Environmental Management

Chapter 1
Introduction to solid waste

Solid waste management is defined as the discipline associated with

control of generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer,
processing and disposal of solid waste materials in a way that best
addresses the range of public health, conservation, economic, aesthetic,
engineering, and other environmental considerations.

In its scope, solid waste management includes planning, administrative,

financial, engineering, and legal functions. Solutions might include
complex inter-disciplinary relations among fields such as public health,
city and regional planning, political science, geography, sociology,
economics, communication and conservation, demography, engineering,
and material sciences.

Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and

industrial producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and
developing nations. The administration of non-hazardous waste in
metropolitan areas is the job of local government authorities. On the
other hand, the management of hazardous waste materials is typically
the responsibility of those who generate it, as subject to local, national,
and even international authorities.

Classification of Solid Waste

Solid wastes are classified according to their sources ant their types.
  Classification of Solid Waste According to Sources
Commercial : This refers to solid waste containing of leftover food,
glasses, metals, ashes, etc, generated from stores, restaurants, markets,
hotels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.

Residential : It includes solid waste from dwellings, apartments, etc…

and it consist leftover such as food, fruit and vegetable peels, plastic,
clothes, ashes, etc.

Municipal : This solid waste includes dust, leafy matter, building debris,
treatment plant residual sludge, etc, which is generated from various
municipal activities such as construction and demolition, street cleaning,
landscaping, etc.

Institutional : This type of solid waste mainly consist of paper, plastic,

glasses, etc, which is generated from educational, administrative and
public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, etc.

Open Areas : This solid waste includes waste from areas such as streets,
alleys, parks, vacant lots, playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational
areas, etc.

Industrial : Solid waste mainly includes process wastes, ashes,

demolition and construction wastes, etc, due to ongoing industrial
activities.

Agricultural : Solid waste mainly consist of spoiled food grains and

vegetables, agricultural remains, litter, etc, generated from fields,
orchards, vineyards, farms, etc. etc
Ashes and Residues : These are the substances remaining from the
burning of wood, coal, charcoal and other combustible materials used
for cooking and heating in the houses, institutes and small industrial
establishments. When produced in large quantities, as in power
generation plants and factories, these are classified as Industrial wastes.
Ashes consist of fine powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed
with small pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes and residues are almost
entirely inorganic they are valuable in landfills.

Street Wastes : These refers to solid waste that are collected from streets,
walkways, parks and vacant plots which consist of paper, cardboard,
plastic, leaves, and other vegetable matter. Littering in public places is
indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries. solid waste
management must address this menace appropriately.

Garbage : This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the
handling, sale, storage, preparation, cooking and serving of food.
Garbage comprising these wastes contains rotting organic matter, which
produces an obnoxious smell and attracts rats and other vermin.
Therefore special attention is required in storage, handling and disposal
of this type of solid waste.

Bulky Wastes : These includes large household appliances such as

refrigerators, washing machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres,
wood, trees and branches. Since these household wastes cannot be
accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a special
collection mechanism.

Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Wastes : Biodegradable wastes

mainly refer to substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover
food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc, which is
generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of
the action of micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex
to simpler compounds. Non-Biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic
and recyclable materials such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. Below
is the table showing comparison between biodegradable and non-
biodegradable wastes with their degeneration time.( time required to
break from complex to simple biological form ).
Combustible and Non-Combustible Wastes : These consist of waste
generated from households, institutions, commercial activities,
excluding food wastes and other highly rotting materials. Typically,
while combustible materials consist of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber,
garden trimmings, etc. Non-combustible materials consist items such as
glass, crockery, tin, aluminium cans, ferrous and non-ferrous materials
and dirt.

Abandoned Vehicles : This includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that

are abandoned on streets and other public places. However, abandoned
vehicles have significant scrap value for metal and their value to
collectors is highly variable.

