iii) x e= − 3 4
(iv) (a) The stairs 5 (i) ∑ k
10

(iv) x = a 5 (b) 120, 140, 160, …

5
1

(i) x c = + b (c) Increases by 20 each time 10

(ii) ∑ (20 k
(d) + )
(ii) x = ln spq
− The steps can’t go on
1
forever.
6
10

(i) 200 (iii) ∑ (200

+ 10 ) k
1

522
 10
(iv) ∑ (200
+ 11 ) k
(iii) Yes, −3, −22 Discussion point (page 52)
(iv) Yes, 4, 39 S is an infinite series with a
1
10 (v) No common ratio of (−2). Since this
(v) ∑ (200
− 10 ) k (vi) Yes, 1.5, 15.5 is outside the interval (−1, 1) the
1 2 (i) 34
6 (i) 15 (ii) 29 terms
sum to infinity does not have a
unique value.
(ii) 400 3 38 terms
(iii) −20 4 (i) 3 Discussion point (page 52)
(iv) 100 (ii) 470
(v) 220 5 (i) 4 Disease, availability of food, water
7 (i) 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, … After the (ii) −3, 1, 5, 9
and shelter.
first term this is the same
as the sequence itself. 6 (i) 3
(iii) 375 Exercise 3.3 (page 53)
(ii) 13, 21, 34, … (ii) 15 150 1 (i) Yes, 2, 160
(iii) 1.0, 2.0, 1,5, 1.667, 1.6, 7 (i) 120 (ii) Yes, −1, −1
1.625, 1.615, 1.619, … (ii) 22 (iii) No
These values are 8 (i) 5049 (iv) No 1 3
oscillating and appear (ii) 5100 (v) Yes, , 2 16
to be converging. (iii) 51 terms in each sequence 2 (vi) Yes, −2, −64 n−1
8 (i) 2, 6, 2, 6, 2, 6, … with the terms in the (i) 48, (−2), 3(−2)n
(ii) (ii) , 81,2 21 × (21 ) (=) 21
−1 −2 n
Oscillating and periodic second one each 1 greater
with period 2
(iii) (a) 9 30
than those in the first.
(iii) ab
4
b , n
, ab
−1

2, 8, −4, 20, −28,

68, … Oscillating 10 (i) a d 2 = =
3 (i) 5 31
and diverging (ii) (ii) 8
11
330 (iii) Diverges
(b) 3 ,421 ,3 41,4 ,378 ,4 16,1 31 1 267
…
(iv) 4 21
3 21,4 ,341 ,4 78,3 ,416
1, 31… 1
32
12 (i) 16
64
(v) Diverges
32 64
(ii) 2.5 cm 4 (i) 11
Oscillating sequence
converging towards 4
13 (i) a = 1, d = 4 (ii) 256
9 (i) t 2 = 0, t 3 = − 2, t4 = 2, t100 = 2 (ii) 270 (iii) 4094
t2 = 0, t 3 =− 2, t4 = 2, t100 = 2 14 (i) S n = d2 n + −(a d)n2
2
5 (i) (a) 2; 12 terms
(ii)
2 − =2 ;2t 1 = − 1
2
(ii) Subtracting the sum of (b) 20 475
(iii) (a)
Diverges the first (n − 1) terms (ii) (a) 3; 11 terms
(b)
Converges to −1
from the sum of the (b) 177 146
(c)
The terms oscillate first n terms will leave (iii) (a) (−)21; 16 terms
− only the nth term. (b) 5.333 (4 s.f.)
between 5 1
2 nth term = p(2n − 1) + q 6 19 years
and
− 5 1− (iii) First term = (p + q); 7 (i) 2
2 common difference = 2p (ii) 3
10 (ii) First series: 118 terms, (iii) 3 069
294 terms, 10 793 terms, Discussion point (page 50) (iv) 192 terms
23 445 terms If r = +1 then all of the terms are 8 (i) 3
equal to the first term, a, and the
Second series: 11 terms,
sum of n terms is na so the sum is
(ii) 7th
145 terms, 10 308 terms,
divergent.
(ii) 7 terms
22 388 terms (iv) 27
If r = −1 then the terms alternate 9 (i) 83 terms
Exercise 3.2 (page 46) between +a and –a and the sum (ii) 73 terms
will alternate between +a and 0.
1 (i) Yes, 3, 32
(ii) No

523
 10 (i) x(1 − x n ) (v) c 1,=1−3 4 (iii) x{ x: 0} >{ : 4}∪ xx <−
(1 − x )
(1 −( )−) y n
(vi) x 4,=2 3 –4 0

(ii) (1 + y )
2 (i) x 2.37,
= 3.37 − 8 (i) x < − 2or x 4 >

(1 −( 2− ) )a n
(ii) x 0.78,
= 3.22 y

(iii) (1 +2 ) a
(iii) =x− 3.70, 2.70
12 (i) 20, 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25
3 (i) 3 (x − 2) − 5 2

(ii) 5 operations (ii) 2 (x + +23 ) 21 2

(iii) 0, 10, 15, 17.5, 18.75 (iii) 21 − −(x 4 ) 2

O x
(iv)
–2 4
The sequence of amounts
of water is geometric
4 (i) x = − 2,− −( 2, 12)
y –8
(first term 20, common
ratio 0.5) but the se- (ii) x
−1 < < 2
quence of antifreeze x
y
O
is not (a geometric
2
sequence cannot have -8
zero as its first term (–2, –12)
since that would imply
(ii) x –1 O 2 x
that all terms are zero). = − 2,
− −( 2, 11)
13 (i) After 67 swings y

(ii)241° (to the nearest

degree)
(iii)
600° -3 O x

14 (i) 1 (iii) 2
3
< <x 3
2
cosu y
(–2, –11)
(ii)31 3
2 6

(iii)
23
(iii) =x 1, (1,5)
y (1, 5)
(iv) 1
cosusin u
2 4 O2
3
3
2
x

(v)
No
15 (i) 27 cm, 36 cm, 48 cm,
O x
9 (i) Points of intersection:
64 cm, 8531cm (52 )
(−2,5) and ,14
(ii) The length increases 5 (i) x = 4, y = 3
y

without bound (ii) x = 2, y = 3

(G.P. with r = 43 ). (iii) =x− 1, y = − 2
(iii) No – the figure is 6 (i) x = 4, y = 2 or 9
5
2
, 14

always inside the circle x = − 4, y = − 2 (–2, 5)

which circumscribes the (ii) x = 4, y = 1 or x
original triangle. x = 1, y = 4 –1 –1 1
2
(iii) =x 1, y = 5 or
Review: Algebra(2) 7
x = 11, y = 25
(i) x {x : < ∩4} { : x x > − 2}
10 (i) x = ± 2 or x =9± 1
(ii) x = ± 12 or 4x = ± 3
Review exercise R.1 (page 60) (iii) x21 = 49 or x = 25
1 (i) x 2,= 6
–2

(ii) x{x: ∩ { : x x > −7}

< −1}
4
11 (i) x = 0 or x = 1
(ii) x = −1.58
(ii) a = − 5,
− 6
(iii) x = 0.208
(iii) x
–7 –1
=±4
(iv) p = − 0.5, −2

524
Review exercise R.2 (page 62)
1 (i) x 3 + 3x − +x 1
2
Chapter 4 (ii) y
y = 3x y = 2x

(ii) x5 4 + x 3 + 4 x 2 − 2x − 4 Review exercise (page 69)

(iii) x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 6 1 (i) y
1 y = 1x
(iv) x3 + 7x − 3x + 1
3 2 3

2 (i) x 2 3 + 3x 2 − 5x + 12 O x
(ii) x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 –1 O 1
2
3 x

(iii) x 2 + 3x + 2 4 (i) y
(iv) x 2 − 3x − 4 y = (x + 3) 2 y = x2 + 3
3 (i) y 9

(ii) y
6
12
3 y = x2

−3 O x
–2 O 1 3 x –3 –2 O
2 x
(ii) ϖ
y
y = sin x – 2 y = sin x
1

(ii) y (iii) (−1) repeated, −ϖ ϖ

−—
0
0 ϖ
— ϖ 3ϖ
—
2ϖ x
(−3) repeated 2
−1
2 2

y
−2

−3
O 3 x y = sin x − 2
9
5 (i) x 2x( 3) +;
⎛ −2 ⎞
x ⎜ ⎟
(iii) y –1 O 3 translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠

2 (i) y
(ii) ( 3) 2(x )− 2
x +1;
stretch scale factor 3 in
O 1
−3 2 x y= x the y direction
3
y= x
(iii) ( x) (−)2 x + 1− 2;
2

0 ⎞⎟ ⎛
O x
translation ⎟ −⎜⎜
2⎠ ⎝
4 (i) x = − 2(repeated), x 1= 2 (iv) (−) −(x ) 2 x + 1;
2

(ii) y
reflection in the x-axis
(ii) y 6 (i) 3.11 cm
y= 1 (ii) £30.36
–2 O 0.5 x
x4
(ii) £45.36
(−1, 1) y= 1
x2
(iii)
–4 Cost
O x

3 (i) y (30, 30.4) (50, 36)

(100, 45.36)

5 y = 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 22 x − 24
y = ex
y=x
6 (i) x 1, =, − 1 3 2 2 y = ln x
O Volume
1
(ii) x = − 2, 3, −1 3
7 x − 2x + 4x − 8
3 2 O 1 x

525
 7 (i) £146 y (iv) (b) Many-to-one
(ii) 1
ϖ
y = sin x y = sin(x + ) 2 (c) Domain », +

C (£) +
0.5 Range »
500 ϖ
00
ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x
4 (i) (a) −5
400 (8, 365)
−—
2 −0.5
−1
—
2
—
2
(b) 9
300
−1.5 (c) −11
(ii) (a) 3
200 (20, 146)
100
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Activity 4.1 (page 75) (b) 5
θ (°C)
(c) 10
(iii) Not good for extreme (i) Different (iii) (a) 32
temperatures, since it (ii) Same (b) 82.4
implies an infinite bill (iii) Same (c) 14
for a temperature of (iv) Different (d) −40
0°C. (v) Same 5 (i) f (x) < 2
8 (i) (ii) y ∈{2, 3, 6, 11, 18}
y Discussion point (page 77) (iii) » +

f(x) = 1 + In x Translation 2 units to the right,

reflection in the x-axis, transla-
(iv) y ∈ » +

tion 5 units vertically upwards (v) 12 < <y 1

Exercise 4.1 (page 78) 6 (i) {0.5, 1, 2, 4}
O x
1 (i) (ii) 0 < f (x) < 1
One-to-one, yes (iii) f (x) > 3
(ii) Many-to-one, yes 7 For f, every value of x,
(iii) Many-to-many, no (including x = 3) gives a
(ii) (e −1
, 0) (iv) One-to-many, no unique output, whereas g(2)
9 (i) (v) Many-to-many, no can equal either 4 or 6.
y (vi) One-to-one, yes ⎛ 2⎞
y = ex – 1
2 (i) (a) Examples: one → 3; 8 (i) Translation ⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠ ; x = 2
word → 4
2 (b) Many-to-one
(ii) Stretch parallel to the
y-axis of scale factor 3
y = 2e –x (ii) (a) Examples: 1→ 4; ⎛ 2⎞
O x 2.1 → 8.4 and translation ⎜ ⎟ in
–1
(b) One-to-one either
⎝ 0⎠

(iii) (a) Examples: 1 → 1;

order; x = 2
(ii) (ln 2,1) 6→4
(iii)
10 (i) Can be obtained from (b) Many-to-one Rewrite as
3 ⎡( ⎣x2)− − 2 14 ⎤;⎦
by a stretch scale factor
1 parallel to the x-axis.
(iv) (a) Examples: 1 → −3; 3
−4 → −13 ⎛ 2⎞
y
2
(b) One-to-one translation ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ;⎟
⎝ − 14
1
y = sin x y = sin 2x (v) (a) Examples: 4 → 2; 3⎠
0.5 9→3 then stretch parallel to
ϖ
00
ϖ ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x (b) One-to-one the y-axis of scale factor
−—
2 −0.5
−1
—
2
—
2
3 (i) (a) One-to-one 3; x = 1
(b) 9 (i)
⎛ ⎞
−1.5
Domain »,
+ 0
Translation − ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎟⎠
Range »
+ 2
(ii) Can be obtained from (ii) (a)
Many-to-many y
by a translation through
⎛ ⎞ (b) Domain »,
+

⎜− π ⎟ Range »
+ O x
⎜ 2⎟
⎜
⎝ 0⎠
⎟
(iii) (a)
One-to-one
–2

(b) Domain »,
+
+

Range » (–2, –6)

526
 ⎛ 2⎞ (ii) y (iv)
(ii) Translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠
(5, 18)
y
y (1, 3)
3
O 2 8 x

–2 O 2 x
(iii) y
O 2 x
(3, 4.5)
–4
0 6 x
(v)
(iii) Stretch parallel to the y
y-axis, scale factor 2, (1
, 1)
3
(iv)
⎛ 0⎞ 1
then translation ⎜ ⎟ y
⎝ 3⎠ (6, 9)
y
0 12 x
3 O 2 x
3

x
O
y2 (vi)
11 Ellipse is x2
9
+
4
=1 y
(–2, –5) y
(2
3
, 1)
2 1
(iv) Stretch parallel to the 1
x-axis, scale factor 12 ,
−3 −1 1 3 x
⎛ 0⎞ O 1 1 x
−1 3
then translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
y
−2
13 (i) Stretch scale factor 3 in
12 (i) y the y direction.
3
(0.5, 1)
(ii) Stretch scale factor 1 3
1 in the x direction and
⎛ 0⎞
O x translation −
⎜ ⎟ in
⎝ 1⎠
(–1, –1) either order.
O 1 x
⎛ −30 ⎞
⎛ 2⎞ (iii) Translation ⎜ ⎟
(v) Translation ⎜ ⎟ then
⎝ 0⎠
(ii) ⎝ 0 ⎠

y
followed by a stretch
stretch parallel to the (1, 1) (2, 1) scale factor 13 in the x
y-axis scale factor 3 1
direction.
y
14 (i) (a)y
O 1 3 x 1
–2 O 2 x
(iii) 0
y
(0, –12) (1, 2) (2, 2) ϖ ϖ 2ϖ x
0 — 3ϖ
—
2 2 2

10 (i) y −1

O 2
(5, 9)
8 x O 1 3 x (b) y = cos x

527
 (ii)y(a) 16 Reflection in the ⎛x-axis (iv) y
⎞ 1
and translation ⎜ ⎟ in either f −1 (x) =√3x − 2
1 ⎝ 0⎠
order; x = 1.
17
O x
0 f(x) = (x − 1)² (x − 3) − 4;
0 ϖ
— ϖ 3ϖ
— 2ϖ x g(x) = 4 − (x − 1)² (x – 3).
18
2 2
g(x) = ln(9 – 2x). y x= yf ( )and f ( =) −1
x
appear to be reflections of
−1
Discussion point (page 83) each other in the line y = x
(b) y = −tan x (i) (a) Function with an
(iii)y(a) inverse function. Discussion point (page 88)
1 (b) f:C → C+
9 32;
5
(i) For all values of x, x 2
will
give a positive answer.
f : F → 95 (F 32) (ii)
−1
−
The answer will be −19°
0
0 ϖ
—
2
ϖ 3ϖ
—
2
2ϖ x
(ii) (a) Function but no inverse since the arcsin function
gives the principal value.
function since one
grade corresponds to
−1 several marks. Exercise 4.2 (page 88)
(b) y = sin x (iii) (a) Function with an 1 (i) 4
(iv)y (a) inverse function. (ii) 5
(b) 1 light year ≈ 6 × 10
12
(iii) 9
1 miles or almost (iv) 25
1016 metres. 2 (i) 8x 3

f: x → 1016 x (approx.); (ii) 2x 3

0
f –1: x → 10–16 x (approx.)
0 ϖ
— ϖ 3ϖ 2ϖ x (iii) (x + 2) 3

(iv) (a)
2 —

(iv) x + 2
2
Function but no inverse 3

−1
function since fares are (v) 4x
banded. (vi) x + 4 x 7
(b) y = −tan x 3 (i) f (x) = − 2
Activity 4.2 (page 85)
–1

(v) (a) (ii) f (x) = 4 − x

–1
y
1
(i) y 4 y

y=x
y = f(x)
f −1(x) = √x
0
0 ϖ
— ϖ 3ϖ
— 2ϖ x
2 2

O x y = f −1(x)
(2, 3)
−1
(ii) y (3, 2)

(b) y = −sin x O x
15 (i) a = 3, b = 5 f −1(x) = x12
5 (i) fg
(ii) y O x
(ii) g 2
y = x2 y = x2 – 6x + 14
(iii) fg 2

(iv) gf
(iii) y 6 (i) 3π2
(3, 5)
(ii) π2
O x
f −1 (x) = x − 2
x
7 (i) 8(x + 2) 3

(ii) 2(x + 2)
O
3
⎛ 3⎞
translation ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5⎠ (iii) [(x + 2) + 2] 3 3

(iii) y = 6x – x 2
− 14

528
8 (i) f −( x)
1 = 2x 4
− Line of symmetry is x = 1, Exercise 4.3 (page 94)
(ii) f ( )x = x + 3; x > −3
x minimum point (1,−1) 1 (i) y
(iii)
−1

9 (i) f(x) not defined for x = 4; f(x) ˘ −1

(iv)
f is not a 1-1 function;
h(x) not defined for x > 2 x˘1
(ii) f ( x) = 4 x x+ 3 ;
−
1
(v) y 2

h (1 )x2 = − x 2x; > 0

−
−2 O x
(iii) g is a many-to-one y = f –1(x)
(ii) y
function y = f(x)
(iv) »
+ 1

(v) No, the domain of fg

1 x
3
excludes x = 2 and x = −2, y=x
whereas the domain of O 1.5 x
gf excludes x = 4
10 (i) x ⎛ + 17 + ⎞ (iii) y

1
(vi) 5⎜⎝ 4 , 5 17
4
⎟
⎠
(ii) x 13 (i) Range of f(x) is ».
+

(iii) x1
+
Range of g(x) is ».
f(x) is not 1-1 1
(iv) x1 (ii) g −1
(x) = 1 (x + 1) O x
11 (i) a = 2, b = −5 y
2
2 (i) −8 < x < 2
(ii) 2⎞
Translation −⎝⎜− ⎠⎟
5
⎛
y = g(x)
(ii) 0 ¯ x ¯ 4
y (iii) x < −1 or x > 11
y = g –1(x)
(iv) x ¯ −3 or x ˘ 1
1
2
3 (i) | x − 1 | < 2
−1 1 x (ii) | x − 5 | < 3
(iii) | x − 1 | < 3
−1 2
O x

4 (i) −2 < x < 5

(iii) gf(x) = 2x − 1; 2 (ii) − 23 ¯ x ¯ 2
(–2, –5)
fg(x) = (2x − 1) 2; (iii) x > 1 or 1x < −4
(iii) y ˘ −5 x = 1 (repeated). (iv) x ¯ −3 3 or x ˘ 2
y 5 (i) | x − 2.5 | < 3.5
(iv) c = −2 y = fg(x)
(ii) | x − 10 | < 0.1
(v) y
y=x
(iii) | x − 4 | < 3.5y
y = g–1(x) y = gf(x)
1
6 (i)
2
O x O x

−1

y = g(x) (iv) a > 14 –4 O x

12 (i) a = 2, b = −1 (–2, 2)

(ii) y Discussion point (page 90) (ii) y

g(3) = 3, g(−3) = 3
1 | 3 + 3 | = 6, | 3 − 3 | = 0, 1
| 3 | + | 3 | = 6, | 3 | + | −3 | = 6
O 1 x
Discussion point (page 77) –4 1
2
–1
2
O x

(1, –1)
y = |x| lies below the line y = 2
for −2 < x < 2
(–2 1
, –4)
2

529
 (iii) Review exercise (page 101) (iii) y
y
1 (i) 4 2

(ii) 9
(iii) 2 01 x
2
–1
5 5890 thousand bacteria per
second –2
(2, 3)
3 Tangent is x4 y + − = 9 0
O x
Normal is x − −4 y= 15 0 10
8 x7 y+95− 0=
7 (i) 4 (i) dy =
12 x 3x− ,
d y =
2
x 2Minimum 11 at 9, (21) −
y
dx dx 2
36 1 −
12 (i)
a b= =1, 3
y = │x + 3│ dy =
12 x 3 − x ,
d y =
2
36 x 2 − 1 (ii)
No real solutions to
dx dx 2
x 2x+ +2 =5 0
y = 3x – 1 dy = 3 − 1 d 2 y =
(ii) 8x , 24 x 2 13 (i)
dy =
dx
12x12 3 −
, x5
dx 3 d x 2
–3 1 x
3 dy = 3 − 1 d 2 y = d 2y = 2 −
8x , 24 x 2 36x60 x4
dx
2
3 dx 2 dx
(ii) x>2 y y =− Maximum (ii)
8 (i)
2
d d
y (iii)
dx
= 1
x
− 2x x 2
− 1 ,
dx
2
1 − + point at
22 3
2 x(x−)1,1 and (1,1 x),
y = │x − 3│ dy = 1 − 1 , d y =−
2
1 −+ minimum point at (0,0 ).
2x x 2
− 22 3
dx x dx 2 2x x x (iii)
y
y = 3x + 1
–1 O3 x
6 y
dy 1
3
dx

(ii) x > 1 –1 0 1 x

9 (i) ⇔ 2

(ii) ⇔
–1

(iii) ⇐
14
x
10 x < 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
c = − =192 , c 343
11 y
7 (i) x < −2
15 V = 486, x3 =
(ii) x < − 4, x > 4

y =│x − 2│
(iii) <0 < x 23 Discussion point (page 102)
y = │2x + 1│

–1
2
2 x 8 (i) ddxy = 5x x − 2,
x
Gradient is zero but point is not
a turning point.

x < −3 or x >
12 −0.4 ¯ x ¯ 4
1
3
d 2y
dx 2
= 15 x +
2 xx
1
Activity 5.1 (page 105)
dy
(i) (a)
(iii)
Chapter 5
= 15x − 2 3,
dx 2
d 2y
(b)
= 30 x
Opening activity (page 96) dx 2
dy
(c)
(i) The rate of change of the 9 (i) dx
= −3 3 , x2 (ii) (a) concave upwards
volume with respect to
the height and the rate of d 2y = − 6x
(b) concave downwards
change of the height with
respect to time.
dx 2
(ii) Minimum at 1,(−2 − ) Discussion point (page 105)
The gradient is constant, i.e. a
(ii) The rate of change of the and maximum
straight line.
volume with respect to time. at (1,2
)

530
Discussion point (page 106) (ii) maximum at (0,0), (ii) y
No, the second differential is 4)
minimum at (23 , − 27 –1 0 1 2 x
sometimes zero at maximum
points and minimum points. (iii) ( 13 , − 272 ) –1

Exercise 5.1 (page 110) (iv) − 13 –2

1 (i) x 3< (v) 0.25y
(ii) x < − 7
(iii) >x 1 2
0 1 x
2 (i) x > − 13 (iii) ( 13 , − 27 )
70

(ii) x 4> –0.25

8 Minimum points at ( 2,16 )
and (−1, − 38 ). Maximum
(iii) <x 2 3 6 (i) Point of inflection at points at ( −2, )
− 16 and
3 (i) Stationary point of () 0, 0 and maximum at (1,) 38 . Points of inflection at
− )
inflection is (1, 4 (3, 27) ⎛ ⎞
(0,0
) , 10⎜ , 65 10 ⎟ and
y
(ii) y ⎝ 2 8 ⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞
012 x 20 ⎜− − 10 ⎟
, 65
–1 ⎝ 2 8 ⎠
–4 10 Discussion point (page 110)
(i) Can be done easily by
expanding the brackets.
(ii) Stationary point of –1 0 21 3 x
(ii) Can also be done by
− 11
inflection is ( )2 , expanding the brackets,
(iii) ( 2, 16) but this is time-consuming
y
2
7 (i) Minimum at ( )
0, −3 and and tedious.
1
point of inflection at
(1, −2 ) (iii) and (iv)
Cannot be done by
expanding the brackets,
–1 0 x
and an alternative
method is needed.
(iii) Stationary point of
inflection is (−2, 8) Activity 5.2 (page 111)
y
8 Table 5.1
y = f (x) u y u= f ( )
4
E.g. y = tan 1 (x ) 3 u x= 13 y = tan u

(i) y = (x 3 + 3)
4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 x u x= + 3 3 y u= 4
4 (i) x < − 1, x > 3 (ii) y = sin (x 2 − 4 ) u x= − 2 4 y u= sin
(ii) −<< 1 x 2
(iii) y e= 2 x5
+
u x= +2 5 y e= u
dy = 2 −
5 (i) dx
3x 2 x,
(iv) y = ln (x 2 − 2x ) u x= x− 2 2 y u= ln
d 2y =
6x − 2
dx 2

531
 Exercise 5.2 (page 114) 8 (i) dy = ( − )
4 2 x1 2 (i) − 1 3
1 (i) B; an alternative is to dx
expand the brackets and × (x 2x− − 2)
3
(ii) − 3 2
(ii)
differentiate directly
C; differentiate directly
(ii) Minimum at ( )−1, 0 , (iii) 23
1 6561)
(iii) maximum at (2 , 256 ,
A
dy = − ( + )−2
3 (i) ddAx = 10x
2 (i) 3 3x 2
minimum at ( 2,
)0
dx
dy =
(iii) y (ii) ddAt = 5x
(ii) dx
28 x2(x 2 + 6 )
6 30
(iii) 30
(iii) dy = 3
20
4 16cm s 2 1−

dx 6x − 2
10
5 0.01π m per day
2

3 (i) y x= − 6 6x 4 + 12x 2 − 8 –1 01 2 x 6 −0.015 N s −1

⇒ dy = 6 x − 24 x + 24 x 95 (i)
3
ddyy = (
ddxx = 3
− )
3 (33 xx − 22 xx ) 2
27 5π
1
ms
−1

dx
× (
× (xx xx− +
− + )
22 )38 2
1 mh
48
2
2
−1

9 1.2cm s
3 2
dy =
(ii) dx 6x (x − 2 ) 2 2
(iii) =a 2 3
3 1−

(iii) Expanding the answer to 10 20.8 mm s 2 1−

(iv) 12, 12 x y 4 0 − − =
(ii) gives the answer to (i) 10 (i) 72 minutes Activity 5.4 (page 119)
4 (i) 483 (ii) 67 minutes dy
(ii) 2 (iii) 1333 metres, (i) y x= ⇒ = 9
dx
9x 8

(iii) 3− 66 minutes
(ii) u x = ⇒ =
3 du
dx
3x
2

5 (i) ddxy = 9 (3 x − 5) 2
Activity 5.3 (page 116) v x= ⇒6 = dv
6x 5
dx
(ii) y − 9x + 17 0= (i) ddxy = 3x 2
(iii) No, x 9 18 ≠
8
x7
2 ( t − 1)
3

6 (i) dt d x =
(ii) x y =
1

Discussion point (page 120)

3
t
1 −1
(iii) ddxy = 13 y −2
3
No
(ii) dz = y2
(iv) ddxy = d1y
dy
2 1 y y+
dx
Activity 5.5 (page 120)
dy =
= y2 − 1 (v) Yes No,
dx
4 x 3 , but
du
2 1
2y y y +
Discussion point (page 116) dx = 7 x = 7 x 4
dv
6

dp = −3 r dy = x 1 3x 2 3
(iii) dr ( 2
) dx
2, d =
dy 2 dx
2r r − 6
7 (i) dy = ( − )3
82x 1
Exercise 5.3 (page 118) Discussion point (page 121)
dx
1, 0
1 (i) 1
6 Yes
(ii) minimum at ( )2 (ii) − 1 2
(iii) y (iii) 12−
1

0 1 x

532
Exercise 5.4 (page 122) (iv) y 3
1
Table 5.2 2
Product or
quotient
1
Function rule? u v
(x + 1)6
e.g. y = 3 − Quotient u = (x 1+ )6 v = 3
x 1− O 1 2 x
x 1
1
(x − 1)(x 3 + 3 )2 u (x − 1)2 (x + 3 )2
Practice questions 1
(i) y = 2
Product = 2
v = 3

(ii) y = (2 x 3 − 3 )5 Neither – –
(page 125)
(iii) y = x+1
x2 Quotient u = (x 1+ )2
1
v x= 2
1 (i) 2r r+ =u 3 [1]
−
u = 32 r [1]
u x= v = −(x 2 )
1 r
(iv) y x=x 22 − Product
2 2
1 2 3 2− r ()
Area = 2 r r [1]

2 (i) dy =
2 x2(x − 1)
3 (iii) y x= A r=r −23 2

dx (iv) ( 3) , 3 dA = −3 (ii)2r
× (4 x 2 + 2 x − 1) [1]
dy = 3x − 1
7 (i) dy = 2 (x + 2 )( x + 1)
dx (2x3 + )2
dr
dA = when
2
(ii) dx 2 x −1 d y =
2 dr
0 r 3 = [1]
4
dy = (7 x − 3 )( x − 3 )
2 (ii) dx 2
2
(2x + 3)3 d A
2

(iii) dx 2 x (iii)Turning points at d r

2
2 = − so the area is

) ( −2,− 3 ) a maximum [1]

dy = 3x (−1,− 2 and
3 (i) 2x
2 −
−
dx (3x − 1)2 8 Minimum points at (0, 0) u = 3 1.5 = 2 [1]
0.75
(ii) dy = −3 (1 2− x )
2 and (3,) 0 , maximum at
(1,) 16 cos π − 3=2 (i) 0.5 ()[1]
dx x4
(iii) dy = x+2 y
3 6
()
cos π− − + =π + = 0.5 0 0.5 0.5
dx 2 x +1 ( 2
) 20
15
π ()
cos π− − + = + = 0.5 0 0.5 0.5
3 6
4 (i) 1
4 10 cos π− =
2
0 ()[1]
(ii) 8− 5 π π ()
cos − − + = − + =0.5 0.5 0.5 0
2 6
(iii) 13− 108 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x π π ()
cos − − + = − + =0.5 0.5 0.5 0
2 6
5 (i) ddxy = 3x (x − 2) 9 (i) dy =
dx
x 2
− 5π , 0.5 OR
3 (ii) ( )
( x 1
−
2
)
(ii) Maximum at ( )0, 4 and (ii)1
4
()
3π , 0 OR either of
2
minimum at (2, 0)
(iii) y (iii)( 4), 8 these with a positive
multiple of 2π added to
3
(iv) Q is ( )
37 , 8 and R is
4
the x coordinate. [1, 1]
(4, 29). Area of triangle
2 Translation (iii) [1]
is 441 ⎛ π ⎞
1 8 ⎜ 6 ⎟
[1]
O 1 2 3 x 10 (i) (2 3 , 29
4
) ⎜
⎝ 0.5⎠
⎟

dy =
(ii) Gradient is 3 at the
6 (i) dx
−9
(2x − 3)2
origin
(iii) y 0= , gradient is infinite
(ii) y + 9x − =6 0
533
 3 (i) dy =
8 x (x − 1)
2 3
[1] (b) Translation to make Angle CAD = Angle
dx maximum at 21 CBD (tangent perpen-
d y = ( 2 − )3 +
2
June (oe) [1] dicular normal) [1]
8 x 24 xx( 2 − 1)2 .2 x
d 2 y = ( 2 − )3 +
dx 2 1
6 Let the terms be All angles are 90° and
8 x 1 24 xx ( 2 −
1) .2 x
2
[1, 1] a d− a a, ,d + [1] all sides are equal so it is
dx 2
d y = ( 2 − )2 ( 2 − +
2
Suppose they form a a square.
1 6 x 2 ) =( 8 x 2 − 1)7 ( x 2 − 1)
2
8 x 1 x
dx 2

Review: The sine

geometric sequence
− 1) (x − 1+ 6 x ) =( 8 x − 1)7 ( x − 1) [1]
2 2 2 2 2 2
and d 0≠ [1]
(ii)
x7 2 − 1< 0
− 1 < <x 1
[1] ad −
a = +a d
a 2 = −a 2d 2
a and cosine rules
[1]
[1]
Discussion point (page 129)
[1]
7 7
So d = and
2
0 hence
x 3+3
+
d 0= but this is a
4 (i) ff (x) = x −1
x 3 −1
+ [1] contradiction so the
Yes, cosine rule leads to same
answer of 203.4°.
x 1
−
Review exercise R.1 (page 130)
terms cannot form a
x + +3 3( x − 1) geometric sequence. [1]
x 3 ( x 1)
+ − − [1]
7 Nine terms are 1 (i) (a) 63.1°
4 x x= (b) 42.8 cm
2
[1] 1, ,r ,r , 2
… r 8 [1]
4
x 3 12 + + + = 8 36 [1](ii) (a) 47.7°
f ( )x
−1
= +
x −1 [1] r = 26 2144
36
[1](b) 13.0 cm 2

(ii)
y x= [1] r = ± 2 (oe) 2 (i)
[1] 4.72 cm
x + 3 = −x + 1 4 ( ) 9 (ii) 10.4 cm
(iii)
x −1 x −1 [1] Sum =
2− 1
(iii)
= 15 2 31+ 52.2132
≈ 9.1 cm
( ) 9 21 −
(iv) 10.72 cm
f (x) 1 = + 4 [1] 2 − 1
=
( )2x−9− 1 1 = 2 1−+ ≈ 15 2 31 52.2132
+ ≈ 3 114 m
15 2 31 52.2132 4 120°
5
⎛1⎞ [1]
(iv)
Translation 2⎜ 1 ⎟ − [1]
(−) 2 9 − 1 71.3° or 108.7°
⎝ 0⎠
Stretch parallel to y-axis, 9
OR
− −
6
= − 15 2 31+ 9.7868
≈ AD = 57.3 m, CD = 70.2 m,
(−[1]
)2 − 1 = − 21 height = 46.9 m
scale factor 4 +
15 2 31 9.7868≈ 7 3.28 km
Translation ⎜ ⎟
⎛ 0⎞ − 2 1−
[1] 8
[1] 14.8 cm
⎝1⎠
9 (i) 87°
5 (i)
Max = a b + [1] 8 (i) dy = 3 −
x 4x 3x [1] (ii) 5.29 km
Min = a b− [1]
d
10 6 3 cm 2
d y =
11
2
a b+ = 16.75 [1] 12 x 2 − 3 [1] (14 + 2 13) cm
a b− = 7.583… [1] d x 2

a 12.166 …
=
b 4.5833 …
= [1]
At A and B
12 x 2 − =
x 0.5
= ±
30 Chapter 6
[1]
[1]
(ii)
21 June is day
number 172 [1]
(−0.5, 2.6875) and Discussion point (page 136)
(0.5, 2.6875) [1] y
Since tanu = and sinu y=
Model says
−
12.1666 4.58333cos172
(ii)Gradient at A is 1. [1] x
sinu , cos u
Gradient at B is −1. and cosu x= then tanu = 0 ≠
= 16.705 hours [1] 1 × −1 = −1tansou AC = sin
is u , cos 0. cos u
u ≠
Close to actual perpendicular to BC. [1] cos u
value of 16.75 hours [1] By symmetry, C is the Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
(iii) (a)
Stretch to make ( )
point 0, .
51 [1] x2 + y 2 = 1
16 u +1 2 u ≡ .
So sin 2cos
period 365 days
AC = BC [1]
(
scale factor 365360
) [1]

534
Exercise 6.1 (page 138) 9 (i) (a) f (x) 1or
> f() x < −1 10 (i) One-way stretch, scale
factor −2, parallel to y-axis
1 (i) (a) 2 f (x) 1or
> f ( ) x < −1
(ii)
2 (b) 120° Reflection in x-axis and
(b) − 22 (c) then one-way stretch,
y scale factor 12 , parallel to
(c) −1 x-axis
(d) − 2 (iii)
⎛ 0⎞
Translation by ⎝⎜2⎟⎠and
(ii) (a) − 1 2 –1
1
60 120180240300360 x then reflection in y-axis
(b) − 2 33 (iv) One-way stretch, scale
factor 2, parallel to
(c) − 33 (ii) (a) x f( ) »∈ x-axis and one-way
(d) 2 (b) 180° stretch, scale factor 2,
(c) parallel to y-axis
(iii) (a) 3 y
(v) Translation by −⎜
⎛
⎜ 0⎟
⎞
⎟
(b) 1 2 ⎝ 30 ⎠
and then reflection in
(c) 23 x-axis
O 60 120180240300360 x (vi) Reflection in x-axis
(d) − 33 and then translation
⎛ 0⎞
by ⎝⎜ ⎟⎠
(iv) (a) 43 (iii) (a) f (x) < −4, f ( x) > −2 11 (i) 2

(b) 1 4 f (x) < −4, f ( x) > −2 y

(b) 360°
(c) 3 (c)
(d) 4 3 y
3
2 (i) B = 60°, C = 30° 1
O
90 180 270 360 x
(ii) √3
3 (i) L = 45°, N = 45° O
90 180 270 360 x

(ii) √2, √2, 1 −2

4 (ii) 14.0° −4
(ii)
5 ∈(i) Domain: ∈x » ,x ≠ ± 90 , 270 ...°
° ±
y
x » , x ≠ ± 90 ° ±, 270 ...°
range:
f(x) 1,>f( ) x < −1
(ii)Domain: x ∈ » , x n≠ 180° (iv) (a)
x f ( ) 2,<f ( ) 4 x >
x ∈ » , x n≠ 180° where n is an (b)1080° O
(c)
integer; range: f(x ) 1,>f( ) x <− 1 90 180 270 360 x
y
f(x) 1,>f( ) x <− 1 10
(iii)Domain: x ∈ » , x n≠ 180 °
x » , x n≠ 180° where n
∈
is an integer; range: (iii)
y
f(x) »∈
4
6 (i) 1
2 2

O
(ii ) 1 = 3
3 90 180 270 360 x 1
O
3 −1 90 180 270 360 x
7 (i) − 47
(ii) − 43
535
 (iv) Exercise 6.3 (page 145) 6 0, 4π , π, 5π4 , 2π
y
1 (i) 2 7 2.24, 4.05
(ii) 2 8 (ii) π6 , 5π6 , 7π6 , 11π
3 6
1
O
−1 90 180 270 360 x
(iii) 1
(iv) 23
3 Chapter 7
Activity 7.1 (page 149)
(v) 2 k = 12 , x = 0.18
(vi) − 1 3 Review exercise (page 150)
12 (i) a = 1, b = −1 and c = 2 (vii) − 2 1 (i)
(ii) 203°, 255° (±2°) (viii) −2
(iii) 0 as f(2x) is a one way (ix) 1− 11
1

stretch scale factor 12 ,

parallel to the x-axis.
2 (i) π6 , 11π 6 121

Exercise 6.2 (page 144) (ii) 4π , 5π4

1331
14641
1 (i) 30°, 330° (iii) 4π , 3π
4
1 5 10 10 5 1
(ii) 60°, 120° (iv) 7π6 , 11π
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(iii) 60°, 240° 6 (ii) Totals are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
(iv) 150°, 210° (v) 3π4 , 5π 32, 64. These can be
(v) 240°, 300° 4 written as 2 0, 21, 22, 23,
(vi) 120°, 300° (vi) π3 , 4π 24, 25, 26.
2 (i) 2 3
3 (i) 0.201 rads, 2.940 rads (iii) The total would be
(ii) 2 (ii) −0.738 rads, 0.738 rads 212 = 4096.
(iii) 1 (ii) −1.893 rads, 1.249 rads 2 (i) 1 +3 +3 x+x x 2 3
(iv) 4 (iv) −2.889 rads, −0.253 rads (ii) 1 +6 +12x+8x x 2 3
(v) 4 (v) −1.982 rads, 1.982 rads (iii) 1 −6 +12x−8x x 2 3
(vi) 4 (vi) −0.464 rads, 2.678 rads 3 (i) (a) 1 +8 +24x+32
x+x16x 2 34

3 (i) −1 < x < 1; 4 (i) 0.32, 1.25, 3.46, 4.39 24x 32

1 +8 + x 16 2 + + x 3x 4

0 f(<) π x <
(ii) 2.27, 6.02 (b) 6 x4−x+x x2 3 4
1 −4 +
(ii) −1− π< x < 1; π (iii) 0.19, 1.76, 3.33, 4.90 (ii) 1 +4 −2x x 2

2 < f (x) <

2 (iv) 3π8 , 5π8 , 11π , 13π
4 (i) 12 x 2
(iii)All real numbers; 8 8 (ii) 24 x 2
− π< f (x) π< (v) 3 π
(iii) 720 x 3

4 (i) 90°
2 2
(vi) π3 , 2π3 5 1 −7 + x− x+ x21x 2 35 3 4 16
2 4 8
35

(ii)
(iii)
60°, 300°
5 (i) π 4 , 3π4 Activity 7.3 (page 151)
(iv)
14.0°, 194.0° (i) (a) 1 1 2 x x 81
+−+ 2
…
109.5°, 250.5° (ii) 4π , 3π4 (b) 1 −2 +3 x+x 2
(v) 135°, 315°
…
(vi) 210°, 330° (iii) 4π , 3π4 (ii) (a) 1.04875
6 (i) 0°, 180°, 360° (b) 0.83
(ii) 45°, 225°
(iv) π3 , 5π6 (iii) 1.1 1.048808…
= and
(iii) 60°, 300° (v) π3 , 2π3 1
0.8264..., so the
(iv) 54.7°, 125.3°, 234.7°,
1.12 =
approximations are good.
305.3° (vi) π3 , π
(v) (iv) (a)The expansion gives −6.5
18.4°, 71.6°, 198.4°,
251.6°
(vii) 0, 0.730, 2.412, π which is not a good

(vi) 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°

(viii) 1.23, π3 approximation for 11.

536
 (b) The expansion gives 6 (ii) x
1 −8 +
3x 2
; valid (iii) 7x312+
281 which is not a good 128
approximation for 1 when | x | < 4 4 (i) − ( x2)(x+ 2)− 2
112 .
(iii) x
−1 9 + 19
x (3b1)+
Discussion point (page 153) 7 (i)
8
1 – 3x + 7x
128
2
(ii) − (b1)+ 2

It is because of the x 2 in the 3a4−

(ii) |x|<2
1
(iii) (a2)(2
+ 3) a −
bracket.
8 43 16 64 + 11 x − 5 x 2, | x | < 4 5 (i) 2(2x + 1)
Exercise 7.1 (page 155) 9 (i) a = 2, b = −1, c = 3 16 (ii) x(2x + 1)
1 (i) 1 −3 x + 6 x − 10 x ;
2 3
(ii) | x | < 2 (iii) a(2x + 1)
valid for −1 < x < 1 10 2(1 − x); | x | < 1 6 (i) x(x2)(x3−x42)+
−2

(ii) 1 −6 x + 24 x 2 − 80 x 3 ; 11 (i) 1 + 2x + 5x 2

+ −a a
(ii) | x | < 13
2
1 < x 1 (ii) a(39a a6)(3
valid for − <
2 2 12 (i) −4 − 10x − 16x 2
− +)
2b2b1− +
(iii)
2
1 +6 x + 24 x 2 + 80 x 3 ; (ii) | x | < 1 2 (iii) b(b1)− 2
valid for − <1 < x 1
2 2 13 (i) 3 7 (there are other
7 (i) y = 5 − x 8+ 1
2 (i) 1+1 x −
2
1 x 2 ;valid for
8 options)
9

−1 < x < 1 (ii)

2.64609 (5 d.p.) y

(ii) −1 1 x + 3 x 2 ; valid for

2 8
(iii)
% error 0.013% so very
−1 < x < 1 good
(iii) +1 1 x − 3 x ; valid for
14 (i) A possible rearrangement 5

(( ))xx(( ))
2 11
4 32 11 11 2
2
−1 < x < 1 is xx 11−− === xx 11−− xx −1 x

(iv) −1 1 4 x + 32
5 x 2 ; valid for
Since x > 1
−1 < x < 1 ⇒ <0 < 1 1; the
3 (i) 1−2 x + 1 x − 4 x3 ;
2 x
binomial expansion
(ii) y = 4+
x−2
10
3 3 27
valid for −3 < x < 3 could be used but the y

(ii) −1 4 3 x + 43 x − 32
2
27
x 3; resulting expansion
would not be a series
valid for −1.5 < x < 1.5 of positive powers of x. 4
(iii) +1 4 x + 4 x + 32 x ;
3 3
2 3
27 (ii) 3.968 x
2
valid for −1.5 < x < 1.5
4 (i) (a) 1 − 2x + 3x 2 Exercise 7.2 (page 161)
(b) | x | < 1 1 (i) (x + 2)
(c) 0.43% (ii) 1
x( + 2)
(iii) y = 3−
6
2 x1 +
(ii) (a) 1 −2 x + 4 x 2

( x − 1)
y

(b) x| | <1 2 (iii) ( x + 2)

(c) 0.8% ( x + 2)
(iii) (a) 1 −2 x − x8
2 4 (iv) ( x − 1)
3

x
2 (i)
−0.5
x+3
(b) | x | < 1 x−6
(c) 0.000 006 3% (ii) 2x − 5
5 (i) 1 −3 x + 3x − x 2 3 2x + 5 8 (i) x 2 1 + + 4
x +1
(ii) 1 − 4x + 10x ; valid 2
(iii) a b−
2a b− 4
when | x | < 1 (ii)
x3 5 − + x + 2
(iii) a = −7, b = 25 3 (i) 9
20 x 2
2a (iii)
x − +5 x − 1
(ii) ( a 1)(a1)−
+
9 3x42x− + − 3
10
x+2
537
 10 Write as y = − 3+ 2; 5 (i) It appears that the u coordinate
x x 1 − 1 + 1 of A is midway between the two
Stretch scale factor ( − 1)
2
x −1 x +2
maxima (30°,1) and (60°,1).
2 in y direction and
⎛ 0⎞ (ii) 9 − 3 −− 2 Checking: = 45° →
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ .⎟
translation −
⎝ 3⎠
−
13 x 1 x (1 ) x
− 2
sin ( + 60°) = 0.966
y
6 (i) 12 − 2 − 12 cos ( – 60°) = 0.966.
1 2 x 1 + x 1 +3 x
+
If 60° is replaced by 35°, using
(ii) 6 − 2 − 4
2 x 1+ x 3+ x
+ the trace function on a graphic
calculator would enable the
7 (i)
x
−3 x 5− 1 − −x3 x 2+ 1 solutions to be found.
(ii)
8 (i)
x 8 + 2 −3 x − 2 +5 x Activity 8.2 (page 169)
(i) + f) =
sin(
Activity 7.4 (page 161) 9
(1 3 ) x
−
− 3 −− 2
(1 x ) (1 ) x
− 2 sin cos f + cos sin f
⇒ sin[(90° − ) + f] =
(i) 13x − 3
(3 x + 1)(2 x − 3)
(ii) + x + 72 x 2
4 20 sin(90° − )cos f +
(ii) 1− x+ 158 x 2 (iii) x| | <1 3 cos(90° − )sin f

(iii)
20
3 9
Probably expanding the two
9 (i) 7x − 1 − 7
x2 + 1 x + 1
⇒ sin[90° − ( − f)] =
cos cos f + sin sin f
separate fractions. (ii) − +8 14 x x− 6 valid
2
⇒ cos( − f) =

Discussion point (page 163) 10 (i)

for | x | < 1 cos cos f + sin sin f
(ii)
⇒ cos[ − (−f)] =
The identity is true for all values x 2 + 1 + 3 cos cos(−f) + sin sin(−f)
of x. Once a particular value ( − 1) ( x − 1)2 ( x1)− 3
⇒ cos( + f) =
of x is substituted you have an (ii)
−4−9 x − 17 x 2 valid cos cos f − sin sin f
equation. Equating constant terms for | x | < 1 (iii)
tan( + f)
is equivalent to putting x = 0.
Chapter 8
+φ
= sin(u)
cos(u) + φ
Exercise 7.3 (page 165) φ+ φ
1 (i) x 1 − 1
−1 x
Opening activity (page 167) = sinucos cos sin u
φ −sin u φ
cosucos sin
Answers will vary. ⎡ sinucos φ + cosusin φ ⎤
(ii) xx1 − 1
+1 For example, a≈ 1.6 to 1.8, b 3 = =y ⎣⎢
≈⇒ cosucos3x φ cosucos φ ⎦⎥
1.5sin
(iii) 1 − 1a 1.6 to 1.8, b 3
x −1 x +1
≈ ≈ ⇒ = y 1.5sin 3x
(
⎡ cosucos φ − sinusin φ ⎤
⎣⎢ cosucos φ
)(
cosucos φ ⎦⎥
)
2 (i) x 1− 1 − x +1 2 Activity 8.1 (page 168) = tanutan
+ φ
y = sin( + 60°) is obtained 1−tan tan
u φ
(ii) 1 − 1
x −2 x+3 from y = sin by a translation
(iv)
⎛− ° ⎞
⎜ 60 ⎟
(iii) 1 − 1
x −3 x+4 ⎜
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎟ + − =φ
tan[u( )]
+−
tanutan () φ
1 – tan utan ( ) −φ
3 (i) x −1 2 − 2x2− 1 y = cos( – 60°) is obtained −
tanutan φ
from y = sin by a translation tan(u– ) φ = + φ
1 tan tan
u
(ii) 1 − 3
x − 3 3x − 1 ⎛ 60°⎞
⎜ ⎟ 2 Yes, the formulae are valid
(iii) 1 − 4
x − 4 4x − 1
⎝ 0 ⎠
for all values of and f in
y
4 (i) 1 − 1
x −2 x 1
A
y = sin(θ + 60°)
y = cos(θ – 60°)
both degrees and radians.

(ii) x −1 3 − x 1− 1
θ
0 180° 360°
(iii) 1 − 1
x −4 x−2
538
Exercise18.1 (page 171) 7 (i) π
8
No, checking like this is not the
1 (i) 2
(sinu + cosu)
(ii) π
same as proof.