Dead Animals : With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are

those that die naturally or are accidentally killed on road. Note that this
category does not include carcasses and animal parts from slaughter-
houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are
divided into two groups – large and small. Among the large animals are
horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs etc. Small animals include dogs, cats,
rats, etc. The reason for this differentiation is that large animals require
special equipment for lifting and handling when they are removed. If not
collected promptly, dead animals pose a threat to public health since
they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presence in
public places is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as
well.

Farm Wastes : These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities

such as planting, harvesting, production of milk, rearing of animals for
slaughter and the operation of feedlots. In many areas, the disposal of
animal waste has become a critical problem, especially from feedlots,
poultry farms and dairies.

Hazardous Wastes : These solid wastes are defined as wastes of

industrial, institutional or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous
either immediately or over a period of time to human beings and the
environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or
radioactive characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and
toxicity. Note that in some cases the active agents may be liquid or
gaseous hazardous wastes. These are, nevertheless classified as solid
wastes and they are confined in solid containers.

Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of solvents,

paints and pesticides. Certain hazardous wastes may cause explosions in
incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others such as pathological wastes
from hospitals and radioactive wastes also require special handling.
Effective management practices should ensure that hazardous wastes are
stored, collected, transported and disposed of separately, preferably after
suitable treatment to render them harmless.

Sewage Wastes : The solid by-products of sewage treatment are

classified as sewage wastes. They are mostly organic and derived from
the treatment of organic sludge separated from both raw and treated
sewage. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells
is separated at the preliminary stage of treatment. This is done so that it
may entrain putrescible organic matter with pathogens and must be
buried without delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered sludge is useful as
as soil conditioner but is invariably uneconomical. Solid sludge,
therefore enters the stream of municipal wastes, unless special
arrangements are made for its disposal.

Collection Method of Solids waste

Methods of solid waste disposal and management are as below:

 Open burning
 Dumping into the sea
 Sanitary Landfills
 Incineration
 Composting
  Ploughing in fields
 Hog feeding
 Grinding and discharging into sewers
 Salvaging
 Fermentation and biological digestion
Reduce
Solid waste reduction simply means reducing the amount of waste
generated each day so as to lessen the amount of garbage that goes into
landfills. Below are tips for reducing waste in our homes, offices,
schools, business places and more.
Reuse
Reusing waste simply means finding a second (third or hundredth) use
for a product to prolong its life. Such product may include clothing,
household items, papers, cardboard, jars, water bottles, packaging and
more.

Tips for Material Reuse

 Sell or donate items to charity, such as clothing, toys, books,

household items, furniture, working electronics and appliances.
 Repair items instead of replacing them, such as appliances,
furniture, shoes, toys, and electronics.
 Use durable rather than disposable items: cloth or durable plastic
reusable shopping bags; china, ceramic or glass cups and plates;
metal serving ware and cutlery; cloth napkins; plastic, metal or
cloth lunch bags; rechargeable batteries; razors.
 Take along washables cups or travel mug, plates, spoons and water
bottles instead of disposables.
 Rent tools and appliances rather than buying them if they are
something you will only use occasionally.
  When you do need to purchase something, check yard sales and
charitable outlets first to see if they have what you need before
selecting something new.
Recycle
Recycling solid waste means to remove unwanted or discarded items
from the waste stream to be utilize as raw materials in the manufacture
of new products.

Recycling Tips

 When thinking of what items to gather for recycling consider also

factor in the other two Rs (reduce and reuse). Implementing the
two Rs can prevent the need for more disposables.
 Make sure you have an idea of what you can and can not recycle.
 Separate waste, put recyclables in one container and non-
recyclables in different trash bin.
 Buy product with recycled content.
 Recycle your water.
 Be a waste stream analyst, be mindful of materials entering your
home, school, office and business locations.
 Be an activist, talk to people about recycling and its benefits.
Disposal
Waste disposal involves the transport of waste from its original to it final
destination such as landfill.

BOD AND COD

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of dissolved oxygen present in a

water body. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of
oxygen required by the microorganisms to break down the organic
materials, whereas chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of
oxygen required to break down the organic material via oxidation.
Let us look at the differences between BOD and COD.