(ii) 1
(cosu − sinu) (iii)
2
2.79 radians Exercise 8.2 (page 174)
2
8 (ii) π 1 (i) cos 80°
(iii) 1
(cosu + sinu)
2 (ii) 1 2 sin 80°
10 (i)
2
2 − 1 u 3 2− u (iii) tan 40°
(iv) 1
(cosu − sinu)
(ii)
sin a +
2
cos a 2 cot
(v)
2
tanu + 1 1 u−
(iii) 3 (i) (a) 4 5
1+u
1−tan u (b) 3 4
11 (i) (a)
2
u3
(vi) 1−
1+
tan u
tan u 2 (c) 24 25
2 sin 2 cos – cos 2 sin (b)
2
2

(d) 7 25
= sin (ii)3
4 (e) 24 7
cos cos3 – sin sin3 12 (i)
−0.5 m
= cos 4
(ii)
k = π (ii) (a) − 4 5
cos cos + sin sin = 1 6
cos cos – sin sin = cos 2 (iii)
2π seconds, 14π seconds (b) − 3 4
cos 4 cos 2 + sin 4 sin 2 (iv)
1 m; 8π seconds (c) − 24 25
= cos 2
cos 2 sin + sin 2 cos
(v) t π
No; sin 12 − =6 − () 1 (d) 7 25
= sin 3 at t = 20π and 20π > 60 (e) − 24 7
3 (i) (vi)
0
Distance 4 (i) 14.5°, 90°, 165.5°, 270°
(ii) 2
3 (metres)
(ii) 0°, 35.3°, 144.7°, 180°,
(iii) 12
1
215.3°, 324.7°, 360°
0.5
(iii) 90°, 210°, 330°
(iv) −1 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time
(iv) 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°
4 (i) (a) 1
−0.5
+ 3 −1
(seconds)
(v) 0°, 138.6°, 221.4°, 360°
22 5 (i) −π, 0, π
(b) 31
−
13 (i) sin x cos h + cos x sin h (ii) −π,2π0, π 2π
22
(ii) sin x h+ x hcos −
2
sin x (iii) − 3 , 0, 3
(c) 2 + 3 2
(ii) (a) 31
−
(iii) cos x h− x2 sin (iv) − 3π4 , − 2π, π4 , π2
22
(iv) cos x (v) − 11π− − ,−3π , 7π , π , π , π , 5π , 3π
(b) 1+ 3
22
(v) Derivative x
of sin11π
12 4 12 4 12 4 12 4

(c) 2 − 3
14 (i) 1 u
−
1 u
+
12 4
− −−−
, 3π , 7π , π , π , π , 5π , 3π
12 4 12 4 12 4
(ii) 6
3 sin − 4 sin3 , = 0,
5 (i) +1 2 u + 2u
2
3 1−
π , 3π π, 5π , 7π , 2π
22
(ii) 1
− 3 Discussion point (page 172) 4 4
7
51°, 309°
4 4
22 For sin 2 and cos 2 , substituting 63.4°9 (ii)
(iii) − − 3
Activity 8.3 (page 175)
2
6 (i) 15°
= 45° is helpful.
You know that sin 45° = cos 45°
(ii) 157.5°
= 1 and that sin 90° = 1 and y = a sin + b cos is a translation
(iii) 0° or 180° 2 and vertical stretch of a sine or
(iv) 111.7° cos 90° = 0. cosine graph.
(v) 165° For tan 2 you cannot use = 45°. (i) and (ii)
Answers depend on
Take = 30° instead; students’ choice of values of a
tan 30° = 1 and tan 60° = 3. and b.
3

539
 Discussion point (page 176) 3 (i) (a) max: 2; min: −2 (iii)
A translation by the vector
⎛ −36.9⎞
(b) x π = 3 y

⎜ ⎟ and a one-way (ii) (a) max: 2 ; min: 2 − 2 3

srewsnA

⎝ 0 ⎠
stretch, scale factor 5, parallel to (b) x 5π = 3 O 2π θ
the y-axis.
(iii) (a) max: 1 2 ; min: 1−2
–3
–2 3

Activity 8.4 (page 176) (b) x π = (iv) π3 ,π

(i) The expansion of r cos( − b) 6
is given by r cos ( − b) = (iv) (a) max: 1
; 9 (i) 3 cos(u54.7
−°)
r(cos cos b + sin sin b). 2− 2
min: 1 (ii) Max 3, u54.7
= °;
2 + 2 min − 3, u234.7
=°
r = √3 2 +42 (b) x 7π = 6 (iii)
y
=5 r 4
4 (i) (a) 2 cos(u45− °) 3
(b) 5cos( – 53.1°)
β (ii) (a) 2 sin(u45− )° O 180° 360° θ

3 (b) 5 sin( − 53.1°) –3

To compare this with 5 (i) (a) 2 cos u +() π

⎛ 1 ⎞
3 cos + 4sin
()
4
(iv) Max
r = 3 2 + 4 2 = cos
5 b= (b) 2 sin u − π
4
⎝⎜3 3− ⎠⎟ ,
= 234.7°; min
3 4 ⇒ b = 53.1°.
5 sin b = 5
So you can write
(ii) (a) 2cos u + π()6
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝⎜3 3+ ⎠⎟ , = 54.7°
3 cos + 4 sin in the (b) ()
2 sin u −
π
6 10 (i) +°)
13 sin(2u56.3
form r cos( − b) =
5 cos( − 53.1°). 6 (i) 2 cos ( – (–60°)) (ii) Max = °;
13,u16.8
(ii) y = cos x maps to y = sin x (ii)4 cos ( – (–45°))
min − 13,u106.8
=°
by a translation by the (iii)2 cos ( – 30°)
(iii)
⎛ 90⎞ (iv) 13 cos ( – 22.6°) y
vector ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0⎠ (v) 2 cos ( – 150°) 13
(vi) 2 cos ( – 135°)
So translating y = cos x by 7 (i) 13 cos ( + 67.4°) O 180° 360° θ
⎛ ⎞ (ii)Max 13, min –13
the vector 53.1
⎝ 0 ⎟⎠ and
⎜ (iii) – 13

translating y = sin x by the

13
y
(iv) 53.8°, 159.9°, 233.8°,
⎛ −36.9⎞ 339.9°
vector ⎜ 5
⎝ 0 ⎟⎠ result in 112.6°
the same curve. O 360° θ Summary exercise (page 180)
1 (i) sin 6
Exercise 8.3 (page 179) −13
(ii) cos 6
1 (a) r = 3, a = 41.8° (iv) 4.7°, 220.5° (iii) 1
(b) r = 5, a = 50.8° 8 (i) 2 3 sin (u −) 6π (iv) cos
2 (i) 23 cosu + 23 sinu 2 ;
(v) sin
(ii) Max 2 3, u = 3
π (vi) 23 sin 2u
(ii) 3 u −
cos
3 u
sin (vii) cos
2 2 min −2 3, u = 5 π
(iii) 3 sinu − 3 cosu 3 (viii) −1
2 2 2 (i) 1 1− sin 2x
(iv) 3 sinu + 3 cosu (ii) 2 (5cos 2x1)−
2 2

540
4 (i) 4.4°, 95.6° −1,
−1 12 The proofs depend on the
(ii) 199.5°, 340.5° (ii) ( ) e
results that
dy = − z − 21 z
e
2

(iii) − 6 , π2
π
−2,
−2
dz 2π
(iv) −15.9°, 164.1° (iii) ( ) e2
and 2
d 2 y = ( z1)2 − −1z
e 2
2

(v) π6 , π2 , 5π6 7 (i) ( 2, ln7) dz 2π

(vi) 20.8°, 122.3° (ii) x2 − −7y+4 7ln 7 0 = Discussion point (page 188)
(vii) 76.0°, 135° (iii) No
y 1

Activity 9.2 (page 188)

3

Chapter 9
x=– 2 x= 4

= sin x ⇒ =dy cos x.cos

x xsin
x −sin− ( )
2
y cos x dx
=
cos 2 x
Discussion point
y = ln(2x + 3)
(page 183) 1
= sin x dy cos x.cos
x xsin
x −sin (−) x x+
cos 2sin 2
yy – 1)x ⇒ = =
f x e
( ) x
dx
( ) = ln(4x
ʹ cos cos 2 x cos 2 x
f

Discussion point (page 184) sin x ⇒ dy–1 = cos

y = cos x ( − dx )
0 x.cos 1x − sin2 xsin
cos 22 x
(− x x ) 2
= cos sinx + 2 x = 1 = sec 2 x
cos 2 x cos 2 x
= sin
yThe x ⇒aredyparallel.
graphs = cos xThey
.cos xare sin x sin x =–1 cos x sin x = 1
− 2 +
= sec 2 x
cos x indthe
translations x y direction. cos 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x

Discussion point (page 184) Activity 9.3 (page 189)

ʹx
f( ) 8 (i) Rotational symmetry y= dy
sin (f )(x) ⇒ = ʹ (x) f( )
f cos ( )x
f (x) of order 2 about origin, dx
) =dyʹ
because f=(−)x= (− )( )f (x⇒ ( )(x)
y sin2 f x (x) f
Exercise 9.1 (page 185) (ii) f ʹ (x) = ln (x) + 2 and dx
f cos

1 (i) dy = 3 x1+ 2 cos (

f )
y=(x) ⇒ =dy− ʹ f sin (x) f( ) ( )x
dx
3e f x
ʹʹ ( ) = d x
x
= cos (f )(x) ⇒ =dy− ʹ
(x) f( ) ( ) x
dy = ( + ) x x+ 3+1 y
(ii) dx
2x 3 e
2
1 , 2− , 1− , 2 f sin
dx

2 (i) dy = x
7 ln 7 9 (iii)
e e
(i)
a1=
( ) ( ) e e
Exercise 9.2 (page 190)
dy =
dx
dy = ( x + (ii)
9 y − =
1 0 1 (i)
d x cos x2sin − x
(ii) 5 ln 7) 7 5 x
dy = y = −2 1
dx 10 (i) dy =
2
d
dx
2 x − +3 1 ,
x dx
(ii)5cos x3sin + x
3 dy = 1 x x
2 2
(i) dx x dy = 2x − +3 1 , d y2 = −2 1 2
2
d
dy =
dy = 2 x d x x d x x dx
(iii)
3sec 22x −
(ii) dx x +1
2
(ii)
Minimum at (1, 0), dy =
2 (i) 3sec 3x
2
dy = 1 dx
(iii) maximum at

4 (i)
dx 2x
dy = 4 x ( + )
(21 , 43 − ln 2) dy = 1
(ii)
dx 2
cos 2
x ()
dx
e4 x 1 11
Minimum at (1, e) and dy =
dy = −1 2ln x asymptotes =x 0, y = 0 (iii) 6 sin(6−) x
(ii) dx x3
dx
dy =
(iii)dy = −1 x
y
3 (i)
dx
2 xcos
x ( )
2

dx e x
dy = tan x2
(ii)
2
e sec x
5 (i) 4
e
dx
dy = −
(ii)24
1
(iii)
dx
tan x
(iii)3
8 dy =
4 (i) tan xsec x+ x 2
–1 0 1 2 x
dx
dy = x (
6 (i) dx
e x + and 1)
–1
dy = x (
(ii) e cos sin x x− )
d x
d 2y = x ( + )
e x 2 dy =
dx 2 (iii)
dx
x
cos 2sin − 2x

541
 5 (i) dy = x cos x − sin x
dx x 2
12 (i) (
π
6
,π − 3
2
) 11 (i) dy = y + 4
dx 6−x
(ii) dy = e xcos ( x + sin x ) (ii) 3π + 6 (ii)x y − −2 =11 0
dx cos x2
(iii) (2, −9 2 )
(iii) dy = sin x x− cos x − 1
dx sin 2 x Activity 9.4 (page 192) 12 (i) (π2 ,(0), π2), π
6 (i) dy = 3cos 3x (i) 7x 6
dx 2 sin 3 x
dy
(ii) (0, (π2 ), π,)π2
(ii)dy = − cos2 x
sin 2x
(ii) 10 y 4
dx
dx
2e
(iii) x = =π2 , y π
2
dy = sin xcos x x− x ln
(iii) (iii) −2 zd z
dx x sin 2 x
dx (iv) y ϖ
(iv) 3d
z
dy =
8 (i) dx
cos x x− x sin dy

(ii) 1 − (v) 8 xd3x

dz
ϖ x

(iii) Exercise 9.3 (page 193)

(iv)
9 (i)
y x+0=
x y−2π− 0
dy =
=
cos x 2sin 2x, 2 1 (i)
d 2y = − 1 dy
sin x 2 4cos
Chapter 10
y dx2x
− −
dx dx Review exercise (page 199)
dy = y − 83 d y 1 (i)
2
d
dx
cos x − 2sin 2x, 2 = − sin x − 4cos 2x
dx
(ii) y dx
3 x 8c
2
+

(ii) π
2
( ) (
, 0 , 0.253, (
1.125 ,)2.889, (iii) 1.125 z)3zd2
dx
+ 9 y 8 dy
dx
(ii) 43 x x+c + 3

( )
π
2
( 1.125 ,)2.889,
, 0 , 0.253, ( 1.125 ) 2 (i) y 2 e dx
2 y dy (iii) x − +x5+x3
2
59
c
(iii) (
π )
, 0 is a minimum, dy 2 (i) 15 2
2 (ii) 3 cos (3 y2 − )
dx
(0.253, 1.125) is a
2 y dy
(ii) 754
maximum, (2.889, 1.125) (iii)
is a maximum y 2 dx
2 +
(iii) −26
(iv)
(0.883, 0.579), 3 (i) ⎛
e y1⎝ + x ⎠
dy ⎞
dx
3 (i) 4x3x c +
(2.259, 0.579)
11 (i) (ii) − sin xsiny dy + cos xcos y (ii) − x+3 c
dy = ⎛ cos x h
( + − ) cos x ⎞ d x
lim − sin xsiny dy + cos xcos y (iii) 6 x 3x c +
dx h→0 ⎝⎜ h ⎠⎟ dx 7
(ii)cos (x h+ ) = cos xcos h − sin xsinh 3xsin
(iii)
2
y x− 3 cos y ddxy 4 (i) 12 − 103
cos (x h+ ) = cos xcos h − sin xsinh sin 2 y
(ii) 149
dy
(iii) x
4 (i) dy = − (+1 y )
dx 1+ x 5 (i) y x x= c− + 2
d ( )( ) dy = −y2 (ii)
dy =dy = ⎜ ⎜
⎛ ( ⎛ ( ) −) − 2 −2 ( − ( ) −) − ⎞ ⎞
cos x1
cos
1 x
1 1 h
2 2
h sin x h
sin x hcos x
cos x (ii) dx 2 (e 2 y + xy )
⎟ ⎟
lim lim
dx dxδ x→ 0δ⎜x→ 0 ⎜ h h ⎟ ⎟ y
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
dy = − sin x
⎛ ⎛ − 1−21 2 − − − − ⎞ ⎞
cos xcos x h 2cos h xcos
h x hsinx sin cos xcos x (iii) dx sin y
= =⎜ ⎜
lim lim 2 ⎟ ⎟
h h
h → 0 ⎜h → 0 ⎜
⎝ ⎝
5 51
⎟⎠ ⎟⎠

= lim (
1− 2 h cos x − sin x )
h→
0 6 (i) 0 O 1 x

(− 1 h cos x − sin x ) = − sin x(ii) y = − 1

(iv) lim
h →
02
7 Tangent is x y+2−0=
lim (− 21 h cos x − sin x ) = − sin x and normal is x− y+ 2= 0 (iii) y x=x−1+ 2

h→
0
10 (1, −2) and (−1, 2) 6 y = −2 −2 2 x
x2

542
7 (i) y3 + 2 y y− +1 c Discussion point (page 203) 5 (i) (0, 0), (3, 3)
3 Each of these rectangles has a (ii)
(ii) t2
4 −
t c+ height which is the height of the y
2 top curve minus the height of
8 f (x) = −x 3 2 x 2 + −x 4 the bottom curve. The enclosed y = 4x – x 2
y=x
9 9
2
region is the limit of the sum of
the areas of these rectangles.
(3, 3)

y
Discussion point (page 206)
(0, 0)
x
2
The area under the red curve is
partly above and partly below the
x-axis. If you find the total area (iii) 4.5 square units
–1 O 2 x between the red curve and the 6 (i) 43 square4 units, 43 square
x-axis, and then subtract this units,
3 square units
10 1
from the area under the blue
curve, this will give the wrong
(ii) 323 square units
24
y answer. You would need to (iii) ∫ 2
−x 2
(3 (−1))d x
2
= −∫ (4 )d x 2x
subtract the areas under the red
2
−2
2
− 2

curve between x = 0 and x =∫−1,(3 (− −x 1))d x = ∫ − x 2x

2
(4 )d
2 −2
1 and between x = 3 and x = 4, and
add the area between x = 1 (iv) 32
3 square units
O 0.5 1 x
and x = 3. 7 14
3 square
units
11 (i) x Exercise 10.1 (page 206) 8 (i) (−1, 5), (3, −3)
x x x (ii)
1 4
3 y

(ii) 2 (ii) 6 square units (–1, 5)

y
3 (i) (3, 9), (−3, 9) y = x 2 – 4x

(ii) (3, –3)

x

y y = 3 – 2x
–3 –1 1 x y=9
(–3, 9) (3, 9)
(iii) 32
3 square units
9 643
y = x2
–3

(iii) 8 x
10 (i) (1, 4), (−1, 4)
12 (i) y + 2 x − =3 0
(iii) 36 square units (ii)
(ii) ( )
3,
2
0 4 (i) (1, 5), (5, 5) y

(iii) (ii) 6
y y
5
y = 6x – x 2
normal 4
y = √x (1, 5)
(5, 5) 3
A(1, 1) y=5
2
B( 3
, 0)
2
1
x
0 x
–2 –1 0 12 x

(iv) 1112 (iii) 323 square units (iii) 83 square units

543
 11 43 square units Activity 10.1 (page 210) 11 (i) (2 x1)+16
= 432 24 8x 4x+x +x + +3 2

12 72 square units (i) (a) 141 (2x + 3) + c 7

(2 x1)+16
= 432 24 8x 41 + x 3 + x 2x+ +
13 8 square units (b) − 121 (5 3− x ) + c 4 ∫ (2+ x1) d 4
x x= x165x x5 x4+3c2+8 +8 +4 +
y

(c) 13 (1 +2 x ) ∫ (2++ xc1) d x

10 3
4 = 16 x 5x+x +8x +8x4 +
4c + 3 2
y = 4x + 1 2 5
(ii) 101 (2 x1)+ + 5 k
5
y = x3 + 1
(ii) a (n 1+ 1) (ax b+ )n + c +1
(iv) In (ii)1 the constant term
is + k which is an
10
arbitrary constant.
2 x
Activity 10.2 (page 212)
–2 –1 0 1

–5 3
12 (i) A negative number does
(i) 2(x 3 + 1) + 2
c
not have a square root.
9 (ii) x − <1 x 2

14 (i)
y Exercise 10.2 (page 213) (iii) 2 2 3 −
1 (i) 1 (x c
Activity 10.3 (page 214)
y = –2x + 6 − 7 )5 +
5 5

y = 3x – x2 (ii) 101 (2x − 7 ) + c 5

1 (i) cos x
0 x
(iii) 251 (5x − 7) + c 5 (ii) − xsin
(iii) sec x+
1 2 3
2

–5
2 (i) 101 (x − 2) + c 10 2 (i) sin x c
(ii) − +cos x c
(ii) 81 (2x + 3) + c 4 (iii) tan x c+
(ii) 5 3 (i) 4 cos4x
(iii) 16 (iii) − 361 (1 −6 x ) + c 6
(ii) −5sin 5x
(iii) 5sec 5 x 2

15 (i) 20 square units 3 (i) 0.2 4 (i) 41 sin 4x c+

(ii) It is impossible to tell (ii) 20
as the strips are partly (iii) 20 (ii) − 51 cos 5x c+
below and partly above 4 812
625 (iii) 51 tan 5x c+
the curve.
(iii)
20 square units 5 (i) 23 (x + 3) 3
2 + c
Activity 10.5 (page 216)
(iv)
19.5 square units
(ii) − 3 (3 x1 + 1) + c 1 (i) e x x
(v) 2
18 3 square units.
(ii) 3ex 3
The more rectangles (iii) 2x − +1 c 2 (i) e1 +x c
used, the closer the
estimate gets to the true 6 y = 3 + 2x + 3 (ii) 3 e + c 3

16 (i)
answer. 7 43 square units Activity 10.6 (page 217)
21 square units
8 175 (i) e nc x +
f( )

(ii)
21.25 square units 12
( )( ) +1

(iii) 21 13 square units 9 (i) 141 (x − 1) + c 2 7

(ii) f n x+ 1 + c
17 652:77 (ii) 92 (x 3
3
+ 1)2 + c Exercise1 10.3 (page 218)
Discussion point (page 210) 1 1 (i) 2 e x + c 2

(iii) 4 (1 − x ) +c
(ii) 13 e x + c
4 3 5+
1 = 1
20 5 4×
10 1
6 (iii) − 21 e x + c 3 −2

5 is the derivative of the bracket

and 4 is the new power.

544
 2 (i) − 1 cos 6x c+
6
Discussion point (page 220) 10
y
k must be positive for ln k to
(ii) 1 sin (2
2
x 1)
++ c be defined. Yes, for every value
(iii) 13 cos (1 3− x ) + c of c we can write k e= , and
c

therefore k 0> and c = ln k.

3 (i) sinx x xcos x c + + 1
y=1
(ii) e − e + c −
Activity 10.7 (page 222) 1 3 x
(iii) − 3cos x − 2 e + c
1 x 2
x + 3 = +x + 1 2 = x + 1 + Asymptotes 2 = are1 x y=
+ =0, 12
4 (i) 1 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)
2 (x + 1) ( x + 1)
2 2 x 1 (x) + 1
+ 2

+ 33
(ii) π 2 ( + ) = +(+ + ) = ( + ) + ( + ) = x + 1 + ( + )
− 1 x +3 x 1 2 x +1 2 1 Area2of region is 2 ln 2
x 1 2
x 1 2
x 1 2
x 1 2
11 x (i) y1 x = =0,
2
1
x + 3 = +x(iii)
−
2(e 1)
+ 1 2x = x 1 +
+ 2 = 1 + 2 (ii) 2

(x + 1)5 (i)(x + 1e) + c(x + 1)

2 1 223+ 2(x + 1) 2 x 1 (x + 1)
+ 2
y
2 x= 1 2
4
(ii) 5 cos x c
− 1 5+
Exercise 10.4 (page 223) y=0
2

6 (i) ⎝ 2 , 2 e ⎠ , 1⎝ 2 , 2 e ⎟⎠ 1 (i) 21 lnx+c+

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ −⎜ − 1 –2 –1 1 02 3 x
(ii) 2 ln x c –2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ –4
⎜ 1 , 1 ⎟ ,−1⎜− , 1 ⎟ (iii) 1 ln (2 x + +
2
7 ) c
(iii) 23 ln (53 )
⎝2 2 e ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 e ⎠

(ii) 0.432 x 2 (i) ln x − +4 c

7 (i) −e + c cos (ii) − ln 2 − +x c 12 (i) 1 +1 x + 1 −22 x
(ii) 81 (e x − 5) + c 8
(iii) 21 ln 2x − +7 c (ii) 0.31845
8 (i) (0,0), ( ln 3, 3 ln 3 ), ( − ln3 3, −3(i)lnln3 2 ) 13 (i) ( ) 0, 12
( ln 3, 3 ln 3 , ( − ln 3, −3 ln 3 ) (ii) ln 2(3 ) (ii) As x → ∞ ,→ y1 (from
) ( ) below), as x → −∞ ,→ y0
(ii) 3 ln 3 2 − (iii) ln 9 4 x → −∞ ,→ y0 (from above)
9 (i) cos x = 21 (1 +cos 2 x ) 4 ln x + +1 c
2 2
(iii) 1.31 square units
(ii) x21 + 41 sin 2x c+ 5 ln (23 ) 14 (i) 1 ln xx −+ 11 + c
(iii) x21 − 41 sin 2x c+ 6 (i) ln x − +4 c 21 ( ) − +
(ii)
3
ln x
2
1 c
10 (ii) cos x 3 cos x c
− + 1 3+
(ii) − 21 ln 2 − x + c2
2

+ 1 ln x 1 + c
−
(iii) x
Discussion point (page1 218) 7 (i) 13 ln 6
⎛ 2π 2 ( ⎞)
x+1
All three differentiate to x .
(ii) − ln2 2
1 15 (i) ⎜⎝ 3 , 33 ⎟⎠
1 d =ln
For x 0> , x∫ x kx c+ 8 (i) ln 31x−−x2 + c (ii) Area of triangle = 63 π
where k is any positive constant.
(ii) x − +1 c
This is possible because
ln 1 −
xx (iii) Total area ≈ 33 π
of the arbitrary constant: ( x − 1) +
2
(ii) 2 ln 3. This is a little
ln kx = ln k + ln x , and lkn is (iii) ln
2x 1+
c
more than the answer
a constant.
9 (i) 21 ln (23 ) from (iii)
ln x is only defined for positive
values of x. (ii) 23 + ln (1121)
(iii) ln 5(2 ) − 25

545
 16 (i) 1
−+
x c 8 y = 351 (2x + 1)5( 1 x2 − +) 10 (i) − 21 x cos 2x x+ x21 sin 2 cos+ 412
5
2
2
x c+
(ii) There is a discontinuity 9 0.0271 − 1 x cos 2x x+ x1 sin 2 + 1 cos 2x c+
2

at x = 0 10 (ii) π 8 2 2 4

(ii) −e x (x x+ +2 +2 ) c
(iii) No, because the function
− 2

is undefined at x = 0 11 (ii) π 6 11 (i) ( ) 1, 0

(iv) You cannot evaluate (ii) Minimum at
a definite integral if Activity 10.10 (page 228) ⎛ 1
, −
1
⎞
the function has a (i) ∫ x sin
x xd = − x cos
x + sin x c+ ⎝⎜ e 2e ⎠⎟
discontinuity within the
∫ x sin
interval of integration.x xd = − x cos x + sin x c+ (iii) y
Activity 10.9 (page 226) (ii) ∫ 2xe dx 2
x x= e 2 x − 1 e2x
2
+ c 1

(i) (a) u = +1 x ∫ 2xe dx x x=

2
e2x − 1 e2x + c
2
1 2 x
(b) ln 1 + +x 1 +1 x + c
(ii) (a) u = +2 x
Activity 10.11 (page 229) (iv) 8
ln 2 − 7
(i) = x sin x − ∫ x cos xd x
2 2
3 9
(b) 152 (2 + x ) ( 3x − 4 ) + c
3
2
∫ x x
sinx d
2 2 12 (ii) ( 1 e sin ex cos
x − x x )c +
2
∫ x2 cos xd x
2 2
∫ x sin
x xdx = sin x −
2
Summary exercise
Exercise 10.5 (page 227) (ii) Parts chosen the wrong way (page 233)
1 (i) x − 2 ln x + −1
1 +
c
round
1 − 13 xe x − 91 e x + c−3 −3

x − 2 ln x +−
1
1
x +1 c
+
x +1
Exercise 10.6 (page 232) 2 13 x − +52 +x x c 6
3 2

1 21 x sin 2x + 41 cos 2x c+
(ii) 3
1 ( 2 x + 1)3
2( x − +
1) c 3 221 (2 x5)+ + c 11
15
2 5e − e
15 2 x
1 ( + 1)32(
3
x − +1) c
3 (i) 21 xe x − 41 e x + c
2 2
4 21 ex + c 2

2 (i) 7 8 5 41 (1 +sin ) x c + 4

(ii) x2 ln 3x x−
2 2
c
(ii) 100 45 4
+
6 − 12(3x4)1− + c 4

3 (i) (a) u = −1 x 4 (i) 1 2 − e

7 13 sin 3x + 91 cos 3x c+
(b) −2 (2 + x3) 1 − +x c (ii) 2 π+
5 151 (5x + 2)( x − 2) 5 + c
8 41 ln xx −+ 22 + c
(ii) (a) u x 4= + 9 x + 2 ln x2 − + c
(b) 2 (3 x − 83)(x + 4 ) + c
3
2 6 (i) ( )0,(2), 2, 0 10 13 (x3)+ + c 3

(iii) (a) u = 2x + 1 (ii) e + 1 −2

11 71 x − +16x c
7 (i) y
7

(b) 41 ln 2x + 1− 2+ x c 2 12 x x xlnc3 − +
4 (i) y = 2x − ln 2x + 1+ c 1 13 21 tan x c+ 2

(ii) y = 2x − 1− ln 2 x + 1 π π x 14 ln x x+c + 3

5 (i) a 1 = (ii) π
2
15 e1 x + c
sin

(ii) Minimum at 1,(−1 − 4 ) 8 ln 3 −2 3 16 2 sin x c+ 2

(iii) ln 2 1− 2 17 tan x+ c
9 (i) 1
18 ln ((xx3)5)−− + c
3

6 (1 +ln6 x ) (2 lnx − +1) (ii) e − 1

2
c 2

(iii) e 19 272 (9 x4)+ + c

7 (i) k = − 3 This is the area of the rectangle
3
2

(ii) Minimum at (−4.5, 3.93) formed by the red and blue

(iii) 1.72 regions.

546
 20 x + tan x c+ (ii) ( 9 ) dy = ⇔ − =
d x
[1] 0
−2
4 2 0 xy [1]
2
21 x51 + 41 x + 13 x + 21 x x+c +
5 4 3 10
2

= +1 0.2 0.03+ 0.004 + 0.0005+ 0.00006+...

Substitute y x=
or +equivalent in
22 2x+c = +1 0.2 0.03 + 0.004 + 0.0005+ 0.00006+... + [1] x y y+x−2 =4 0 [1]
2

23 2 1 x e x − 1 xe x + 1 e x + c
22
2 4
2
4 2
Area of triangle 4 2− 0= x⇒ = ± x 2
24 2 sinx+c AOB = r21r. . sin 2a [1] x
25 41 x + 23 x + 21 x + c
4 3 2
Area of triangle AOB
(x = 2 OK)
Maximum point has
[1]

26 4 1 x ln x − 1 x + c
4
16
4
= 2 × area of triangle )
coordinates ( 2, 2 [1]
27 21 ln x + 2 lnx c+
2 OMA (oe) [1] 7 (i)−
= ×2 1 OM. AM =cosr . sin ααr x 2 ≡ A + B
28 2 x ln x + 1+ c = × 1
1x −+ 2 2 (x)(+)1 x − 3 x +1 x −3
29 x − ln cos x c + 2 2 OM. AM = r cos α. sin r α [2] x − ≡2 A (x) −( )+3 + [1] Bx 1
30 81 e − 81 e + 21 x c+
x 2 x −2

2 .r .r sin 2a =
1
1
Practice questions 2 x = 3: 1 4 = ⇒B=B
r cos a.r sin a
sin 2a = 2 cosa.sin
a [1] x AA
− =3 −4 ⇒ = [1]
= − 1:
4
3
[1]

(page 235) 5 (i) 3

4
1
1 ∫ 2
4 1d
x x
= [ln] x 4
2
[1]
1 + 1 ≡ sin 2 u + cos 2 u [1]
2 2
cos u sin u 2
cos sin
uu 2
x−2
(x + 1)( x − 3)
≡
x+1
4 +
x−3
4

= ln 4 −ln 2 ln=2 ≡ 1 = 4
2
cos sin
uu 2 ( u )2
2 sinucos 3 1
∫ x1 d x = ln a − ln 5
a
[1] ≡ 1 = 4
(ii) ∫ +x
2
4
1x − 3 dx [1]
+ 4

)2 [1]
0
5 2
cos sin
u 2
u ( 2 sinucos
u 2
ln 2 =
ln 5 a (oe) [1]
= ⎡ 3⎣ ln 1x ln
4
+ +3 1 x − ⎤ ⎦
4 0
= 4 [1]
a 10
= [1] sin 22u [1] for ln, [1] for x 3−
2 (i) Any corect justification, (ii) This4is equivalent to = (43 ln 3 +ln141 ln1)ln−(343 + 1
4
)
= e.g. y 5sin x is the = 4 and so = (3 )ln(3 )− 1 ln 3 [1]
curve which passes sin 2 u 2 4 4

through the origin sin 2u = ± 1 [1] = 1 ln 3 [1]

2
since 5sin 0 0= . [1] π 3π 5π 7π
2 2 2 2
8
Roots 2u = , , , ,... (i) P clearly lies on the line
(ii) Valid method to
2u=
π 3π 5π 7π
, , , ,... [1]
y x= .
determine horizontal 2 2 2 2 P lies on the
translation such as at least two correct curve since when
4 sinx − 3cos x = 0 [1] and so x = =π2 , y π2 .sin π2 = π2
u = π4 , 3π
4 , 5π 4 ,... [1]
4 , 7π
tan x = 43 [1] [1]
all correct Evidence of the need
Therefore the 2 dy + y
translation is described 6
(i) x dx 2xy + 2 dx − =4 0d
to show that at P the
by the vector [1] [1] gradient of the curve
⎛− arctan 3 ⎞ is 1. [1]
for product rule; [1]
⎜ 4 ⎟ [1] d+y
⎜
⎝ 0
⎟
⎠ for at least one correct y x
= x sin ⇒ =
d x sin xcos
xx
3 (i) −2 (−)(2−)3− appearance of
dy
d x y x= x sin ⇒ =dy sin x x+ x cos [1]
(1 − x ) = +1 − −( )( +2 ) x ( )x + ... dx
2
2
(−)(2−)3− dy ( 2 + =)− dy = +
(1 − x )−2 +2 ) x
= +1 − −( )( ( )x 2 + ... x 242 xy [1] When x = π , sin π π cos π = +1
2 dx 2 dx 2 2 2
[1] dy = 4 2− xy
x = π , dy = sin π + π cos π = +1 = 01
= +1 2 x + 3x + 4 x + 5x + 6 x + ...
2 3 4 5 d x 2 x
+ 2
2 dx 2 2 2
y x = π , dy = sin π + π cos π = +1 =
x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x + 6 x + ...
4 5
[2] (ii) dx = 0 ⇔2 d4x2− xy 2= 0 2 2 0 1
d [1]
([1] if at least three
correct terms)

547
 (ii) The equation has no 5 k=9
∫ x sin
x xd = − x cos x + ∫ cos xd x solution so P cannot 6 (i) Gradient of AB is π 2 and
[1] by parts reach a value of 7. [1]
= − x cos x + sin x c+ gradient of BC = 4− .3
[1] accuracy
Review: Coordinate − 4× = −3 , hence
1

geometry
π 3 4
1 ∫ x sin
x xd
. π. π − 2
AB and BC are
2 2 2 0
π perpendicular and ABC
∫ −x x x xsin d
or [1]
Discussion point (page 240)
2
0 is right-angled.
2
= π −−
π
(ii) 12.5 square units
8
[ x cos x + sin x ]02 [1] Area of triangle 7 (i) 1
Gradient of AB is − 2,
2 = 12 CM × MD gradient of CD is − 1,
= π −1 [1] 2
8 gradient of BC is –3
9 (i) = 1 × 3 + 6 × 12 6+
2 2 2 2
2
and gradient of AD is
y = 1 × 45 × 180 1 . Hence one pair of
6 2 3
= 1 × 8100 parallel sides ⇒ ABCD
4 2
is a trapezium.
2
= 45
AD = BC = 10 ⇒
0
01234567
x
Exercise R.1 (page 240) ABCD is an isoceles
trapezium.
[1] 1 (i) (a) 1 −
(ii) (53 ), 73
curve increasing towards (b) (4, 3) 8 6.25
(c) 2 2
asymptote
dP = [1] with attempt (ii) (a) 1 − 9 (i) k = 2
(ii) dt (b) (3, 4) (ii) 3x − 2y − 27 = 0
(c) 2 2 10 2y + 3x = 0
=
(5 e+ 6 te)6 et −.e tt

(iii) (a) − 43 11 (4, 0), (0, 1.6)

(5 e+ t ) 2
12 6.5 square units
[1] (b) (−1, −1) 13 (2, −1), (−0.8, −6.6)
(c) 10 14 13 3 square units
= 30e t
(iv) (a) 1
(5 +e t )2 [1] (b) (−3, 4) Exercise R.2 (page 243)
dP 0
2
(c) 2 2 1 (i) (3, 1); 5
dt 2 = [1] attempt 2 (i) 3 (ii) (3, 1); 5
−
(5 +e 30e
t )2
30e t.2
− 5 e et ( + )
tt (ii) −2 (iii) ( −3,−1); 5
(5 +e t )4 (iii) 2− 3 (iv) (1, 3);
− 5

(iv) 52 2 (x5)−(+2)+16= y 2 2

[1] 3 x x+y +6y − − = 8 56 0

2 2

= 30e t
(5 +e t ) − 2e t 3 (i) y = 2x + 3 4 (x1)−(+6)−10= y
2 2

(5 +e t ) 3 [1] (ii) 2y x= − 3 5 (i) x ( 4)−(+1)+10= y

2 2
(iii) 2y = − x− 3
t ln 5
5 e= ⇒t = [1]
(iv) y2x = + 3 (ii) centre (4, −1); radius 10
(iii) Substitute P = 7t to (v) y 2 = −3 x 6 (5, −5), (8, −2)
obtain 7 = + 6e t [1] 4 (i) (3, 5) 7 65 5
5e (ii) (−2, 3) 8 ( 2, 2− 2(1 − )) and
Simplification to
t
e = − 35
(iii) (−1, 4)
[1] 9, − 1
(iv) ( 8) 4 (− 2, 2 (1 2+ ))
9 k = 13 or k = –7

548
 10 (i) Use the circle theorem: (b) 4 (i) (a)
‘angle in a semicircle is y x y
a right angle’ to show 4
0° 1 0
PQR is a right-angled 30° 0.5 0.25
triangle with a right 2
60° −0.5 0.75
angle at R. Either show
90° −1 1
PR2 + QR 2 = PQ 2 −4 O 4 x
120° −0.5 0.75
(2 + 82 = 164) or show
m PR × m RQ = −1
(ii) (a) 150° 0.5 0.25
t x y
(9
1 × − 9= − 1 ) −2 4 −8
180° 1 0
210° 0.5 0.25
(ii) x ( − 3) ( + +y 5) = 41
2 2 −1.5 2.25 −3.375
240° −0.5 0.75
(iii) 0,( 5 −4 ±2 ,( 1, 0),) (7,− 0)
−1 1 −1
270° −1 1
(0, −5 ±4 2 ,( 1, )0),−(7, 0) −0.5 0.25 −0.125
300° −0.5 0.75
0 0 0
11 (i) Centre lies on the 0.5 0.25 0.125
330° 0.5 0.25
360° 1 0
perpendicular bisector of 1 1 1
AB which is 2y = x + 4 1.5 2.25 3.375 (b)
(ii) x( − 2)2( + −y 3)2 = 10 2 4 8 y
12 12 5 1

13 (2.4, 0.2); 5 (b) y 8 0.5

Chapter 11 4
−1 −0.5 O 0.5 1 x

Discussion point (page 249) −4

O x4
(c) Defined for
At points where the rate of −1 < x < 1 and
change of gradient is greatest. −8 0<y<1
(ii) (a)
Exercise 11.1 (page 251) (iii) (a) x y
1 (i) (a) (4, 1) t x y
0° 0 1
(b) (7, 6) −2 4 6
30° 0.25 2
(c) (−2, 3) −1.5 2.25 3.75
60° 0.75 2.73
(ii) t = −3 −1 1 2
2 (i) (1, 3) −0.5 0.25 0.75
90° 1 3

(ii) (27, 27) 0 0 0

120° 0.75 2.73

(ii) (8, 12), (−8, 12) 0.5 0.25 −0.25

150° 0.25 2
3 (i) (a) 1 1 0
180° 0 1

t x y 1.5 2.25 0.75 210° 0.25 0

−2 −4 4 2 4 2 240° 0.75 −0.73

270° 1 −1
−1.5 −3 2.25
−1 −2 1 (b) 300° 0.75 −0.73
y 330° 0.25 0
−0.5 −1 0.25 6
360° 0 1
0 0 0
0.5 1 0.25 4

1 2 1 2
1.5 3 2.25
2 4 4 O 1 2 3 x4

549
 (b) y (ii) y
(ii) x > 0
3 16
y
(iii)
12
1 1
8
O 1 x 4 O 2 13 7 6x 5 4
−1
−1
O 1 2 x43
(c) Defined for (iv) The graph oscillates
0 < x < 1 and (iii) Because it should also infinitely many times
−1 < y < 3 state ‘for x > 0’
from –1 to +1 for t < –2,
(iii) (a) 6 (i) 3
y
i.e. where 0 < x < 0.14.
x y
For t > 2 the graph
0° 0 3 oscillates infinitely many
30° 0.5 2.6 −4 −2 O 2 4 x
times from –1 to +1,
60° 1.5 1.5 but successive distances
−3
90° 2 0 between a maximum
120° 1.5 −1.5 (ii) Undefined for −2 < x < 2 and a minimum become
7 (i) (a) increasingly large.
150°
180°
0.5
0
−2.6
−3
y
3
9 (i)
y
210° 0.5 −2.6 2 t=2
t=3t=4
45
1
240° 1.5 −1.5 t=1 t=5

270° 2 0 −3 −2 −1 O 1 23 x
−1 t=6
300° 1.5 1.5 −2
O 40 80 120 160 200 240 x
330° 0.5 2.6 −3

360° 0 3
(b) x = −1, x = 1, y = 0 (ii) 240 m
(b)y (ii) (a) (iii)
y y
3 45

1 (i)
(iii)

O 1 2 x O 100 204 240 x

−1 O 1 23 x

−3 −1 (iv) 36 m
(c) Defined for 0 < x < 2 −2

and −3 < y < 3

−3
5 (i) t x y
−2 4 16 (b) x = 1
2, y = −2
1

−1.5 2.25 5.0625 8 (i) t x y

−1 1 1 −2 0.14 −0.91
−0.5 0.25 0.0625 −1.5 0.22 −1.00
0 0 0 −1 0.37 −0.84
0.5 0.25 0.0625 −0.5 0.61 −0.48
0 1 0
1 1 1
0.5 1.65 0.48
1.5 2.25 5.0625
1 2.72 0.84
2 4 16 1.5 4.48 1.00
2 7.39 0.91

550
10 (i) x y
y
(ii) y
a 1
0 0 0
π 0 x
0.2a 0.5a 3 2 14 5 6
3 –1
2π −a a x
1.2a 1.5a –2
3
−a –3
π 3.1a 2a
4π –4
3
5.1a 1.5a
(ii)
5π
3
6.1a 0.5a
a
n=1 They are different because in (i)
1 < x < 3 as sin lies between −1
(full circle)
2π 6.3a 0
n=4 and 1 and −1 < y < 1 as cos 2
7π
(ii)
n=2
6.5a 0.5a (1 arc)
3 (line) lies between −1 and 1 and in
n=6
8π (1 arc) there are no restrictions on the
7.5a 1.5a
3 –a n=5 a domain (x ∈ » )and the range is
3π 9.4a 2a (4 arcs)
y<1
10π
3
11.3a 1.5a n=3
(4 arcs) Activity 11.1 (page 256)
11π
3
12.4a 0.5a
–a
(i)
4π 12.6a 0 x = 2 + 5 sin t x = 2 + 5 cos 2t
13π
12.7a 0.5a When n = 0 the curve y = 3 + 5 cos t y = 3 + 5 sin 2t
3 becomes the single
14π
13.8a 1.5a point (a, a). x = 2 − 5 cos t x = 2 + 5 cos t
3
5π 15.7a 2a (iii) (a) The larger the value y = 3 − 5 sin t y = 3 + 5 sin t
16π of n the closer the
17.6a 1.5a
3 curve is to the axes. 1
17π If the power is even,
x = 3 + 5 sin t x = 3 + 5 cos 2t
1
3
18.7a 0.5a
the curve is only y = 2 + 5 cos t y = 2 + 5 sin 2t
6π 18.8a 0 in the first quadrant.
(ii) (b) If the power is odd, x = 2 + 5 cos t x = 2 + 5 sin t
y the curve is in all four y = 3 + 5 cos t y = 3 + 5 sin t
2a quadrants.
x = 2 + 5 sin 21 t
O (θ = 2ϖ) (θ = 4ϖ) (θ = 6ϖ) x
Discussion point (page 255) y = 3 + 5 sin 21 t
A one-way stretch scale factor
(iii) Periodic 3 parallel to the y-axis followed
11 (i) x y
by a one-way stretch scale x = 5 cos 21 t x = 5 cos 2t
factor 4 parallel to the x-axis y = 5 sin 21 t y = 5 sin 2t
0 a 0
(transformations can be carried
π
3 0.13a 0.65a out in either order). x = 5 cos t
π y = 5 sin t
a
Discussion point (page 255)
2 0
2π
−0.13a 0.65a (i) y
(ii) Changing the interval
3 for the parameter produces
1
π −a 0 different sections of the
4π 0 x
−0.13a −0.65a
1 2 3 456 circle.
3 –1
3π –2 For example, for
0 −a
2 –3 x = 2 + 5 sin t, y = 3 + 5 cos t
5π
0.13a −0.65a –4 the following curves are
3 produced:
–5
2π a 0

551
 (a) t
0 << π
2
Exercise 11.2 (page 257) (iii) (x − y4) 2
+ (y – 1) 2 = 9
x = 3t
y
10
1 xy 9= and
y t= 3
4

(4, 1)
= 3t x 2
O x
5 y2 = 12 x and
= 6t y –2

5 10 x y = −(1
x = −1
x ) and y t= 2
2
t (iv) (x + 1)y 2
+ (y – 3) 2 = 4

(b) t
0 << π x t= 1
y xy 3= and
10 y = 3t (–1, 3)

x = 2t
4 y = −4 andx 2 O x
y = −1 t2
5
7 (i) y

2 (i) y x =
2
(b)
4
5 10 x
(ii) y = x 2 3

(c) t
0 << 2π (iii) y x= ± x
(a)
y
10
3 (i) x = 2t, y = 5 – 4t for (a)
O x

0 <t<2
(ii) x = u – 1, y = 7 – 2u for (b)
1<u<5
5

4 (i) y = –1 + 4 sin t
10 x (ii) y = –1 + 4 cos t 1 x (ii) (a) xy = 1
(b) xy = 16
5
5 (i) A segment of y = − 2 (iii) The curve in (b) is an
Discussion point (page 256) where −1 < x < 1 and enlargement of the
Changing t to 2t traces out the 0 <y<1 curve in (a), centre the
circle more quickly, so a full (ii)
Part of y( 1)−4 = x
2
origin, scale factor 4.
circle is drawn in the interval
0 < t < π and it is described
where 0 < x < 1 and
−1 < y < 3
8 (i) 7=2×3+1
(ii) (a)
⎛ 3⎞
twice in the interval 0 < t < 2π.
(iii)
Part of y = (2 )− x
2 9
2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7⎠

where 0 < x < 2 and

Discussion point (page 257) (b)
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ or any vector of
−3 < y < 3 ⎝ 2⎠
(i) y
6 (i) x 2 + y 2 = 25 y ⎛ a⎞
⎜ ⎟ , a≠
3
the form ⎝ 2a ⎠
0
2 5

1 ⎛3 +t ⎞
+ =t ⎜ 1⎟
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x
(iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎜
⎝7
⎟
2+ t ⎠
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4
(ii) y
−5 O 5 x
(iv) x = 3 + t, y = 7 + 2t
2 9 y (i)
1
−5 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 23 x

et
Since > 0, the second graph
(ii) x 2
+ y2 = 9
y
O
−2
5 10 15 20 25 x

−4
only shows half of the full curve. 3
−6

(ii) y = −2
−3 O 3 x (iii) x = (y + 2) 2

−3

552
10 (i) x 2 − y2 = 4 (iii) At t = 2, x = 23 and 9 (i) 6
(ii) y= − 2x 2 dy = − 1 = 9 (ii) y = 6x − 3
1 x dx (1 2 ) x 2 (iii) 3x + 18y − 19 3 = 0
11 (i) C(4, 6); P(9, 6) 5 (i) (10, 58.75) 10 (i) (41 ), 0
(ii)
x = 4 + 5 cos t, (ii) 70 m
(ii) 2
y = 6 + 5 sin t (iii)5.74 s; 114.8 m
(iii) y = 2x − 21
(iii) (a)
X , 613 (
+ 5 3 ), (iv) y 70
2
XY 5 2=
2
(iv) 0,( 1)− 2
(b) No
60
11 (i) x – ty + at = 0 2
50
(ii) tx + y = at + 2at
Exercise 11.3 (page 261)
3
40
(iii) (at + 2a, 0), (0, at + 2at)
2 3

1 (i) (a) x ddt = 6t

30
12 (ii) (0, –1); minimum
20
13 (i) − atb 2
dy = 2
(b)
10
6t
dt 50 100 x (ii) at y + bx = 2abt
2

dy = b
(c) t Y 0, 2
X(2at, 0), ( )
t
dx
6 (i) dy = −t− (t 3 2) (iii)
(iv) Area
dx = dx = 2ab
(ii) (a) dt
4 1 −2 t 3

14 (ii) (1, 0) and (–1, 0)

(b) dy = 3
4t
(ii) ⎛ 13 23 ⎞
⎝2 , 2 ⎠ (iii) The tangent is vertical
dt at the point (0, 1).
3, 3 32
dy = 3
(c) dx
t (iii) ( )
2 2; 2 ; P is the (iv)
farthest point on the y
dx = −
(iii) (a) dt
11 2
t
curve from the origin 4

(b) dy = +
11 2
7 (i) 1
2e t
3
2
dt t
(c) dy = +t 2
1 (ii) (a) y = 1x
2
1

dx t 1 −
(b) 2ey x= + − e 1
2 x
2 −1 −2 O
−3 1−42 3 4

2 (i) (a) dx = ( + )
dt
2 t 1 8 (i) (a) (1, −3) minimum 15 (i) − 3cos t
dy = ( − ) (b) 4 sint
(b) dt
2 t 1 y
(ii)
3x cos t + 4y sin t = 12
dy = −t 1
3
(iii)
t = 0.6435 + nπ
(c) dx t+1
2 16 (i) x cos + y sin =
3 sin + 3 cos + 2
(ii) (a)
1
(16, 4)
dy = 1 x (iii)
2.85, 5.01 radians
(b) (iv)
−10 −5 O 5 10
y
dx
−1
2
(c) y 2x = − 8 −2

3 (i) 1 +cos u
1 +sin u
−3
−4
2.85
5.01

(ii) − 23 cot (ii) (a) (0, 3)y maximum

(iii) −tan 4 0 x
(1 +) t 2
4 (i) (a) (1 −) t 2
3
17 (i) − cosu
sinu
(b) 9
x
2
(ii) y cos − x sin =
(ii) (a)
1
y = 1 −2 x 5 cos − 2 sin
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 4 3 2x 1
(b) 1
(1 2 ) x 2
−

553
 Chapter 12 (c) 6 (i) (1 ) +( −)+(2 )
3 3
2 22
2
3

Opening activity (page 264) = + 1+ =

9
4
9
4
9 1
Yes, by sailing at an angle to the
wind. When a boat sails in the
2c
(ii) (a) i j 72k − +67 73
same direction as the wind it 2c + f
can never go faster than wind (b) 3
3i++3 j k
3 3
3
speed. f
7 a, d, e, f, and g are parallel
The keel stops the boat moving c and h are parallel
sideways, so only the forwards (d) 8 x = 2, y = 3
component of the wind comes 9 a = −4.5, b = 10.5
into play. However, when a boat
a f 10 k = 4, 10.8 N
sails at an angle to the wind it
can increase the relative wind
11 (i)AC
=i j k
=i j k
−3+ + , 2
velocity across the sails and so sail AB 5 4−3+ ,
a+f+c c =i j k
faster than the wind. BC −8+5−
(ii)
98 6≠46 + −8
Discussion point (page 268) 3 (i) (13, 67.4°) 12 (i) +
(6 i)N
j
For example, velocity, force, (ii) (13, 22.6°) (ii)
(4 i5+
j )N
acceleration, weight, displacement. (iii) (13, −67.4°) (iii) 2 5 N; 116.6° to the i
(iv) (13, 112.6°)
Exercise 12.1 (page 270) (v) (13, 202.6°)
direction
(iv) 10 N; 71.6° to the i
1 a = −2i – 3j 4 (i) 5 direction
b = 2i (ii) 21 13 a = −b
= − 6; 5
c = i + 3j (iii) 5 14 (i) a = b−2
= − 3;
d = –2i + 2j
(iv) 14 (ii) a = − 6;= b6
e = −2j (iii) a b= =0; 1
2 (i)
f = 3i + 2j
5 (i)
⎛
⎜
1⎞
⎟ 15 (i) 12.8 km
b = a, c = −a , d = 2a, −⎜
⎜
3⎟
⎟ (ii) 20 km h , 5 km h
−1 −1

e = −3a; f cannot be
given in terms of a
⎝ 2⎠ (iii) After 40 minutes the
⎛ −2 ⎞ boats meet.
(ii) (a) (ii) Discussion point (page 272)
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
a f Three different answers:
⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ −14 ⎞

a+f
(iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −3⎟
=− ⎜ ⎟
OD ⎜ 1⎟ , OD = ⎜ 7⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ ⎜ − ⎟
3 ⎝ 1⎠
⎛ 16⎞
⎛ 16⎞
(b) –f (iv) ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1⎟ =
or OD
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 11⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
a–f 21

Exercise 12.2 (page 273)

⎛ −7 ⎞
a
(v) ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −5⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8⎠ 1 (i)
⎛ 2⎞
= − BC DA AB
AB CD, = − CD
⇒ +BC
+ +D
(vi) ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0⎟
AB = − CD, BC DA
= − CD, BC = − ⇒
=−⇒ AB+CD + +BC
= − DA AB A
⎜ − ⎟AB
⎝ 6⎠ DA+AB
+ +CD
= −BC
+ − DA AB AB BC
AB = − CD, BC = − DA ⇒ AB CD
+ BC+ DA AB+ AB =BC− +BC
− =0
(ii)
Yes, closed loop.