Biological Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand

Definition
It is the amount of oxygen required It is the total amount of oxygen required
by the microbes to decompose the to break down the organic matter by
organic matter under aerobic chemical oxidation.
conditions.
Test
It can be determined by putting a It can be determined by putting a water
sealed water sample under specific sample with a strong oxidizing agent
temperature and conditions for five under specific temperature and
days. conditions, for a short period of time.
Value
Lower than COD. Higher than BOD.
Use
 It is used to waste loadings in  To quantify the amount of
treatment plants. oxidizable pollutants found in
 Evaluation of BOD removal water bodies.
efficiency of the waste plants.  It provides a measurement on how
an effluent will affect the water
body.

Important Questions

Is biochemical oxygen demand different from biological oxygen

demand?
No, they are the same terms.
What is BOD, COD and TOC?
BOD and COD are the biochemical and chemical oxygen demands of
water to break down the organic components, whereas TOC is total
organic carbon found in an organic compound.

Is COD equal to BOD?

No, COD is always greater than BOD.

Why is COD higher than BOD?

COD is always higher than BOD because chemical oxidation is easier
than biological oxidation.

What is a good BOD level?

A BOD supply of 1-2 ppm is a standard value.

Chapter 2
 Sewage Treatment and Disposal
Sewage Disposal Systems and Types
Domestic sewage, produced in urban residences, institutions, and
businesses, is usually collected by pipes and conduits called sanitary
sewers, which lead to a central discharge point. In rural residences
domestic sewage is often collected in a septic tank on the property.
Industrial wastes, which consist of liquids produced in manufacturing
processes, are sometimes collected in sanitary sewers, but the nature of
many industrial wastes may make it dangerous or difficult to do so.
Often industries dispose of their own wastes. Storm sewage, which
comes from rain and groundwater, is collected either in a storm sewer
or, with domestic sewage and industrial wastes, in what is called a
combined sewer.
Sewer pipe must be strong enough to withstand the structural stresses to
which it is subjected by being buried in the ground. In addition, the pipe
itself and the joints between sections of pipe must be capable of
withstanding at least moderate water pressure without significant
leakage of sewage into the environment. Materials used for sewer pipe
include plastics, vitrified clay, cast iron and steel, corrugated iron, and
concrete. Although usually circular, pipes are also made egg-shaped or
semi-elliptical so that suspended solids do not accumulate even at a
relatively low rate of flow, about 2 ft (.6 m) per second. Sewer pipes are
usually inclined downward toward the central collection point so that
sewage will flow to it naturally, although pumping stations may be
required.
Sewage is eventually discharged into underground or surface
watercourses that naturally drain an area. In past centuries, the dilution
produced by discharging sewage into large bodies of water was
considered sufficient to render harmless any toxic substances contained
in it. However, the volume of sewage is now so great that dilution is no
longer considered an adequate safeguard.
Primary Treatment

In primary treatment, sewage is stored in a basin where solids (sludge)

can settle to the bottom and oil and lighter substances can rise to the top.
These layers are then removed and then the remaining liquid can be sent
to secondary treatment. Sewage sludge is treated in a separate process
called sludge digestion.

Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological

matter, often using microorganisms in a controlled environment. Most
secondary treatment systems use aerobic bacteria, which consume the
organic components of the sewage (sugar, fat, and so on). Some systems
use fixed film systems, where the bacteria grow on filters, and the water
passes through them. Suspended growth systems use “activated” sludge,
where decomposing bacteria are mixed directly into the sewage.
Because oxygen is critical to bacterial growth, the sewage is often mixed
with air to facilitate decomposition.