554
 2 (i) (a)AB2b (=
b− a ), PQ = 23 ( b −
a ) and XY = 23 ( b − a )since =
⎛ −0.25⎞
c −a (b) the vectors are all scalar 12 (i)
OM
⎜
⎜ 3
⎟
⎟
(c)
−a − b multiples of b − a they
⎜
⎝ −1.25⎟⎠
(d)
c or (b − a) are all parallel.
(ii)
AB = c b =−
a ⇒ + − =a c b 0
4 :9 (iii)
⎛ 0.8⎞
=−
AB = c b a ⇒ + − =a c b 0 (ii)
ON =
⎜
⎜ 4.4
⎟
⎟
3 (i) (a)
⎛ 2⎞
8
⎜ ⎟
a = =
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 1.2 ⎠
AB DC ⎜ 4⎟ ,
c +a (b) ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
8 13 a = 4 or −2
c–a (c) so AB and CD are parallel 14 =+ s AB
a −c (d) and equal in length.
OC OA
= and =s −t
+
(e)
−a – c ⎛ 3⎞ OA a AB b a
1c
2
(f) AD BC =
⎜ ⎟
= −⎜ 3⎟ ,
= +
OC a
st
+
s ( b) −a
(g)
a + 21 c
⎜ −
⎝ 6⎠
⎟
= +a s b− s a
so AD and BC are also st
+ s t+
1 −
c 2a (h) parallel and equal in length. = +s t a − s a + s b
Hence ABCD is a parallel- s t+ s t+ s t+
(ii)
OP = (21 c +a,) ogram as it has two pairs of = t a+ s b
s t+ s t+
1
OQ = (2 a c )+ ; equal, parallel sides.
15 No, a quadrilateral is a plane
diagonals of a
=
OD 2 ( p + 9
1 q, ) figure and these points do
parallelogram bisect = not lie on the same plane.
OE 1 2 p + q,
each other.
4 (i) (a)
q
−p (b)
DE OE = OD − = 1p +
2 Chapter 13
q − 21 ( p +
q = ) 21 q

q +p (c) DE OE = OD− = 1p + q − 21 ( p + q = ) 21 q Discussion point (page 277)

r +p (d) 2
(i)
(e)
p +q +r ⎛ 1⎞ First
(ii)
p + 53 r OD
=
10 (i)
⎜ ⎟
⎜4⎟
(ii) Third
(iii)
Assume the diagonals ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (iii)First
bisect at N, then
10
(iv) Second
(ii)
2 2 2
ON = 21 OC
2
AB
+ AD 2 = BD 2 ⇒ 24 35
+ AD = BD ⇒ +24= 35 59
+ 59 = Exercise 13.1 (page 280)
1 AB
= (2 p +
q +r 2 )
AB + AD
2
= BD
2
⇒ +
24 35 ABD
triangle 59 is = 1 (i) y x =+3
c
Also, right-angled, hence y y = x3 + 4
ON = +p +q 1 BG ABCD is a rectangle. 8
2
1 (r ⎛ 0.5⎞
= +p +q − −q
p ) = 6
⎜ ⎟
= 1p +
2
1q + 1r = 1 OC (iii) OX ⎜ 5.5⎟ 4
2 2 2 2 ⎜⎝ ⎟
6.5⎠ y = x3
2
as required.
5 Trapezium
=
11
OC 13 ( a + 2 b) and
6 11.74
=
OD 21 ( a + 2 b) , hence the
-2 -1 0 12
-2 y = x3- 2
x

7 (i) 3 (b −
2
a ) vectors are scalar multiples
-4
(ii)
AB (= b − a ), PQ = 23 ( b −
of each other and so are
a ) and XY = 23 ( b − a ) -6
y = x 3- 6
parallel. Both vectors pass
a ), PQ = 23 ( b −
AB (= b − a ) and XY = 23 ( bthrough
−
a ) O, so OCD is a -8
straight line; 2 :3
(ii) y x = − 3
2

555
 2 dv
dtis the rate of change
13 (i) dM =
dt
0.05t 8( − t ) (ii) dy =
dx
A (x2 3 − )2
x−1
of the velocity with respect (ii)4.27 kg
8 (i) h (20 3− t )2
to time (the acceleration). 16 (i) It is growing at a constant = +5
4
The differential equation tells rate of 0.5 metres per (ii) The water stops flowing
you that the acceleration year. After 10 years it is (iii) 163 seconds
is increasing and so is the 5 metres tall.
dh = k
9 (i) ddrt = rk
velocity.
(ii) t with k 5
=
2

3 dN =
kN dt (ii) k 5000,
= 141m (3 s.f.)
dt (iv)74 years to the nearest
(iii) ddrt = r (2)c + t ,
4 The odd one out is y. It is year 2

the rate of change of y (v) c

= 10000
with respect to time; all the
others are the rate of change
h (iv)
104 m (3 s.f.)
of y with respect to x.
15
10 (i) dv = 3
dt v
5 (i) y x = 2 − 4 x c+ (ii) v = + 6t4
5
(iii) 10 seconds
6
11 (i) P 600e= kt

4
y = x2 – 4x + 6 10 74 t
(iii) P 600e
= (0.005t0.4sin
− () t )
0.02
,
very good fit with the
2
y = x2 – 4x + 4 Exercise 13.2 (page 285) data
0
1 (i) 3x 2 + (iv) 549
–2
1 2 3 4
y = x2 – 4x + 2
y =
2
3
c 12 (i) q Ap = −h
2 (ii) (a) h = 0.776 (to 3 s.f.)
–4 y = x2 – 4x (ii) y c x= − 2
(b) q = 817 p −0.776
6 ddPt = k P 2 (i) y = ln ⎜2x + 1
⎛ 2
⎝
⎞
⎠⎟
(c) q
7 ddvt = 4v (ii) y = sec x 120
3 11.02 a.m. 100
80
8 ddTx = − 4x 4 ddst = ,2ss = 4t c+ 60

9 (i) y = 2e −2 x
+ c 5 (i) u = 20 − Ae tt −2
40
20
y (ii) u = 20 15e
− −2
p
3 (iii) O 20 40 60

2 T 13 (i) dP = λ
dt
P
25
1 20 (ii) P P =e 0 2t
15 (iii) 499 minutest
0 1 2 3 x
10 (iv) P P=e 0
sin2

–1
5 (v) 551 minutes
(ii) y 2e= −2 x
− 1 (vi) In the first model, the
2 O 20 40 60 t population increases
10 ddTt = − (T 160
− 15 )
(iv) 60 seconds exponentially with time.
In the second model,
(v) Temperature becomes
11 (i) ddrt = − k t with k = 1.5 the same as the room, the population oscillates
3 20°C with time, going above
(ii) r = −8 t 2
then below the initial
(iii) 4 weeks 6 y = ± 5x
2 +
3 population of P 0
2
12 (i) dv =
dt t
2
+2 7 (i) 4 − 1 14 (ii) c 1
2x − 3 x − 1

556
 Chapter 14 become long, so this method is
more difficult to carry out by
4 (i) f (x) x= x− −3
ff ((11 ))22 ==00 −
−<<
2

Activity 14.1 (page 290) hand. ff ((22 ))44 00=

=>>
(i) Yes: x = 1, x = 3 Sign change and
(ii) Yes: x = − 5± 17 Activity 14.2 (page 296) continuity, therefore
(iii) No: x 1.6, x 0.6, x The
≈ − ≈ ≈ 1.3 iterations either diverge, or
(iii)
root in the interval
x1 = 1,
x ≈ − 1.6, x ≈ 0.6, x ≈ 1.3 they converge to the root already
(iv) Yes: x = 0, x = − 1, x = 1 found in the interval [0, 1].
x 2 = 1.442 249…,
x 0, x
= = − 1, x 1
= x 3 = 1.509 897…,
(v) No: x ≈ 0.35, x ≈ 2.15 Activity 14.3 (page 297) x 4 = 1.519 724…,
x 5 = 1.521141…
Discussion point (page 290) (i)(ii) [−0.3695, [0.45,0.55]
−0.3685]
(iv) f(1.5205)= −0.005 < 0
f(1.5215) = 0.0007… > 0
The first root is between 0.3 and
Sign change and
0.4, and the second is between (iii) [21.63415, 21.63425] continuity, therefore
2.1 and 2.2.
The first root looks as if it is Discussion point (page 299) root in the interval
[1.5205,1.5215].
closer to 0.4, so you can be fairly Often it is not so much a failure Therefore root is 1.521
confident to state that the root is of the method as a failure to use accurate to 3 d.p.
0.4 to 1 d.p., but you would have
to zoom in further to show that
an appropriate starting point or
an appropriate re-arrangement of
5 (i) f (x) = −e−x x 2
f 1( )0.28…
=− 0 <
the root is to the right of 0.35, to the equation. f 2( )3.38…
= 0 >
be sure. It is not clear whether the
second root is nearer to 2.1 or 2.2 –
you would have to zoom in to see
Discussion point (page 299) Sign change and
continuity, therefore
The iteration diverges because root in the interval
on which side of 2.15 the root lies. of the gradient of the curve; it is (iii) x 1 = 2,
steeper than the line y = x.
Discussion points (page 292) x 2 = 1.386 294…,
Decimal search is reasonably Exercise 14.1 (page 300) x3
(iv) and (v)
= 1.219 736…

efficient but a computer 1 f (x) = e x − 5x

programme might need to carry y
f (2 ) = − 2.61… < 0
out several calculations before 3 y=x
finding a change of sign. If f (3 ) = 5.08… > 0 2
you are doing it yourself on a Sign change and continuity, 1 y = In(x + 2)
calculator, you can speed it up: if x3 x 2x 1
therefore root in the interval.
you know that a root lies in the 2 Equation 1 – Diagram (b). 1 2 3 x

interval [1, 2] you could try 1.5

first, to find out which half of
The iterations are
converging to the root a.
6 (i) f (x) = −6− x x ln
the interval it is in, rather than f (4 )0.61…
= 0 >
Equation 2 – Diagram (c). f (5 )0.60…
=− 0 <
working through 1.1, 1.2, etc.
The iterations are
Sign change and
converging to the root a.
Discussion points (page 293) Equation 3 – Diagram (a).
continuity, therefore
root in the interval
Interval bisection is more
efficient when programming a
The iterations are (ii) ( ) 0.004…
f 4.5 =− 0 <
diverging. Sign change between
computer because it follows the x 4= and x 4.5=
rule of halving the interval each Equation 4 – Diagram (d).
The iterations are therefore root lies in this
time, so only one point needs to
diverging. interval. So root is closer
be tested at each stage. However,
to x = 4.
the numbers to be tested quickly

557
 7 (i) Two roots Exercise 14.2 (page 304) (ii) f 1((5−)) 0== −> <
y
9 y = 3x
1 (i) f ʹ( x) 3 = x2 − 1 f020
= −xn xnx 2 n 3
3 − − Sign change and
8
7 (ii) x n +1
3x n − 1 continuity, therefore
6
5 (iii) 1.727…
y
the root is in the
interval
4
3 y = f(x) (iii) x 2 = − 0.3846153…,
2
1
y = 9 − x2 x 3 = − 0.3783533…
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x (iv) f (−0.3785) < 0,
x1 x f (−0.3775) > 0, so
(iv) x 1.6549
= (4 d.p.) root lies in the interval
8 (i) and (iii)
x2
[−0.3785, −0.3775]
y and is therefore −0.378
3
correct to 3 d.p.
y=x
2 (i) f (x) = −x 6x
3 2
5 (i) and (iii) Maximum at
2
y = sin x + 1
+ 12 x11− (−1,
) 5 , minimum
f (3 ) = − <2 0
x4
f (4 ) = >5 0 at ( )Tangent
1, 1
1 x1 x2 x3 y
1 2 3π x Sign change and 6
continuity, therefore the 5
(ii) x = 1,1 root is in the interval. 4
x 2 = 1.84147098…, (ii)
x 2 = 3.444, x 3 = 3.442 3
x 3 = 1.96359072…, x2 = 3.444, x 3 = 3.442 (3 d.p.) x 2 = –2.1 x 1 = –2
2
1
x 4 = 1.92384305… (iii)
f (3.435) < 0 and
y = x3 – 3x + 3

(iv)
You can only give the f (3.445) > 0, so the
–2 –1 12 x

root as x = 2 to the
nearest whole number.
root lies in the interval (ii) 2.111111…
−

(v)
x = 1.93 (2 d.p.)
[3.435,3.445] and so the
root is 3.44 to 3 s.f.
(iv) f (−2.115) < 0,
10 (i) Curves cross only once
y
3 (i) f (x) = e 2 x − 15x2 −
f (−2.105) < 0, so the
root does not lie in
f (1.5
) = − 4.41… < 0 the interval [−2.115,
4
f (1.7
) = 2.46... 0> −2.105] and therefore
y = x2 + 2
3 Sign change and the root is not −2.11
2 y = ex continuity, therefore the correct to 2 d.p.
root is in the interval. f (−2.15) < 0,
1
(ii)
x 2 = 1.642 x(3 s.f.) f (−2.05) > 0, so the
–1 0 1 x (iii)
xf ( ) = e − 15x2 − root does lie in the
f (1.635 ) = − 0.21... 0< interval [−2.15, −2.05]
(ii) 1.32 f (1.645 ) = 0.16... 0> and therefore the root is
11 (ii) 3.1623 Sign change and −2.1 correct to 1 d.p.
12 0.747 continuity, therefore the 6 (i) f (x) x= x− +4 3 7 1
Discussion point (page 304) root is in the interval
[1.635,1.645] and is
f (0 )1=0 >
f (1 )5=0 − <
f ʹ( x) 10 = so the method therefore 1.64 to 3 s.f. Sign change and
cannot proceed. The tangent
never crosses the x-axis
4 (i) f ʹ (x) = 6 x 2 + 5 continuity, therefore the
f ʹ( )x is positive for all root is in the interval
Tangent
values of x, so the graph (ii) 0.54 (2 d.p.)
of y = f (x) has no (iii) Tangent to the curve at
turning points and x = 0 is horizontal, so
x1 α x therefore crosses the never meets the x-axis.
x-axis once only. Second approximation
is undefined

558
7 y
(ii) Exercise 14.3 (page 312)
3 y
1 54.75
2 (i) 0.8194
y=x+1
4
2
(ii) 0.8317
3
1
y = tan x
2
1 3 0.512, overestimate because
0 1 2 3 x curve is concave upwards.
–1 1 2 x y
–1
–2
1.13 (3 s.f.)
f (x) = tan x x− − 1 –3
( ) = − 0.032… 0< –4
f 1.125
( ) = 0.012… 0> 1
f 1.135
(iii) 1.202 (3 d.p.) 1
y=x+1
Sign change and continuity,
therefore the root is in the
(iv) Still converges rapidly –1 0 1234x
to root
interval [1.125,1.135] and is
therefore 1.13 correct to 3 s.f.
10 Equation is 4 1.22, underestimate
3x 12 − 750 x + 747 0= because curve is concave
8 y x 1.49513
= (5 d.p.) downwards.
Discussion point (page 307)
1 y = ln x y
y=√x–2

As you increase the number 1

1 x
y = cos x
of strips, the accuracy of the
approximation increases.
–1
x
Discussion point (page 310)
2 4 6
1.303
f (x) = ln x − cos x
5 (i) 458 m
f (1.3025 )= − 0.0008… < 0
If there is a turning point then (ii) Trapezium rule
the rectangle using the smaller y approximates curve with
f (1.3035 )= 0.0009… > 0 value may not lie entirely below straight lines, values are
Sign change and continuity, the curve, and the top of the not given to a very high
therefore the root is in the rectangle using the bigger y value degree of accuracy.
interval [1.3025, 1.3035] may not be entirely above the 6 (i) x y
and is therefore 1.303 curve, making your values 0 1
correct to 3 d.p. unreliable as bounds. 0.2 0.9615
9 (i) One point of intersection Rectangle using smaller y value: 0.4 0.8621
y y 0.6 0.7353
y = ex
4 0.8 0.6098
3 1 0.5

(ii) Upper bound is 0.8337

2 4 yr y r+1
y= x
1 xr x r+1 x
h Lower bound is 0.7337
–3 –2 –1 –10 1 2 3 4x
Rectangle using bigger y value: (iii) 0.8 to 1 d.p.
–2 y (iv) Increase the number of
rectangular strips
7 (i) 0.229 383 0
–3
4
y= –4 yr
(ii) 2.3 ln 2.3 − 2 ln 2 − 0.3,
x

y r+1 0.0059%
x rh x r+1 x 8 Trapezium rule with 8 strips
As you increase the number gives 0.3749, sum of
of strips, the accuracy of the 8 rectangles below the
approximation increases. curve gives 0.3667, so the
area is 0.37 to 2 d.p.
9 (i) 0.683

559
 Practice questions 3 (ii) C A
=4
= u − v, so
and E must
8 (i) A is when t = −2,
x = −3, y = 0; B is
(page 316) CE 1 C A
when t = 2, x = 5,
therefore lie on AC
y = 8. [4]
1 dm =
dt
k [1] (as CE is in the same
dy
dy
m direction as CA). [2] (ii) dx dx
22 t
= =dt+ . [2]
When t = 0, m = 9, and 5 (i) f ′(x) = 8 cos 2x − 3x [1]
2
dy
dt
2
dm = 10, so 10 = k
= xn − 4 sin 2xnxn
− 3 = when
0
dt 3 xn+1 [1] dx
8cos 2xn − 3xn2
⇒ k = 30, sodm = 30 . [2] 2 + 2t = 0 ⇒ t = −1 [1]
dt m x 0 = 1, 1.416 67, when t = −1, x = −1,
1.297 23, 1.288 64,
2 F 1+F 2+F 3= 1.288 59, so
y = −1, so turning
[2]
(2ai + 3bj) + (−bi + aj) + point is (−1, −1).
x = 1.29 (3 s.f.) [2]
(10i − 2j) = (ii)
f(1.285) = 0.042…,
(iii)
t x=1− 2
(2a − b + 10)i + (3b + a − 2)j
=0 [1]
f(1.295) = −0.0755…
and change of sign
⇒y 2= × − x
+
2
1 x
2
()
−1 2

⇒ 2a − b = −10, a + 3b = 2 means root is correct = x − 1 + 41 x2 − 12 x + 41

⇒ b = 2, a = −4 [3] to 3 s.f. [1] = 41 x2 + 12 x − 43 [3]
⎛ −2 ⎞ 6 (i) Interval is [−1.5, −1,4] as
9 (i)
3 (i) AB
= ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1⎟ ;
⎜− ⎟
f(−1.5) = −1.593 75 < 0
and f(−1.4) = 0.421 76 > 0. ∫ v(v3d v = − ∫ kt dt [1]
⎝ 1⎠ 3)−
[2] 3 = +A B
⎛ 2⎞ (ii) Using list function or v(v3)− v v−3
=− ⎜ ⎟ otherwise:
AC ⎜ 2⎟ ; ⇒ 3 (=3)−A+v Bv
f(−1.43) = −0.119 71,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −6 ⎠
v = 0 ⇒ 3 = −3A,
f(−1.42) = 0.066 466,
so A = −1
so root lies in
⎛ 4⎞
[2]
v = 3 ⇒ 3 = 3B,
=− ⎜ ⎟ [−1.43, −1.42].
so B = 1
BC ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ [2] (iii)
f(−1.425) = −0.0259, 3 = 1 − [3]
1
⎝ −5 ⎠ or interval to 3 d.p. is so v (v 3)− v 3 v
−
[−1.424, −1.423]
(ii) so root is closer to
3d v ⎡ 1 1 ⎤d ln( 3) ln
⇒ ∫ v(v3)− = ∫ ⎣⎢v − 3 − v ⎦⎥ =v v− − v
AB = − (+2)
+− 2
1 ( 1) 2 2 = 6; −1.42, to 2 d.p. [2] ⎡
v
AC = (2) 2( +2)−( +6)−2 2 = 44;
7 (i) x = 1 2 (x 3 − 5),
3d
∫ vso(v3)a− = 0.5
= ∫ 1 − 1 ⎤d ln(
⎣⎢v − 3 v ⎦⎥ =v v− − v
3) ln [1]
and b = −2.5 [1]
so ln(v − 3) − lnv = −kt + c
BC = 42 + − + −(2 5) =
(ii)
2
( 3) 50, x 1 = −2, x 2 = −6.5, −=3 e −kt+ c = A e −kt
so AB + AC = 6 + 44 = 50
2 2 x 3 = −139.8125. [1] ⇒ v v [2]
= BC 2, and by Pythagoras’ Divergent [1] when t = 0, v = 10 ⇒ A = 0.7 [1]
theorem triangle ABC is (iii)
x = √(2x + 5),
3
⇒ 1 − v3 = 0.7e −kt
right angled. [3] so c = 2 and d = 5. [1] ⇒ v3 = 1 − 0.7e −kt
4 (i) OD
=v +3
1 u; (iv)x 1 = 1.912 931 183,
⇒v =− 3
as required. [2]
=4
x 2 = 2.066 580 768, 1 0.7e kt
−

O E 3v + 1u ( 3
) x 3 = 2.090 292 423. [2] (ii)
As t → ∞, e → 0, so
−kt

= 43 v + 14 u; (v)f(2.085) = −0.106…, v → 3, and terminal

= −v + 4 f(2.095) = 0.005…, velocity is 3 m s−1 [2]
CE 3 v + 14 u change of sign so root
= 41 u − 14 v [3] lies in interval
[2.085, 2.095] and
root is 2.09 to 2 d.p. [2]

560
Review: Working medals. This is 81.6% of

with data D
the 207 countries.
UNCERTAIN. The

Discussion point (page 322) information is not

provided to draw this
The same They are illustrating the same data conclusion. It was in
Different Labels fact false with several
Frequency chart The vertical scale is labelled ‘Frequency’ large countries, e.g.
Histogram The vertical scale is labelled ‘Frequency India, Pakistan and
density’ Nigeria, getting no
Scales on the vertical axes gold medals but that
Frequency chart The vertical scale is the frequency information was not
Histogram The vertical scale is such that the areas given.
of the bars represent frequency. E TRUE. 1.49 + 2 × 4.79
Class intervals = 11.07 so countries
Frequency chart The class intervals are all the same, with 12 or more medals
10 seconds are identified as outliers.
Histogram The class intervals are not all the F FALSE. It is true that
same; some are 10 seconds but one is the mode is 0 but the
50 seconds. midrange is
+
Discussion point (page 325) 3 (i) 1.623 m and 0.152 m
0 46
2
23 not 0.
= and
So the combined
Sxx = 8, s 2 = =89 0.888…
, (ii) 31.7° C and 0.61° C
s = 0.888… = 0.943 (3 d.p.
) 4 (i) Positively skewed 6 (ii) (a)
statement is false.
5%
(ii) Median = 0, Q = 0,1
(b)
Exercise R.1 (page 326) Q =13

(iii) Since the lower quartile (c)

12%
About 11%
1 R.8 and median are both (iii) The distribution is
2 (i) The mean per capita zero you can’t draw the negatively skewed. You
GDP is much higher in box properly and there would expect this as
Western Europe than it is no whisker on the left. babies can arrive very
is in Eastern Europe. (iv) The large frequency
early but if a baby is
(ii) (a) 41 000 US$ for 0 gold medals means getting long overdue it is
(b) 8000 US$ that this group dominates common for the birth to
(iii) (a) Both 30 000 to displays such as vertical be induced.
40 000 US$ and line charts and stem and (iv) The label ‘births’ means
40000 to 50000 US$ leaf diagrams, making it their frequency. The unit
(b) 20000 to 30000 US$ difficult to see the details. on the horizontal scale
(c) 20000 to 30000 US$ 5 A FALSE. 309 medals is 1 day so ‘per day’ is
(iv) Modal group were awarded and
the same as ‘per unit’ or
(v) Western Europe ‘density’.
39 000 US$ Eastern
between them the top
4 countries won 118 of
7 (i) 4.79
Europe 16 000 US$ them, so less than half. (ii)
(vi) (a) 15 941 US$ B TRUE. There were
∑ ( x x− = ) ∑ (x xx− x+2
2 2 2 )
(b) They do not take 309 medals and 207 = ∑ x − 2∑ (xx
2 ) + ∑x 2
the sizes of the countries, giving a mean
populations of the = ∑ x x−x 2nx ∑ +
2 2
309 =
various countries of 1.492… = 1.5
207 = ∑ x x−nx×2 nx
2 + () 2
into account. to 1 d.p.
Weighted means C TRUE. 148 + 21 = 169 = ∑ x nx− nx
2
2 + 22

would be better. countries got 0 or 1 gold = ∑ x nx−22

(vii) 19th or 20th

561
 (iii) If you are working by
hand and the mean, x,
important, e.g. age, and
classify the data for it. Then
Chapter 15
has several decimal he should write down some
possible stratified samples.
Opening activity (page 332)
places, working out the
individual deviations can He should then classify the
(i) A civil case between two
parties is decided on the
be tedious. So in such data in his other chosen
‘balance of probabilities’.
fields and see in which of
cases it is easier to use
the x∑ −2 form.nx 2 the possible samples those
(ii) In a criminal case there is an
8 Cleaning involves looking strata are as well represented
assumption that the accused
is innocent and must be
through a data set to check as possible, given the small
proved guilty ‘beyond
for the following: size of the sample he is
reasonable doubt’, i.e. with
selecting. Note that a
Outliers: Example – Bob a very high probability.
random sample may not
Roberts’s age is given as 138
turn out to be all that Review exercise (page 335)
Errors: Example – Debbie
Lane’s distance from home
representative when, like
this, the size is small. So, in
1 (i) 2 6
is 75 km this case, a stratified sample (ii) 3 6
Missing entries: Example –
11
is preferable.
With the exception of
(iii) 16
the time of Simon Sefton’s
accident is missing
people’s names, all the fields (iv) 1
could be relevant to this (v) 0
Format: Example – use of comparison, some more 2 (i) True
12 hour and 24 hour clock obviously so than others. So (ii) False. There are two
for times of accidents the first thing is to decide ways of selecting those
9 Averages could be calculated which fields you are two cards: first 7 , then
for age, distance from home; going to use. Then, starting 8 or first 8 then 7 .
nights in hospital and with the most important Each has a probability
possibly time of accident. field, divide the data for of 1 × =1 1
52 51 2652
It would be best to look each field into two subsets: so the overall probability
at the distributions before younger cyclists and
deciding which average. The older cyclists. Compare is 2 × = 1
2652
2 .
2652
other fields are categorical their total frequencies and (iii) True
(including the number of
the police officer reporting
their distributions. This (iv) False. There are 4 fours
comparison may show there and 13 hearts but the
the accident), and so no are no differences, which 4 is repeated. So
average is appropriate. is interesting because it the total number is
However for some of these suggests that both groups 4 + 13 − 1 = 16 and the
the modal class may be may be equally at risk. probability is 16 .
52
helpful, for example, the On the other hand, the
day of the week. comparison may show up (v) False. The probability
10 Robin would want his case differences and that too
that the first card is a
studies to be as representative is interesting. It suggests spade is 13 = 1 but
52 4
as possible so he should respects in which one for the second card
look for different groups, group is more at risk than there would be only
or strata within the data. the other. This in turn could 12 spades left out of
Obvious fields are: age, lead to intervention policies 51 cards and 12 ≠ .1
cause and injuries. Next to reduce the risk. 51 4
he should decide which of (vi) True.
these he thinks is the most

562
3 0.9
4 0.42
Discussion point (page 340) 2 0.12 car stolen

It seems unrealistic to think that break-in

5 0.28 any witness would select someone 0.07 car not
6 (i) x = 3, y = 14, z = 11 in an identity parade entirely at
0.88
stolen

(ii) 1730 , 3025 , 3028 , 3014 random, let alone all four doing
0.12 car stolen
so. It is also unlikely that any 0.93
(iii) 2830 + 1430 = 4230 court would convict someone on
no
break-in
= 17 + 25 car not
30 30 the evidence of only one out of 0.88
stolen
four witnesses.
(iv) Since BP(F ∩ ) 0≠
(i) 0.0084
both B and F can occur. However, this example raises an (ii) 0.1732
There are nights when important statistical idea about (iii) 0.1816
both badgers and foxes
visit the garden.
how we make judgements and
decisions.
3 (i)
7 0.57 1

8 Judgements are usually made 1 12 correct

correct
0.6 12 wrong

9 (i) under conditions of uncertainty 11

correct 12
and involve us in having to 1
12
1
12 correct
% (85) 11 wrong
C H
weigh up the plausibility of 12
11 wrong
12
one explanation against that of
1
another. Statistical judgements 1 12 correct
9 13 42 12 correct
are usually made on such a basis. 11
12
11
12
wrong
wrong
We choose one explanation if we 1
12 correct
21
judge the alternative explanation 11
12
wrong
wrong
11
to be sufficiently unlikely, that 12

(ii) (a) 6485 = 0.753 is, if the probability of its being (ii) (a) 0.00058
(b) 1385 = 0.153
true is sufficiently small. Exactly (b) 0.77
how small this probability has to (c) 0.020
(iii) 6485 = 2285 + −5585 1385 be will depend on the individual (iii) (a) 0.0052
(iv) 8521 = −1 6485
circumstances and is called the (b) 0.52
significance level. (c) 0.094
(v) 30% of those not Somebody on trial is assumed 4 0.93
wearing helmets suffered innocent until shown to be 5 (i) 0.2436
from concussion guilty beyond reasonable doubt; (ii) 0.7564
compared with reasonable doubt must mean a (iii) 0.2308
24% of those wearing very small probability that the (iv) 0.4308
helmets. person is innocent. 6 (i) 0.0741
(ii) 0.5787
You would expect lower
concussion rates among Exercise 15.1 (page 341) 7
(iii) 0.5556
those wearing helmets 1 0.51 boy
For a sequence of events you
multiply the probabilities.
and this is what the boy
However, 61 × 16 × 16 × 16 ×
0.51
data indicate. However 0.49 girl 1 × 1 gives the probability
the actual percentages, 6 6
of six 6s in six throws. To
30% and 24%, are too find the probability of at
0.51 boy
close for it to be safe to 0.49
least one 6 you need
girl
draw any conclusions 1 – P(No 6s) and that is
on statistical grounds, 0.49 girl
1 – 56 × 56 × 56 × 56 × 56 × 56
particularly given the (i) 0.2401 = 0.665.
small number of cyclists (ii) 0.5002
involved. (iii) 0.4998

563
 8 0.5833 (viii) 0.0022 7 (i)
9 0.31 (ix) 0.000 95 ε
10 (i) 0.1667 (x) 0.48 J M
(90)

(ii) 0.1389 2 (i) (a) 0.031 10 5 28

(iii) 0.1157 (b) 0.078 5

(iv) 0.5787
6
(c) 0.043
3
29
11 (i) (d) 0.061 4
LH
24
44 H (e) 0.000 86
44 M (f) 0.11 Key:
88
20 H′ (g) 0.014 J = juniors

(ii) Those sentences for M = males

44
LH = left-handed players
9 motoring offences
44
88 M′
44 H
would probably have (ii) (a) 1 4
35 H′ shorter sentences than (b) 1 6
44
others so are likely to
(ii) (a) 24 88 represent less than 1.5% (c) 28 45

(b) 5588 of the prison population (d) 4 5

at any time.
(iii) 3 (i) 35 (e) 19 24
H H′ Total
M 24 20 44
100
(ii) 42100 (f) 10 39
M′ 9 35 44 8 (i)
Total 33 55 88
(iii) 1565 M F Ᏹ

(iv) The probability of being 4 (i) 1 6 13

kept in hospital after an (ii) 5 12 41 H

accident involving a
motor vehicle, 24
(iii) 25 15 13
44 , is
greater than that after an 5 (i) 30 (ii) (a) 26 82
accident not involving a (ii) 7 40
motor vehicle, 9 (b) 54 82
44 . (iii) 710
(c) 1354
Discussion point (page 345) (iv) 715
(d) 1326 2= 1
P(T | S) = 109
169
= 0.645 6 (i) (iii) Robin might say,‘Our
43 Hunter Hunter Total
P(T | S ′) = dies lives
figures suggest that
87 =
0.494 males are more likely to
So P(T | S) ≠ P(T | S ′) Quark 1 5 1
12 12 2 be wearing a helmet
dies
Exercise 15.2 (page 348) Quark 2 1 1
than females. Using them
we estimate that
1 (i) 0.6 lives 12 3 2
the probability that
(ii) 0.556 1
4
3
4 1 someone is wearing a
(iii) 0.625 helmet given that the
(iv) 0.047 (ii) 1 12 person is male,
(v) 0.321 (iii) 512 41 = 0.73, and the
56
(vi) 0.075 probability that someone
(vii) 0.028 (iv) 56 is wearing a helmet
given that the person is
female, 13
= 0.5 .’
26

564
Chapter 16 true figure is greater than
70%. However, it is not
2 (i) 1
20

Opening activity (page 351) certain, as the organiser (ii) Uniform distribution
(iii) 0.5
For accurate estimates you must
(iii)
claims.
70.4% for the 15 to
3 (i)
leave your thought experiment r 012345
29 group and 44% for
behind and go out and collect P(Y = r)
3 5 4 3 2 1
those over 29. These 18 18 18 18 18 18
some real data.
lower figures suggest (ii) The distribution has
Review exercise (page 352) that the campaign positive skew.
1 (i) X ~ B(100, 0.25) is influencing the P(Y = r)
0.3
(ii) 25 (given by np) behaviour of young 0.25
(iii) 0.049 people, particularly 0.2

(iv) 0.149 children, but is not very 0.15

0.1
effective with older
2 (i) B( ) 7, 61 where p is the
people. However, they
0.05
00
1 2345 r
probability of scoring a 6 are based on the small
(ii) C 1( ) (5 )0 =
7
numbers of cyclists (iii) (a) 2
3
77 6 6
0.00000357
involved in accidents so (b) 1
2
(iii)
280 000
can only be estimates
4 (i) k = 0.4
3 (i) (a)
0.282
of the overall figures in
Avonford, where the
r 2468
(b)
0.526 campaign has been held.
P(X = r) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(ii)
75 (ii) (a) 0.3
(iii)
0.049
(iv)
Exercise 16.1 (page 358) 5 (i) k =
(b) 0.35 20
They may well be
related and so their
1 (i) r P(X = r) P(X = r)
49
1 0.45
characteristics (i.e. the 2 36
2 0.4
colour of their spots) 3 36 0.35
3
may not be independent. 4 36 0.3
4 (i) (a)
20 5
4
36
0.25

(b) 5 0.2
0.3 6 36 0.15
(c)
0.7 7 6
36 0.1
(ii)
It is 1 − 0.952 = 0.048, 8 5
36
0.05
00
so 4.8% 9
4
21 43657 r
(iii)
36
a=3 3
(ii) 0.248 (to 3 s.f.)
5
10
6 (i)
36
P(X < 11) = 0.697
6 (i)
2
11 36 r 0123
0.392 1 1 3 3 1
(ii)
0.556
12 36 P(X = r) 8 8 8 8

(iii)
3 (ii) The distribution is (ii) The distribution is
7 (i) (a)
0.016 59 symmetrical. symmetrical.
(b)
0.003 69
P(X = r)
0.18
P(X = r)

(c)
0.4
0.000 39 0.16
0.35
(d)
0.020 67
0.14
0.12 0.3
(ii)
If 70% of this age group 0.1
0.08
0.25
are wearing helmets, then 0.06
0.2
the probability of 20 or 0.04 0.15
0.02 0.1
more out of a sample of 00 0.05
22 wearing helmets is 2 4 6 8 10 12 r
00
given by the answer to (iii) (a) 5 321 r

part (i)(d);
it is 0.020 67. (b)
18
1
(iii) 21
This is indeed small so 2
it is very likely that the (c) 2
3 (iv) No. Could get 2H, 2T
565
 7 (i) 10 (i) 3
2
8 R
initial value of N is the
r 1 2 3 4 6 8 9 12 16 9 R
6 B number of people in the
P(X = r)
1 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1
4
R 8
3
sample, in this case 92.

Discussion point (page 366)

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 10 8 R
6 B

(ii)
9 B
1 5
8
4
In both cases the vertical scale
8 (i) a = 0.42
3
4 8 R
9 R is frequency density and so the
(ii) k = 1 6 5 B
10
35
B 8
area under the graph represents
(iii) Since the probability
4
5 B
8 R frequency.
9 B
distributions look quite 4

Exercise 16.2 (page 372)

8
different, the model is (ii) r 0123

P(X = r)
not a good one.
P(X = r)
1
6
1
2
3
10
1
30 1 (i) 0.631
0.45
11 (i) (ii) 0.252
0.4
(iii)0.117
0.35
0.3
Nights 0 1 2 3 4 5 >5 No data 2 (i) 0.8413
0.25 Frequency 58 23 5 2 0 2 2 1
(ii) 0.0228
0.2
(ii) (iii)0.1359
0.15
Sum = −(1 p )(1 + +p +p = 2− ×...−)1 ( ) 3 p 1 4.825)
N (5.349,
) p 1
=
4
0.1
0.05
= −(1 p )(1 + +p + ) ( ) 1 (i)(10.0668
00 Sum
1 2 3 4
p
5 r
2
... = −1 p
× −
(1 p ) 1
=
(ii) 0.6915
9 (i) P(X = 1) = 1
(iii) (iii)0.2417
216 5 (i) 0.0668
(ii) P(X < 2) = 216
8 Nights 0 1 2 3 4 5 >5
(ii) 0.1587
Frequency 59.8 20.9 7.3 2.6 0.9 0.3 0.2
(iii)0.7745
(iii) 27
P(X < 3) = 216 , (iv) They are a good match, 6 (i) 78.9%
19
P(X = 3) = 216 ; but the real data have (ii) 0.5
64 more high values, 7 (i) 106
P(X < 4) = 216 , including the two (ii) 75 and 125
37
P(X = 4) = 216 ; outliers, 8 and 40. (iii)39 or 40
125 (v) p is the probability 8 (i) 0.246
P(X < 5) = 216 , that someone who (ii) 0.0796
61
P(X = 5) = 216 ; is at hospital in the (iii)0.0179
P(X < 6) = 1, daytime will be detained (iv) The Normal distribution
overnight, and (1 − p) is used for continuous
91
P(X = 6) = 216 is the probability that data and so covers
(iv) The distribution has the person will be non-integer values that
have to be rounded to
negative skew. discharged.
P(X = r) So if there are N people find the nearest integer
0.45 values of the binomial
0.4 at hospital on one day,
N(1 − p) of them will distribution.
0.35
0.3 be discharged and Np 9 (i) 0.0038
0.25
of them will be kept (ii) 0.5
0.2
in overnight. So at (iii) 0.495
0.15
0.1 the start of the next 10 (i) 31, 1.98
0.05
00
day Np of the people (ii) 2.0, 13.5, 34.4, 34.4,
1 2 3 4 5 6 r will be in hospital. Of 13.5, 2.0
these Np(1 − p) will be (iii) More data would need
discharged and Np 2 will to be taken to say reliably
be kept for a further that the weights are
night, and so on. The Normally distributed.

566
11 (i) 0.309
(ii) 0.383
Chapter 17 (v) n = 17;
P(X < 13) = 0.0826 > 5%;
(iii) 7 881 daffodils
12 (i) (a) 0.315 Opening activity (page 376) not sufficient evidence
to reject H 0.
Medicines are only licensed after
(b) 0.307 undergoing extensive trials (vi) Critical region is
(ii) Assuming the answer supported by rigorous statistical X < 12, since
to part (i)(b) is correct, P(X < 12) = 0.0221
tests.
4 (i) (a)
Review exercise (page 380)
there is a 7.6% error. 0.0278
Worse. (b) 0.0384
(iii)
0.5245 1 (i) 2; 1.195 (ii) Let p = P(blackbird
13 (i) The areas of the bars (ii) P(2 defectives in 10) = is male) H 0: p = 0.5,
give the numbers of 0.302; in 50 samples H 1: p > 0.5
people they represent. of 10, the expected (iii) Result is significant
14 + 25 + 16 + 10 + 6 number of samples with at the 5% significance
+ 19 + 1 = 91. two defectives is 15.1 level.
(ii)
It is not symmetrical which agrees well with Critical region is X > 12.
(positively skewed). It is the observed 15 (iv) You would be more
bimodal. (iii) H 0: P(mug defective) = reluctant to accept H 1.
(iii) 0.2; H 1: Although H 0 is still
Age, a years Frequency density P(mug defective) < 0.2; p = 0.5, the sampling
0 < <a 10 0.836 n = 20 method is likely to give
a non-random sample.
10 < <a 20 1.363 P(0 or 1 defective mug) =
0.0692;Accept H 0 since
5 (i) (a) 0.0991
20 < <a 30 1.743 0.0692 > 5% (b) 0.1391
30 < <a 40 1.743 It is not reasonable
(ii) Let p = P(seed
germinates)
40 < <a 50 1.363 to assume that the
proportion of defective H 0: p = 0.8,
50 < <a 70 0.618
mugs has been reduced. H 1: p > 0.8, since a
higher germination
70 < <a 90 0.098 (iv)
Opposite conclusion
rate is suspected.
since 0.0692 > 10%
(iv) It would represent 2 (i) Let p = P(business (iii) Critical region is
8.36 + 13.63 + 17.43 operates no smoking
X > 17, since
+ 17.43 + 13.63 + 12.37 policy) H 0: p = 0.7, P(X > 17) = 0.0991 < 10% but
+ 1.96 = 84.81. H 1: p < 0.7
P(X > 16) = 0.2713 > 10%.
The left hand tail of the (ii)
k < 10 (iv) (a)
When p = 0.8 he
Normal distribution (iii)
k<1 reaches the wrong
(i.e. the part for negative (iv)
For 19 businesses, conclusion if he
ages) has been excluded. P(H 0 rejected) = 0.1855 rejects H 0, i.e. if
(v) It would give a partial
For 4 businesses, X > 17, with
explanation. However,
a Normal population P(H 0 rejected) = 0.1265 probability 0.0991.
with mode in the 60s The 19 business test is (b)
When p = 0.82 he
would inevitably be reaches the wrong
preferable because
quite small. Taking it conclusion if he fails
it gives a greater
away from the main to reject H 0, i.e. if
probability of rejecting
population would H 0 when it should be
X < 16, with
still leave a positive probability
rejected.
skew. 3 (i) 0.430
6 (i)
0.0417
1 − 0.1391 = 0.8609.
(ii)
0.9619
(ii)
(iii)
0.0046
0.0592
(iii)
(iv)
H 0: p = 0.9, H 1: p < 0.9
0.0833

567
 (iv) 0.1184 Activity 17.1 (page 387) (ii) H m = 14 sea miles,
0:

(v) Let p = P(man selected) 1-tail 2-tail H m < 14 sea miles

1:

H 0: p = 0.5, H 1: p ≠ 0.5 10% 1.282 1.645 (iii) z = −2.284, significant

P(X < 4 or X > 11) =
5% 1.645 1.960
(iv) Choosing 36 consecutive
0.1184 > 5% days to collect data is
There is not sufficient 1
22 % 1.960 2.240 not a good ideas because
evidence to reject H 0, so it weather patterns will
1% 2.320 2.576
is reasonable to suppose that ensure that the data

Exercise 17.1 (page 389)

the process is satisfactory. are not independent.
(vi)4 < w < 11 A better sampling
7 (i) Let p be the proportion 1 (i) Z = 1.53, not significant procedure would be to
of those in this age (ii) Z = −2.37, significant choose every tenth day.
group having accidents (iii) Z = 1.57, not significant In this way the effects
who are boys. (iv) Z = 2.25, significant of weather patterns over
H 0: p = 0.5 Boys and (v) Z = −2.17, significant the year would be
girls of this age group 2 (i) 0.3085 eliminated.
are equally likely to (ii) 0.0062 8 (i)998.6, 7.055
have cycling accidents (iii) H m = 4.00 g,
0: (ii)
H 0: m = 1000,
H 1: m > 4.00 g H 1: m < 1000
H 1: p > 0.5 Boys are
more likely than girls to z = 3, significant (iii)
z = −1.59, not
3 (i) H 0: m = 72.7 g, significant
have accidents.
1-tail test, using
H 1: m ≠ 72.7 g; 9 H 0: m = 0, H 1: m ≠ 0;
Two-tail test. z = 0.98,
binomial B(20, 0.5)
(ii)
z = 1.84, not significant not significant
Significance level 10% (iii)
No, significant 10 (i) 16.2, 5.231
The p-value for the 4 (i) H 0: m = 23.9°, (ii)
H 0: m = 15, H 1: m > 15
observed number of H 1: m > 23.9° (iii)
z = 1.986, not
boys is P(X > 13), (ii)
z = 1.29, significant significant
where X ∼ B(20, 0.5) (ii)
4.54; this is much greater 11 (i) 1.977, 0.132
and this is 0.1316. than 2.3 so the ecologist (ii)
H 0: m = 2, H 1: m < 2
Since 0.1316 > 0.10, the should be asking whether (iii)
z = −1.68, not
result is not significant. the temperature has significant
H 0 is accepted. become more variable. 12 (i) 104.7, 3.019
The data do not provide
5 (i) You must assume it has (ii)
H 0: m = 105,
a Normal distribution. H 1: m ≠ 105
sufficient evidence to
support Sally's conjecture. (ii)
H 0: m = 470 days, (ii)
z = −0.89, not
H 1: m > 470 days significant
(ii) Overall 66% of the
(iii)
z = 3.02, significant 13 (i) Probability = 1
accidents are males.
Among the under-13s (iv)More time to produce
7,
Expectation = 13.143,
offspring the distribution is
the figure is 65%. This
suggests that this age
6 (i) You must assume that uniform.
group are no different
the speeds are Normally
distributed.
(ii) At the 10% significance
in this respect from level the evidence
people of all ages. (ii)
H 0: m = 80 mph, suggests the distribution
H 1: m ≠ 80 mph
(iii) The data do not provide
z = 2.28, significant
is not uniform, but at
evidence as to the cause the 5%, 2.5% and 1%
of the disparity. Further (iii)
Yes: z = 1.33, not levels the evidence is
significant not strong enough for
data, directly related to
the suggestions, would
7 (i) You must assume that the hypothesis that the
the visibilities are distribution is uniform
need to be collected to
Normally distributed. to be rejected.
establish to what extent
they are valid.
568
 So it is marginal Activity 17.3 (page 394) (iii) (a) Negative association
whether or not the The calculation in the example (b) Countries with high
distribution is uniform. followed these steps. GDP per capita
(iii) Patterns of cycling are
Work out ∑ (xi − 17 )(yi − 10 ).
tend to have low
different. On weekdays birth rates.
some people cycle to Then divide it by the number of 2 (i) (a) Positive association
work, and students cycle points. Then divide by the rmsd
for x and the rmsd for y.
(b) Both variables are
to school or college. random but the
At the weekend people In this 17 is the mean value of relationship is not
cycle more for leisure. x so can be replaced by x. linear.
(iv) The number in the Similarly 10 can be replaced by (ii) (a) Positive association
Avonford data set is 92. y . The number of points is n. (b) This is a time series
Standard deviation = and so correlation
The root mean squared
92 × ×75 = 72 4.333, is not appropriate
deviation of x is given by
because the time
mean = ∑ (x i x− )2
(in this case X) is
92 × =75 65.714 rmsd =
n not random.
Using continuity and similarly for y. (iii) (a)Neither
correction So the calculation becomes (b)The two variables
− are independent so
z 71.5
= 65.714
4.333
= 1.3352
xxyy xx there is neither
F(1.335) = 0.9090 n n correlation nor
Probability = 1 − 0.9090 association.
= 0.0910 (iv) (a) Positive correlation
(v) H =p 5
0: 7
(b) Both variables are
random and the
⎡ ⎤
∑( − H)(1: p> −5
7
)
÷⎢
∑( − )2
×
∑( i − ) 2
⎥ relationship is linear.
⎢
1-tail test at 5% ⎥ (v) (a) Neither
⎣
significance level
⎦
(b) X is controlled and
Since 0.0910 > 0.05, The n cancels out and so this so not random and
the null hypothesis is becomes the value of Y is
accepted. ∑ (xi x−y y)( i − ) determined by it
The evidence does not
r = . so is not random
∑ (xi x− )2 × ∑ (yi y− )2
either.
suggest that accidents
(vi) (a)
are more common
on weekdays than at
Activity 17.4 (page 399) (b)
Negative correlation
Both variables are
weekends. This can be done by calculator random but the
or by using the method in relationship is linear.
Discussion point (page 392) Example 17.5. 3 (i) Positive correlation
A (ii) x = 8, 6y =
Negative correlation, Exercise 17.2 (page 401) 4 Sachin is not correct. The
providing both variables
are random
1 (i) (a) Negative correlation data clearly belong to two
B Positive correlation, (b) Countries with high distinct groups and so it is
life expectancy tend not appropriate to calculate
providing both variables
to have low birth a correlation coefficient. In
are random
C Negative association
(ii) (a)
rates. fact there is no significant
D Two distinct groups
(b)
Positive association
Countries with high
correlation in either of the
two groups; if you work
showing neither correlation
GDP per capita out the values of r, they are
nor association
tend to have high 0.316 for x < 15 and −0.1
life expectancy. for x > 15.