Tertiary Treatment

Tertiary treatment (sometimes called “effluent polishing”) is used to

further clean water when it is being discharged into a sensitive
ecosystem. Several methods can be used to further disinfect sewage
beyond primary and secondary treatment. Sand filtration, where water is
passed through a sand filter, can be used to remove particulate matter.
Wastewater may still have high levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus. These can disrupt the nutrient balance of aquatic
ecosystems and cause algae blooms and excessive weed growth.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced
biological phosphorus removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called
polyphosphate accumulate organisms that store phosphate in their tissue.
When the biomass accumulated in these bacteria is separated from the
treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value. Nitrogen can
also be removed using nitrifying bacteria. Lagooning is another method
for removing nutrients and waste from sewage. Water is stored in a
lagoon and native plants, bacteria, algae, and small zooplankton filter
nutrients and small particles from the water.
 Chapter 3
Air Pollution
air pollution, release into the atmosphere of various gases, finely
divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the
natural capacity of the environment to dissipate and dilute or absorb
them. These substances may reach concentrations in the air that cause
undesirable health, economic, or aesthetic effects.

Sources

There are four main sources of air pollution sources:

 mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains

 stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial
facilities, and factories
 area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning
fireplaces
 natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and
volcanoes
How does air pollution affect our health?
Air pollution exposure is associated with oxidative stress and
inflammation in human cells, which may lay a foundation for chronic
diseases and cancer. In 2013, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified air pollution
as a human carcinogen
Research on air pollution and health effects continually advances. Public
health concern now includes cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory
diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and reproductive, neurological, and
immune system disorders
What are Air Pollutants?
Pollutants are the substances which cause pollution; air pollution is
caused by air pollutants.

Types of Air Pollutants

Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants

The pollutants that directly The pollutants formed by the intermingling

cause air pollution are known as and reaction of primary pollutants are
primary pollutants. known as secondary pollutants.

Classification of Pollutants

Particulate Gaseous Pollutants

Pollutants

1. Lead 1. Carbon monoxide (CO)  Volatile organic

2. Fly Ash 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) compounds
3. Metallic Oxides 3. Chlorofluorocarbons (VOCs)
4. Nanoparticles (CFCs)  Benzene
4. Ozone (O3)  Ethylene
5. Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
6. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)  Biological
pollutants
 Asbestos
 Radon

Particulate Pollutants
The particles that pollute the air by being suspended can be defined as
particulate pollutants.
These particles are results of some anthropogenic processes like
vehicles, industries, construction sites/activities, etc. or natural sources
like pollen, volcanic eruptions, natural gaseous precursors, etc.

 Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 micrometers (µm) in diameter.

Heavy Particulate Suspended Particulate Nanoparticulate
Matter Matter Matter

 More than 10 µm  Less than 10 µm  Less than 0.02

µm

 Settles down  Floats and moves  Very light and

after a point freely with air currents harmful
 Form aerosols

Tips to Reduce Pollution:

 Conserve energy - at home, at work, everywhere.

 Look for the ENERGY STAR label when buying home or office
equipment.
 Carpool, use public transportation, bike, or walk whenever
possible.
 Follow gasoline refueling instructions for efficient vapor recovery,
being careful not to spill fuel and always tightening your gas cap
securely.
 Consider purchasing portable gasoline containers labeled “spill-
proof,” where available.
 Keep car, boat, and other engines properly tuned.
 Be sure your tires are properly inflated.
  Use environmentally safe paints and cleaning products whenever
possible.
 Mulch or compost leaves and yard waste.
 Consider using gas logs instead of wood.

National Environmental Quality Standards

means the standards established under the Environmental Protection Act,
1997 to control the emission of effluent, waste, air pollution and noise
pollution.

Chapter 4
 Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is an invisible danger. It cannot be seen, but it is present

nonetheless, both on land and under the sea. Noise pollution is
considered to be any unwanted or disturbing sound that affects the health
and well-being of humans and other organisms.

Sound is measured in decibels. There are many sounds in the

environment, from rustling leaves (20 to 30 decibels) to a thunderclap
(120 decibels) to the wail of a siren (120 to 140 decibels). Sounds that
reach 85 decibels or higher can harm a person’s ears. Sound sources that
exceed this threshold include familiar things, such as power lawn
mowers (90 decibels), subway trains (90 to 115 decibels), and loud rock
concerts (110 to 120 decibels).