569
 5 (i) H 0:r = 0, H 1: r > 0 (ii) Both are random. correlation coefficient.
(ii)Accept H 1. The evidence (iii) There are places where Knowing the value
suggest that there is several points lie on of the pmcc can add
a positive correlation straight horizontal lines nothing new to Robin's
between performance in corresponding to whole understanding of the
the high jump and the numbers of kilometres. situation.
long jump. Ages are rounded down
6 (i) H 0: r = 0, H 1: r < 0
(ii) (iv)
to the nearest integer.
Practice questions:
Accept H 1
(iii)Correlation does
The independent
variable is Age and the Statistics (page 407)
not imply causation.
There may be other
dependent variable is
Distance from home.
1 (i) Only 5 countries show
a value over 50 minutes,
explanations for the high It is reasonable to think
and 24 countries show
divorce rates in some that people cycle further
a value below. Of the
countries and the low from home because they
two countries with the
rates in others. Perhaps are older.
biggest populations, India
Charlotte should collect It is not reasonable to
is considerably above
some data herself to think that people are
50 minutes and China
highlight the dangers older because they cycle
is just below. It isn’t
of drinking alcohol, e.g. further from home.
possible to be certain,
wine consumption/liver (v) H0 : There is no
but the figure may be
disease. association between the
7 (ii) H 0: r = 0, H 1: r > 0 distance from home
plausible, particularly
if it is rounded. [2]
(iii)
Accept H 1 at which people have
(ii)
(iv) Giving more training accidents and their ages. 50 minutes per day is
about 304 hours per
to employees does tend H1 : There is a positive
year. This is roughly
to keep staff with the association between the
39 days of 7.8 hours,
company. distance from home
8 (ii) r s = 0.79, strong positive at which people have
2
so 39 working days. [2]
It should say ‘in a Normal
association accidents and their ages.
9 (i) 0.54 The p-value provides
distribution (about) 95% of
the distribution is within
(ii) 0.54 extremely strong
2 standard deviations of the
(iii)They are the same evidence in favour of the 2
mean’ (or about 3 within
because they use alternative hypothesis.
alternative ways to There is virtually no 1 standard deviation). [1]
calculate this measure chance of seeing data Replace 2s with 4s (or
of association. like these unless there change the percentage) in
10 0.94 is an association in the the diagram. [1]
11 (i) 0.50 underlying population. 3 (i) There may be fewer
(ii) −0.242 (vi) The scatter diagram slugs to be seen in the
(iv) Apart from one outlier, suggests that the winter months. There
(10,12), the data show data are not drawn may be fewer observers
negative correlation. from a bivariate looking for slugs in the
Without knowing more Normal distribution; winter months. [2]
about the outlier it is the departure from (ii) 93 (in month 8) is an
not possible to evaluate Normality looks clear anomalous dip. It could
the two measures. and considerable. be just randomness in the
13 (i) Outliers have been Consequently, no useful sampling. Or, noting that
considered. Missing interpretation can be the other observations in
data items have been made of the value of month 8 are low, it could
excluded. the product moment be that there are fewer

570
 observers in August: 6 (i)
4 = m + 1.0364s and 8 (i) Mean wing lengths
perhaps they are on 2 = m − 0.8416s [2] differ by about 2 SDs;
holiday. [2] Solve: m = 2.90 mean weights differ
(iii) The rise and fall in the and s = 1.06 [2] 1
by about 4 of an SD.
figures is consistent with (ii)
H 0: m = 3.2, where μ is So there is much more
an annual life cycle. the population mean overlap of weights than
However the low figures yield for variety B there is of wing lengths.
are also consistent with H 1: m < 3.2 [2] So the comment is
other hypotheses – for (iii)
Sample mean is correct. [3]
example that slugs
hibernate in the winter –
3.06 kg. Critical ratio is
−
3.06 3.2
(ii) Females’ weights will
= − 1.556 [2] vary according to
so it isn’t possible 0.9 ÷ 100 whether or not they
to say. [2] Compare with have recently laid eggs.
4 (i) Use X ~ B(10, 0.65) to z = −1.645 [1] Males’ weights will not
find P(X > 5) = 0.751. [2] Accept H 0; insufficient have this element of
(ii) H 0: p = 0.65 where p reason to suppose his variation. [1]
is the probability of
choosing the quickest
yield will be below 3.2.
[1]
(iii) The vertical ‘striping’ in
the data corresponds to
check-out when there (iv)
Assumption: the SD is the wing lengths being
are three available. still 0.9. This is the best recorded to the nearest
H 1: p < 0.65 [2] information available, millimetre. [1]
(iii) P(X < 8) = 0.0060, but the SD for the
(iv) The data cloud looks
P(X < 9) = 0.020, so farmer’s crop could be broadly elliptical. So it is
k = 0, 1, 2, …,7. [3] different. [2] appropriate to carry out
(iv) The first 20 visits might (v)Assumption: the farmer’s the standard test on the
be sufficiently random if, crop is a random sample pmcc. [2]
for example, they were
at different times of day.
(of typical conditions on
his land). If, for example,
(v) There is almost no
chance (probability
However, patterns of all the trial plants were less than 1 in 10 6) that
behaviour, by staff and grown in the same so strong a correlation
customers, might be location this might be would be obtained
different immediately untypical of the land in a sample of this
after opening a third as whole. In that case size if there were no
check-out. Also, it is the mean yield is not a underlying correlation
possible that the person reliable estimate. [2] in the population. [2]
asking the question is 7 (i)
k (11 + +21 + =13 , 41 ) 1 (vi) It seems very likely
still learning in the that there would be
first 20 trials. [2] so k = 125 60 = .12 [2]
25 strong evidence for a
5 (i) (a) 0.4 × 0.7 × 0.2 (ii)
Vertical line chart. [1] correlation in the male
+ 0.4 × 0.3 × 0.8 (iii)
P X X k 11 + +41 + = blackbirds too. However,
+ 0.6 × 0.7 × 0.8 it is not certain. [1]
= 0.488 = X 2 ) = k 2 (1 + +1 + 1 1 ) = 41 [2]
P (X 1[2] 1 4 9 16 125 It would not have been
(b)1 − 0.6 × 0.3 × 0.2
P (X 1 < X 2 ) = 21 (1 − 125 41 ) = 42 sensible to work with
= 0.964 [2] 125 males and females
(ii) P(successful on all 3)P (X < X ) = 1 (1 − 41 ) = 42
1 2 2 125 125 [2] as a single sample.
= 0.4 × 0.7 × 0.8 = 0.224 Combining two
P(successful on all 3 | separate samples can
successful on at least 1) often lead to spurious or
P(successful on all 3 ∩ successful on at least 1) misleading results. [1]
=
P(successful on at least 1)
= 0.224
[3]
0.964 = 0.232
571
 Chapter 18 (0, 0); (2, 8); (8, 16);
(18, 24); (32, 32)
(ii) 5 s
(iii) 33.5 m s , 63.4°
−1

Review exercise (page 419) (iii)

8j; 4i + 8j; 8i + 8j;
(iv)
(or 116.6°)
1 (i) v 12i + 8j; 16i + 8j
(iv)
21.5 m s
−1 + −6 9 t6) i( )
a = −(12 t j
is never 0
2
⎛− ⎞ ⎛0 ⎞
25 4⎟
= ⎜
v ⎜− ⎟ ; =
⎝ 5⎠
a ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝0 ⎠ 12 (i) 16.9 m s −1
(ii)
3 4.47 m s ; −153°
10
−2
⎛ 23 − +t t 2 ⎞ ⎛ 6⎞
O 30 t
4 (i) 201 t i + 301 t j 2 3 ⎜
⎜− + −
tt
⎟
2⎟
⎜ ⎟
(ii) 30 s r = ⎜ 5 2 0.5 ⎟,
⎜ −5⎟
⎜ ⎟
(iii) 2275 m (ii) 5i33+ 1 3 j ⎜
⎝ 8 +2 t 2
⎟
⎠
⎜⎝ 40⎟⎠

(iv) v = 10 + 0.5t; 0 < t < 30 5 v =2 t i6+ ( t t− )j; 2 2 13 (i) A: vsin 35 cos

°i+ 35v °°j
v = 25; t > 30
2 (i) 3 m s −1
2 t 3i + (3t 2 − 1 t3 )j
B: −8.66 + i5j

(ii) 2.25 m s −1
r = 3 3 (ii) A: vt sin 35°i + vt cos 35°j;
3 (i) 200 m 6 15.3° (iii)
B: (5 8.66− 5 t )ti j+

7 8.11 m s
−1
(ii) 30 s −1 6.1 km h
(iii) 150 m 8 (i) initial velocity = (iv) 0.4111… hours =
4 (i) 1.875 m s −2
=
initial velocity 3.54 i − 3.54 j
14 (i)
24.7 min
2t 2 i 4j+ t
(ii) 14.6 m s −1
v(ii) =8.54 11.46
i+ j;
5 (i) 3 m s −1
r =52.0 14.6
i+ j (ii) 3 t 2 3i +2 t 2 j
(ii) 50 m ⎛ 15 ⎞ (iii) 61 t i + 23 t j
4 3

(iii) 9.6 m s −2
9 (i) v = ⎜ ⎟;
(iv) 35 m 10 t ⎠
⎝16 − (iv) speed 9.61 m s −1
; 56.3°
(v) 5.25 m ⎛ 0⎞
to i direction.
6 78.4 m a = −⎜ ⎟ 15 +
20 i10j ; 5Ts; =125 m
7 (i) 4.11 s (ii) 1.6 s
⎝ 10⎠
16 (i) 16 cm
(ii) −20.2 m s −1
(iii) 22.8 m s (ii)
20 cm
8 16 s
−1

(iv) =y+ 2 1615 x − 451 x (iii)

0 cm s , 0 cm s ;
−1 −1

9 (i) 3.5 m s , −3 m s
2
−1 −2
10 (i) 20 cm s−1, −16 cm −1s
(ii) 21 m13 (iv)t = 0, r A = r B = 16j
position (metres)

t = 2, r A = r B = 20i
10 (i) v = 3t − 8t + 6; 2
2 (v)All components are
s = t 3 − 4t2 + 6t + 4 zero, so model B is
(ii) v = −10t + 12; 0
better.
17 (i)
0 4 8 12 16
s = −5t + 12t − 2
2
t (seconds)

Discussion point (page 423) (0, 2); (4, 2); (8, 1.6);
(12, 0.8); (16, −0.4)
y 10

y = 0 when t = 2.4 and then the

(ii)
0 x
projectile hits the ground. v =20 i + − t) j i j −
(1 10 ;20
v =20 i + − t) j i j −
(1 10 ;20 –10

Exercise 18.1 (page 430) (iii) −10j No it doesn’t, maximum

1 (i) v =4 t i8+ j (iv) =y+ 2 1 20 x −
80 x
1 2 y =9.48 when t =2.67
(ii) 11 (i) y (ii)
(m)

v i=8+t− + 3t t ja=
i +−+
vertical position

y 84
(m)

30 8
vertical position

40
20
v 8 ti 8 4 3t t 2
j; a =
i8 + −4+ 3 t j;0 t8
<<
20 10 8 4
(
v =8 ti +8 −4 + 3 t 0
8
t 2
)
j; a =8 + i−4+ x3 ( 4
)
t j;0 << t8
0
0 20 40 60
x 0 10 20 30 v =64 ;i a 0i=0j +; <8 < t 20
horizontal position (m)
horizontal=
position (m)=
v 64 ;i a 0i 0j +; 8 <<t 20
572
 (iii) 1200i + (−600 + 112.5t)j 6 (i) Discussion point (page 446)
(iv) Because of air resistance Draw a vertical line to represent
(v) The motorcycle leaves
R = 5g T
the weight, 10 g = 98 N. Then add
the ground T the line of the force T 2 at 45°
18 (i) 2i + j + k
A B
to the horizontal (note the
(ii)
(2t − 5)i + (t + 1) j + t k length of this vector is unknown),
(iii)
1.5 s; 3.5 m W = 5g and then the line of the force
19 x
4g
=6−4 y y+ 2 T 1 at 30° to the horizontal
20 r =(2 ωt i +
− sin ) 2cos ωt j + ( ωt − ) k
(ii) A: T = 5a; (60° to the vertical). C is the
B: 4 g − T = 4a point at which these lines meet.
cos i 2 sin j cos k
(iii) 4.35 m s −2
t t 7 (i) Discussion point (page 447)
Chapter 19
T1 T1 The angles in the triangle
T2
are 180° − a , 180° − b and
180° − g. The sine rule holds
Opening activity (page 435)
A B
C
and sin(180° − a) = sin a,
There are a number of forces
T2 sin (180° − b) = sin b and
8g
acting on the car which cancel 2g 5g sin (180° − g) = sin g.
each other out, resulting in no
motion. In order for that to be (ii) A: g8T − = ; 8a 1 Exercise 19.1 (page 449)
possible the cable must make small B: T1 T− − 2 2 g = 2a 1 (i) 30 N, 36.9°; 65 N, 67.4°
angles with the horizontal so that C: T 5 g = 5a
2− (ii)
the vertical components of the (iii) 0.65 m s , 73.2 N, 52.3 N
−2

tension cancel out the weight 8 (i)

of the cable car. In that case the R1 R1
tensions in the cable will be
greater than the weight of the car. B R2
A

Review exercise (page 441)

1 (i) 0.3 m s −2 0.1g 0.5g

(ii) 500 m s −2
(ii) A: R 0.98
−− 0.08
= ;
2 65 N B: R
1
R 4.9
− 0.4 =
(iii)
⎛49 ⎞

3 (i) 3 m s ; 2 32 s 2 1 ⎜ ⎟; 92.1 N, 57.9°

−2
(iii) R = 1.06 N,
1
⎜ ⎟
⎝78 ⎠

(ii) 1440 N
4 (i) 29.5 N 9 (i)
R2 = 6.36 N
2 (i) T T

(ii) 19.5 N 300 N

(iii) 24.5 N caravan T

5 (i)
20000g

(ii) T cos40 °, Tsin 40

T1 T2
°
250 N
×
A B
T
car 2250 N (iii) T = 20000
× ° 40
2 sin
9.8 =
×
= 20000 9.8
T =
50g T2 25g
(ii) 1 m s −2 × 40 °
2 sin
(iv) T1
(iii) 1100 N
(ii) T T+ 2 − 1 = 100
A: g50
10 (i) − 90000
18000 900 = a T T
⇒ a 0.19
=
g T − 2 = 50
B: 25 (v) 196 000 N
(iii) (ii) 4000 N
585 N, 195 N
(iii) 8000 N (vi) Resolve vertically for
(iv) −
0.21 m s−2 whole system. It is the
(v) −
4000 N (thrust) same as the weight of
the girder.
573
 3 (i) 78.4 N
(ii)
(ii) 4104 N Discussion point (page 454)
(iii) 9193 N Start with AB and BC. Then
12 (i)
R 15 N
draw a line in the right
RN direction for CD and another
8g
perpendicular line through A.
(iii) 66.1 N, 8.60 N FN
These lines meet at D.
4 9.04 N
j

5 5.39 N; 21.8° Discussion point (page 454)

6 (i) 15° i

(i)
T 2
T1
50g N The sledge accelerates up
the hill.
TR T2 (ii) −Fi, Rj, 127i − 473j (ii) The sledge is stationary or
30 N (iii) 473 N, 127 N moving with constant speed
(ii) Rod: 56.4 N, (iv) 254 N (forces in equilibrium).
compression, Cable 1: 13 (i) (iii) The acceleration is downhill.
RN

7
59.1 N, tension
4.40 N, 3.26 N
TN
Exercise 19.2 (page 458)
8 (i)
15.04 kg j
FN 1 (i)
(ii)
Both read 10 kg i
(iii)
Both read 7.64 kg 25°
5g N

(iv)
Method A or C
9 (i) T T AB (ii) Ti, − Fi, Rj, 3
− 20.7i − 44.4j
(iii) T = 29.4 N, 8.69 N 10

(iv) 1.23 kg 5
1000g
14 (i) 58.0i + 15.5j,
(ii) A force to the right is 59.0i − 10.4j
(ii) (a)
6
required to balance the 117.04 N
horizontal component 5.11 N (b)
of T. 97 N forwards (iii) (iii) 3i – 5j; 5.83 N, −59°
(iii) T 3N (iv) 2 (i)
1000g 15 (i)
11.0 N, 63.4°
T AB
(ii)
A circle centre A radius
1 m. No, 2 parallel forces
(iv) (a)
9800 N, 13859 N, and a third non-parallel
9800 N force cannot form a 10
(b)
5
9800 N, 9800 N, triangle.
9800 N 16 (i)
The wall can only push
6
⎛ 60cos75 ° ⎞ ⎛ 15.5⎞ outwards.
10 (i) ⎝⎜−60 sin 75°⎠⎟ = − ⎝⎜ 58.0 ⎠⎟ (ii)
T sin 35 ° = R sinα , 30°
T cos 35° + R cos α = 80 g
⎛ 60cos75 ° ⎞ ⎛ 15.5⎞ T cos 35° + R cosα = 80 g
⎝⎜−60 sin 75°⎠⎟ = −⎝⎜ 58.0 ⎠⎟ T 562.92
= …, (iii) (iii) 0.196i – 7j;
R 457
= N 7.00 N, −88.4°
⎛ 56.1 ⎞
(iv) 3 (i)
(ii) (a)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 61.2 ⎠
563 N down along
the rope 3

(b)
83.0 N, 47.5°
563 N (v) 2 2

(iii)
30.8 N, −121°
1074 N (vi) 5
11 (i) Discussion point (page 454)
60° 60°
Cable 1 (5638 N,
2052 N); Cable 2: Parallel to the slope, up the slope.
(iii) Equilibrium
(T 2 cos 30°, T 2 sin 30°)

574
4 (i) Exercise 19.3 (page 463) 10 (i) RN

1 (i) 1.5i − j
4
(ii) 1.80 m s −2

2 (i) 4i + 11j
6

(ii) 8i + 8j, 2i + 2j
6 3 (i) RN TN 42° 3g N

4
(ii) 6.56 m s −2

45°
10 N
30°
(iii) 1.75 s
8g N (iv) 13.0 N
(iii) Equilibrium (ii) 11.55 N 11 (i) Horizontal component
5 (i) 1 (iii) 1 m s
−2 of tension in the rope
needs a balancing force.
(iv) 0.4 s (ii)
10
4 0.37 m s down the plane,
−2
RN
100 N
24.77 71.2 N
30 5 (i) 30 N 40° 50° FN
20°

40 N

18.66
80g N
20°
1.9g N
(iii) 94.0 N, 750 N
(iii) −i; 1 N down incline (ii) 11.4 N, 30.1 N (iv) 128 N
6 (i) (iii) 16.9 m s at 69°
−2
(v) 0.144 m s −2

38.30 (iv) The fish swings 12 (i) RN

sideways as it moves up TN
TN
towards Jones.
6 (i)
50
RN
TN
15 N
32.14 5g N mg N
30°
40° 0.75 ms –2
(ii) 4.03 kg, 39.5 N
(iii) Equilibrium (iii) 1.75 m s , 48.3 N
−2

13 5.10 m
30°

7 5.73 N; −49.7° 30g N

14 a = −0.121 m s
8 (i) 6.04 i + 17.40 j (ii) T i, Rj, ⇒ s = 413 m
−2

(ii) 18.4 N, 70.9° −30 g sin 30°i − 30 g cos 30°j 15 319 m

9 3.77i + 2.60j; 4.58 N, 34.6° (iii) 169.5 N
10 P 3 (iv) The crate slows down
Discussion point (page 459) to a stop and then starts
sliding down the slope.
Chapter 20
Down the slope. 7 3.36 m s −1, 0.1 N in Discussion point (page 470)
compression
Discussion point (page 461) 8 0.71 m s −2, 600 N
The tool shown on the left of
Figure 20.8 works with one hand
Sam and the sledge are a particle. 9 (i) RN
200 N but has less leverage than the tool
There is no friction and the slope on the right.
is straight. Friction would reduce
both accelerations so Sam would 50 N
α Discussion point (page 474)
not travel as far on either leg of 67g N (i) P + Q line of action parallel
his journey. to P and Q and in same
(ii) 13.2°
(iii) 0.87 m s −2
, 35.9 m direction; distance from O is
(iv) 9.37 m s −1
a + (P bQ
+ ) (between
Q
P and Q).
575
 (ii) P − Q line of action parallel 9 (i) 0.5 g30 x)
( − kN; (c) v x = 8.2,
to P and Q and in direction 0.5 g(20 + kN
x) v y = −5.7 9.8 t
of larger; distance from O is (ii)
Its centre of mass (d) x = 8.2t,
a − (P bQ (iii)
Constant g15 kN each y = −5.7t4.9
t 2
Q ) the left of
− (to
10 6 g; 9 1 3 cm (ii) (a) y
P for P > Q). 11 20 5 7 kg
Discussion point (page 474) 12 (i) 35 gN, g75 N 5 ms –1

You produce equal and opposite (ii) No

couples using friction between (iii) 36 kg 0
2 ms –1 x
the other hand and the jar so that 13 2 N upwards, 9 m to the (b) ux = 2, u5y =
they turn in opposite directions.
Pressing increases the normal
left of A.
14 (i) 2262 N, 7538 N (c) v x = 2,
v y = −5 9.8 t
reactions and hence the maximum (ii) 6 (d) x t= 2 ,
friction possible. (iii) 784 N
15 (i) 3600 N y t=t −5 4.9 2
Exercise 20.1 (page 475) (ii) 0.0017 m s −2 (iii) (a) y

1 (i) 15 Nm (iii) 195 N

(ii) −22 Nm 4 ms –1

Chapter 21
0 x
(iii) 18 Nm
(iv) −28 Nm (b) ux = 4, u0y =
2 (i) 2.1 Nm Activity 21.1 (page 481) (c) v x = 4, v y = − 9.8t
(ii) 6.16 Nm (i) (a) v y = 0 (d) x t=y 4 , 4.9= − t 2
(iii) −0.1 Nm (b) y 0 = (iv) (a) y
(iv) 0.73 Nm
3 28.6 N; 20.4 N (ii) These remain the same 0
4 (i) 1225 N, 1225 N
13° x
throughout. 10 ms –1

(ii) 1449 N, 1785 N.

5 96.5 N, 138.5 N. Discussion point (page 482) (b) ux = 9.74,
6 (i) 1 Yes for a parabolic path. (c)
uy = − 2.25
v x = 9.74,
uy
uy − gt 0= when t
2m
=
g v y = − 2.25
− 9.8 t
37g 26g
and u yt − 21 gt 2 = when
0 (d) x = 9.74t,
xm y = − 2.25
− t 4.9
t 2
uy (v) (a) y
mg 8g t =2
g.
2
1m
The balls and the bullet can
55 kg U
be modelled as projectiles
(ii) 0.8 m
7 (i) P = 27.5 g, Q = 147.5 g when there is no spin or
wind and air resistance is α
(ii) P = 2.5 g, Q = 172.5 g negligible. Also a rocket with
0 x
(iii) If child is less than
no power. The air affects the (b) uxU= cos α,
0.95 m from the adult, uyU= sinα
motion of the others.
P 0< so the bench tips (c) v xU= cos α,
unless A is anchored to
the ground. Exercise 21.1 (page 486) v yU= sin α − gt
(iv) The bench tips if A is 1 (i) (a) y (d) x Ut
= cos α,
not anchored. y Ut
= sinα − 1 gt 2
8 (i) 15 gN, g30 N
10 ms –1 2

(ii) 90 g, g5
(iii) 0
35°
x
(iv) 2 m
3 (b) u x
= 8.2, u y = 5.7

576
 (vi) (a) y (c) (iii)
⎛
8.2t ⎞ y
r ⎜⎜
= + ⎟
2⎟
uy
t−
⎝7 5.7 4.9 t⎠
0
(iii) (a)
ux x y
(b) u ux , y
(c) v x = ux , 20 13°
v y = −v x gt 10 ms –1 0 1 23 x

(d) x u= t x , 0 x 2.8

y v=t x − 21 gt 2 (b) 4 T = u sin θ + u 2 sin

2
2 + gh
θ
⎛ ⎞ ;
9.74 g
2 (i) (a) 1.5 s v = −⎜⎜
2.25 −9.8
⎟
t ⎟⎠ u 2 sinθcos
θ
+ u cos θ u 2 2sin θ
⎝
(b) 11.025 m (c) R =
g g 2 + gh
(ii) (a) 0.51 s ⎛
9.74t ⎞
(b) 1.28 m r = ⎜ ⎟ =
2 ⎟R
u 2 sinθcos
θ
+ u cosθ u 2 2sin θ + 2 gh
3 (i) (a) 4 s ⎜
⎝ 20 − 4.9
2.25 t− t⎠ g g
(b) 80 m
(ii) (a) 0.88 s
(iv) (a) y Discussion point (page 492)
They land together because u, s
(b) 2.21 m 24 ms –1 and a in the vertical direction are
4 (i) 2uyg
2
the same for both.

(ii) 2uy
0
7 ms –1 x
Exercise 21.3 (page 492)
g ⎛
7 ⎞ 1 (i) 17.3 m s , 10 m −1
s−1

(iii)
2ux yu (b) v= ⎜
⎜
⎝ 24 −
9.8
⎟
t ⎟⎠ (ii) 0, −9.8 m s
−2

g (iii) 35.3 m
⎛
7t ⎞
(iv)
Exercise 21.2 (page 492) (c) = r ⎜
⎜
⎝ 24t4.9
−
⎟
2⎟
t⎠ (v)
1.02 s
5.10 m
1 (i) (a) (v) (a) y 2 (i) 25.8 m
y vo (ii) 4.59 s
(iii) 178.9 m
10
4 ms –1 3 (i) 41.0 m s −1
, 28.7 m −1
s
0
(a, b) uo
x (ii)
0 t 0123456
⎜ u0
x ⎛ ⎞
⎛ 4 ⎞⎟
(b) v = ⎜ −
⎝v 0gt
⎟
⎟ x 0 41 82 123 164 205 246
(b) v = −⎜⎜ ⎟
9.8t ⎠
⎠
y 0 24 38 42 36 21 −4.3
⎝ ⎛ a u+ t 0 ⎞
(iii)
⎛
4t ⎞ (c) r =
⎜
⎝b
⎜
v+ t−0 21 gt ⎟⎠
⎟
y
(c)
2
r = ⎜ ⎟ 50
⎜ 2⎟
⎝10 −
4.9 t⎠
(ii) (a) 2 (i) (a) 1.5 s 25

y (b) 26.025 m
10 ms –1
(ii) (a) 0.31 s 0
50 100 150 200 250 x
(b) 10.46 m
3 (i) 2.86 m
–25
35°
7
(ii) 2.86 m (iv) 42.0 m, 239.7 m
0 x
(v) The ball is a particle, no
⎛
8.2 ⎞ spin, no air resistance, so
(b) v = ⎜
⎜ −
⎝5.7 9.8
⎟
t ⎟⎠ acceleration = g.

577
 4 (i) 17.21, 8.03 m s −1
Exercise 21.4 (page 495) 3 (i) y = +2.5 tanx 5 ° − +4.9° (1 tan 5 2 2 )x
(ii) 1.64 s 1 (i) y = 5 x 2
y = +2.5 tanx 5 ° − 4.9 (1 +tan° 5 2 2 )x
625

(iii) 28.2 m 16 625

(iv) 0.82 s (ii) y x−
= +6 0.4 0.2 x 2
(ii) 24.2 m
(v) 3.29 m (iii) y + 17 5 x x−
= − 14 2
(iii) Yes, =y 2.43 m
(vi) 2.72 m, no (iv) y = 5.8 + x−
2.4 0.2 x2 4 (i) y = +1 … −
0.70 x 7.30 … x 2
u2
5 (i) 10.32, 14.74 m s −1
(v) y = 2x − gx 2
y = +1 … −
0.70 x 7.30 x 2
…
(ii) 2.91 s 2u 2 u2
(iii) Into goal 2 (i) x = 40t (ii) u 7.73
> ms −1

(iv) No (ii) t xy x x (iii) <u 8.41 m s −1

6 (i) 45.2 s x y;
40 5 (i) 1 m, (25, 0)
= 30 40x − 5 40
x 2

(ii) 13.55 km t =
40 (ii) 10 m
(iii) 535 m s −1
(iii) (iii) 0.6 s
(iv) 55.9° (iv) u x = m25s −1
,1s
7 (i) 3.2 m, vertical
y
t=2
t=3t=4
(v) 25.7 m s −1

component of velocity
40
t=1 t=5 6 56.3°, 18.43 m s −1

is always less than 8 m s−1 20 7 (ii) 1.8, 0.6

(ii)
5.54 m
t=0
0
t=6
(iii) 22.5αm=when
(iii)
40 80 120 160 200 240 x
52.2° tan 1.2
8 (i) 1.74 s 3 (i) y = 0.75x − 1 x2
(iv) 15.4 m
(ii)
3.50 m, hits Juliet’s (ii) Air resistance would
320
8 (ii) 39.2°, 72.6°
window reduce x.

9 (i)
(iii)
9.12 m s
2.02 s
−1

y
(iii) Chapter 22
(ii) Discussion point (page 506)
path of ball
No, height is 0.2 m 40
(iii)
21.57 m s
−1

10 (i) 0.47 s
20 Assumptions: motorcycle is a
particle, uniform frictional force
(ii)
0.64 s 0
40 80 120 160 200 240 x
with road, horizontal, linear
(iii)
25.44 m s
−1
Yes; horizontal motion with constant deceleration.
(iv)
28.8 m s
−1

11 (i) Yes, the range is 70.4 m acceleration = −0.5 m s−2

Discussion point (page 506)
(ii)
32.7 m s
−1
4 (ii) 11.54 m s −1
; 30.96°
12 19.8 m s −1; 17.7 m −1 s
Downward slope would extend
13 (i) (a)34.6 m Discussion point (page 498) skid so u is an overestimate;
opposite for upward slope. Air
(b)
39.4 m The projectile is a particle. There resistance would reduce skid so
(c)
40 m is no air resistance or wind. The u is an underestimate. Smaller
(d)
39.4 m particle is projected from the m would extend skid so u is an
(e)
34.6 m origin. overestimate.
(ii)
(iii) 57.9°
Exercise 21.5 (page 498)− Discussion point (page 507)
(iv) −30 cm; +31 cm. The
1 (i) (21.21t , 21.21t 4.9 t ) 2
Friction is forwards when
x
lower angle is slightly (ii) t
21.21..
=
⇒ pedalling, backwards when
freewheeling.
more accurate. y x= − 9009.8 x 2
14 (i) 26.06 m s −1
Exercise 22.1 (page 511)
(ii)
27.35 m s
−1
(iii)
8.91
1
(iii)
RN
26.15 < <u 26.88 (iv)
29.4 or 62.4
15 25.48 m 2 (i)
y = 1.5 + x tan14 ° − 4.9 (1 +tan 14
100
F2N ° )x 2 TN

Discussion point (page 495)y = 1.5 + x tan14 ° − 4.9 (1 +tan 14

100
2 ° )x 2
10g N
+
20 i30 j ; (0, 6); 10 m s
−2
(ii) 7.0 m
578
 (i) 0.102 14 (i) Method 3 triangle of
(ii) 0.051 24 N forces
2 (a) 0.61 m s −2
, T 45.9
= N; RN 15° Weight −0.5g [1]
F 36.8
= N Diagram arrows forming a
(b)
2.61 m s , T 7.19
−2 = N; loop [1]
F 1.96 N
= FN and right angle marked
(c)
0.31 m s ; T1 = 76.0 N,
−2 30°
40 N
TA
T2 = 40.4 N; 0.5g [1]
F 29.4
= N (ii) =
F 3.18 N , TB

(d)
a 0 = ; T 1 = 9.8 N, R 28.4
= N ⇒µ = 0.11 T 0.5 ggcos
TAA == 0.5 cos 30
°=
4.24N
30 °=
4.24N [1]
T2 = 29.4 N; (iii)
3.46 N, 4.05 m s
−2
T 0.5 ggsin
F 19.6
= N 15 (i) 1.4 m s −2 TBB == 0.5
2 (i) sin 30
Contact force 72g [1]
°=
2.45N
30 °=
2.45N [1]

3 4802 N (ii)1.20 s
(ii)
4 (i)
42.7 N (iii)
0.92 m s
−1 Downward forces [1]

(ii)
0.32 16 144.1 < <T 1810.9
Upward forces

5 0.82 17 (i) (a) 37.94 N 48g

(x)
32g

6 (i)
(−)1.02 m s −2
(b) 37.16 N
A B

(c)
8g (0.9 m)
(ii)
0.102 N 37.52 N 72g
[1]
(iii)
0.104 (ii) 40
(iii)
Take moments about B[1]
(iv)
49 m (independent
(iii)
cos α + 0.4 sinα
21.8°
(72 g) x(8g+) 0.9
× = (48
× ) 1.8 g
(72 g
) x
(8g+
) ×
0.9= ×
(48 ) 1.8 g
7 (i)
of mass)
smoother contact 18 Least force to move object up (72 g) x(8
xg+)=0.9
× = (48 ) 1.8
1.10 g ×
plane = W (sinα + µ cos α) x = 1.10 x = 1.10 [1]
(ii)
0.204 Centre of mass is 1.1 m
(iii)
140 N Least force to prevent above his feet. [1]
8 (i)
7.35 m s −2
object sliding down plane 3 (i)
(ii)
17.7 m s
−1 == W (sinα − µ cos α) P
(iii)
59.9 m R
9 (i)
Practice questions:
20°
58.8 N
(ii) F

10 (i)
62.5 N
0.577
(ii)
Mechanics (page 515) 1.2g
35.0°
(iii)
2.14
1 Method 1 Weight and P shown [1]
(iv)
50.2° Weight = 0.5g [1] normal reaction [1]
11 (i)
4.5 m s −2 Resolve horizontally and Arrows showing friction
opposing P [1]
(ii) =
F 2.30 N, vertically
−TA cos60 + TB cos 30°0= (ii)
Resolve vertically [1]
R 18.4 N,
=
µ = 0.125 TA sin 60 + TB sin 30°=0.5 g R P= sin 20°+1.2 g
(iii)
2.20 m s , 4.20 m s
−2 −1 Fmax = =µ R 0.4 (sinP 20 1.2°+ g)
[1, 1]
12 (i) R Solve simultaneous
On the point of sliding
[1]
F equations
when [1]
TA = 4.24N, TB = 2.45N
mg [1, 1]
P cos 20° = Fmax
max

(ii) 4.42 m s −2 Method 2 – note the P cos 20°0.4(

= sinP20 1.2°)+ g [1]
(iii) 5.15 m s−1 strings are perpendicular P (cos 20° 0.4 − sin 20 ) °0.48
= g [1]
(iv) 5.42 m Weight = 0.5g [1] 0.48 g
13 Greater than, equal to, less Resolve along the strings [1] P =
cos 20° 0.4
=
− sin 20 ° 5.86[1]
than 16.7°, respectively. TA = 0.5 gcos 30 °=
4.24N 4 (i)
Stationary when both
TB = 0.5 gcos60 2.45N
°= components of v = 0
+ =t8 0
+ =t8 0 −0.4
−0.4
[1, 1, 1]
t = 20 t = 20 [1]

579
 When t = 20 s = 0.8 For C2 range
2
−0.03(20) 20.8(20)
+ 0.4−3.6 0 = ≠ u == 0 v 2 = +u 2 2as x = ×2 10 sin 30cos 30
s = 0.8 g
So boat is never v ? vv22 2 ==+u0+u22×22 2.25
2as 0.8 3.6
as ×= = 8.84 [1]
stationary. v 2 = +2
[1] u 2uas= 0 2
(v) Maximum range
a = 2.25 v 2 =2 = 4.5
+0 2×22 ×
=1.90 0.80.8 3.6
2.25 ×=
⎛−
0.01 t v
3 2+
=0.40t + ×
22 − v
0.4
=
t ?
⎞ v
× 3.6 = = +0 ×
2 2.25 0.8 ×=
3.6 u u 27.1
2 = =
(ii) r = ∫ vd t = ⎜
⎜ 2
a
2.25
t =⎟
= ⎟ 0.8
2.25
vv==1.90 1.90 [1]
g g 7.1 [1]
− 0.2v t 1.90 8t0
2 + +
⎝ = ⎠
3 2
t= u = u =7.1 ×9.8
=×
7.1 8.34
= 8.34
9.8 [1]
[1, 1]
2
80 When tension removed
− 1.5 gsin
−1.5 sin 40 =
40 1.5
=
1.5 a (vi) The measurements
⎛
(iii) When t = 5, ⎞ aa == −− gg sin 40
sin 40 [1]
give the maximum
range when the angle
⎜−0.01 ×
5 +0.4 5 **0.4
×−5 ×
3 2 ⎛ ⎞
r= ⎜
⎟
⎟
= s⎜⎜6.75
=? ⎟
⎟ is 40°. Changing the
− 0.2 ×
5 8+ 5× ⎝ =35 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ u 1.90 v 2u2= + 2as: v 2 = 3.6 value for u will still
= 2 − × ( g sin 40)s have the maximum
[1] v 0
= 0 3.6
a = − g sin40 = 3.6 = range at 45°. [1]
s 2 gsin 40 0.286 (vii)
arc tan 35 = 79.1
6.75
() t=
[1]
= =dr ⎜ 10cos α − 3t ⎟
⎛ ⎞
Block travels another v [1]
Bearing = 011° [1, 1] dt − t⎠
⎝ 10 sinα9.8
28.6 cm. [1]
(iv)
Travelling NE when
6 (i)
Vertical motion When t = 0
components of velocity ⎛10cos α0 − ⎞
equal (and positive) [1] ss == 00 s ut= +at 211 22
s ut
= +at v ⎜⎜
=
−
⎟
⎟ [1]
−0.03t + 0.8t0.4
2 − = − 0.4t8+ uu uu= sin
= α 0 = u sin α2 t − 1 gt 2
⎝10sin α
0 ⎠
sinα 0 = u sin α t − 21 gt 2
vv = Speed =
= 2
−0.03t 2 + 1.2t8.4
− 0 = 0 = t (u sinα − 21 gt )
a = − g 0 = t (u sinα −α 21 gt ) [1]α (10cos α )2(+ 10 sinα )2 = 100 (cos 2 α
t = 30.95, 9.0 [1] a = − g
t 0, u 1sin
= u sin = 2usin
30.95 > 20 so time 9.0 s [1] tt == ?? t = 0, 1 2(10cos
2 gα
= 2usin g2 α
)g (+ 10 sinα ) = 100 (cos 2sin α + 2 α ) = × 100
2
g α = 11
5 (i)
In equilibrium for the
bucket (10cos α )2(+ Horizontal 2 motion
10 sinα ) 2=usin100 α (cos 2 α + sin 2 α ) = 100 × =
1 10 [1]
T mg
= when t =
g [1]
[1]
(viii) To find T in new model
In equilibrium for the
block resolve up the
R = (u cos α )t u= cos α2 sin g () u α = 2 u 2
sin α
cos
g
α
y component of r = 0
10tsin α4.9− 0 t 2 =
u cosα )t u= cosα2 sinu g
R = (slope
α
() = 2usin cos
2

g
α α
[1]
T = 2usin α which
T 1.5 gsin 40
= ° [1] g
m =
1.5 gsin 40 ° (ii)
Negligible air is exactly the same
g resistance [1] equation as in the
= 0.964 kg [1] (iii)
sin 2
θ = 2 sinθcos θ standard model in
= u 2 sin cos
2( )
(ii) R = 2usin cos
α α
= u sin
2 αα 2
Resolve downwards for 2α (ii)
part [1]
the bucket N2L g g (ix) g
For E5, we need
1.7 g T R 2usina cos
− 1 == 1.7 2 α α
[1] =
u 2 sin cos
2( α α )
= u sin 2
2 α horizontal component
g
Resolve up the slope for
g g [1] when t = 1.44
the block sin 2 α takes maximum x =10 1.44 cos45 1.5°1.44
× − × =7.07 2
T1 − 1.5 gsin 40 1.5= a x =10×1.44
valuecos45 of 1 when 1.5°1.44− × 7.07 2 = [2]
[1] 2α = °90 [1] (x) The vector model is
Rmax = ug when
2
Add equations an improvement. It fits
all the measurements
1.7 g − 1.5 gsin 40 3.2
= a α = °45 [1] better than the standard
a = 2.25 (iv)
Using α = 30 to find model and it gives the
Acceleration is time and range maximum range of
2.25 m s −2
[1] For B2 time 7.53 for 35° as
(iii)
To find velocity when t = ×2 10 sin 30 1.02 = compared with the
the bucket reaches the g [1] measured value of 7.4 m
ground [1] occurring at 40°. [1]
580
 Index

A
acceleration
chain rule 110–15, 183–6, 191–3,
259–60
notation 319–20
numerical 320, 321–2
reverse 211, 217, 221, 225 processing and representation 319
definition 279, 414, 421
change of sign methods 291–4 qualitative or quantitative 320
direction 424
circle quality 383
modelling 427
equation 241, 242, 255–6 ranked 320–1
in projectile motion 424, 480
properties 17–19 data sets, large 328, 395, 518–19
variable 417–18
theorems 242 deceleration 415
vector quantity 412
circular measure 17–21 denominator, rationalizing 27–8
acceptance region 377
cluster sampling 319 differential equations
accuracy 291
cobweb diagram 298 first order 277–82
addition and subtraction
coefficient of friction 505 forming 278–80
of fractions 157–8
column vectors, notation 421 solution 277, 282–7
of indices 28
common difference 38, 43 use in modelling 276, 278
of polynomials 61
common factor 156, 158 differentiation
of surds 27
common ratio 38, 47, 50 of composite functions 110–15
algebraic expressions,
completing the square 56–7 of exponentials 183–6, 216–17
simplifying 156–61
compound angle formulae 168–72, 173, from first principles 100–1
algebraic fractions 156, 159, 160,
178, 188 implicit 191–4
161–5
compound interest 52 language and notation 97, 421, 430
analytical method, definition 291
conditional probability 342–50 of logarithms 183–6
angle of friction 511
conditions, necessary and sufficient 3 parametric 259–63
angle of projection 137
conjecture 2–3 of trigonometric functions 187–91
angle in a semicircle 242
constant acceleration formulae 416, 460, discriminant 56
angles, measurement 12–14
461, 462, 483–6 displacement 412, 415, 420
approximation
vector forms 422, 425, 483–6 displacement–time graphs 182, 413
in the binomial expansion 153–4
constants of integration 427 distance, scalar quantity 412, 420
numerical methods 291
continuity corrections 368, 369–70 distance–time graph 414
arbitrary constant 220, 277
correlation 392–4, 397–8 distributions 320
area under a curve
correlation coefficient 394–7 division see multiplication and division
estimation 200–1, 310–11, 314–15
cosecant (cosec) 135–9 domain, of a mapping 71
finding by integration 197–8, 200–8
cosine function (cos) 15, 23–4, 187–91 double angle formulae 172–5,
finding by numerical method 366
cosine rule 128–31, 134 178, 255
arithmetic progression 43
cotangent (cot) 135–9 driving force 437
arithmetic sequences and series 43–7

E
Coulomb’s laws of friction 505, 507
association 392, 398–9
counter-example 9
asymptotes 66
couples 470

B
e (irrational number) 67
critical ratio 386 effect size 395
critical region, in hypothesis testing eggs, shape 246–7
binomial coefficients 149–50, 151 377, 378 equations, solving numerically
binomial distribution cumulative distribution function 290–302
hypothesis testing 377–80 362, 366 equilibrium 443–53, 471
Normal approximation 370–1 cumulative frequency curve 323 events
notation 352 cumulative probability 361 complement 333
use in modelling 351–2 curves dependent 345
binomial expansion, general 151–6 finding the equation 198–9 expectation 335
binomial theorem 151 intersection 243 mutually exclusive 334
box plot (box-and-whisker diagram) 321 shape 102–10 occurrence 333, 334

D
braking force 437
union and intersection 334

C
Cartesian equations 250, 253, 256–8,
data
bivariate 323, 392–404
exponential functions
differentiation 183–6, 217
gradient 183
423, 495 collection 318 graphs 29, 66–7
CAST diagram 16, 138 grouped 320 substitution 216–17
centre of mass 473

581
 F
factor theorem 61–2, 158–9
indices 28
inequalities 59, 91–3
of surds 27
with trigonometric functions 170
input, definition 71 of a vector by a scalar 266, 267
factorials 150

N
integration
Fibonacci sequence 42
by parts 228–32
fixed point iteration 295–300
by recognition 210, 219 natural logarithmic function, in
force
by substitution 209–14, 225–7 integration 218–24
definition 436
choice of method 233 Newton–Raphson method 302–5
diagrams 438
definite and indefinite 196–7, 211–12, Newton’s law of cooling 276
as a function of time 428–9
215, 230 Newton’s laws of motion 438–9
moment 467, 469–70
definition 196 second law 428–9, 438, 453, 455,
resolving 443–4
finding areas 200–8 459–65
vector quantity 436
involving the natural logarithmic Normal curve 360, 366
fractions 156–60
function 218–24 Normal distribution 360–74
frequency, definition 320
as the limit of a sum 200 experimental data 367–8,
frequency chart 322
notation 196 382–91
friction 435, 437, 505–14
of trigonometric functions 212–16 mean 361, 362, 384–7
fulcrum, definition 467
interquartile range 321 notation 362, 366
functions
interval, bisection 292–3 standard deviation 361, 362
composite 80–9, 110–15
irrational numbers 72 standardised form 362, 386
domain 72–3
iteration 295 tables 361, 365
graph 74
implicit 191
increasing and decreasing 98–9
inverse 83–8
L
Lami’s theorem 447
use in modelling 367–9
normal reaction 436–7
normal to a curve 97–8
language and notation 71, 72 levers 473–4 null hypothesis 377
as mappings 72, 74 limits, of a series 36 numbers, notation 72
order in a composite function 81–2 line segments, properties 238–40 numerical methods 290–302

G
logarithmic functions 30, 67, 183–6, 231 integration 306–13, 314–15

O
logarithms 30
lowest common multiple 158
geometric sequences and series 47–52
Goldbach’s conjecture 3
grade, measurement of angle 13
gradient
M
mappings 71–2, 74
object, definition 71
opportunity sampling 319
outcomes see events
of a curve at a point 97 maximum and minimum points 98–9 outliers, definition 320
of a straight line 238 mean absolute deviation 324 output, definition 71

Pp
gradient function 188, 198–9 measure of central tendency 321
graphs median 321
of exponential functions 29 mils, measurement of angle 12, 14
modelling, vocabulary and assumptions
-value 377
from parametric equations 250–3 parallel lines, properties 238
of a function and its inverse 85–8 435 parametric equations
of logarithmic functions 30 modulus function 89–94 of a circle 255–6
of a mapping 74 moments, of forces 467, 469–70 definition 249
of the modulus function 90–1 motion eliminating the parameter
of proportional relationships 66 of connected particles 440–1 253–4
of reciprocal functions 66, 136 direction 411–12, 425–6 graphs 250–3
transformation 68–9, 75–7 equation of 439–40 in projectile motion 495
of trigonometric functions 15–16, 136 in one dimension 411–20 trigonometric 254–5
gravity 416–17, 436, 480 parabolic 479 use in modelling 248–9
growth and decay, exponential 52, 67 resistance to 437 partial fractions 161–5, 221, 222

H
in a straight line 417–19 Pascal’s triangle 149–50
in two or three dimensions 420–33 path see trajectory
under gravity 416–17 perpendicular lines, properties 238
hinge, reaction force 472
vocabulary and notation 412, 420 point, coordinates 266
histogram 322
see also projectile motion point of inflection 102–4, 106
hypothesis testing 376–80, 384–7
multiplication and division

I
point of intersection, coordinates
algebraic 158–9 240, 243
of fractions 157–60 polynomial equations, solving 61–2
image, definition 71 with indices 28 polynomial functions 61, 64–5
implication, symbols 3 of logarithms 30 population mean, estimating 383
implicit function, differentiation 191–4 of polynomials 61

582
position resultant forces 444, 453–9 substitution methods 58, 216–17
components 496 rigid bodies, modelling 468–78 subtraction see addition and subtraction
definition 278 root, of logarithms 30 summation, symbol 37
in projectile motion 423, 480 root of an equation, definition 291 surds, manipulation 27
position vector 266, 420, 483 Russell, A.W. Bertrand 96 surfaces, rough and smooth

S
powers 28, 30 506, 507
probability suvat equations 416

T
of an event 332–3 sample data, interpreting 382–91
experimental 337–42 sample space diagram 333
of two events 334 sampling distribution 384 tangent
probability density 366 sampling procedures 318–19, 376 to a circle 242
product moment correlation coefficient scalar, definition 264 to a curve 97–8
(pmcc) 393–4 scatter diagram 392 tangent function (tan) 16, 22
product rule 118–20, 189, 192 secant (sec) 135–9 tension 436
reversing 228 second derivative 98 term of a series 36, 37
projectile motion separation of variables 282–7 test statistic 377, 400
acceleration 424, 480 sequences and series thrust 436
constant acceleration equations arithmetic 38, 43–7 trajectory 137, 423, 479,
483–6 converging 40 495–6, 498
equations 480–3, 496–500 definition 36, 37–8 transformations 68–9, 75–7
maximum height 481, 497, 502 diverging 40 translations 69, 75
modelling assumptions 479 geometric 38–9 trapezium rule 306–9
range 173, 482, 497 increasing and decreasing tree diagrams 334–5, 338, 346
time of flight 482, 497 39–40 trial and improvement 289
trajectory 137, 423, 495–6, 498 infinite 37 triangle of forces 445–6
vector representation 483–7 notation 37, 43, 47 triangles
proof, methods 5–10 number of terms 48 area 128
proportion, direct and indirect 66 periodic 39 right-angled 128
proportional relationships, graphs 66 possible patterns 40 trigonometric functions 128, 134
Pythagorean identities 137, 172 sum of terms 45–6, 49–50 trigonometric equations, solving 141–3,
Pythagorean triples 132–3 use in modelling 52–3 145–6

Q
quadratic functions 56
significance level 377, 385
simultaneous equations, solving 58
sine function (sin)
trigonometric functions
differentiating 187–91
division by 170
quadratic inequalities 59–60 differentiating 187–91 graphs 15–16
quartiles 321 graph 15 identities 168
quota sampling 319 in modelling 167, 182 integration 212–16
quotient rule 120–1, 185 principal value 85 inverse 140–1

R
small-angle approximations 22 many-to-one mappings 140
sine rule 128–31, 134 in parametric equations 254–5
radians skew, positive and negative 370 principal value 140
measurement of angle 12–14 solution of an equation, definition 291 reciprocal 135–9
in trigonometric equations 14–15, sound waves, frequency 64 restricted domains 140–1
145–6 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient in right-angled triangles 128
radioactive decay 52–3 399–400 small-angle approximations 22–5
random sampling 319, 377 speed 420 substitution 216–17
random variables scalar quantity 412 transformations 175
discrete 353–9, 368–9 spread, measures 321 trigonometric identities 143–4, 215–16,
values 319 staircase diagram 297–8 254–5
range standard deviation 321, 323–5, turning points
of a mapping 71 387–8 of a curve 98–9
as measure of spread 321 stationary points 98–9 of implicit functions 192–3
in projectile motion 482, 497 of inflection 102–4 in parametric differentiation 261

U
rank correlation coefficient 398–9 statistical techniques, in problem solving
rate of change 96, 276, 278 318–29
connected 116–18 statistics, standard notation uniform distribution 356
reciprocal functions, graphs 66 319–20, 325 unit vectors 265, 267
reciprocals, logarithms 30 stem-and-leaf diagram 321 units
reflections 69 straight line, equation 238, 239 of distance, time and mass 412
rejection region 377 stretches 68, 75 of moment 469

583
 V
variance 325
negative 266
notation 264, 265
in projectile motion 424, 480, 483
vector quantity 412, 420
parallel 266 velocity–time graph 413, 414–15
vector arithmetic 267
in projectile motion 483–7 Venn diagram 334
vectors
resultant 267, 268 vertical line chart 354, 355–6
component form 265

W
three-dimensional 266–8
definition 264
two-dimensional 265–8
direction 267
using 268–9, 271–4 waves, modelling 167, 178
equal 265
velocity
of a line joining two points 268
components 497
magnitude–direction form 265–6
definition 279
in mechanics 268–9

584