Mitigation Measures

The following shows some mitigating measures for some types of

environmental noise.

a. Land Use Planning

b. Alternative Siting/Alignment
c. Screening by Noise Tolerant Buildings
d. Building Disposition
e. Decking Over
f. Podium
g. Noise Barrier/Enclosure
h. Architectural Features/Balcony
i. Building Orientation and Innovative Layout
j. Open-Textured Road Surfacing
k. Acoustic Insulation of Receiver
Land Use Planning
One important planning tool to minimize the impact of environmental noise is to
ensure compatibility of different uses adjacent to each other. Outline Zoning Plans
(OZPs) are drawn under the Town Planning Ordinance to govern land uses for
different purposes.

Alternative Siting / Alignment

One most effective way to deal with noise is to plan away the problems by
selecting alternative site or alignment that avoids serious problems.

Screening by Noise Tolerant Buildings

This is an illustration of how a noise tolerant building such as a multi-storey
carpark building is used to protect residential buildings from road traffic noise.
Placing a noise tolerant building in between the road traffic and the residential
building causes the noise in the "shadow zone" to be reduced. This brings about a
reduction in the traffic noise affecting the residents. Please click on the demo
button to read the details. Then click on the stop button to stop the sound/demo.

Building Disposition
The impact of environmental noise can also be reduced by the proper disposition of
noise sensitive buildings within a development.

Decking Over
This illustration shows how the use of decking over reduces impact of road traffic
noise on a number of residential buildings. Please click on the demo button to read
the details. Then click on the stop button to stop the sound/demo.

Podium
Putting residential buildings on top of a podium can provide shielding against
traffic noise from roads in their vicinity, as illustrated by this animation. Please
click on the demo button to read the details. Then click on the stop button to stop
the sound/demo.

Chapter 5
 Environmental Health and Safety
EHS stands for Environment, Health, and Safety. It's a general term used
to refer to laws, rules, regulations, professions, programs, and workplace
efforts to protect the health and safety of employees and the public as
well as the environment from hazards associated with the workplace.
You can also think of it as what makes up the profession of occupational
safety and health professionals (plus their good friends in
the Environmental department).

Although EHS is a common way to abbreviate this, you'll also see HSE
or other versions. And sometimes you'll see the addition of a "Q"
for Quality, as in EHSQ.

Why Is Environmental Health and Safety Important in the

Workplace?
There are so many benefits of using EHS workplace programs not only
for the company but also for the employees. Primarily, their programs
prevent accidents, illness, and injuries while reducing environmental
toxins, and spillage. There are historical examples of workplace
accidents that occurred because proper EHS efforts were not made.
Well-known instances include the horrible Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, the
BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010 and the fire, and the collapse of
the Savar building in Bangladesh in 2013.
You may also know of some workplace accidents, such as slip and fall,
or incidents that happened to yourself. If you think back, you’ve
probably seen something in your work environment that could have
caused an accident or something even more dangerous. Many dangers
are lurking in and around your workplace. Some people inside offices
are exposed to workplace hazards less severe than the ones compared to
outdoor workers, but everyone is exposed to some amount of risk in the
workplace.
How EHS Systems Work
Workplace EHS awareness starts with a good manager. That manager
takes in a variety of roles in the company, also developing EHS plans
and protocols that must be followed by every member of the staff to
effectively reduce health risks. With a confident and educated EHS
manager in place, a company can be comfortable giving each employee
their protocols to perform during each working day.
The EHS Manager will identify workplace hazards that are most
relevant to your business. Then you will get the necessary information
needed to gain real benefits for your health. OSHA, occupational safety
and health association confirms that eh&s programs offer benefits that
translate to real results for employees’ well-being.
Also, EHS programs in the workplace help to develop a company
culture based on active EHS awareness. The EHS workplace culture is
linked to fewer incidents as well as a positive overall effect for the
company. Fiscal improvements also have been noted as a benefit of
implementing their protocols as these programs increase customer
loyalty.